LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class Presented ^:— -M"' ^ TL.T. , .Entered, accorduxfi to Act of Congress in the y«ar J857 SjrE.B, and EC KELLOGG, ' K« Clerk's Offic* of (he District Court oF -dieDittrict of Connechcat. o ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE NATURE II LIYIJTG FORMS, ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS PLATES. ADAPTED TO ELUCIDATE THE CHART OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, BY A. M. HEDFIELD, AND DESIGNED FOR THE HIGHER SEMINARIES, COMMON SCHOOLS, LIBRARIES, AND THE FAMILY CIRCLE. Ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee ; and the fowls of the air, and they ehall tell thee ; or speak to the earth, and it shall tench thee ; and the fishes of the sea shall declare unto thee. Who knoweth riot in all these that the haud of the Lord hath wrought this ? " (Job xii. 7.) UNIVERSITY E. B. & E. 0. 87 FULTON ST., NEW YORK. FREDERICK COHOON, COLUMBUS, OHIO. 1858, l> DEDICATION. THE following work has with my aid been prepared by an esteemed and highly competent friend, to whom I am also much indebted for valuable assistance rendered in connection with the publication of the Chart which it is adapted to elucidate. Prepared, as it has been, with the utmost care and exactness ; with un~ usual regard to order, and fullness of explanation as to the terms employed, I am sanguine in the belief it will every where meet with a cordial welcome as a suitable accompaniment of the Chart. Though both are capable of being used separately, each will be found to shed light upon the other. To Teachers, to Parents and Heads of Families, to all who are lovers of Natural History and desire its advancement, I humbly but respectfully ded icate this volume and the Chart it is intended to explain and illustrate. ANN M. REDFIELD. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by B. B. & K. C. KELLOGG, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. PREFACE. THE following work has been prepared as an accompaniment to the " GEN ERAL VIEW OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM " — a CHART which, in the beautiful and harmonious arrangement of its several parts ; its lucid and orderly classifica tion ; its brief but comprehensive statements and explanations, — presents the subject in an outline so full and consistent as to make it valuable even to the most scientific naturalist, both for convenient private reference, and as a help or guide in public lectures ; while the more uninitiated, and such as are just setting out in the study of Natural History, becoming familiar with the details of the Chart, will, it is believed, desire and be prepared the better to appreciate additional information in relation to the subject ; such infor mation it is the aim of this work to impart. The possessor of the Chart might have recourse to works of two kinds — one purely scientific, like those of Cuvier and others, or the works on Natural History published by State authority ; the other, of a strictly popular character, in which not a single scientific or technical term is em ployed. The array of unexplained technical language in the former class of works, he would, perhaps, deem repulsive and discouraging; the descrip tions of the latter class, he might, as related to the Chart, be often at a loss to apply correctly, though presenting to him the appearance of more inter esting details than those which are found in works strictly scientific. The present volume, being a sort of medium between these two kinds of works, is adapted to meet the exigencies of such a case. It does not give the "characters" and "descriptions" with the technicality and minuteness of the purely scientific treatise ; to do this was found to be incompatible with the desired limits, as well as the general design of this publication ; at the same time, it is far from ignoring these things, after the manner of some popular treatises. The "characters" of the Classes, Orders, and Families will here be found given with considerable fullness ; the main or prominent ones of the genera and species are also usually given : not in all cases in a separate and formal manner, but occasionally are blended with other particulars relating to the general habits of animals, or interspersed 111911 IV PREFACE. with illustrative anecdote. In most, if not all cases, the reader will, from the statements made, be able to form some correct and consistent ideas as to the genera and species noticed. When more full discriminations are de sired, reference can be had to other and larger works. The medium character of this volume, and its relation to the extremely wide range of topics presented on the Chart, have increased the difficulty of preparing it within limits so restricted. To have furnished an amusing work composed chiefly or entirely of anecdotes or kindred material, would have been, comparatively, an easy task. In its present form, this work will perhaps not be unacceptable to such as are already somewhat acquainted with Natural History in its scientific aspects and relations ; while others, the young especially, may, from the use of this volume, pass, by an easy transition, to the study of larger works and those more purely scientific. To TEACHERS in particular, is this volume respectfully commended. Ques tions are added to each section with special reference to its use in Acade mies and Common Schools. It is proper to remark that this work is not published as containing the results of original observation, excepting to a limited extent : mainly it em bodies materials newly moulded and arranged, but derived from approved standards, and some of the latest issues relating to the subjects of which it treats. The range of reference and comparison has been extensive ; the results of protracted investigation are sometimes condensed into a single brief paragraph or sentence. This work will be found orderly and harmonious in several respects in which some other publications betray confusion and inconsistency ; in the explanation of scientific terms, also, it is unusually full. Neither on the Chart, nor in this volume has the aim been to give all the different names which may have been applied by nat uralists to a particular object ; for this there was not room ; and besides, in the case of some, such a course might have tended to confuse rather than really enlighten. Many of the pictorial illustrations are original, and with the accompanying explanations, will be found to add much to the in terest and intrinsic value of the work. It is confidently trusted that the CHART, with this explanatory vol ume, will be welcomed in Seminaries generally ; and be accepted as valu able auxiliaries by all lovers of physical science. May they tend to create and foster widely a taste for the study of nature ; and by the developments which they make, and the researches and meditations to which they lead, awaken loftier and more worthy thoughts of the Infi nite Creator. M. SYRACUSE, March 1, 1858. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. SUB-KINGDOMS, four : VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOL- LUSKS, RADIATES. VERTEBRATES : Grand Divisions : WARM and COLD BLOODED : The WARM BLOODED Division includes MAMMALS and BIRDS. 1. MAMMALS, three sub-classes, nine orders. FIRST SUE-CLASS, UNGUICULATA, (with nails* or claws.) (1.) BIMANA, (Two-handed) Man. (2.) QUADRUMANA (Four-handed). Three families. Simiadce, Apes, Baboons, Monkeys of the Old World. Cebidce, Monkeys (American). Lemuridai, Lemurs. (3.) CARNIVORA (Flesh-eating Quadrupeds). Sub-order, CHEIROPTERA (Hand-winged) Bats. 'DIGITIGRADA (walking on the toes). Three families. Felidce, Cats, Lions, Tigers, &c. Canidce, Dogs, Wolves, &c. Mustelidce, Weasels, &c. PLANTIGRADA (walking on the soles of the feet). Two families. Ursida, Bears, Racoons. Phocidce, Seals, Walruses, &c. TRUE INSECTIVORA (Insect-eaters). Four families. Talpida, Moles. SoreciddE, Shrews. Erinaccadce, Hedge-hogs. TupaiadcR, Banxrings (of the Indian Archipelago). (4.) MARSUPIALIA (Pouched Quadrupeds). Four sections. Sarcophacja (Flesh-eaters). Dasyuri. Ovo-viviparous. ^nophuga (Insect-eaters). Opossums. Carpophaga (Fruit-eaters). Phalangers. Poephaga (Grass-eaters). Kangaroos. j Sub-order Rhizophaga (Root-eaters). Wombats. ( MONOTREMATA (Monotremes). Echidna and Ornithorhyncus or Water-Mole. VI CLASSIFICATION. (5.) EDENTATA (Toothless or without front teeth). Four families. Brady podida (Slow-footed) or Tardigrada, Sloths. MegatheriadcK (Great-beasts). Fossil Sloths. Myrmecophagadce (Ant-eaters). ArmadiliidcE (Armadillos). (6.) RODENTIA (Gnawing Quadrupeds). Seven families. SciuridcE (Squirrels). MuridcE (Mice & Rats). Castoridce (Beavers). Hystricida (Porcupines). Cavid(£(CsiVies or Guinea Pigs). ChinchillidcE (Chinchillas). LeporidcB (Hares). SECOND SUB-CLASS, UNGULATA (with hoofs). (7.) PACHYDERMATA (Thick-skinned Quadrupeds). Three families. Elephantida (or Proboscideans,) Elephants, &c. Suidce, Swine, Rhinoceros, &c. » -j- TT n u s ( Solipedes or Solidungula Equidu, Horses, Zebras, Ac. -j » Solid-hoofed. (8.) RUMINANTIA (Cud-chewing Quadrupeds). Eight Families. Camelida^ Camels, Llamas. Camelopardce, Camelopards or Giraffes. Moschidtz, Musk-Deer. Cervida, Deer or Stags. Bovida, Oxen, Bison, (Buffalo,) &C. Ovidce, Sheep. Capridce, Goats. Antilopidce, Antelopes. THIRD SUB-CLASS, MARINE MAMMALS. (9.) CETACEA (Whale-tribe). Four families. BalanidcE, Baleen or Whale-bone Whales. , Delphinidce, Dolphins, Porpoises, &c. \ I. DIVISION of WARM BLOODED VERTEBRATES. BIRDS : Land Birds, five orders ; Water Birds, two orders. (1.) RAPTORES (Raveners or Birds of Prey). Three families. Falconida, Falcon tribe. Three families. Sub-families, Aguilince, Eagles. Milvince, Kites. Buteonince, Buzzards. Falconina, Falcons. Accipitrince, Hawks. Vulturida, Vultures. Strigida, Owls. (2.) INSESSORES (Perchers). Four sub-orders. FISSIROSTRES, DEN- TIROSTRES, CONIROSTRES, TENUJROSTRES. CLASSIFICATION. VI i 1. FISSIROSTRES (Cleft-bills). Seven families. Caprimulgidee, Night-jars. Hirundinida, Swallows. Meropidce, Bee-eaters. Todidat, Todies. Trogonida, Trogons. Halcyonida or ) Ki fishera. AlcedimclcB, ) Trogonida, Trogons. 2. DENTIROSTRES (Toothed-bills). Silviadte, Warblers. Mcrulida or ) Thrughes> 1 urdimdeB, ) MuscicapidcK, Fly-catchers. Ajnpelidce, Chatterers. Laniada, Shrikes or Butcher Birds. 8. CONIROSTRES ( Cone-billed). Seven families. Corvidae, Crows, sub-fam. : Paradiseadce, Birds of Paradise. Sturnidiz, Starlings. Fringillidce, Finches. Loxiada, Cross-bills. Bucerotidce, Hornbills. Musophagida>, Plaintain-eaters. 4. TENUIROSTRES (Thin-billed). Five families. Promeropida or Upupadce, Hoopoes. Sun-birds> Honey-suckers or Nectar Birds. Trochilidce, Humming-birds. Mellphagidce, Honey-eaters. CerthiadcE, Creepers. (3.) SCANSORES, Climbers. Four families. Rhamphastida, Toucans. Psittacida, Parrots. Picida, Wood-peckers. Cuculidce, Cuckoos. (4.) RASORES or GALLING, (Scratchers, Poultry Birds.) Seven families. ColumbidfB, Pigeons. Cracidce, Curassows. MegapodidfR, Megapodes or Great-foots. Phasianidce, Pheasants, &c. jTetraonida, Grouse. Chionida;, Sheath-bills. Tinamidoe, Tinamous. (5.) CdRSORES (Runners). One family. Struthionida, Ostriches, &c. (6.) GRALLATORES, (Waders.) Six families. Aquatic Bird*. Charadriadce, Plovers. ArdeidtE, Herons. Rostridf?, Spoon-bills. Tantalida, Ibises. Scolopacida;, Snipes, Rattida, Rails. CLASSIFICATION. (T.) NATATORES, (Swimmers). Six families. Anatidce, Ducks. Colymbida, Divers. Alcidce, Auks. Procellarida, Petrels. Larida, Gulls. Pelecanida, Pelicans. The COLD BLOODED Division includes REPTILES and FISHES. I. REPTILES, four orders, viz. CHELONIANS (Turtles). SAURIANS (Lizards, Crocodiles). OPHIDIANS (Snakes). AMPHIBIANS (Frogs, Toads, &c.) 1st. CHELONIANS, (CHELONIA,) arranged by Agassiz in his late work, as follows : Sub-orders. ORDER, TESTUDLNATA. 2d. SAURIANS. ORDER, SAURIA. 1. Amy da, - 2. Chelonii, Fam. Crocodilidce. Land Tortoises. Marsh and River Tor toises. Sea Turtles. Families. Testudinina, Emydoida, Cinostcrnoidfe, ChelydroidtB, Hydraspida, Chelyoida, Trionychidce, ( Chelonidte, ( Sphargidce, ( Alligators or Caimans of America. J Crocodiles of the Nile, j Gavials of the Ganges. [ Enaliosauria, (Fossil Fish-Lizards). ChamceleonidcE, Chamaeleons. Geckotida, Geckos. Iguanida, Iguanas. Varanida, Varans. TeidfE, Teguixans. Lcnertidce, True Lizards. Chalcidce, Snakelike do. Scincidce, Scinks. Family Colubridce, (mostly) harmless Snakes. Boida, Boas and Pythons. Hydridtp, Water (Venomous) Snakes. Viperidte, Vipers, do. Crotalidce, Rattle Snakes (all kinds.) 4th. AMPHIBIANS, sub-order. Caducibranchiata, (Gills perishable in the tadpole state.) 'Family Cteciliidce, (Caecilia.) Apodous or without feet. 8d. OPHIDIANS. ORDER OPHIDIA. ORDER AMPHIBIA. tailless- aer-e ma ) a or >• il. with tails Salamanders Land-Newts Tritons, Water-Xewts. [ Amphiuma Amphiumidce, •< Menopoma ( Mud-devil. f gills.) Sub-order PERENNIBRANCHIATA, (with enduring Proteidee, (Proteus, Axolotl, Siren.) CLASSIFICATION. *IT. FISHES. THREE GROUPS or DIVISIONS based upon the distinctive character of the fins, viz. ACANTHOPTERYGII, (Spine-rayed fins.) MALACOPTERYGII, (Soft-rayed fins.) CHONDROPTERYGII, (Cartilage-fins. ) Agassiz bases the orders upon the scales and makes them four. Ctenoids, (Comb-like.) Cycloids, (Circle-like.) Ganoids, (Splendor-like.) Placoids, (Plate-like.) 1st ORDER. ACANTHOPTERYGJI, (Spine-rayed,) or CTENOIDS. Family Percidcs, (Perch.) 2d ORDER. MALACOPTERYGII, (Soft-rayed) or CYCLOIDS. Abdominales, (Ventral fins behind the pectoral.) Sub-brach- ials. (Ventral ^ fins under the pectoral.) Triglidce, (Gurnards.) Scienidce, (Maigres, Sheep's-heads, Drum-fish, &c.) Sparidce, (Sea-Breams.) Chcetontidee, (Chsetodons, Moon-fish, Razor-fish.) Scombridce, (Mackerel.) Anabassidce. (Climbing-Perches.) . Cepolid* or > (Ribbon.fish>) I Tamada;, ) v Teuthida, (Surgeon-fish.) Atherinidoe, (Silver-sides.) Mugilida, (Mullets.) Gobidce, (Gobias.) Lophidce, (Crested or Toad-fish.) Lubridce, (Wrasses or Rock-fish.) Silurida, (Cat-fish.) Cyprinidce, (Carps.) EsocidcE, (Pikes.) Fistularidce, (Pipe-fish.) Salmonidce, (Salmon.) Clupeidce, (Herring.) Gadida, (Codfish.) Echeneidce, (Sucking-fish.) Cyclopteridce, (Lump-fish.) j Apodes, without ) Murcenidce or ) ,p , v | ventral fins. J AnguWda-, $^GiS-J {Lophobranchia or ) Lophobranchii, [• Syngnathida, (Sea-horse, &c.) (Tufted-gills.) ) C Plectognathi, ) Gyrnnodontid^ , Balloon-fish.) ! (Plaited iaws^i f B(lhst*da;> (File-fish.) ( (1-laiteu jaws) J Ostracionid(K) (Trunk-fish.) See Page 660. CLASSIFICATION, CHONDROPTERIGII. ARTICULATES. I. INSECTS. Twelve ORDERS Of TRUE INSECTS. With biting mouths. PLACOIDS GANOIDS. Saurida, (Gar-fish, &c.) "Eleutheropomi, (gills free.) Chimceridte, (Sea Monsters.) Sturionidce, (Sturgeons.) Plagiostomi, (transverse mouths.) ( SgualidcB, (Sharks.) ( RaiidfB, (Rays.) Cyclostomi, (Round fleshy mouth or lip.) [Petromyzonidce, (Lampreys.) IBranchiostoma, (Gill-mouth, i. e., having cirri, or curled filaments in the mouth.) [Amphioxidce, (Lancelets.) Very anomalous, and sometimes included with the Cyclostomi. hree classes. INSECTS. CRUSTACEANS. WORMS or ANNELIDANS. 1. COLEOPTERA (Sheath-wings), Beetles, Hornbugs. 2. STREPSIPTERA (Twisted-wings), Wasp-flies. 3. DERMAPTERA (Skin-wings), Ear-wigs. 4. ORTHOPTERA (Strait-wings). Sub-orders, CURSORIA (Runners), Cockroaches. RAPTORIA (Graspers), Mantises. AMBULATORIA (Walkers), Walking Sticks. SALTATORIA (Leapers), Grasshoppers, Crickets, &c. 6. TRICHOPTERA (Hair-wings), Caddice-flies, &c. 6. NEUROPTERA (Nerve-wings), White Ants, Dragon- flies, &c. [&c. 7. HYMENOPTERA (Membranous-wings), Bees, Wasps, 8. LEPIDOPTERA (Scale-wings), Moths, Butterflies, &c. 9. HEMIPTERA (Half-wings), Fruit-bugs, Bed-bugs, &c. 10. DIPTERA (Two-wings), Flies, Musquitoes, &c. 11. APHANIPTERA (Invisible or rudimental wings), Fleas, Jiggers. x 12. APTERA (No wings), Lice, Lepismas. 11 , (13. MYRIAPODA (with innumerable feet), Thousand-leg- ed J ged Worms, Centipedes. ( 14. ARACHNIDA, Spiders, Scorpions, Ticks, Mites. 2d. CRUSTACEANS. Five orders (or sub-classes,) (Dana). 1. Decapoda (Ten-footed), Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps. 2. Tetradecapoda (Fourteen-footed), Sow-bugs, Sand-fleas, &c. 3. Entomostraca (Shell insects), Cyclops, Daphnia, Cypris, Limulus, (Sea-Spiders), and possibly also the TRILOBITES. 4. Cirripedes (curled jointed-feet), Barnacles. 6. Rotatoria or Rotifera — Wheel Animalcules. 3d. WORMS or ANNELIDANS. Four orders. 1. Tubulibranchiata (Gills in tubes), Serpula, Vermilia, &c. 2. Dorsibranchiata (Gills on the back), Sea-Centipedes. 8. Abranchiata (without gills), Leeches & Earth-worms. 4. Entozoa, (Internal worms,) or White blooded Worms. With sucking mouths. CLASSIFICATION. v;1 These sometimes resemble worms found in the other classes or orders, while differing from them as to their locality. They have been arranged into the following sub-orders : (1). Nematoidea or Nematoids, Round Worms, Thread Worms, Pin Worms, Guinea Worms. (2). Acanthocephala, (Spine-headed,) Hooked Worms. (3). Trematoda, (from Gr. trema, hole, having Sucker-like openings,) Fluke Worms, &c. (4). Cestoidea, (Gr. Kestos, girdle,) Tape Worms. (5). Cystica, (Gr. Kustis, a bladder,) Hytatids or Bladder- like Worms. MOLLUSKS. Two GRAND DIVISIONS: CepHALATA (with heads) or UNIVALVES. ACEPHALA (without heads) or BIVALVES. I. CEPHALATA : Three classes or Sub-divisions, viz. (1). (tauiOPO*, suihhead. Two section,. Dibranchiata, (Two branchiae,) Cuttle-fish. Tetrabranchiata, (Four branchia?,) Nautilus, Ammonites, &c. i Wing-footed, i. e., ) wing-like arms >• Three families, for swimming. j HyalaidcE, Hyalaea, Cleodora. Limacinida, Limacina, Spiralis. Clionidce, Clio. (3). G.ST.BOPOOS, (1). Pulmobranchia (Lung-like Gills). (Four families.) Limacidee, (from Limax,} Slugs. HelicidcB, (from Helix,) Snails. Auriculidce, (from Auricula,} Ear-shaped Shells. Limntzidce, ( " Limncca, Aquatic-Snails. (2). Pectinibranchia, (Comb-like gills.) (Nine families.) Trochida, (from Trockus,) Trochi. Turbinidce, (from Turbo,} Turbines, Periwinkles. Muricidce, ( " Murex,) Murices. Strombidce, ( " Strombus,) Conch-Shells. Buccinidce, ( " Buccinum,} Harp-Shells, Whelkfl. Cyprceida, ( " Cyprcea,} Cowries. Conidce, (from Conus,) Cones. Volutidce, (from Valuta,) Volutes, Olives, Mitres. Capuloidea, (from Capula,) Cup-shaped Shells. Tubulibranchia, (Tubular-gills,) Vermetus, Siliquaria. Scutibranchia or j Gills shielded, by ) Trni:nf:a Aspidobranchia, \ the Shell. f Gills circular, i. e., Cyclobranchia, •< around the body of ( the animal. Xll CLASSIFICATION. Tectlbranchia, Infer obranchia, Nudibranclria, Heteropoda, Covered-gills, ) Bulk or i. e., by the mantle, j Bubble. Under-gills, i. e., ) ... , under the edge I ff ffj^ of the mantle. ) Diphylhdia. j Naked-gills, i. e., 1 Glaucus, ( without Shells. ) Doris. Other-footed, i. e., feet ) Carinaria, different from the others. ( Firola. II. ACEPHALA. HEADLESS MOLLUSKS. Four orders. [like gills.) (1). CONCHIFERA (Shell bearing) or LAMELLIBRANCHIA, (Plate or leaf- (Oyster Family) Ostracece- f sub-families-^norauWa?, Anomia. 1 ,, I P/acunt^,Placuna.|Monomy- OttreidtB, Ostrea. J. «a<>r Aviculide, Avicula. j muscle« (Fresh Water Mussels) 4 Naiades or t/rnomW#, Unio, Anodon, Alasmodon. (Salt-water do. ) 4 Mytilacece, Mytilus, Modiola, Pinna, Crenella. 4 C/iamaccff-sub-families, Tridacnidce, Tridacna. Chamidce, Chama. 4 Cardiacecet.( do. Carditidee, Cardita. Mantle closed behind. Siphons united ] Lucinidtx, Lucina. or distinct. I Veneridce, Venus. Dimyaria [ Crassitcllidce, Crassitella, (or having Sub-order INCLUSA (inclosed, i. e., within the j two mantle, which has but one opening for the muscles.) passage of the foot.) Families Madridce, Hactra. Myidce, Mya. SolemyidfB, Solemya. Saxicavida, Saxicava. Pandoridce, Pandora. Solenidce, Solon (Razor Shell). Pholadidce, Pholas. Teredinidce, Teredo (Wood or Ship Worm. Enclosed in a tube ( Tubicolidce, Aspergillum ) or Watering- but not attached. \ Gastrochaena. j pot. C Arm-footed, i. e., having two long spiral ^ Terebratula, (2). BRACHIOPODA, ^ arms each side of the mouth capable > Lingula, ( of protrusion. ) Orbicula. (8). TUNICATA, \ Coated< l e"' bod-^ enveloped in an elastic i __including ' | tunic or coa-t, J the Ascidi&ns (or Mollusks of a Leathern bottle-shape). Gr. Moss-animals, i. e., largely aggregated like ) corallagineous Zoophytes. ) CLASSIFICATION. Xlll (Agassiz proposes the following classification, Contributions to Nat. Hist., Vol. 1, page 185.) 1st Class. Acephala, (orders as already given.) 2d do. Gasteropoda, with three orders, Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Gasteropoda proper. 3d do. Cephalopoda, with two orders, Tetrabranchiata and Dibranchiata. RADIATES. Four Classes. I. ECHINODERMS, (Gr. Echinos, the Sea-urchin ; derma skin.) Four orders. (1). HOLOTHURIDEA, (Gr. Holothourion,) Sea-slugs or Sea-cucumbers. (2). ECHINIDEA, (Gr. echinos). Sea-urchins. (3). ASTERIDEA, (Gr. aster, a Star.) Star-fish. (4). CRINOIDEA. (Gr. krinon, a lily, lily-like). Encrinites. II. ACALEPHS., (Gr. akalephe, a nettle). Three orders. (1). PCJLMONIGRADES, (pulmo, lungs ; gradior, to advance, i. e., con tracting or expanding their umbrella-shaped disk, thus showing a resemblance to the motion of the lungs in breathing. (2.) PHYSOGRADA, (Gr. phusao, to inflate ; gradior, i. e., supported and moving in the water by means of one or more bladders, capable of being filled with air at the will of the animal). Hydrostatic Acalephs of Cuvier. (3). CILIOGRADA, (cilia, vibratile hairs ; gradior, i. e., moving by means of vibratile cilia disposed on the surface of the body.) The orders are otherwise named thus : DISCOPHORA, (Disk-bearing) Medusae or Jelly-fish. SIPHONOPHORA, (Siphon or Sucker-bearing, i. e., having aerial vesicles.) CTENOPHORA, (Comb-bearing, i. e.', moving by vibrating hairs resembling the teeth of a comb.) III. PHYTOZOA or ( (phuton, a plant; zoon, animal,') Plant-like animals. ZOOPHYTA, "j Two orders. pi j ACTINOIDS, (aktin, a ray,) Ray-like animals. [animals. yp ' "j Hydroids, (hudra, a hydra or water-snake,) Hydra-like IY. PROTOZOA, (proton, first ; zoon, animal : i. e., the lowest form of or ganized bodies.) [The last is a very numerous, but a very uncertain class. Linnaeus placed them all at the end of Worms, and called them Chaos. So great is the number of the INFUSORIES that they have sometimes been arranged into Legions. Some have been transferred to the Articulates ; others have been removed to the Vegetable Kingdom. Prof. Agassiz is of the opinion that the entire class will soon be dispensed with. NOTE. An interesting and instructive use of the " Chart of the Animal King- dom " will be to employ the method of CLASSIFICATION, which it embodies, in tracing an individual of any species, through the successive gradations, to the Sub-Kingdom to which it belongs. 1. In the VERTEBRATES, take, for example, the Common Dog, Canisfamil- iaris; and it maybe traced as follows: The generic term (which is always placed before the specific, or stands alone when the specific term is omitted) is Canis; familiaris is the specific term. ."Genera are formed into families; the family name is Canidce ; families are formed into sub-orders or orders (the orders are in larger or capital letters) ; Canidce belongs to the sub-order DIGITIGRADA ; to the order Carnivora. Orders are formed into classes. CARNIVORA belongs to the sub-class UNGUICULATA ; to the class MAMMALS. Classes (denoted by larger letters) are formed into SUB-KINGDOMS. The MAMMALS belong to the Sub-Kingdom VERTEBRATES, denoted by letters next in size to those of the "ANIMAL KINGDOM." 2. In the ARTICULATES, take the Lobster, Astacus marinus. Marinus de notes the species; Astacus, the genus — of the order (or sub-class) MALACOSTRACA, of the class CRUSTACEA, of the Sub-Kingdom ARTICU LATES. 3. In the MOLLUSKS, take the Shell, Mitra episcopalis. Episcopalis is the name of thue species : Mitra, of the genus. This genus belongs to the fam ily Volutidce. The family Volutidce belongs to the order PECTINIBRAN- CHIA; this order to the class GASTEROPODS ; this class to the UNI VALVES, the first grand division of the Sub-Kingdom MOLLUSKS. 4. In the RADIATES, take the Portugese Man of War, Physalis pelagica. The generic term is Physalis ; the specific term, pelagica; Physalis belongs to the order SIPHONOPHORI, to the class ACALEPHS, to the Sub- Kingdom RADIATES. The above are given as specimens in the several sub-kingdoms, showing the manner in which the species named in the Chart, may in conformity with the system of Classification, be followed up to their respective places. NATURAL HISTORY. SECTION I. THE science of Natural History is truly vast in its extent, including all bodies found on the earth, or of which its mass is composed. Its most general divisions are MINERALOGY, BOTANY and ZOOLOGY. These divisions are founded upon the different and distinguishing characters and states of the various objects which they respectively include. Minerals are inorganic bodies • they are without life, and incapable of increase or diminution except by means of some force outwardly applied. These are earth, rock, metals, &c. ORGANIC bodies are divided into ANI MATE and INANIMATE. The former comprehend substances en- dowed with sense and motion and belong to the department of ZOOLOGY ; the latter are without the faculties of sense and mo tion, and included in BOTANY. Organized beings, whether ani mate or inanimate, differ from inorganic ones in having the power of reproduction, or continuing the existence of beings like them selves. Animals derive their nourishment either directly or in directly from vegetables, of which hydrogen and carbon are the principal ingredients. The latter derive their nourishment from the soils of the earth and from the atmosphere. In the survey of objects so numerous and possessing such varied characteristics as those of Natural History, classification is obvi ously of high importance. A union of several traits is almost always required to distinguish a single being from others around it which have some, but not all of the same traits, or have them in combination with others of which that single being is destitute. In the work of classification a number of neighboring beings are compared with each other ; and their differences, which are supposed to be the least part of their for mation, are made indexes of their character. The union formed by the comparison of objects which agree, but with certain differences, is called a genus ; a union with fewer differences 10 NATURAL HISTORY. is called a species. Genera are formed into orders, and orders into classes. The CHART of which this volume is explanatory, exhibits the "Animal Kingdom " by means of a Tree having four branches, each representing one of the four sub-kingdoms into which it is divided, viz., VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOLLUSKS and RADI ATES. Each branch puts forth other branches bearing subdivis ions — classes, orders, families, genera, &c., illustrated by nu merous and appropriate figures, and so variously lettered and marked as to be easily distinguished. It was prepared with great labor, and in the use of much research, in order to facil itate acquisitions in the department of physical science which it de lineates and with the hope of thus encouraging a more general in troduction of the Study of Natural History into our Seminaries ol learning, from the Common School to the College and University. " Man," said Lord Bacon, " is the minister and interpreter of NA TURE." More attention should be given in the domestic circle, and in the various schools of instruction to the business of training the young to be observersof nature. A fondness for the lessons and resear ches of natural history, implanted in the mind during the period of youth, will, in all probability, last through life, affecting fa vorably the entire mental development. None should neglect the investigations to which by the " View of the Animal Kingdom, "they are invited. Such investigations, it should be remembered, pertain neither to fiction nor hypothe sis — but to realities. They seem specially adapted to man's endowments in his present state of existence ; but the facts and impressions which he derived from an earnest contemplation of the works of God, memory will embalm and render immortal, "And as now the memory of home is pleasurable in proportion to the vividness and distinctness of its image; as we now attach importance to the most insignificant object around the place of our birth ; as we regard with intense interest the old elm, the green lawn, the hawthorn bush, the rivulet because they are in separably connected with our developments of mind, even so perhaps may we then, after millions of ages shall have elapsed, recall with increasing pleasure the physical scenery of this birth-place of our existence." QUESTIONS ON SECTION I. What does the science of Natural History include? What are its gen eral divisions ? What are minerals ? How are organic bodies divided ? Which belong to Zoology ? Which to Botany ? How do organic bodies THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 1 1 differ from inorganic ? From what do animals derive their nourishment ? Of what do vegetables principally consist? From what do they derive their nourishment ? What is necessary to distinguish one being from another ? How do you proceed in classifying objects? What is a genus? What is a species ? Of what are orders and classes formed ? What is the defi nition of genus and species at the bottom of the chart on the left hand ? What are minuter differences called ? Answer. Varieties. What does a generic name signify or comprehend ? Ans. It comprehends all the species ; Canis, for example, is the generic name of animals of the Dog kind, includ ing the Fox (Canis Vulpes,} the Wolf (C. Lupus,) the Jackal (C. aureus,) and the domestic Dog (6Y. familiaris.) How are generic terms printed on the chart ? Ans. Always larger than the common name by which the ani mal is known, and commencing with a capital letter. How do you distin guish the specific from the generic name ? Ans. It follows the generic term in letters of the same size, and should not commence with a capital, unless it is derived from some person or place, or is sometimes used in a generic sense. Why is the name of the species often omitted on the chart ? Ans. For want of room, and fear of confusing the student by crowding too much in a small space. How are the families distinguished on the chart ? Ans. By their terminating in idae, as mustelidae for the Weasel Tribe, or Family. How can you distinguish the orders ? Ans. They are printed in CAPITALS, and the number of orders is mentioned on the branch, as in the Ungulata, or hoofed Mammals. Are there any other divisions or dis tinctions on the chart ? Ans. Several, as among the cud chewing some have solid horns, some are hollow, and some are entirely without horns ; some shed them annually as in the deer, in others they are permanent, as in the ox or sheep. Some birds are terrestrial, others aquatic ; some insects and reptiles are venomous (poisonous ;) others are non-venomous, or harmless. Wherever there is room, you will find these things noticed on the branches, or as near the classes, orders or figures as practicable. Dots are often added to make the connection or relation still plainer ; and where there is but small space allotted to explanation or figures, the defi ciency will be remedied as we proceed. How many ranks, or grades of groups does Swainson enumerate ? Ans. Nine, commencing with the high est, and terminating with the lowest assemblages. 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub- kingdom; 3. Class; 4. Order; 5. Tribe; 6. Family; 7. Sub-family; 8. Genus; 9. Sub-genus. Name the four great Classes, or Sub-Kingdoms from the chart. SECTION II. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. THE system of Zoology places MAN at the head of this King, dom. As he is endowed with intellectual and moral faculties, and fitted for responsible action, there is room for doubt whether, in his pre-eminence, he should have a place among the tribes of animals. But as his being is compound, he becomes the con necting link between them and beings purely spiritual. To the former he is allied by his bodily frame with its appetites and passions; to the latter by his reason and mental susceptibilities. INSTINCT distinguishes the lower animals — truly wonderful in 12 ANIMAL KINGDOM. some of its actings as will be shown hereafter ; but yet only a mere internal impulse, and incapable of improvement. The bird shows it in building its nest; the bee in constructing its cells; but both the nest and comb are made as skillfully at the first as in any subsequent trial. There seems no occasion to mistake by referring to mineralogy or botany what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom ; and yet in such animals as the oyster we discern but little of the sen sibility and capacity for voluntary motion which are usually ad duced as characteristics of the animal tribes. Chemistry has ascertained that the substances found both in ani mals and vegetables are chiefly formed of four elements, viz., car bon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These have, therefore, been called organic elements. The opposite and distinctive natures of plants and animals may be seen in the functions which they perform dependency one on another. In animal respiration, the oxygen of the atmosphere is combined with the blood, forming carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off from the entire surface of the body in some animals ; from the gills of those that live in water, and the lungs of those that live in air. Animals thus consume oxygen — to them it is pabulum vitae — the food of life. Plants, on the contrary, consume carbonic acid and give off oxygen. They thus become able to furnish animals with carbon. Animals, in their turn furnish food to plants. The excretions which they throw off, yield ammonia (consisting of hydrogen and nitrogen,) from which substance vegetables princi pally derive their nitrogen. The animal derives the constitu ents of its body from the vegetable kingdom ; the plant obtains its elements from the mineral kingdom. The tissues of the plant change mineral into organic substances ; those of the animal change organic substances into mineral. A further contrast between plants and animals is presented in the effects produced upon them, respectively, by light and heat. Both of these are indispensable to the proper growth of plants. The productions found in their tissues are but the expression of the light and heat they have, as it were, appropriated. Many of the substances in this way formed, are taken as food into the systems of animals ; but in them are again set free in the form of " vital animal forces." Differences of structure also constitute an important ground of distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; yet, sometimes, as in the sponge, it is only by considering to which there is the greatest general resemblance, it can be decided ANIMAL KINGDOM. whether a particular being should be classed as an vegetable. The different methods by which they receive food, and assim ilate it or convert it into their own substance, form another dis tinction between animals and plants. Vegetables imbibe their nourishment through their outward surface, or through their roots and leaves ; but animals, for the most part, have a stomach, or internal cavity, into which the food is received, where it is digested, and by appropriate vessels, absorbed into the body. The food of animals is generally in a solid state, and must be rendered fluid before it can be formed into the tissues. Taken at intervals, and stored in the stomach, it does not hinder their movements from place to place. During the intervals of its re ception, it is kept in contact with the absorbent vessels. Hence, animals are said to "bear their soil about with them." The earth is called "the stomach of plants." The habits and instincts of animals must also be considered by the zoologist in making up the account of the differences be tween them and plants. This is a field which affords a wide scope for comparison and research in tracing analogies between objects in many respects diverse, and one which teaches many lessons concerning the Divine wisdom and benevolence. The chart of "the Animal Kingdom" presents a view of that branch of Natural History which is called ZOOLOGY, a term de rived from the Greek Zoon, an animal, and logos, a discourse. This includes nine divisions, viz. ; I. Mammalogy, which treats of the Mammalia, or animals that nurse their young ; II. Orni thology, which relates to Birds ; III. Erpetology, which includes the Natural History of Reptiles ; IV. Ichthyology, which gives the Natural History of Fishes ; V. Entomology, which gives the Natural History of Insects ; VI. Crustaceology, which treats of Crabs, Lobsters, &c. ; VII. Helminthology, which treats of Worms; VIII. Malacology, which includes Conchology, and describes soft-bodied animals, with and without shells; IX.* Ac- tinology, which treats of radiate animals, as the Star-fish, Sea- Anemone, &c. The Animal Kingdom is divided, as on the chart, into four sub-kingdoms, viz. : Vertebrates, Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates. * We have ventured to introduce this new term, formed from the Greek word aktin, a ray, (corresponding with the Latin radius,) and logos, a dis course, in order to have the names of the several branches alike as to their termination and Greek derivation, though the terms actinia and actiniadae, (generic and family,) refer distinctively to the Sea- Anemones. 14 ANIMAL KINGDOM. The VERTEBRATES, (from the Latin vertebra, a joint, which comes from vertere, to turn,) have a jointed backbone, or inter nal bony skeleton. They are divided into WARM and COLD BLOODED; the former, including Mammals, (Mammalia.) and Birds, (Aves ;) the latter, Reptiles, (Reptilia,) and Fishes, Pisces.) The Whale tribe. (Cetacea,) inhabiting the sea, form one order of the Mammalia. ARTICULATES, (from the Latin articulus, a ring or joint,) are animals in which the body and legs are jointed, and the hardest parts are outside. These are arranged into three classes, viz. : Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms. MOLLUSKS, (from the Latin mollis, soft.) are shell-fish whose nervous system is composed of several scattered masses, or gan glions, united by means of nervous threads, and whose soft bod ies are generally protected by a shell. RADIATES, (from the Latin radius, a ray,) are animals whose parts are disposed in the form of rays, tending to a common cen ter, where the mouth is placed, as in the Star-fish. QUESTIONS ON SECTION 2. Who is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom? With what is he endowed ? For what is he fitted ? What does his compound being consti tute him? How is he allied to animals ? How to spiritual beings? What guides the lower animals instead of reason ? Does the bird or bee con struct its last nest or comb with more skill than the first ? Is there any need of mistake in referring to Mineralogy or Botany, what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom ? How is it with the Oyster ? What are the four elements both in vegetables and animals? What name is given to these elements? What shows the opposite natures of plants and animals? When animals breathe, what is combined with the blood? What gas is thus formed? How is this thrown off in some animals? How in others? What is oxygen called? On what do plants live ? What do they give off? What do they furnish to animals? What do animals furnish plants? What is obtained from animal excretions? What do vegetables derive from it ? Whence does an animal derive the constituents of its body, and whence the plant its elementary ingredients ? What is a further source of contrast between plants and animals ? -What additional ground of distinc tion is there between the animal and vegetable kingdoms? In some cases, how is it determined to which of the two a particular being belongs? What further distinction between plants and animals is referred to? How do vegetables take in their nourishment? How animals? What is said about the food of animals ? What are animals said to do ? What has the earth been called ? What is said of the habits and instincts of animals as relates to the differences between them and plants ? What benefits flow from tracing the analogies between animals and plants ? Is this a wide field and what does it teach ? What does the Chart present ? From what is the term ZOOLOGY derived ? Of which of the three kingdoms of nature is this Chart a general view ? PL.H, EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOLLUSKS AND KADIATES. VERTEBRATES. 1. Homo sapiens, Man. '2. Ccbus, Monkey. 3. Camclus Drornedarius, Dromedary. 4. Avis, Bird. 5. Ciconia Alba, White Stork. 6. Pisces, Fishes. 7. Oplns, Snake. 8. Rana pipiens, Bull-frog. 9. AUigator Lucius, Alligator. ARTICULATES. 1. Astacus marinus, Lobster. 2. Papilio, Butterfly. 3. Cu'ex plpiens, Mosquitoe. 4. Mti«ca dornestica, Common House Fly. 5. Larva, or Caterpillar of a Moth or Butterfly. 6. Tettiyonia verrucivora, Spotted Grasshopper of Europe. 7. Clerus apiarius, Hive Beetle. 8. Lucanus cervus, Stag Beetle. MOLLUSKS. 1. Buccinum, Whelk. 2. Mitra Episcopalis, Bishop's Mitre. 3. Tridacna gic/as, Giant Tridacna. 4. Planorbis, Coil-shell. 5. Siliquaria. 6. Nautilus umbiculatus, Umbilicated Nautilus. 7. Loligo vulgaris, Common Calamary. 8. Triton variegatus, Variegated Triton. 9. Physa fontinalis, Bubble-shell. RADIATES. Fig. 1. Corallum rubrum, Red Coral. 2. Apiocrinites rotundus. 3. jEdwardsia vestita. 4. Diancea, a Jelly-fish, or Medusa. 5. Tima flavilabris, Jelly-fish. 6. Aster'ias, Star-fish. 7. Zoanthus Sol'anderi, Animal Flower, or Zoophyte. 8. Astrcea ananas, Pine-apple Coral. 13 ANIMAL KINGDOM. How many divisions does it include ? Of what does Mammalogy treat ? To what does Ornithology relate? What does Erpetology include? What does Ichthyology give? What science treats of Insects? What of Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles? Of what does Helminthology treat? What does Malacology include and describe? Of what does Actinology treat ? QUESTIONS ON THE CHART. How is the Animal Kingdom divided on the Chart ? To which of these four great Classes, or Sub-kingdoms, do the first four of the above nine divisions belong? Point out each division of this right hand branch. Give the name of the science pertaining to or describing each. In what particular do they all agree? Ans. In having a backbone, or spinal column. Define vertebra and give its derivation. Which are warm blooded ? Which are cold blooded ? How cold or warm are they ? How many orders of Reptiles? How many of Fishes? How many of Mammals? AVhich order ranks first, and is far above all others? What is said of man, near the bottom on the right hand of the chart ? What is said of his brain ? What of his birth? What of his wants? How does he compare with others in regard to strength, speed, &c. ? Is his reason an improvable gift ? Does it supply the place of strength ? What order comes next to man ? How do the Quadrupeds differ from QUADRUMANA ? What marine animals belong to the class MAMMALIA ? In what element do they live ? With what organs do they move ? Is the largest living animal found in this class ? What is its name and what are its uses? Which of the VERTEBRATES live in the water? Which on land? Which in the trees? Which fly? Which swim ? Which crawl ? Which are covered with feathers ? Which with hair? Which with scales? Which are born alive, (viviparous?) Which hatched from eggs, (oviparous?) Which are entirely without limbs? Which have but two ? In which Sub-kingdom, or on what branch do you find Insects, Crusta ceans, and Worms or Annelidans ? From what is the name Crustaceans derived ? In what do they resemble one another ? Have they any internal skeleton? Where are the hardest parts? Which is the largest of all articulated animals? Ans. Lobsters. Name some of the worms on the chart. Of what use is the leech ? Of what use is the earth or angle worm, (Lumbricus terrestris?) Ans. This despised creature is of great use in loosening the earth, so that air and water can pass through it freely, and in covering barren tracts of land with their worm casts, thus rendering them productive. Mention some of the Insects and Crustaceans. Name the sciences describing them. Are Insects a numerous class ? Ans. They out number all other classes together. There are 80,000 species of the beetles alone, (order Coleoptera.) Here you find the Curculio, or weevil, death- watch, lightning-bug, horn -bugs, &c., &c. From what is the name of the third branch, (Mollusks,) derived? How- are these soft bodies protected ? How are Mollusks divided ? Which have heads ? Which none ? To which division do snails and slugs belong ? On which branch do you find Oysters and Clams? Which move about, (are free ?) Which are fixed, (stationary ?) Is the Oyster always attached to other substances? Ans. No. Which branch of the Mollusks are entirely aquatic, or never leave the water? Are the TUNICATA, or ASCIDIANS pro% VERTEBRATES. 19 tected by shells ? Name from the chart the largest genus of known shells. Is it a bivalve, (of two pieces,) or a univalve, (of one piece?) Which is the fourth, last and lowest branch of the Animal Kingdom ? Define Radiate. How are the parts disposed ? Where is the mouth,? From what is the term derived ? Are they aquatic ? What is said of these ani mals near the bottom of the chart, on the left hand ? Are they less per fect of their kind than those on the right branch ? Why, then, are they said to be the lowest in the scale of animal life? Which animals are always lowest in organization in the class, division, or order to which they belong ? Which rank next in the ascending scale ? Which rank highest of all ? Which is the lowest order of land animals which nurse their young ? Aus. The, MONOTREMATA and MARSUPIALS. Why are the branches of the orders Marsupialia and Rodentia, (gnawers,) bent and carried around next the marine mammals ? Aus. To show that though having nails, they come next the order Cetacea, (Whales, Dolphins, &c.,) in organization. Which is the lowest or most simply organized class of animals? ilow many orders does it contain? What does proto signify? Is it a well established class ? What is said of it ? What animals are found on the chart among the RADIATES? Which are microscopic? Which fossil? Which used as food ? What is said of Sponge ? Where does Agassiz class it? Are Animalcules, Infusories, and Microscopic or very minute animals common ? Ans. They are dispersed like seed through all nature. Are Animalcules tenacious of life? Ans. It is so difficult to kill them that they can be repeatedly dried and kept for a long time, and will revive or come again to life, as soon as put into water. FIRST BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. MAMMALOGY, (Gr. ^a^a, mamma, a breast; Uyog, logos, a discourse.) [, GRAND DIVISION OF VERTEBRATES, (Warm-Blooded Animals,) SECTION III. VERTEBRATES. (Lat. Vertebrata, possessing Vertebrae, or joints in the backbone.) The first class of the Vertebrates consists of the Mammals, or Mammalia, (Gr. Mamma, a breast.) a term first used by Linnaeus and designating all animals which nurse their young. The highest position in the Animal Kingdom is given to this class, composed as it is of beings whose faculties are the most numer ous, which are most perfect in their structure and capable of the most varied movements, and whose intelligence is most largely developed. A large part of the Mammals are formed for walk ing ; some can fly in the air. and water is the element in which others live and move. Their skeletons are all constructed 23 VERTEBRATES. after the same general plan, changed, however, and modified in certain parts or organs, to fit them for the stations which they are designed to occupy. (See Plates III. and XII.) All of them are viviparous, (horn alive.) The young, as the name of the class dftMoi.es, are, for a longer or shorter time, nourished by the milk of the mother. Sometimes they are born with their eyes open, and able immediately to move about and seek their own food ; but not a few of them are born with their eyes closed, and in a state of extreme helplessness. The leading characters of the Mammalia are founded on the number and kind of their teeth, (see Plate IV.) and the construc tion of their hands and feet. (See Plates III. and VI.) The expertness of these animals is closely connected with the per fection of the organs of touch. The nature of their food and their digestive functions may, in great part, be inferred from the number and structure of their teeth. (See Plates III. and VI.) They are divided into three sub-classes, viz. : UNGULATA, (lat. ungula, a hoof,) animals with hoofs ; and UNGUICULATA, (lat. Unguiculus, a soft, small nail.) animals with nails or claws ; and CETACEA, with fins, (Gr. Keios,) a whale, or sea monster. The Mammals are, (on the Chart.) arranged into nine orders, after the plan of Cuvier, that arrangement being deemed, on the whole, the most satisfactory The number of well established species, according to Dr. Hitchcock, is somewhat more than 2000. The names of the nine orders are, I. BIMANA ; II. QUAD- KUMANA; III. CARNIVORA; IV. MARSUPIALIA; V. EDENTATA; VI. RODENTIA ; VII. PACHYDERMATA ; VIII. RUMINANTIA ; IX. CETACEA. Some naturalists have elevated the CHEIROPTERA, the INSEC- TIVORA, and the MONOTREMATA to the rank of orders, making the number XII ; but the first two of these are flesh-eaters, and therefore properly included among the Carnivora, (or the Carnas- siers of Cuvier ;) and the MONOTREMES, including but two gen era, have such points of resemblance to the MARSUPIALIA, as justify referring them to that order. QUESTIONS ON THE VERTEBRATES. What is the first class of Vertebrates ? Who first used the term ? Who was Linnreus ? Ans. An eminent Swedish naturalist. He was the author of the Linnaean, or artificial system of Botany. What does the term Mammals, or Mammalia designate? What position in the ANIMAL KINGDOM does this class occupy? Of what beings is it composed? For what are a large part of the Mammals formed? How do others of this class live and move ? What is said of their skeletons ? Are BIMANA. 21 all able at first to move about, use their eyes, and seek their own food ? Upon what are the prominent characters of the MAMMALIA founded ? What distinguishes the three sub-classes into which all Mammals are divided ? Spell, define and give the derivation of these words. Which have nails ? Which hoofs? Which fins? Which have hair? Which live on land? Which in the water ? Under how many orders are the Mammals on the chart arranged? Whose arrangement is tins, and why adopted? Who was Cuvier? Ans. An eminent French naturalist who could, like Prof. Owen, of England, describe an animal by seeing a single bone, and the na ture of its food, by looking at its teeth, or examining its intestines. Name the nine* orders from the chart, giving examples of each. Read the explanations along the sides of the branches and limbs, as you trace them up from the root or foundation of the tree. To what rank have some naturalists elevated the CHEIROPTERA, INSECTITORA, and MONOTREMATA? What animals on the chart belong to these sub-orders ? What reason is assigned for giving them this rank ? SECTION IV. FIRST SUB-CLASS. UNGUICULATA. FIRST ORDER. BIMANA, (Lat. bis, twice ; manus, hand ; two -handed.) MAN fills the first place in the animal series. In reality, he stands alone, sole order, genus and species. His full zoological relations are : class, VERTEBRATA ; order, MAMMALIA ; genus HOMO ; species, SAPIENS. The position at the head of the Ani mal Kingdom, given to man by the great body of zoologists, is, however, objected to by some eminent naturalists, "who are not disposed to admit that because he possesses certain zoological characters which are entirely secondary and subordinate, he should be classed with brutes, when his noblest attribute, reason, destroys every vestige of affinity, and places him immeasurably above them all."* The most prominent of the characters by which man is distinguished from the lower animals, are as follows : Rational ; endowed with speech ; able to walk erect, two handed ; having a prominent chin ; four incisor (cutting) teeth above and below ; and all the teeth side by side ; the canine (eye) teeth of the same length as the others ; the lower cutting teeth erect; a peculiar relative proportion of the thighs and arms, and wide soles to the feet. Considering him in his higher or spiritual nature, we may name his sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal consciousness and purposes ; and the courses of action thence resulting as among his proper and essential characteristics. Even physically, he is first of all the living creatures on earth ; not, however, in size, or in animal strength, in which respects many of the Ver- * Zoology of New York, by Dr. De Kay. 2 22 BIMANA. tebrates excel him, — but in the plan or model after which he is constructed The eagle, for example, has a more powerful vision ; the hare is more keenly sensible to sound ; the dog and vulture are more ready to catch the scent which is borne upon the breeze ; but in man is found a nice adjustment, a "peculiar and felicitous accuracy " of the senses, which, while ministering to his enjoy ment, enables him to cultivate a more thorough and pleasing acquaintance with the objects by which he is surrounded. In the power of speech, and the various exercises of this power by which he makes known his wants, his desires, and his most ab stract mental conceptions ; in his processes of reasoning and in his susceptibility of endlessly progressive improvement, he rises high above every other animal existence. The several parts of the living human frame are suited to the erect attitude for which it is distinguished. (See Plate III.) Man's structure fits him for moving in an erect posture, and unfits him for moving with ease in any other. He has, however, the ability to imitate almost every motion but that of flight. As aids to such imitation, he possesses, when in maturity and health, sixty bones in his head, sixty in his thighs and legs, sixty-two in his arms and hands, and sixty-seven in his trunk, and he has also four hun dred and thirty-four muscles. His foot is, in proportion to his whole body, larger, broader, and stronger than that of any other animal. The muscle called "flexor longus policis pedis" (the muscle of the great toe,) terminates in a single tendon, and its force is centered in the great toe, the chief point of resistance in raising the body upon the heel. In the Orang-outang, the cor responding muscle terminates in three tendons, separately and exclusively inserted in the three middle toes, to enable him to grasp an object more forcibly in climbing, and thus more fully meeting the wants of an animal that makes its home in the trees. "Surely," says Professor Owen, "it is asking too much to be lieve that in the course of time, these three muscles should, un der any circumstances, become consolidated into owe, and that one implanted in a toe to which none of the three tendons were before attached." The teeth, bones and muscles of the monkey decisively forbid the conclusion that he could by any ordinary natural process, ever be expanded into a MAN. Man alone is two handed ; in him the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers is carried to the highest perfection. In his "Bridge- water Treatise," Sir Charles Bell says: "The structure of the human hand is so much more complicated, and suited to so many different offices, we ought to define the hand as belonging R A OF TH£ UNIVERSITY PL. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Fig. 1. The HUMAN SKELETON divided into three principal parts; the Head (1,) the Trunk (2,) and the extremities (3 and 4.) Physiologists enu merate as many as 260 bones ; but some of these bones, which are separated in early life, are afterwards united, so as to admit of the fol lowing enumeration : Cranium, 8 ; Face, 14 ; Internal ears, 8 ; Verte bral column, 24; Chest, -26; Pelvis, 11; Upper extremities, 68; Lower extremities, 64 ; in the whole, 223. 1. The bones of the Skull, divided into two sets, viz., those of the Cranium, or case for the brain, and those of the Face. 2. The Trunk, composed of the Spine, or Vertebral column, extending from a to c?, the Chest, including the Ribs, and Sternum or Breast-bone, (e;) the Pelvis ; the circle of bones on which the Spine rests. The Spine, extending from a to c?, in the erect man, supports the head upon its summit, (a,) while its base rests upon the sacrum (d.) It consists of 24 bones, called Vertebrae, (Lat. verto, to turn,) because the trunk is turned by their motion upon each other. It is the center about which the limbs move, and the chief support of the skeleton. The Cervical vertebrae, (the 7 bones of the neck,) extend from a to b; the middle, dorsal or back vertebras, from b to o, and the 5 lowest or lum bar vertebras, from c to d. 3. and 4. Are the last main divisions, consisting of the upper and lower extremities. 3. The upper extremities (the arms) consist of the scapula, A, or shoulder- blade, the Clavicle or collar-bone, B, the Humerus, or bone of the upper arm, (c,) the Ulna, (D,) situated on the inner side, and the Radius, (E,) on the outer side of the fore-arm, the Carpus, (Car;) the 8 small bones of the wrist, the 5 bones of the metacarpus between the wrist, and the bones of the fingers, (Met.,) and the bones of the fingers, called Pha langes, (Pha ,) of which the thumb has two, and the fingers three each. 4. The lower extremities, or legs, consist of the Femur or thigh bone, (F,) which is the largest bone of the body, the Tibia or shin-bone, (G,) on the front and inner part, and the Fibula, (H,) at the outer part of the leg, the Patella or knee-pan, (i,) the Tarsus, the 7 bones forming the heel and instep, (Tar.,) the metatarsus (Met.,) between the instep and the toes, and Phalanges of the toes similar in number and arrangement to those of the fingers. Fig. 2. SKELETON OP A CHIMPANZEE. The ape that comes nearest to man. 3 and 4 show how the extremities terminating with long fingers, and a small feeble thumb set far back, adapt it for climbing rather than walk ing, thus differing from those organs in man. 1. The Cranium, — showing none of the fine sweep of the forehead seen in man, and indicating a small cerebral development as compared with him. 2. The Vertebral column, without the pyramidal form seen in man, and not adapted to an erect posture. Pelvis, narrow as compared with that of man. (See description in the text.) 26 BIMANA. exclusively to man. The whole frame conforms to the hand, and acts with reference to it." The human hand is not only power- ful, but exquisitely susceptible of impressions, and possesses the most delicate touch. Every finger, except the one called the ring finger, is capable of independent movements, — a power possessed by no other mammal. The thumb is lengthened so as to meet readily the tips of any of the fingers ; the fingers them selves, and especially the pulpy tip at their ends, are supplied with a nervous tissue endowed with a discriminating sensibility that is peculiar to man. " The difference in the length of the fingers serves a thousand purposes, adapting the hand and fingers, as in holding a rod, a switch, a sword, a hammer, a pen or pencil, engraving tool, etc., in all which a secure hold and freedom of motion are admirably combined. Nothing is more remarkable, as forming a part of the prospective design to prepare an instrument fitted for the various uses of the human hand, than the manner in which the delicate and moving apparatus of the palm and fingers is guarded. The power with which the hand grasps, as when a sailor lays hold to raise his body to the rigging, would be too great for the texture of mere tendons, nerves and vessels ; they would be crusked were not every part that bears the pressure defended with a cushion of fat as elastic as that we have des cribed in the foot of the horse and camel. To add to this purely passive defence, there is a muscle which runs across the palm, and more especially supports the cushion on its inner edge. It is this muscle which, raising the edge of the palm, adapts it to lave water, forming the cup of Diogenes."* The brain of man, in proportion to the residue of the human system, surpasses in volume or extent that of every other mam mal, as is shown by the proportion which the cavities con taining the brain and face bear to each other. The size of the brain is sometimes estimated by the facial angle, f which, in the average of Europeans and their descendants on this continent, is 80o ; but in the adult Chimpanzee is only 35o, and in the Orang or Satyr is, according to Professor Owen, 30o. The blood necessary for an organ so developed as the human brain, is carried to it by arteries which do not subdivide as in * Sir C. Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on the Hand. " f The facial angle is found by drawing a line from the most prominent part of the forehead to that of the upper jaw bone, and observing the angle which it forms with another line through the external auditory canal to the base of the nose, or, (the head being in a vertical position,) with a horizontal line." BIMANA. 27 most quadrupeds, but allow of the full and free circulation which its energies require. The fine sweep of cranium and the smooth spherical surface of the human skull, showing the volume of the interior brain, are also noticeable, as contrasting strikingly with the heavy ridges, the irregular prominences and the small capacity of the Mon key's skull. The face of the Monkey is an aid to him in pro curing food, and a weapon for attack and defence; Man's face bespeaks the workings of the inner MIND. He uses his hands to procure his food, and naturally unarmed, protects himself with weapons which he has manufactured. His jaws and teeth are both as small as could consist with the preservation of life. Though at first weak and defenceless, he becomes able not only to assert his dominion over animated nature, but to make the very elements subserve his designs. No monkey or ape has ever been able to make weapons of either attack or defence ; nor can he procure fire or renew it, which the lowest of the hu man species readily does. The most benighted Hottentot can form weapons with which he is able to destroy the ferocious lion, the swift antelope, and the wary ostrich ; " he constructs for himself a hut by the side of his prey, strikes fire, fetches fuel, and dresses his meat." There seems, as Buffon has intimated, no anatomical reason why an ape should not speak ; but it has no language, and cannot by the most patient labor, be taught to speak. Articulate language, of itself, makes a difference, vast in extent, between man and every other tribe of the Mammalia. His physical system is peculiar in the readiness with which it accommodates itself to the variations of climate, and in modes of living. The Arctic explorations of Captains Ross and Parry, of Sir John Franklin, and of our own lamented Dr. Kane, have signally evinced the capacity of the human constitution for en during with safety, the intensest cold. On the other hand, men long accustomed to the air of the temperate zones, have pene trated far into the interior of Africa, and traversed other equato rial regions, without experiencing any serious evils from the heat. QUESTIONS ON THE ORDER BIMANA. What is the first order ? How is it spelled, defined, and from what derived? Who is at the head, or fills the first place in the animal series? What is said of him, and to what class, order, genus, and species docs he be- 1 long ? Are all Zoologists agreed as to the propriety of placing man with ani- * mals ? What places him immeasurably above them all ? What are his most prominent distinctions, or what is said of his speech, walk, chin, teeth, &c. ? Contrast these with those of the inferior animals. What is said of man, physically ? In what respect does he surpass all other created beings ? 28 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. In what senses is he inferior, or in what way does the eagle, hare, dog, or vulture surpass him ? What is found in man ? What does this enable him to cultivate ? What elevates him so highly above other animal existences ? To what are the seve/al parts of the human frame suited ? For what does a man's structure fit him ? For what does it unfit him ? Has he the power of imitation? What aids this power or faculty? How many bones and muscles has he ? What is said of his foot ? What is said of the muscle of the great toe in man ? Give its technical name. What of the correspond ing muscle in the Orang Outang ? What does Prof. Owen say in relation to this, and how does this bear upon the development theory ? What do the teeth, bones, and muscles of the monkey forbid ? What is said of the hands, thumbs, and fingers of man ? What does Sir Charles Bell say in his "Bridgewater Treatise?" What is further said of the human hand? What of the ring finger ? What of the thumb and other fingers ? Of what use is the different length of the fingers ? Docs it evince design, or did it occur by chance ? What is chance ? What is the cup of Diogenes, and how is it formed ? Who was Diogenes ? Ans. A celebrated Cynic phi losopher, of Greece, who died in great misery and indigence, B. C. 324, at the age of 96. What is said of the human brain ? How is this shown ? How is the size of the brain sometimes estimated ? How is this angle found ? What is said of the arteries supplying blood to the human brain ? How does the cranium, or human skull, contrast with that of the monkey ? What is said of the monkey's face ? What of man's ? Which bespeaks the most intel ligence ? For what does he use his hands ? How does he protect himself? What is said of his jaws and teeth? What are monkeys unable to do? By whom are they surpassed ? Is there any anatomical reason why an ape should not speak ? Have they ever been taught to speak ? What makes a vast difference between man and all other mammals ? In what is man's physical system peculiar? What have Arctic and African explorations shown ? VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. The variations of mankind, in respect to climate and modes of life, are connected with changes in complexion and feature, with differences in the skull, in the color and nature of the hair, etc. The divisions of the race to which these differences have given rise, are stated diversely by naturalists, some numbering more, and others fewer varieties. The Caucasian, Mongolian, and Nigritian tribes, are by some regarded as the three distinctly marked types; and the other varieties as but a blending of these and their peculiarities, and hence merely sub-typical. The " Chart of the Animal Kingdom " exhibits the division of Blumenbach, the one which has commonly been made, which, separating the Malay and American varieties from the Mongolian, one of the distinctly marked types, makes the number FIVE, viz. : 1. THE EUROPEAN or CAUCASIAN; 2. THE ASIATIC, MONGO LIAN, or TURANIAN, of Dr. Pritchard ; 3. THE MALAY or AUS TRALIAN ; 4. THE AMERICAN ; 5. THE ETHIOPIAN or AFRICAN. 1. THE CAUCASIAN VARIETY was so called because it origi- VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 29 nated among the tribes of men found in the region of the Cauca sus. It is distinguished for general symmetry and regularity of outline. The head is, in the Caucasian, almost round, the face oval, the forehead much expanded, the features not very promi nent. The skin is white, the hair soft, long and brown, more or less dark, and curled. The facial angle is from 80o to 90o. The entire conformation of the head shows a superior intellectual organization. In respect both to mental power, and attainments in art and science, the Caucasians have ever stood in the fore most rank. 2. THE ASIATIC OR MONGOLIAN VARIETY. — This variety is remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes; the color is, for the most part, pale yellow or olive; the head almost square; the facial angle 80o ; the cheek bones are prominent ; the face broad and flattened, and without a beard ; and the hair straight and black. 3. In the MALAY or AUSTRALIAN, the color varies from a clear mahogany to dark chestnut brown; the hair is black and bushy; the beard thin j the nose broad, and the mouth wide ; the fore head slightly arched ; the upper jaw projecting; the eye is more sunken and piercing, and the lips less uniformly thick than in the negro. \ 4. THE AMERICAN VARIETY is allied to the Malay and Mon golian varieties. It includes Indians, or native Americans, Tol- tecans, &c. In these, the cheek bones are prominent ; the face broad ; the forehead low ; the eyes deeply seated ; the hair black and straight. 5. THE ETHIOPIAN OR BLACK VARIETY includes Negroes, Africans, Hottentots, Bushmen, (Bosjesmans,) Bochmen, (Bech- uanas.) The color is black, with greater or less intensity ; the lips extremely thick ; the nose flat and thick ; the nostrils wide ; the hair black and frizzly like wool ; the head narrow ; the fore head convex ; the face projecting ; the facial angle 70o. Be tween this and the European or Caucasian variety, the differen ces are marked ; but there is no character in which the contrast between the lowest negro and highest ape is not many times greater than between the same negro and the highest European. The differences in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the other varieties, would not be deemed sufficient to consti tute a specific character among the lowest animals. In regard to the varieties above described, it will be seen that one of the enumerated distinctions relates to the color and nature of the hair. At a trial held in South Carolina, in which the 30 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. point in dispute, property in a mulatto girl, rested on a question of race, Dr. Gibbs stated, as a curious fact resulting from micro scopic observation, that in the mulatto cross the hair of one or the other parent was present, and sometimes hairs of both, but never a mongrel hair; that no amalgamated hair existed ; that the mulatto as often had straight hair as kinky. He stated that the microscope revealed that the hair of the white race is, when transversely divided, oval; that of the Indian, circular; and that of the Negro, eccentrically elliptical with flattened edges ; that of the Negro is not hair, but wool, and capable of being felted ; that the coloring matter of true hair is in an internal tube, while in the negro it is in the epidermis, or scales covering the shaft of hair. In corroboration of the statement that both white and negro hair were sometimes found in the same head, a singu lar case was mentioned by Dr. Gibbs. He remarked that he once attended a half-breed Indian and Negro, who had straight Indian hair. He was ill and had his head shaved and blistered. On his recovery, when his hair grew out, it was negro hair, crisped and wiry. The late Dr. Morton, of our own country, in a disquisition rela tive to the "Size of the Brain" in the different varieties, presents the following results : " The ancient Egyptians, whose civilization antedates that of all other people, and whose country has been justly called 'the cradle of the arts and sciences,' have the least sized brain of any Caucasian nation, excepting the Hindoos. The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teutonic, and three cubic inches larger than that of the ancient Egyptians. The brain of the Australian and Hottentot falls far below that of the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the ancient Peruvian." (See Silliman's Journal.) QUESTION^ ON THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. With what are the variations of the HUMAN RACE connected ? Are nat uralists agreed as to the number of these varieties? What three are by some regarded as distinctly marked types? What do they consider the other varieties ? How many distinct types or races are named on the chart ? Whose arrangement has been followed? From what did the Caucasians derive their name? What nations belong to this variety ? [See the chart.] For what are they distinguished ? What are their characteristics ? What does the entire conformation of the head show ? What is said of their mental attainments? For what is the MONGOLIAN variety remarkable ? What na tions does it include ? How do you describe the MALAY or AUSTRALIAN variety ? Name the people or nations belonging to this variety. To which variety is the AMERICAN allied ? Name the tribes or people which it in cludes. [See on the chart.] What are their distinguishing peculiarities ? QUADRUMANA. 31 What does the Ethiopian or black variety include ? Describe their features, color, hair, &c. Is there a greater contrast between the highest European and the negro, than between the same negro and the ape ? What is said as to the difference in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the other varieties? In what respect does the hair of the Caucasian, Indian, and Negro varieties differ? What cases corroborate this curious fact? What were the results arrived at by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia ? OBS. Here is a good opportunity for a general exercise about the people of the different varieties, the countries they inhabit, their customs, religion, degrees of civilization, &c., showing the pupil how to apply his geographi cal or historical knowledge. SECTION V. SECOND ORDER. QUADRUMANA.— FOUR HANDED. (Lat. quatuor, four, and inanus, hand.) This order includes the Simiadae, (Lat. SinucL, an ape, — ape- kind;) Celridae, (Gr. xrjpfo;, kebos, a monkey, — monkey tribe;) pronounced kebidae ; Lemuridae, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts, — ghost like.) The SIMIADAE are spread over the tropical regions of Asia and Africa, including the larger islands of the Indian Ocean ; the CEBIDAE are found in South America ; the LEMURIDAE, in Madagascar and the smaller adjacent islands. The name "QUADRUMANA" is given to these animals because, while having two hands, resembling those of man, they have feet which are also formed like hands, and can grasp branches of trees. Like man, they have no natural means of defence ; but they are endowed with a cunning, a quickness and agility not often equaled and never surpassed by any other quadrupeds. The peculiarities of their structure do not adapt them either to an erect or a horizontal position, but to one that is diagonal or sloping. Their great muscular strength, combined with "the fac ulty of climbing, enables them to escape from the carnivorous quadrupeds which are found in the same forests with themselves. " Leaping from bough to bough, they pass through the most en tangled forests with greater swiftness than an ordinary horse would travel on a turnpike road. The apes upon the rocks of Gibraltar, (Barbary apes, which are the only ones found in Eu rope.) can never be approached by the most cautious sportsmen. They climb, with the greatest facility, among frightful preci pices, where neither dogs nor men can follow."* The hand of the highest Quadrumana is greatly inferior to' that of man, both in respect to its structure, and the uses for * "Swainsou's Habits and Instincts of Animals." 32 • QUADRUMANA. which it is fitted. The thumb is a mere rudiment, and in some species, entirely wanting. The fingers are very long, and fitted for hooking an object, but have but little power of separate motion among themselves ; the palm, instead of being hollow, is narrow and flat, and tapers from the wrist. All of them have three sorts of teeth, like man, but the canine, (eye) teeth, are more developed in the Quadrumana than in him, and there are spaces between them and the other teeth. The principal food of these animals is fruit, which Providence furnishes them most plentifully in tropical countries, though occa sionally they prey upon the young and eggs of birds, also upon lizards and insects. When captured and domesticated, they be come almost omnivorous, (Lat. omnis, all, and voro, to devour.) They are peculiar to tropical regions, and are useful there as tending to diminish the annoyances which might otherwise arise from the insects which they consume for food. In some coun tries these animals are themselves used for food, and their skins converted into leather. The SIMIADAE include three divisions : I. The APES, without taiJs ; II. the BABOONS, with short tails and sometimes none ; III. the MONKEYS, with tails, which as connected with this fam ily are adroit, agile, and restless, but usually live only two or three years. In this family, the tail has no prehensile, or grasp ing power. Their teeth, of which there are ten molar in each jaw, are thirty-two in number ; their nostrils separated by a very narrow division. The larger portion have cheek pouches and callosities, (hard parts,) on the hind parts of the body. Of the Apos we name first the Troglodytes, (Gr. r^l^, trogle, a hole ; duvM, duno, to creep, a creeper into holes.) This is the CHIMPANZEE, (not to be confounded with the Orang- Outang,) found rather commonly on the banks of the Gambia and Congo. It is more man-like than any other animal, espe cially when young. When full grown, its height is at least five feet, and according to some naturalists, six or seven. The hair is black, long and coarse, falling down on each side of the head, forming large whiskers on the cheeks; the eyes are hazel, deep set and lively; the ears it rge and spreading; the lips covered with a thin white beard, and large and wrinkled ; the face and hands, of a dark brown color. An officer in the English navy, who saw the animal in 1838, says that in its natural state, "it mounts trees only for food or observa tion, has enormous' strength, easily snapping boughs from trees which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend." These animals reach their full growth when between eight and nine years old. They travel in large bands, armed with sticks, QUADROMANA. gg which they handle with great dexterity ; and sometimes are so full of courage and fury that they drive the elephant and lion from their haunts. As their name imports, they spend much of their time in holes, or rocky caves. They are very watchful, even when united in a herd ; and the first one who notices the approach of a stranger, utters a long drawn cry, which resem bles that of a human being in distress. This is done to notify the herd of the stranger's coming. They then immediately leave any place which would expose them to danger, and betake themselves to the bushes. It is said to be very difficult to obtain them alive, owing to a superstitious notion of the natives that they have the " power of witching." Several young Chimpanzees have, at different times, been im ported into England and the United States. These appeared to be mild and docile, but were short lived, being unable to endure the changes to which they were subjected in respect to climate and mode of living. Had they lived to full age, they would probably have manifested the ape's naturally fierce and obstinate disposition. One of them, which lived about a year in the me nagerie of the British Zoological Society, is described as appear ing like " an old, bent, and diminutive negro." The appearance of age was increased by its short white beard and wrinkled face, though at the time not more than two and a half years old. All its actions seemed child-like. It would " examine every object within its reach with an air so considerate and thoughtful as to create a smile on the face of the gravest spectator. When per fectly free and unconstrained, Tommy's usual mode of progression was on all fours. His feet, and particularly his heels, were broader and better adapted for the biped race than those of the Orang- Outang, and this he adopted when occasion required. He fre quently indulged in a kind of rude, stamping dance ; would seat himself in his swing with great good humor, when ordered to do so, stretching out his foot to some of the company to set him in motion; and interpreting your wishes and intentions from your looks, tones, and gestures, exhibited the most wonderful quick ness of apprehension." PitJiecus Satyrus. (Gr. niOijxos, pithecos, ape ; aarvgbg, saturos, satyr. ) The ORANG-OUTANG, or wild man, (from Orang, the Malay term for man, and Qutang, wild.) The Orang-Outang is found in the islands of Borneo and Sum atra. Though called by this name, it is less man-like than the 34 QUADRUMANA. Chimpanzee. In the. young animal, the forehead and skull ap pear well developed and somewhat human ; in the adult, the bones of the face are so increased in size that they throw the skull backwards, which, combined in its effect with other differ ences, takes away the resemblance, which is seen in the young, to the human face. The arms are so long that they reach the ground, or nearly so, when the animal stands erect ; and the palms of the hands show lines and papillae, like those of ma-n. The ears are small ; the eyes dark and round ; the throat is swollen, the skin about it being loose and folded, and enveloping a double membranous sac, which connects with the larynx or wind-pipe, and becomes inflated when the animal expresses pleas ure or anger. The body is stoutly built and very muscular ; the belly round and protuberant ; the hair is of a reddish brown hue, long and coarse. The Orang has no tail or cheek pouches. A very marked characteristic is the disproportion be tween the size and length of the arms, as compared with the legs, which, viewed in connexion with the long and hooked hands, indicates that the animal is, more than the Chimpanzee, formed to live on trees. Among the branches, he moves with surprising facility. By weaving these together, he constructs a sort of rude hut, which he seldom leaves, except when forced by the calls of appetite. In Borneo, the natives call the two species found there, mias-kassar and mias-pappan. Of these the latter is much the larger and more powerful, and justly named Satyrus, from his ugly face and disgusting callosities. Some naturalists consider the Orang of Sumatra to be a distinct species. The Orang may be ranked as the largest of the apes. A specimen from Borneo was in height five feet ten inches, and one from Sumatra reached the enormous stature of seven feet six inches. Those animals are described by persons who have seen them in their native climes, as "leading a solitary life, more than two or three never being found together;" and as "roused from their habitual dullness by nothing but hunger or the approach of danger." Their strength is so great they can not be safely encountered except with fire-arms. A female Orang snapped a strong spear asunder, after receiving many wounds. Hence, the natives of Borneo hold these animals in especial dread, and carefully avoid them. Hy7obat.cs, (Gr. "1^7, hule, a wood ; fiahw, Imino, to traverse,) LONG AHMED APE, or GIBBON. H. Syndactuhi.s, (Gr. 2w, Sun, connected, together ; duxruAo;, dakfu/os, a finger.) This species of Gibbons receives the name Syndacly/.its, from hav- QUADRUMANA. 35 ing the second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow membrane the whole length of the first joint. As the generic name, Hylobates, imports, this animal lives in the recesses of dense woods, (in the East Indian islands and the Malay penin sula.) The hands are extremely powerful, and so long that they reach to the heel, and their span extends from four to six feet. These greatly assist him in making his rapid movements among the trees. The fur is longer and more abundant than that of the Orangs. The animal is like the Orang in temper and manners, but much smaller, when standing upright, being but two feet four inches. It is a better walker than the Orang, but its gait is unsteady, and it frequently places its hands on the ground to assist its position. An adult male of this species was taken in 1830, but died while on ijs way to England. It fed on vegetables, yet eagerly accepted animal food ; fowls it especially preferred. It appeared to be good tempered and affectionate; "when pleased, uttering a chirping note; when frightened or angry, uttering the loud guttural sounds of ra, ra, ra." It was fond of play and became quite attached to a Papuan girl who was on board the vessel — " would sit on the capstan with its long paw around her neck, and lovingly eat biscuit with her." This Gibbon is sometimes called the SIAMANG, and is said to be cele brated for the pains which it takes to wash the face of its young, which it does with maternal faithfulness, in spite of its screams and struggles. H. agilis. The AGILE, or SILVERY GIBBON, also called the Uiigka, or Oungka. This species is a native of Sumatra, d-eriving its name, agilis, (active,) from its remarkable activity in leaning among the branches. One of these animals, which was exhibited in Lon don some years since, " sprang with the greatest ease through distances of twelve and eighteen feet ; and when apples or nuts were thrown to her while in the air, she would catch them with out discontinuing her course. Sh'e kept up a succession of springs, hardly touching the branches in her progress, continually uttering a musical but almost deafening cry. She was very tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be touched or ca ressed." This Gibbon is distinguished by its low forehead, as well as its activity. The color varies a good deal, according to the sex or age, but is usually brown. In the male, a white band over the eyes unites with the whitish whiskers. The hair is fine except about the neck, where it is rather woolly and curled. QUADRUMANA. BABOONS. The most striking peculiarity of these animals is the resem blance of their head and face to those of a large dog. Their muzzles are long and truncated. They have cheek pouches, short tails and sharp claws. The malignant expression of their countenances, their gigantic strength and the brutal ferocity of their manners, render them decidedly the most frightful and dis gusting of all the Qtiadrumana. Their home is Africa, where they frequent rocky ridges more than the forests. They live mostly on scorpions, which they find under stones and deprive of their stings by a skillful application of the thumb and finger. In the Baboon, the facial angle is reduced to 30o. The name is from the Italian Babbaino, from which comes the Latin word Papio, applied to these animals especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In brilliancy of color, they vie with the gorgeous plumage of the tropical birds. " They are distinguished from the Apes, by the equality of their members, their cheek pouches and ischial callosities; from the Monkeys, by the short robust make of their bodies and extrem ities, their tubercular tails, too short to execute the functions usu ally assigned to that organ, and the mountain rather than silvan habitat which this conformation necessarily induces." Cynocephalus, (Gr. KVWV, Kudn, a dog; Kecpul^ Kephale, a head ;) Dog-headed. C. Mormon, (Gr. MOQU&V, Mormon, a bogie.) This is the MANDRIL, or GREAT VARIEGATED BABOON. The Mormon resembles the dog and bear. It is a native of Guinea and West Africa, has a short, erect and stumpy tail, by which, and the enormous protuberances of its cheeks, it is read ily distinguished from the other species. This is not only the largest of all the Baboons, but the most brilliant in its colors. When upright, its height reaches five feet. The muzzle is of a bright scarlet color ; a stripe, of vermilion runs along the center of the nose, and spreads over the lip ; the cheeks are also of a rich violet hue, and elevated on each side by a singular development of the bone, which forms a socket for the roots of the immense canine teeth. The hair is of a greenish brown color, caused by alternate layers of yellow and black present in each hair. On the temples it is directed upwards, so as to meet in a point on the crown of the head. The brilliancy of the colors is connected with the skin, and disappears when the animal dies or is sick. The Mandril frequents forests filled with brushwood, whence it sallies forth to plunder the nearest villages. Its bulk is great in QUADRUMANA 37 proportion to its height and strength, and its ferocity great, so that it is a terror to the natives. Cuvier says he has seen it expire from the violence of its fury. Sc?nnopithecus, (Gr. cretuv6g, Semnos, to be reverenced ; nlOyxog, pithccos, Ape.) This genus includes animals resembling, in many points, the Gibbons. As in the latter, their extremities are of great length as compared with the size of the body, which in its form is long and slender. But they differ from the Gibbons in having the j hinder extremities longer than the front ones, which is the reverse of what occurs in the Gibbons. They are distinguished by hav ing a very long, slender and muscular tail, terminated by a close tuft of long hairs. The color of the adult animal is intensely black, except the breast, the abdomen, and the root of the tail, which are gray. The black hairs on the top of the head are tipped with gray, and as age advances, the latter color is extended to the upper parts of the body. The hair is long, soft, and silky. The eye-brows consist of long stiff hairs, pointing forward. The stomach is three fold, one of the divisions being puckered into a number of distinct sacs ; and its teeth resemble, in some degree, those of a ruminating animal. It evinces less restless ness, petulance and curiosity, but has more of real intelligence than the common monkeys. The animals of this genus are found in Cochin China, the East Indies and the neighboring islands. S. Maurus. (Gr. [taijQog, mauros, a fool ?) The BUDENG. This species abounds in the extensive forests of Java, and forms its dwelling on trees. Troops of more than fifty individ uals are found together. When approached, they scream loudly, and by their movements branches of decaying trees are often thrown down upon the spectators. The natives chase them on ' account of their fur ; attended by their chiefs, attacking them with stones and cudgels, and often destroying them in great num bers. The furs of these animals are used both by the natives and Europeans, in preparing riding equipages and military ornaments. S. Entellus. (Lat. the proper name of a Roman athlete.) THE ENTELLUS, OR COCHIN CHINA MONKEY. The HOONUMAN of the Hindoos. This species is one of the most common in Hindoostan and the Indian Archipelago, and in India is the object of a blind adora tion. According to the popular superstition, he who puts to death an Entellus Monkey, will surely die within the year. Its form is slight, the limbs long and slender, the length of the body 3S QUADIIUMANA. from the muzzle to the tail is, in the full grown animal, four and a half feet, and the tail is even longer than the body. When young, they seem gentle and free from malice : but their charac ters do not improve by age. This animal is very active in the capture of serpents, stealing upon the poisonous reptile when asleep, and grinding down the reptile's head until the poisonous fangs are destroyed. QUESTIONS ON THE QUADRUMANA. What is the second order of animals? What three families does this order include ? Give the derivation of the order and the families. Where is their location or habitat? Why was the name Quadrumana given to these animals ? Have they any weapons for defence ? With what are they endowed ? For what does their peculiar structure adapt them ? Of what benefit is their muscular strength ? What is said of their leaping powers ? What of the Barbary apes ? Where are these found ? Are any other of the Qua clrumana found in Europe? How does the hand of the most perfect Quadrumana compare with man's? What is said of the thumb? Of the lingers and of the palm? What of the teeth and the hair? What is their principal food? What change occurs from domestication? Spell and define the following words, giving examples of each as you proceed: Carnivorous, flesh-eating; (Lat. caro, flesh, and voro, to devour.) Xruyivorous, eating fruits, seeds or corn ; (Lat. fruges, corn.) Omnivorous, eating grain, or feeding on seeds ; (Lat. granuin, grain.) Herbivorous, eat ing herbs, feeding on vegetables ; (Lat. hcrba, herb.) Insectivorous, eating insects ; Lat. insccta, insect, and voro, to devour.) Apivorous, bee eating ; (Lat. apis, a bee.) Apiary, a place where bees are kept. Piscivorous, fish eating, living on fish ; (Lat. piscis, a fish. } Reptilivorous, eating snakes, toads, and other reptiles ; (Lat. reptilis, from repo, to creep.) Omnivorous, eating everything, devouring all kinds of food; (Lat. oinnis, all.) To what regions are quadrumanous animals peculiar? In what respects are they useful? What divisions do the SIMIADAE include? How are these divisions readily distinguished from one another? What is said of the monkeys of this family? Which is the genus first named, and from what is the name derived? Where is it found, and what is said of its resem blance to man ? Describe its appearance, habits, &c. Why is it difficult to obtain it alive ? Have attempts been made to import these animals, and with what success? What is said of Tommy? Describe him particularly. What is the difference between a biped and a quadruped ? Ans. One is two- footed, (Lat. bis, two, pes, afoot;) the other four-footed, (Lat. quatuor, four, pe.s, foot.) What between a bimanous and a quadrumanous animal? From what language is the Orang-Outang derived ? From what are the generic and specific names derived ? Where is it found ? What is said of it ? Where docs it live? For what kind of a residence is it fitted by its long arms and hooked hands? What does it construct among the branches of trees? Does it often leave them, and for what? How many species are found in Borneo? Which is the largest and most powerful? What is it justly mimed? Is the Orang of Sumatra of the same species? What is said of their size, and what account do persons give who have seen them in their native woods? Why do the Borneans dread them? What is the generic term for the long armed ape, or Gibbon? From what derived? What QTJADRUMANA. 39 does this name import ? Give the derivation of syndactulus. Why was it given to this species ? Where does it live and in what country is it found : Describe its habits, size, gait, food, sounds, &c. For what is it most cele brated ? What is said of the silvery or agile Gibbon, H. What is the most striking peculiarity of BABOONS ? What do they resem ble ? Where are they found ? On what do they live ? From what is the name derived ? What is said of their colors ? How are they distinguished from the apes? Describe the Variegated Baboon, or Mandril. Give the derivation of the generic and specific terms. What is said of its size, color, habitat, &c. How do the natives regard it ? From what is Semno- pithecus derived ? In what respect does this genus resemble the Gibbons ? How do they differ from the Gibbons ? By what are they distinguished ? What is said of their hair, eye-brows, stomach, disposition, intelligence, &c. ? What is said of the Budeng ? What of the Cochin China monkey ? SECTION VI. AMERICAN MONKEYS. These are a very numerous division found in South America, and arranged into two leading groups, viz. : the SAPAJOUS and SAGOINS; the former having muscular, grasping tails; the latter feeble ones, unfit for grasping. They are sometimes called the four-fingered monkeys, as the thumb is reduced to a mere rudi ment, and in some species is entirely wanting. They are with out cheek-pouches and callosities. I. SAPAJOUS. These may be regarded as representing the GUENONS, (Cerco- pithecus, Gr. kerkos, a tail,) of the Eastern Continent. The whole of them are very active, climb well, and are well formed for living and moving among the trees. The fore-hands show a less per fect organization than is seen in the monkeys of the Eastern Continent. The palms of both extremities are endowed with exquisite sensibility. These monkeys are of small size and play ful disposition. Gathered in herds, they lead a merry life, feed ing mostly on insects and fruits. The facial angle is about 60o. Among them we include the HOWLERS, (Mycetes.) as has been done by other naturalists. The Howlers differ, however, from the other Sapajous in some respects, particularly in having a facial angle of but 30o, but agree with them in having prehen sile tails. Of the numerous species of these and other South American monkeys, we can notice only the most interesting and prominent. Mycetes, (Gr. ^uxijrr/g, mukdtes, a Howler.) These are the largest monkeys of America, and remarkable for the development of the vocal organs. The bone at the root of 40 QtJADRUMANA. the tongue, (thehyoid bone,) is, in these animals, very large, swell ing into a capacious drum which communicates with the larynx, and gives a tremendous power and volume to the voice. They howl in concert, especially at the rising and setting of the sun ; but the night is often made dismal with their frightful yells. One monkey begins the cry, and is immediately followed by the oth ers ; and their distressing, unearthly sounds have been heard at two miles distance. The canine teeth are, according to Swain- son, six times as large as the incisors or cutting teeth. The part of the prehensile tail with which these animals lay hold of the branch of a tree, is naked below, and of course has a higher sen sibility of touch. Their size is rather larger than that of the fox. In their dispositions they are ferocious and intractable ; in habits social, and most of them have a thick beard. Their deep sono rous yells are supposed to be a call to their mates ; in other words, a hideous love-song. M. ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear.) The URSINE HOWLER, or ARGUATO. This animal is, exclusive of the tail, nearly three feet long. The hair is of a golden color, and the thick beard is of a deeper color than the rest. Humboldt counted above forty of these ani mals in a single tree, and says, "their eye, voice, and gait denote melancholy." They feed upon fruit and the leaves of plants, and in traveling follow an old monkey as their file leader. This Howler has a membranous sack in the throat, connected with the wind-pipe and capable of being inflated, giving the power to utter terrific sounds. Ateles, (Gr. azeL/?, ateles, imperfect.) This and the preceding genus are " ORDINARY SAPAJOUS ; " (the term Sapajous also including the genus Cebus, or the SAJOUS.) This genus includes what are called the SPIDER MONKEYS, so called from their long slender tails, and sprawling movements, which give them a spider4ike appearance. It is termed ateles, or imperfect, because in most of the species the thumbs on the fore-arms are rudimental, or else entirely wanting; (they are, however, found on the hinder extremities, and large and opposa- ble to the fingers.) They have four molar teeth more than man, making the number of teeth thirty-six, and are distinguished for their round heads and thick or corpulent bodies. The eyes are far apart; the nostrils open laterally, (or sidewise:) the hair is generally long, coarse, and of a glossy appearance. Trees are their home ; on the ground they drag themselves along with their fore-arms, using them as crutches, and resting upon their half closed fists. Sometimes they crouch along on their hind legs. QUADRUMANA. 41 Troops of them are found together, and they are said to " exer cise a perfect tyranny over* all the other arboreal mammals in their neighborhood." Though living chiefly upon leaves and fruit, they also hunt after insects and the eggs and young of birds, and are even said to fish for crabs with their long tails. They are uncommonly intelligent, easily domesticated, and evince a strong attachment for those who treat them kindly ; and they have less of curiosity, mischief, and violent passion than the common monkeys. They use their prehensile tails as a fifth hand, even t crossing streams by mounting to the topmost branches of some over-hanging tree, and forming themselves into a long chain. The last monkey keeps a good hold on the tree, while the living chain swings to and fro, until by the impetus thus gained, the foremost can reach a branch upon the opposite side, when the rear animal lets go his hold, and the whole are rapidly drawn up. The Indians esteem their flesh as an article of food, and it is said to be "white, juicy, and agreeable." It is related that the Spider Monkey, when shot, fastens its tail so closely to the b-ranches that it remains suspended even after death. Among the most noted species are A. Paniscus, (fJaviaxo^, Paniscos, dim. of flav. Pan, a little Pan.) This is the QUATA, or as the French write it, the COAITA, found in large companies in Guiana and Brazil. A. Behebub. The MARIMONDA. The monkeys of this, like those of the preceding species, unite in large companies and form the most grotesque groups. All their attitudes evince the extreme of sloth. They will bend their long arms over their backs, and remain motionless in this position for hours together, under the heat of a tropical sun. CEBIDAE. (From Cebus, Gr. XTJ^OS, Kebos, monkey. The SAGOU, or SAJOU.) The animals of this genus are grouped among the SAPAJOUS, but denominated more distinctively the SAJOTJS. They are also called CAPUCHIN MONKEYS, from the hood-like formation of the hair of the head. C. Appella. The WEEPEB. Why this very common species received so dolorous a name is not apparent, as in confinement it is "good tempered, playful f and hardy." It has a rather rich fur of a color inclining to olive, with a golden tinge on the lighter parts, and is distin guished by its yellow, flesh-colored face. 4'2 QUADRUMANA. C. albifrons. (Lat. atbus, white,, and frons, forehead.) The OUAVAPAVI, or WHITE-FACED CAPUCHIN. This animal has a grayish blue face, except the pure white orbits and forehead. The color of the body is grayish olive. Troops of these monkeys are found in the forests of Oronoco, The Indians often keep them as playthings, and derive from them much entertainment. Humboldt saw a domesticated one that caught a pig every morning, and rode him about the whole day, while he was feeding in the savanna. Another, in the house of a missionary, bestrode a cat which had been brought up with it, and patiently submitted to its rider. C.fatuellus. (Lat., the same as Faunus, or Pan, a Roman divin ity.) The Sagou Cornu, or HORNED MONKEY. This species takes its name from the bushes of hair which ele vate themselves on the base of the forehead, producing a resem blance to horns. The color in some of these animals is a deep brown, or purplish black ; in others, reddish brown. It is a na tive of French Guiana. II. SAGOINS. These include several groups, which, though differing from each other in some particulars, agree in having tails that are feeble andnot prehensile, but which they use for protecting them selves against the cold, of which they are very sensible. They are light and graceful in their movements ; of a lively, timid, and irritable disposition. Their food consists of fruit, birds' eggs, and insects. Of the genera belonging to this division we name the CalHthrix sciureus. (Gr. xa^o,, kalos, beautiful, 0§l£, thrix, hair.) Sciureus, the specific term, is from the Gr. axto^eoj, (skiureus,) squirrel-like. This is the SAIMIRI of BufFon, otherwise called the SQUIRREL MONKEY, and is a very beautiful little animal not quite a foot long, and with a tail three or four inches longer than the body. It is native to Brazil and Guiana. The head is rounded in form'; the muzzle is short and dark colored ; the ears very large, and it has a large bushy tail. Around the eyes are two circles of flesh. The general color is olive gray ; but the fore-arms and legs are of a fine orange red. Its cry is a hissing sort of whistle repeated three or four times, and expressive of impatience or anger. The tail, though not properly prehensile, it sometimes winds around objects as a sort of feeler or support, so that this animal may be regarded as a link between this division and the Ordinary SAPAJOUS. QUADRUMANA. 43 The SAKIS, (Or those SAKIS which have long bushy tails, and hence have been denominated Fox TAILED MONKEYS ; the term Sold, in its more general application, denoting any American Monkey which has not a prehensile tail.) Pithecia. These are the largest of the SAGOINS. Of this genus, which has a facial angle of 60o, the most remarkable is the Pithecia lugens, (Gr. rtiOyxcla, pithekeia, ape-like ; lugens, , Lat. mourning,) — the WIDOW MONKEY, so named from the con trast of black and white displayed in its natural dress. The general color is black, but the face and hands are white. The Creoles of South America say, " it wears the veil, kerchief and gloves of widowhood," according to the custom in South America. Pithecia cheirofaotes. (Gr. x8t9, cheir, hand ; nonjg^potes, drinker.) THE HAND-DRINKER, so named because with its hands it con veys water to its mouth, from a vessel or running stream. This animal is the Capuchin of the Oronoko. It is distinguished by two distinct bushy tufts formed by the parting of the hair above the large, sunken eyes, and by its long crisped black beard. The fur is of a reddish chestnut color. It lives in pairs only, and is very shy. But a more interesting species of these animals is the lacchus vulgaris, (Gr. "/«xjog, lakchos, Bacchus.) The MARMOSET, OUISTITIS, or STRIATED MONKEY. This small species has a body about eight inches long, and a tail eleven or twelve inches. Upon its head are two tufts of white standing hair ; the facial angle is 50o ; the fur very soft. Some are black with yellow feet ; others brown, striped with yellow, hence called striated. When re moved from its native region to a colder climate, the Marmoset nestles itself among the materials of its bed, out of which it sel dom emerges. It is very fond of insects : in captivity it will eat scores of the largest cockroaches, with many smaller ones, (re jecting the wing-cases and legs,) three or four times a day. Its chief and favorite food in the wild state, is the banana, though in that state it is almost omnivorous. /. argentatus, (Latin, silvered.) This is the least and most beautiful of the SAGOINS, having silvery colored hair, which pleasantly contrasts with a tail of deep brown, inclining to black ness. In general habits, it is like the preceding. What are the two leading groups of the numerous monkeys found in South America ? What is a marked distinction of the SAPAJOUS ? What 44 QUADRUMANA. of the SAGOINS? Why are they sometimes called four -fingered monkeys? What monkeys of the Eastern continent do the SAPAJOUS represent ? What is said of their habits, manner of climbing, living, &c. ? What is said of their fore hands ? What of the palms of both extremities ? What sort of a life arc they said to lead ? In what respect do the Howlers differ from the SAPAJOUS ? In what particulars do they agree with them ? Which are the largest American Monkeys ? For what are they remarkable ? Describe their howling, size, disposition, &c. ? What is said of the URSINE HOWLER, or ARGUATO? How many did Humboldt count in a single tree? From what is Atclcs the generic term for spider monkey derived, and what does it mean ? Why are they called Spider Monkeys ? For what are they dis tinguished? How do they move on the ground? Where and upon what do they live ? How do they use theip tails ? How cross streams ? What is said of their flesh ? What is said of the Marimonda (Ateles Belzebub ?} What is said of the SAJOUS, or CAPUCHIN MONKEYS? To what genus do they belong ? With what are they grouped ? What is said of the Weeper? What of the White-faced Capuchin ? What does Humboldt relate of this monkey ? From what does the horned monkey derive its name ? Where is it found ? What do the SAGOINS include, and in what do they all agree ? For what do they use their tails ? What is said of their movements, food, &c. ? What is said of the Squirrel Monkey, and from what is the term derived ? What does the term SAKI generally denote ? Which of them are called Fox-Tailed Monkeys? Which genus of SAGOINS is the largest? Of this genus Pithecia which is the most remarkable ? What do the Cre oles of S. A. say of it ? How is the Hand-Drinker distinguished ? Why is it so named? Where found? What is said of the Marmoset, Ouistitis or Striated Monkey ? What is said of its food in its wild state ? What in captivity ? Among what class of animals on the chart would you look for cockroaches ? Which is the least and most beautiful of the SAGOINS ? SECTION VII, LEMURIDJE, (Lat. Lcmures, ghosts.) The Lemurs were so named by Linnaeus, on account of their nocturnal habits and noiseless movements. The larger part of this family are natives of Madagascar ; but some inhabit the African continent, and a few of them the East Indies. They resemble the monkeys in having opposable thumbs on both pairs of extremities ; those of the hinder limbs are large, and much expanded at the tips ; the nails are flat, except those of the first finger of each hinder limb, which are long, raised and pointed. They do not show either the mischievousness and petulance, or the sprightliness and curiosity of the monkey tribe. From them they also differ in size and form, and in respect to their teeth. The chief difference among the Lemurs themselves relates to color ; the habits, manner and general figure being the same in all. The muzzle is very pointed, the tail very long ; the fur woolly and soft. They are generally not larger than a fox, and some are smaller. The Lemurs of Madagascar and two or tbree adjacent islands appear to take the place of the Monkeys, none of QUADRUMANA. 45 which are found in those islands. Their habits, in a state of na ture, have not been much observed. When in captivity, they are quite tame, and good natured ; fond of attention, and leap about with surprising agility. They are evidently nocturnal. When undisturbed, they spend the greatest part of the day in sleep. If alone, they roll themselves up in the form of a ball, and wind their long tails in a very curious manner about their bodies, seemingly for the purpose of keeping themselves warm, for they are naturally quite sensitive to cold, and delight in bask ing in the rays of the sun, or in keeping themselves as close as possible to the fire. At twilight they show more alertness, springing from perch to perch, and uttering a peculiar grunt of pleasure and satisfaction. At this time, they seem most desirous of food, which in confine ment is usually bread and fruits. They are naturally climbing animals and exceedingly active, twisting their tails about objects, but not using it as a fifth hand. They endure changes of air and climate better than the Mon keys ; but "dust and wet not only annoy them, but produce dis ease and death." It is said that "one of their favorite situations is the edge of the fender, on which they will rest, spreading out their hands before the fire, half closing their eyes, and luxuria ting in the genial glow." The noise which the Lemur makes when alarmed, or suddenly startled, is a singular "braying, or roar of interrupted hoarse sounds, ending with abruptness." Their native food is not cer tainly known, but it is believed to be fruits and eggs, birds and insects. When in captivity, they refuse cooked meat. They live together in troops, clinging to the branches of trees, or when, confined, to the bars of their cages, like the sloth, which in many respects they resemble. The eyes are full and of hazel color ; in confinement, blindness is a common occurrence. The whole are sometimes called MADAGASCAR CATS. Cuvier arranges the Lemurs into five groups, viz. I. The Makis, or Macacos, the TRUE LEMURS. II. The Indris, Lichanotus, (Gr. lichanos, index-finger ; ous, an ear.) III. The Lori group, Slow Lemurs, Stenops, (Gr. Stenos, nar row ; dps, face or muzzle.) IV. The Galagos, Otilicnus, (Gr. ous, an ear ; liknon, a fan.) V. The Tarsiers, Tarsius. Among the most beautiful species of the first group, is the RED LEMUR, L. ruber, (Lat. red.) This is also one of the largest, and apparently suffers less than others by a removal from its native 46 QUADRUMANA. abode. Its fur is of a deep rich chestnut ; but the face and fore hands, as also the under parts and tail, are black. It is easily tamed, and very gentle. A still more beautiful species is the L. Macaco. The RUFFLED LEMUR, the largest of the family. Its fur is varied with pure white and black, in nearly equal proportions ; the hands, how ever, are black, and a white ruff surrounds the face. In habits and disposition, it is like the rest. All the species of the Lemurs are handsome, and worthy of attention ; but it is sufficient for our purpose to name the above. The Indris, (Lichanotus, Illiger.) These are found in Mada gascar, and present two species, the long and the short tailed. The BLACK OR TAILLESS INDRI, I. brevicaudatus, (Lat. with short or rudimentary tail,) is described as "a large animal three and a half feet high, entirely black except on the face and abdo men, which are of a grayish cast, and the rump which is white." The face is dog-like; the ears are short and much tufted; the hair is silky and thick, but in some places, curly ; the nails are flat, but pointed. When young it is trained to the chase like a dog. Its note is spoken of as like a young child's crying; hence it probably derived its name INDRI, man of the wood. The FLOCKY INDRI, L lanigcr, (Lat. wool-bearing,) has a black face, and large and greenish gray eyes; five-fingered feet with long claws, except the thumbs which have rounded nails. It is said to be one foot nine inches long from the nose to the end of the tail, the tail being nine inches. The color above is a pale yellow ferruginous, or iron color, and white beneath. The fur is very soft and curly. The LORIS. Stenops, (Illiger.) The animals of this genus have narrow, pointed muzzles, and are without tails. Their eyes are close together, and they have a grasp that is quite tenacious. Their movements are sometimes very slow ; their habits noctur nal. "The base of the arteries of the limbs has the division into small branches which is found in the true Sloths." The number of their teeth is thirty-six. The thumbs are widely separated from the fingers on both extremities. Two species are found in India and Ceylon, viz. L.gracilis. (Lat. slender.) The SLENDER LORIS. This is a very small animal, being only eight inches in length. It has a long, doij-like visage, a thin and weak body, and long slender limbs. On each foot, the thumb is very distinct and separate from the toes. The color above is tawny; beneath whitish. According to Pennant, it is very active, and many of its actions are like those of an ape. QUADRUMANA. 47 L. tardigradus. (Lat. slow-paced.) The SLOW-PACED LEMUR is ';an animal of small size, scarcely equal to that of a cat." The. largest yet noticed is but sixteen inches long. The apparent clum siness of its form is much increased by the manner in which it usually contracts itself into a kind of ball. The large eyes have transverse pupils capable of being closed during the day, and very largely dilated at night. The hair is long, close and woolly, and of a deep ashy gray with a brownish tinge. A brown or chestnut band runs along the middle of the back. Under the true tongue is a second tongue, narrow and sharp pointed, which the animal projects in connection with the other when he drinks, and also when he eats, especially when eating flies, of which he is very fond ; but he is able to retain the second within his mouth at pleasure. One of this species was a pet of Sir William Jones, during l.n residence in India. Galago. The GALAGOS, found in Africa and India. These animals have round heads, short muzzles, and very large eyes and ears. The feet are five-fingered, with the exception of the first finger of the hind feet, which has a sharp awl-shaped claw. The tail is very long and hairy. Their large ears close when they sleep, but open upon their hearing any noise. They make their nests, squirrel-like, in the branches of trees, and cover it with a bed of leaves or grass for their young. Their food con sists of soft fruits and insects. They are found in great numbers among the gum-trees of the desert of Sahara, and are particularly fond of the gum yielded by these trees. Thence they are taken by the Moors, and carried to the coast for sale, where they are named "animals of the Gam.1' These animals are gentle and pretty, but small, the length of the body being only seven inches, and that of the tail, nine. Of the several species, the one most worthy of notice is the G. Moholi. The MOHOLI. This singular but beautiful animal, peculiar to Africa, has a long glossy tail, very long hinder legs, large, bare and spreading ears. The color of the tail is a medi um between a yellowish brown and cochineal red ; the fur is throughout of the same color; that of the other parts is a dark slate color, except at and near the surface ; the eyes are a deep topaz yellow. In its grimaces and active movements, it resem bles the monkey. It is rarely seen during the day, which it spends in the nest it forms in the forks of branches, or in the cavities of decayed trees. Its length from the nose to the tip of the tail is sixteen inches. The TARSIERS are found in the Molucca islands. These have tarsi, which are very long, and this gives to their hinder limbs a 3 43 QUADRUMANA. disproportionate extent. They have a rounded head, large eyes and a long tufted tail. The hands are small and delicate ; ex ternally covered with a soft down, but within they are naked. The nails of all the fingers of the hand as well as of the third and fourth finger of the feet are triangular in shape ; on the index and middle finger of the feet they resemble the thorns of a rose bush. The fur is woolly and soft, the general color brown, in clining to gray. Two species are known. Tarsius Bancanus. The BANCA TARSIER, and T.fuscomanus. (Lat. fuscus, dark or swarthy ; manus, hand.) These animals feed chiefly on lizards. Averse to light, they retire by day under the roots of trees. Dr. Horsefield obtained the BANCA TARSIER in Banca, near laboos, one of the mining districts, where, he says, it inhabits the exten sive forests in the vicinity. Cheiromys, (G. cheir, hand; mus, mouse.) The AYE-AYE. This quadruped, whose name signifies hand-mouse, resembles the ai, or sloth in its habits, but should not be confounded with that animal. Cuvier places it with the Rodent.ia, but it may properly be classed, as it has been by some naturalists, among the monkeys. Its specific name Madagascariensis, points it out as a native of Madagascar. It burrows under ground, and is slothful and noc turnal in its habits ; has large flat ears, like those of a bat, and a tail like a squirrel's; but its most distinguishing peculiarity is the middle finger of the fore foot, the last two joints of which are very long, slender and without hair. This peculiarity aids the animal in drawing worms out of the holes in the trees, and in holding on to branches. Its length is eighteen inches, exclusive of the tail, and its general color ferruginous (iron) brown, mixed with Galeopiihecus, (Gr. galeos, a weasel ; pithecos, an ape.) FLY ING LEMUR. This genus of animals is the connecting link between the Lemurs and the Bats. There are two species ; some enumer ate three. G. volans, the Flying Lemur, — is found in the most eastern islands of the Indian Archipelago. The chief peculiarity of this animal is the extension of its skin between the front and hind limbs, including also the tail, by which it receives a ( parachute-like support in the air, and is able to take long sweep ing leaps from tree to tree, somewhat like flying ; but it has not, like the bats, the power of continued flight. The general struc ture is like that of the Lemurs. During the day it sleeps sus pended on the branches, with the head downward. At night it goes forth in quest of its food, which in addition to insects, consists of fruits, eggs and birds. CARNIVORA. 49 By whom were the Lemurs so named, and why ? "Where are they found, and of what do they there take the place ? In what do they resemble Monkeys, and how differ from them ? In what do Lemurs chiefly diifer among themselves ? What is said of their size, and is much known of their habits in a wild state ? What are their habits in a state of captivity ? In what do they delight ? What food do they prefer, and what refuse ? How do changes of climate affect them ? What influences have wet and dust upon them ? What is to them a favorite position ? Do they live alone, or in troops ? What animal do they strongly resemble ? What general name is sometimes given them ? Name the groups into which Cuvier arranged them ? What is said of the Red Lemur ? Which of the Lemurs is the largest and most beautiful ? Give some account of the other groups, the Indris, the Slow Lemurs, the Galagos, and the Tarsiers. Describe the Aye- Aye, and the Flying Lemurs. Why is the name Aye-Aye given to the Cheiromys? Ans. Because this name, as pronounced, is supposed to resem ble the cry of the animal. SECTION VIII. ORDER 3. CARNIVORA. (Lat. caro, flesh ; woro, to devour.) The two preceding orders, we have found specially character, ized by the number and properties of their hands. In the animals we are now about to consider, the hands are modified into feet. At the head of the four-footed animals are the Carnivora, or flesh eating anim ils, which have the strongest thirst for blood, and with it the power and instruments for its gratification. These, in the structure of their teeth, their digestive organs, and general con formation, are adapted for preying upon other animals. In com mon with the first two orders, they have three kinds of teeth, and nails or claws on their feet; but unlike them, never have the front toe opposable to the other fingers. Their molar teeth, or grinders, are adapted for cutting and tearing rather than bruising or grinding. The greater or less development of the molar teeth as cutting or tearing instruments, indicates the kind of animal food suited for their support. Those Carnivora which have their molars, in whole or part, tuberculated, (covered with small knobs,) use vegetables, to a greater or less extent; those which have them serrated, or notched with points, live chiefly on insects. Other modifications of the molar teeth, fit them for crushing bones, or dividing flesh, as occasion may require. As a general rule, the jaws open and shut like a pair of shears, upwards and downwards, but do not admit of a side-wise movement. The Carnivora have no third lobe in the brain. The senses of sight, hearing and smell are exceedingly acute. Their feet are of a peculiarly soft structure, to enable them to steal silently upon their prey ; and their supply being uncertain, they can endure 50 CARN1VORA. long abstinence from food. The intestines of this order are suited to their flesh-eating habits, being shorter, and less voluminous than those of herbivorous animals. A kind providence has so arranged things that the larger and more formidable of the car- nivorous tribes are but thinly scattered and more or less remote from the abodes of civilization. The CARNIVORA may be divided into I. the CHEIROPTERA, Bats; II. the DIGITIGRADA, including the Cat, Dog and Weasel families ; III. the PLANTIGRADA, the Bear family or tribe ; IV. the AMPHIBIA, the PHOCIDJS, or Seal family; V. the TRUE IN- SECTIVORA, including Shrews, Moles, &c. By what were the first two orders characterized ? How are the hands modified or changed in the CARNIVORA, and other orders of MAMMALS? What order stands at the head of four footed animals ? What are their propensities, and have they the power to gratify them ? For what are their teeth and digestive organs adapted ? How many kinds of teeth have they ? Describe them, and spell their names. Ans. Incisors. The fore teeth with sharp cutting edges for cutting or separating the food. Canine teeth are on each side of the incisors. These are very long and prominent in the Carnivora. (See plate IV. fig. 3.) Those in the upper jaw are called eye teeth in the human family. Molars, or grinders arc of three kinds ; false molars are more or less pointed, and stand next the canine teeth ; next come the carnivorous teeth, especially adapted for dividing and lacerating muscle, and last the Tuberculated teeth, full of rounded knobs or pimples. Serrated teeth are notched with points like a saw, and show that the animal lives on insects. Trenchant teeth are very sharp and cutting. Granulated teeth are covered with small elevations, or grains. What have Carnivorous animals in common with the first two orders ? In what are they unlike them ? For what are their molar teeth adapted, and what is indicated by their varia tions ? How can you distinguish by the teeth what food an animal lives upon? How do carnivorous animals generally open and shut their jaws? Have their jaws any side-wise movement? How many lobes has the brain in animals of this order? What is said of their senses? For what are their feet peculiarly adapted ? Can they sustain long fasts ? Are the intes tines shorter in Carnivorous than in Herbivorous animals ? How are the wisdom and goodness of God shown in the distribution of carnivorous and blood-thirsty animals? How are the CARNIVORA divided? SECTION IX. I. DIVISION OF THE CARNIVORA. SUB-ORDER CHEIROPTERA, (Gr. xEl9, clieir, hand; TTTSQOV, pteron, wing.) These singular animals combine so much of the character of birds with that of quadrupeds, that it was long thought difficult to assign them a separate arrangement in the system of nature. It is now, however, settled that the structure of their bodies, their viviparous nature, their hair, etc., entitle them to a place among H..IV. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IY. DENTITION. 1. Skull of man, showing the omnivorous teeth of the order Bimana. 2. Tiger's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Cat family, (Felidae.) 3. Dog's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Dog family, (Canidae.) 4. Skull of a porcupine, showing the teeth of a gnawing animal, order Rodentia. 5. Horse's head, showing the vacancy for the bit between the front and back teeth, which space corresponds with the angle of the lips. 6. Hippopotamus' head, showing the canine teeth, (eye teeth,) developed into enormous tusks, with a chisel like edge. 7. Elephant's skull, showing the long, round, arched, pointed tusks or incisors projecting from the upper jaw. 8. A molar, grinding or back tooth of the elephant, of which there are never more than two on each side of the upper and lower jaws of the African elephant, and only one in a similar position in the Asiatic ele phant. 9. Mastodon's tooth, showing the conical points whence the animal derives its name. For the tusks of the mammoth, see the Chart. 10. Skull of a cow, showing the dentition of a cud chewing animal, order Ruminantia. 11. Porpoise skull, showing how the numerous teeth interlock with one another when the jaws are closed, 54 CARNIVORA. the quadrupeds. Some of them are fruit eaters ; but as a whole, we arrange them as Cuvier has done, with carnivorous animals. They are found both in the Eastern and Western Continents, and also in Australia. A climate tolerably temperate seems best, suited to these animals ; but they are largest in warm countries. Their most distinguishing character consists of a fold of the skin, which rising at the neck, extends over the lengthened limbs, as, the silk over the whalebone of a parasol or umbrella, and gives them a winged appearance. Those genera which have the bones of the hand so developed as to spread a sufficient extent of this membranous skin, have power to perform all the evolu- tions which are required for flight. The hand-wings present a much greater extent of surface than those of birds, and the strong muscles attached as in the birds, to the sternum or breast bone, assist them to fly with great rapidity, and turn with aston ishing swiftness. A lengthened bone proceeding from the heel, assists the tail in expanding that part of the membranous skin which is between the thighs, and where the tail is absent, per forms that office alone ; and thus gives the power of governing the direction of the flight, like the spread tail of a bird. By the extension of the upward curving of the tail and the hind feet, the interfemoral (between the thighs) part forms a hollow cradle into which the new born young is received. The thumb is free, short and armed with a strong hooked claw, by which they crawl along on the ground. The feeble hind feet have five toes, armed with sharp edged, curved and pointed claws, by which these animals suspend themselves, head downwards, in hollow trees, caves, or deserted buildings, where they are found during the day, going forth only at night. Their eyes are extremely small, but the ex ternal ears are often large, and with the wings, form an extensive surface endued with the most singular and exquisite sensibility, and enabling them, even when their eyes are sealed up, or removed, to pursue their rapid and wheeling flight, avoiding every obstacle, not even hitting threads stretched in various directions across their way, and passing through the narrowest passages without touching the sides. All are exquisitely susceptible of cold, and pass the winter in a state of lethargy, retiring to old ruins, cav erns, or hollow trees, where they continue suspended by their claws until the genial spring warms them into activity. They are most active in the calm evenings of summer. Some of them are supposed Lo be migratory in their habits. In the C/ieiroptera the teats are pectoral ; in all the rest of the Garni vora, they are ventral. They perform a very useful part in the economy of nature in the destruction of insects. CARNIVORA. 55 The CHEIROPTERA, or VESPERTILIONID^E, are divided into five sub-families, each including many genera, viz. 1. Phyllostoma- tina,. 2. Rhinolophina. 3. Vespertilionina. 4. Noctilionina. 5. Pteropina. They may also be arranged into 1st. the Frugiv- erous group, and 2d. the true or Insectivorous Bats. Omnivorous is, however, a term that more accurately describes the former group. Their teeth are, some of them, more trenchant than fruit eating habits would alone require. Cuvier says of these animals, "they know how to pursue birds and small quadrupeds," and it is quite probable they sometimes prey on the large insects found in the regions of their abode. Beside the variations in the teeth of the Fruit Eating or Omnivorous, and the Insectivorous Bats, there are other differences which relate to the stomach and intestines. The stomach of the former is very complicated, and the intestines very long, (in the Pteropus, seven times as long as the body,) whereas in the latter, the stomach is very simple, having but two divisions or portions, and the intestines are not more than twice the length of the body. Another difference respects the tail, which in the insectivorous bats is generally powerful ; in the fruit eaters wanting, rudimental or comparatively inefficient. From what is the name of the sub-order CHEIROPTERA derived ? What do these singular animals combine ? To what difficulty did this give rise ? Is it now a settled question ? What particularly entitles them to a place among quadrupeds ? Are any of them fruit-eaters ? How did Cuvier arrange them as a whole ? Where are they found, and what climate suits them best ? Where are the largest found ? What is their most distinguishing charac teristic ? How do their wings compare with those of birds ? How are the muscles attached? How is the cradle for the young formed? What is said of the thumb, and of what use is the hooked claw ? By what do they suspend themselves, in what position, and in what places ? What is said of their eyes, ears, wings, &c. ? What of their exquisite sensibility, and what docs it enable them to avoid ? Are they affected by cold, and how do they pass the winter ? At what season do they leave their retreats ? When are they most active ? Are any of them migratory ? In what do they differ from all other CARNIVORA? Are bats useful? In what way? Into how many sub-families are they divided? How may they also be arranged? What does Cuvier say of them? What is said of their teeth, intestines, &c. ? Name any further differences between the Insectivorous and Frugiv- erous Bats. Spell, give the derivations and examples of each of these five sub-families. 1. PHYLLOSTOMATINA, (Gr. Phidlon, a leaf, Stoma, a mouth,) named from the leaf-like crest upon the nose. The Vampire, (Vampirus Spectrum,} of South America, is one of this blood-sucking family, acquaintance with which would divest it of half its terrors. 2. RHINOLOPHINA, (Gr. Rhin, a nose, Lophos, a crest.) These are the Horse Shoe Bats, of Java, which derive their name from the shape of the leafy membrane upon the nose. The genus Nycteris, (Gr. Nucteris, a bat,) inflate their bodies, and appear like small balloons. 56 CARNIVORA. 3. YESPERTILIONINA, (Lat. Vespertilio, a bat.) These are found in all parts of the world, including Australia. The Flitter mouse of England, V. murinus, has the ears inclining backwards. The New York Bat, V. Novebo- racensis, the Little Brown Bat, V. mbulatus, (Lat. awl-shaped,) the Silver Haired Bat, V. noctivagans, (Lat. nox, night ; vagans, wandering,) the Car olina Bat, V. Carolinensis, are all found in the United States and Canadas. 4. NOCTILIONINA, (Lat. Noctilio, from nox, night, and eo, to go.) These South American bats have side pouches for receiving their young. 5. PTEROPINA, (Gr. Pteron, a wing; pous, a foot.) These are the Rous- SETTES of the French, and the fruit-eating bats of Java. The Kalong, or Fox Bat, Pteropus Javanicus, is the largest, measuring five feet in the spread of its wings. They are found in large companies, suspended from trees. SECTION X. THE CARNIVORA PROPER. The CARNIVORA proper are sometimes arranged into three di visions — the DIGITIGRADA, the PLANTIGRADA, and the PHOCIDAE or AMPHIBIA. II. DIVISION OF THE CARNIVORA. I. DIGITIGRADA, (Lat. digitus, a finger or toe ; gradior, I walk ;) walking on the toes. This division of the CARNIVORA derive their name from their ap plication of the toes to the ground in walking. It includes the Cat, Dog, and Weasel families. They are distinguished by their free, light and active step, their elasticity of motion, beauty of fur, and elegance of form. Many of them are nocturnal, slum- bering by day in some dark den or deep recess, but prowling steal thily and noiselessly about during the night. Having satisfied their blood-thirsty dispositions and voracious appetites, when " the sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens." Some animals of this division, as the wolf, are, however, more open in their movements, and in bands hunt their prey during the day. 1. FELIDAE, (Lat./eZ/s, a cat.) The Cat family. These include Cats, Lions, Tigers, Leopards, and Lynxes. Among them are the most eminently carnivorous and formidable of the mammalia, and they include a large number of animals that closely resemble each other in structure and appearance. They are among quadrupeds what birds of prey are among the feathered tribes. The size and strength of the Lion, Tiger and Leopard, combined with their thirst for blood, render them most fearfully dangerous. The jaws and teeth of the FELIDAE are quite different from CARNIVORA. 57 those of the preceding orders; the jaws are much more powerful, the teeth longer and sharper. On their fore feet are five toes, and on the hind ones four, all armed with strong hooked and sharp claws. To prevent the claws from injury by coming in contact with the ground, they are, when not in use, drawn back. They are also elevated above the ground by the so ft pad underneath, into sheathes, so that the point only just peeps out beneath the fur, and thus are not liable to be worn or blunted. (See Plate VI, fig. 7.) The tongue is very rough, as may be known by feeling that of the domestic cat. This roughness is occasioned by the innumerable papillcB which are turned backwards, and are like so many little hooks to assist the animal in tearing off any remnants of flesh that may adhere to the bones of their prey. Their sight is acute, and suited for vision both by night and by day. The expansive power of the pupil of the eye is so great that it takes in every ray of light. In the larger cats the pupil is circular ; in those that roam at night and also see well by day, as our domestic cat, it is oval. Their long whiskers are delicate organs for the sense of smelling. These whiskers are each connected with a large nerve, and they are useful in indicating objects when the animal is prowling at night. Felis Leo, the LION. This is the strongest and most coura geous of the feline tribes, called the " King of Beasts," and " Mon arch of the forest." He is regarded as the emblem of majesty and strength combined with generosity. His form supports the royal arms of England, and surmounts them as a crest. Many allusions are made in the Sacred Scriptures to his energy, power and majesty, (Rev. v., 5,) and his ferocious and sanguinary disposition. There are two kinds of Lions, Leo Africus and L. Asiaticus. The brown Lions of the Cape of Good Hope are more ferocious than the yellow variety found in that vicinity, and will carry off a heifer as easily as a cat would a rat. The Lion of Senegal has a thinner mane, and is of a deeper yellow than the Lion of Barbary. The Bengal Lion, the Persian Lion, and the Maneless Lion, are only varieties of the Asiatic Lion, Leo Asiaticus. The Lioness is smaller than her mate, has two and sometimes three blind whelps at a litter, which she guards with great care. They are easily tamed when young, and live from twenty-five to thirty years, sometimes much longer. The great lion Pompey, which was in the Tower of London in 1760, had been there seventy years. One from the river Gambia died in the Tower at the age of sixty-three. Anderson, the African traveler, does not represent lions as so ferocious and formidable as we have 58 CARNIVORA. been accustomed to consider them. They have a small horny prickle, or hook, fastened to the skin and concealed in the tassel at the end of the tail. It is easily detached, and its use is still unknown. Lions belong exclusively to the Eastern Conti nent, but the Puma is sometimes called the American Lion, and as it is the largest of the Cat family on the Western Continent, we shall give it a more particular notice. Felis Concolor. The PUMA, COUGAR, PANTHER, PAINTER, CATA MOUNT. This formidable animal is known under all these names in North and South America. Washington Irving, (see his "Astoria,") men tions it as seen at the mouth of the Columbia river. Dr. Good- man gives an account of a sportsman killed by one of these ani mals in the Catskill mountains. One of them, within the recol lection of Dr. Dekay, was even seen a few miles from the city of New York. This animal was, no doubt, formerly found in all the Northern and Eastern States, west of the Rocky Mountains, and along the borders of the Pacific. A few yet remain in the less cultivated portions of the Atlantic States. In Florida and Texas it is quite abundant. It is also found within the tropics in Mexico and Yucatan, and has made its way through Panama into Guiana and South America, where it is called the Puma, and reaches its greatest size. From its likeness in other respects, to the b'on of the old world, it is, though maneless, sometimes named the American lion. The courage of the Cougar is, bow- ever, not great, and unless very hungry or wounded and at bay, he seldom attacks man. The body is long and slender, (five feet in length and including the tail, eight ;) the legs are short and stout. The general color of the Puma, when the animal is mature, is silvery grey, and hence it is sometimes called the sil very lion. In the United States the general color is tawny or fulvous ; the under part is reddish white. The name " concolor" it obtains from its uniformity of color. The tail of the male is longer than that of the female, and without a tuft. The Puma lives much on trees, which it climbs with great ease ; and its uniform dusky fur makes it so like the bark that it is not readily distinguished from the branches on which it rests. From trees, it falls suddenly upon monkeys, deer, and cattle as they pass by ; or it lurks among reeds and thickets by the side of rivers and marshes, where it seizes the alligator as he raises his head above water, or crawls out upon the bank. In Florida, the animal in habits the miry swamps and the watery everglades ; in Texas CARNIVORA. 59 he is sometimes seen in the open prairies, and his tracks are found in every crossing place of creeks and bayous where perhaps he may find some calf, cow or bullock that has been sunk and suf focated in the mire. The Cougar sometimes attacks young cat tle, but is generally compelled to subsist on small animals, such as young deer, skunks, racoons, &c., or birds, and even will eat carrion when hard pressed by hunger. (Audubon.) The Panther is nocturnal in its habits ; not, however, from ne cessity, as it can see well in day light. It makes its way through tangled forests in searching for prey at night — perhaps arousing and affrighting some benighted traveler or wearied hunter, who has bivouacked at the foot of a large tree ; and fortunate indeed is he if his rifle fail him not, or if by a burning fire-brand he can frighten away the hungry animal. At the sight of a Pan ther, horses are thrown into such fright that they " break all fast enings and fly in every direction." Audubon says, " a respecta ble gentleman of the state of Mississippi gave us the following account. A friend of his, a cotton planter, one evening while at tea, was startled by a tremendous out-cry among his dogs, and ran out to quiet them, thinking some person, perhaps a neighbor had called to see him. The dogs could not be driven back, but rushed into the house. He seized his horsewhip which hung in side the hall door, and whipped them all out, as he thought, ex cept one, which ran under the table. He then took a candle, and looking down, to his surprise and alarm, discovered the sup posed refractory dog to be a Cougar. He retreated instanter ; the females and children of the family fled, frightened half out of their senses. The Cougar sprang at him — he parried the blow with the candle-stick, but the animal flew at him again, leaping forward perpendicularly, striking at his face with the fore feet, and at his body with the hind feet. These attacks he repelled by dealing the Cougar straight-forward blows on its belly with his fists, lightly turning aside and evading its claws as best he could. The Cougar had nearly over-powered him, when luckily, he backed towards the fire-place, and as the ani mal sprang again at him, dodged him, and the panther almost fell into the fire, at which he was so terrified that he endeavored to escape, and darting out of the door, was immediately attacked again by the dogs, and with their help and a club, was killed." The female has three, four, and even five at a litter, but the usual number is two. She shows great affection for her young, never leaving them except to obtain food to support her strength. Felis Tigris, (regatis.) The ROYAL TIGER. (PI. IV. fig. 2.) This animal infests Hindostan, and the parts of Asia between 63 CARNIVORA. Bengal and China. It is nearly equal to the lion in size, and though inferior to him in strength, surpasses him in activity and rapidity. Whole villages are sometimes depopulated by this most dangerous animal. The tigress has five cubs at a time, which are easily tamed but not to be trusted. Among American Tiger Cats may be enumerated the Ocelot, F. pardalis, of Tropical America; theChati, F. mitis, (mild,) of South America, about one third larger than a cat, and the Pampas, or Jungle Cat, F. Pajeros, which lives on Guinea pigs. The Nepaul Tiger Cat, F. nepa- lensis, is two and a half feet long, including the tail. The Ser- val, F. Serval, an African Tiger Cat, plays like a kitten, and looks very cat-like. The LEOPARDS, or SPOTTED Cats, are numerous, and found on both continents. They are distinguished for beauty and ele gance. Their color, in the East, is a pale yellow, covered with rosettes of black, which contract into spots about the head, neck and limbs. The general length is about four feet and the height about two. The Leopard preys upon antelopes, deer and mon keys. So great is the flexibility of its body that it can make surprising leaps, swim, climb trees or crawl like a snake, with nearly equal facility. These animals are fierce and rapacious, and it is remarked that "though they are ever devouring, they always appear lean and emaciated." The JAGUAR, F. onca, is the Leopard of this Continent. This formidable animal inhabits Mexico, and is met with in almost every part of Central America. In common with many of this family, he is often called the Panther. The Cheetah, .F. jubala, is the Hunting Leopard of the Cape of Good Hope, and combines in some degree, the habits of both the cat and the dog. Its spe cific name jubata, (Lat. crested,) is derived from the thin mane running down the neck. The LYNXES are distinguished by their tufted ortasseled ears, and shorter bodies and tails. Eight species are described. The Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx, Lynx rufus, looks most ferocious, but flies from its pursuers, moving by bounds or leaps, and raising all the feet at the same time from the ground. The Canada Lynx, (L, Canadensis ) is more retired in its habits, and its fur furnishes the most beautiful materials for mufFs, collars, &c. The Caracal, F. Caracal, takes its specific name from the black tips of its ears, the word in Turkish meaning black. Its body is longer and more slender than in the true LYNXES. It is called the "Lion's provider." The domestic and the wild cat are supposed by many to be of distinct species. A ma.rked dif. ference is shown in the tails of the two ; that of the wild cat is CARNIVORA. 61 bushy and short, while that of our tame cats .is long and slender. The varieties are numerous ; among the most noted are the Tabby, or Brindled ; the Maltese, of a bluish hue ; the Tortoise, shelled or spotted ; the Angora ; the Egyptian ; and the Manx Cats, of the Chartreuse, a species that have no tails. Another variety are said to have the fore paws divided into two parts. The cat is more attached to places than persons ; is sly and sus picious ; loves her ease and seeks the softest places for her bed ; is fond of catnip and valerian ; and is a great favorite, particu larly with children. She is fond of rats, mice, squirrels and birds, and notorious for thievish propensities ; dislikes cold wa ter and bad smells. Her hair is. electric, and always dry and glossy ; average age, 14 years. "What three divisions compose the CARMVORA PROPER ? From what is dig- itigrada derived ? What does it include ? By what are they distinguished ? What are their usual habits? At what time do they seek their prey? Which hunt in bands ? At Avhat time ? FELID^E. What does felis signify ? What does this family include ? What is their character, and how do they resemble each other ? To what are they com pared ? What renders them particularly dangerous ? In what way do the teeth and jaws of the FELIDAE diifer from those of the preceding orders ? What is said of their feet and claws ? How are the claws protected ? By what are they elevated above the ground ? What is said of the tongue ? What causes the roughness? What do these hooks assist them to do? What is said of their sight and of the shape of their eyes ? Of what use are their whiskers, and with what is each connected ? Which is the strongest and most courageous of the feline tribe ? What is he called ? How regarded ? Where referred to ? What species are here mentioned? What is said of the lioness and her young? Are they long lived? How does Anderson, the African traveler who was recently trod den to death in that country by elephants, speak of them ? What is con cealed in the tuft of hair at the end of the tail ? Where do lions belong ? Which is the largest of the American Cats ? Under what names are they known? Where have they been found? Where is it still found ? Why is it called the American Lion ? Why the Silvery ? What is said of its courage ? What of its general color in the United States ? How do the male and female differ ? On what does the Purna live ? What is said of the appearance of its fur ? Of what advan tage is this ? How does it secure its prey ? Where are its haunts in Florida? Where in Texas? What does the Cougar attack? On what does it usually subsist ? What are the habits of the Panther ? Define and spell, Noc-tur-nal, (Lat. nocturnhs, by night, from nox, night.) Di-ur-nal, (Lat. diurnus, by day, from dies, day.) Crepuscular, (Lat. crepusculum, twi light.) Are Panthers attached to their young, and what is their usual number ? 62 CARNIVORA. How does the Royal Tiger compare with the Lion ? What countries does he infest? What is said of his ravages? How many cubs has the tigress ? When tamed, are they trustworthy ? Where is the Ocelot found ? Where the Chati? What is said of its size? Where is the Jungle Cat found ? On what does it live ? What other Tiger Cats can you mention ? Are Leopards or Spotted Cats numerous? Where are they found? For what are they distinguished? What is their color in the East? What their usual length and height? Upon what do they prey? What is said of the flexibility of their bodies? What of their disposition? Which is tfie Leopard of this Continent, and where found ? What is he often called ? Where is the Cheetah found ? What called ? What habits are united in him ? What is the meaning of the specific name jubata ? Why given ? How are the Lynxes distinguished ? How many species are described ? What is said of the Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx? What of the Canada Lynx? From what does the Caracal take its specific name ? From what language is the name derived? What does it mean? Is the Caracal larger or smaller than the true lynxes ? What is it called ? Are Domestic and Wild Cats of the same or different species? What is a plain difference ? Mention the most noted varieties. Give the character of the cat. What is her average age ? SECTION XL SUB-FAMILY HYAENINA. HYAENA, (Gr. {5awa, Huaina.) The Hyaena has the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines of a civet. Linnaeus placed it between the wolf and fox. It is one of the most ferocious, malignant and carnivorous of animals. There are three species, the Striped, (H. striata.) the Villose, (H. viUosa.) and the Spotted, (H. maculata.) The Striped is the H. vutgaris, or Common Hyaena, (see Chart.) It often deceives its pursuers by feigning lameness at the commencement of a chase. It dwells in caverns and rocky places; prowling about at night to feed on dead animals, or such living prey as it can seize, seldom, however, assailing man unless in self defence. Hyaenas are useful as feeders on carrion, in cleansing the region where they dwell of the decaying remains of larger ani mals, and preventing the increase of poisonous effluvia. They are found in the train of armies, whose slain they feed upon, and sometimes even tear newly buried corpses out of their graves. VIVERRIDAE, (Lat. viverra, a Ferret.) The CIVETS. This entire group are noted for their perfume, which is secreted in a glandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance as an article of commerce. It is called Civetta, (Arabic, Zibetta,) CARNIVORA. 63 meaning scent or perfume, and gives name to the animal. They are nocturnal and predatory; inhabit Africa, Asia and the adja cent islands, and are particularly numerous in Abyssinia. Their general appearance is like that of the fox. GENETTA, (Fr. Genette.) The GENETS or WILD CATS. The Genets are similar to the Civets, but in contour of body, are most like the Weasels, having long arid slender forms, short limbs and sharp pointed muzzles. They give out the same odor as the Civets, though the odoriferous pouches are much reduced in size. HERPESTES ICHNEUMON, Pharaoh's Rat, or Mangouste. This beautiful little animal is appropriately called Herpestes, (Gr. a creeper,) and Ichneumon, (Gr. a tracker.) It was an ciently ranked among the sacred animals of Egypt; destroys reptiles and young crocodiles, and thousands of crocodile's eggs. It is kept tame in the houses of the east, to destroy unpleasant intruders. What is said of .the mixed form and nature of the Hyaena? What of its disposition and habits? How many species are there? Describe the one figured on the chart. Give its zoological gradations. Ans. The Common or Striped Hyaena is of the VARIETY, striata ; SPECIES, vulgaris; GENUS, Hyaena; sub-family, Hyenina, FAMILY or TRIBE, Canidae; SUB-ORDER, Digitigrada; ORDER, Garnivora; CLASS, Mammalia; WARM BLOODED division of the suB-KiN'GDOM, Vertebrates, the highest branch of the ANIMAL KING DOM. Give the meaning of these several gradations. Trace out every genus studied by the class in this way. To what deceptive expedient do the Hyaenas resort ? Do they often assail man ? Where do they li ve ? Upon what do they feed ? What do they sometimes do ? For what are the Civets noted ? From what is their name derived ? Where are they found ? What is their general appearance ? What are the Genets most like ? In what do they resemble the Civets ? How was the Ichneumon ranked, and for what is it useful in Egypt ? SECTION XII. 2. DIVISION OF THE DlGITIGRADES. The CANIDAE, (Lat. cants,) a dog. (PL IV., fig. 2.) This includes a large number of animals, some of which, in particular respects, resemble the Cats; others, the Weasels and Bears. The dog has, from olden time, been the friend and com- panion of man; yet some uncertainty still exists as to its original stock. It is quite like both the Wolf and the Jackal. Some 64 CARNIVORA. naturalists incline to assign it a common origin with the former ; others have identified it with the latter. The balance of the ar gument, however, seems in favor of the wolf as the original source from which the domestic dogs have sprung. Their skulls and skeletons are similar. The period of gestation is sixty-three days in both. Both open their eyes the tenth or twelfth day, and live fifteen or twenty years. We, however, prefer the position that when man first went forth to till the ground whence he was taken, the dog was given him by the Creator as his assistant and ally. The relation which he sustains to man differs much from that sustained to him by other animals. The dog is alone iden tified with his master's interests and occupations. Other animals may endure his rule ; to the dog it seems a pleasure. He knows his looks, his voice, his walk, rejoices at his approach, and shows himself his willing defender. The classic scholar will remem ber that Homer, in the true spirit of nature and of poetry, repre sents Ulysses as recognized on his return to Ithaca by his old and faithful dog alone, which died with joy at his feet. The value of the dog's services, in the early stages of society, and in pre paring the way for civilization, affords confirmation of our idea concerning its origin. In wild and uncultivated regions, and es pecially in northern latitudes, the very existence of man is often dependent upon the fidelity and ever ready aid of the dog. "He is the only animal which has followed man through every region of the earth." The intimacy of relation implied in this remark of Cuvier should be qualified in respect to its extent, as it is well known the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindoos, regard the dog as impure and abominable, and will not touch it without ablution. The teeth of the Canine family, (including dogs, wolves and jackals,) are forty-two in number. The muzzle of these animals is more or less lengthened ; the tongue small, and the pupil of the eye circular. The fore-feet have five toes ; the hind feet four, and sometimes a fifth ; the toes are not retractile. DOMESTIC DOGS. Their legs are long, and hence their stature is elevated. Though carnivorous, their ferocity is not generally equal to their strength. They obtain their prey, not by sudden bounds, but by ,t hunting it down by the aid either of sight or smell, often associ ating in packs for that purpose. Martin makes seven divisions, containing fifty varieties of the Domestic Dog. Facts almost innumerable illustrate the docility, sagacity, and memory; the courage, faithfulness and love of this animal. The ESQUIMAUX dogs, included in the first division, are peculiarly valuable to the dwellers in Arctic regions. They are CARNIVORA. G5 used by them in pursuing the seal, the bear and the reindeer. Yoked to heavily laden sledges, they often drag them with untir ing patience, fifty or sixty miles in a day. Capt. Parry's " Jour nal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North West Passage," and Dr. Kane's "Arctic Explorations," abound in graphic descriptions of the manners of the Esquimaux them selves, and in interesting particulars showing the utility of their dogs. With good sleighing, six or seven of these dogs will draw from eight to ten hundred weight, at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour, for several hours together. The GREYHOUND, (one of the second division,) is the swiftest of all the dogs, and is used principally in the chase of the hare. The NEWFOUNDLAND dog is so named from the place whence it originated. It is not to be confounded with the Labrador dog, which is a larger and stronger animal. Both are trained to draw sledges and light carriages. The Newfoundland dog is well known for his care in guarding the property of his owner. He is remarkably fond of the water, and will bring out any object which his master points out in the water, and place it at his feet. Many have been rescued by this dog from a watery grave. He evinces the greatest fidelity and affection towards those who take care of him. The WATER SPANIEL, (of the fourth division,) delights in taking itself to the water, which it does in pursuit of game. It is use ful to persons who are shooting wild ducks, or water hens, as these fowl conceal themselves so closely that without aid they can. not be discovered. It will dive to a considerable depth, and bring up any small object from the bottom. The BLOODHOUNDS, (fifth division,) are noted for the acuteness of their smell, and can trace a man or an animal with unfailing certainty. Sometimes they have been used in the capture of thieves, especially sheep stealers. It is about two feet four inches in height, and has a voice peculiarly deep, and that may be heard a considerable distance. The MASTIFFS, (sixth division,) are distinguished by the short ness of the nose, and the breadth of the head, which is caused by the large muscles that move the jaw. Its powerful frame and deep voice have led to its selection as a house guard against burglars. The TERRIERS, (seventh division,) are used for destroying rats and other vermin, and will boldly invade the covert of the fox or the badger. They become strongly attached to their masters, and can be taught many tricks for their amusement. The Shepherd's dog, (of the same division with the Esquimaux,) is a rough and shaggy animal, having sharp pointed ears and nose. 63 OAJLNIVORA. To the shepherd it is an invaluable assistant. In point of intel ligence, thoughtfulness and promptitude, it is not probably ex celled by any of the varieties of dogs. A story is told of a dog belonging to the " Ettrick Shepherd," who had 700 sheep under his care. On a certain occasion, they broke away in the middle of the night, and in spite of every effort of the shepherd and his assistants, roamed to a distance across the hills. " Sirrah," said the afflicted shepherd to his dog, " Sirrah, my man, they're a' awa." Away went the dog in the darkness, the shepherd and his companions meantime scouring the hills, but seeing nothing of the flock or the dog. The next morning they found them at the bottom of a deep ravine, not one lamb of the whole flock missing, and the dog standing in front of them, keeping watch. On the Alpine summits of St. Bernard, remarkable for its hospital, and covered with the snows of a ceaseless winter, the resident monks have been often known to issue forth in the midst of tempests and snow storms, and by means of their large dogs, of peculiar breed, have discovered travelers unable to track their way, and saved them from the cold embrace of death. We subjoin the following as illustrating the powers of imitation and memory possessed by the dogs. A few winters since, a gentleman in Lawrence, Mass., one morning when the snow was covered with a smooth icy crust, noticed a little dog seated on his haunches, sliding down the steep bank before his house. He supposed that the dog had slipped, but noticed as he reached the bottom of the hill, he ran up again. He continued his sport for some time, apparently with great delight. P. H. Gosse, in his article on the dog, relates that " Lord Com- bermere's mother, (Lady Cotton,) had a terrier named Viper, whose memory was so retentive that it was only necessary to re peat to him once the name of the numerous visitors at Comber, more, and he never afterwards forgot it. Mrs. H. came on a visit there on a Saturday. Lady Combermere took the dog up in her arms, and going up to Mrs. H. said, "Viper, this is Mrs. H." She then took him to another newly arrived lady, and said, " Viper, this is Mrs. B. ; " and no further notice was taken. Next morning, when they went to church, Viper was of the party. Lady Cotton put a prayer book in his mouth, and told him to take it to Mrs. H., which he did, and then carried one to Mrs. B., at his mistress's order." A man in Windsor, Vt., owned a large and valuable Mastiff dog, which had the misfortune to break his leg. The owner, after trying in vain to set the bones himself, sent for a physician, who speedily put the bone in its place, and splintered up the leg. CARNIVORA. G7 For several days the doctor visited the dog, and dressed the wound, and then told the owner he should come no more, but if any thing seemed to be wanting, to bring the dog to his office. He did so two or three times, and when he ceased going, the dog would go alone to the doctor's office every morning, and lie down until the doctor looked at his leg, and then he would return, con- tinuing this practice until he was fully cured. Some time after this, the great dog found in the street a little one, with a broken leg ; and after smelling around him for some time, he got him up on his three legs, and managed to get him to the before men tioned doctor's office, where he waited with the little dog, until the doctor came and set the bone. Canis vulpes, (Lat. vulpes, a fox.) The Fox is about the size of a small dog. He is by nature suspicious, timid and cunning ; his sight is keen ; his smell and hearing so acute that it is difficult to take him in any kind of trap. Unmolested, the fox lives from twelve to fourteen years; the first year he is called a cub; the second, a fox; and the third, an old fox. Audubon enumerated twelve species, four of which exist in North America. The skin of the Silvery Fox, (C. argentatus, Lat. silvered,) of Labrador, has been sold in London for five hundred dollars. Its fur is copious, and of a beautiful, lustrous, black hue, with the longer hairs of a silvery white. It is found in Oregon, and the northern parts of this continent. The Common Fox of Europe, Vulpes vulgaris, is there the favorite object of the chase. The American Red Fox, C.fulvus, (Lat. tawny,) is somewhat larger ; its fur is finer, and of a bright er color, and it has a larger brush tail. It eats fish as well as rats, rabbits, &c. The Swift-Fox, C. velox, (Lat. swift,) is the smallest of the fox tribe. The Cross-Fox derives its name, C. decussatus, (Lat. divided cross-wise,) from its markings, not from its nature. The Gray Fox, C. cinereus, (Lat. ash-colored,) is the annoyance of the southern planter, as the Red-Fox is of the northern farmer. The Arctic Fox, C. Lagopus, (Gr. Lagos, hare,_poiw, foot, Hare's- foot,) is covered with white woolly fur. The Antarctic Fox, C. Antarcticus, is called the Wolf- Fox, from its resemblance to that animal. It is tame, and barks like a dog. The Caama, C. Caa- ma, is the smallest African fox. The Fennec, or Zerda, C. Zerda, whose place has been so often discussed by naturalists, has the skeleton and teeth of the dog family. Its fur is short and silky. C. Lupus, (Lat. a wolf.) The WOLF. The Wolf, in its habits and physical development, we have already intimated, is closely related to the dog. His proportions C3 CARNIVORA. are larger, and his frame more muscular than those of that ani mal, and between the two there exists a most inveterate hatred. The well known traits of the Wolf are ferocity, cunning and cowardice. In the earlier periods of English history, it is often adverted to as a common and dreaded pest. In consequence of its ravages, many of the early British kings and chieftains, as if to render themselves more formidable, adopted its name with cer tain adjuncts. This is seen in such names as Athlewolf, (noble wolf;) Berth wolf, (illustrious wolf;) Eadwolf, (prosperous wolf,) etc. It was finally extirpated in England, about 1350, in Scot land, about 1600, and in Ireland, about 1700. It is still abundant in the northern countries of Europe, and in France and Western Asia. Wolves always hunt in packs, and evince great craftiness in waylaying and pursuing their prey. Sometimes they form a semicircle and advance upon the animal which they would reach, in this way forcing it over a precipice, or gradually hemming it in so as to prevent its escape. Winter is the time when they are most dreaded by those living in the regions which they in habit. Then as hunger renders them peculiarly ferocious and daring, they, with the greatest obstinacy, follow after their prey, whether it be man or animal. Under the gnawings of famine, they will devour every sort of offal, and even disinter the dead. It is related that in the reign of Louis XIV. a large party of dragoons were, in the depth of winter, attacked at the foot of the Jural mountains, by a numerous band of wolves. The dragoons fought bravely, and killed many hundreds of them ; but at last, overpowered by numbers, they and their horses were all devoured. Of the Wolf, many varieties are found in both continents. The C. lupus, Common Wolf, is of a yellowish or fulvous gray color; covered with harsh and strong hair, and from twenty- seven to thirty inches high at the shoulders. Of this there is a variety, white, either as an albino, or as the effect of a northern or cold climate, also found in both continents, viz. C. lupus allus. The wolves of Lapland and Siberia are almost all of a whitish gray color ; those of the Alps in Europe, and the Rocky Moun tains of North America, become white or nearly so. The length of the American White Wolf (albus) is about four and a half feet, it being the largest of all the varieties of this animal. The Black American Wolf, C. Lupus, (Niger.) is of the same shmpe as the Common American Wolf, and rising three feet in length. Packs of this animal, showing various shades approaching black, have been found occasionally in every part of the United States. In Florida the prevailing color is black. This is the most numerous variety among the Pyrenees of Europe, and also CARNIVORA. 09 V OF >^y^ south of those mountains, where it is of larger-size .than the com mon wolf. Several varieties of wolves are met with in Asia. Those of Asia Minor are deeply fulvous, and show more of red than the wolves of Italy. Numbers of such as the C. lupus (mibilus,) the Dusky Wolf, the Black Wolf, C. lupus (niger,) are found on the sandy plains east of the Rocky Mountains. They go in droves, and hunt deer by night, with dismal, yelling cries*, and woe to the foxes if they find them on a plain at any distance from their hiding places ! In the same districts, and associating in greater numbers than other wolves, are found the C. lupus (latrans,)the Prairie or Bark ing Wolf, intermediate in size between the large American Wolf and the Virginia Fox, and in many respects like the fox. In its bark or howl it greatly resembles the latter animal, as well as the domestic dog of the Indians. Their general color is ashy gray; their length two feet, ten inches. They are well known to the inhabitants of the western parts of Arkansas and Missouri, and to those who live on the borders of the Upper Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Their skins are of some value, the fur being soft and warm, and constitute a part of the exportations of the Hudson Bay Com pany. The Prairie Wolf is found in California and Texas, and on the eastern side of the mountains of New Mexico, as well as on the western prairies. C. lupus, (rufus.) The Red Texan Wolf resembles the common gray variety, is more slender and light than the White Waif of the North- West part of this continent, and has a more fox-like aspect. The hair is not woolly like that of the White W'jlf, but lies smooth and flat. The length is two feet, eleven inches. In habits, it is nearly like the Black and White Wolf. It is said that " when visiting the battle fields of Mexico, the waives preferred the slain Texans or Americans, to the Mexicans, and only ate the bodies of the latter from necessity, as owing to the quantity of pepper used by the Mexicans in their food, their flesh is impregnated with that powerful stimulant." Audubon, in re ferring to the geographical distribution of this animal, remark's of quadrupeds generally, that toward the north they are more sub ject to become white ; toward the east, or Atlantic side, gray ; to the south, black ; and toward the west, red. C. aureus, (Lat. golden.) The JACKAL. This animal is found throughout the Levant, in Persia, India and Africa. It is called "aureus" on account of the yellow tint of its skin. The Jackal is supposed to be the fox of the sacred writers, (Judges xv. 4, 5.) Like the wolf, it hunts in packs, pursuing the antelope and other 70 CARNIVORA. animals for prey, and making away with carrion in every putrefaction. It has been called the "lion's provider," ft state of provider," for when the cry of the Jackal is heard, the Lion, aware of the cause, makes his appearance, and without ceremony seizes upon the hooty. The Jackals, however, retaliate by aiding in the con sumption of the larger prey which the lion destroys. They are useful in the east as scavengers, consuming the offal which in oriental cities is thrown into the streets, and might otherwise breed pestilence. Grapes are the special delight of the Jackal, and it often makes great havoc in vineyards. When hunting, these animals utter most piercing shrieks, which produce, it is said, a very terrific effect, "as resounding through the stilly dark- ness of night, and answered from a thousand throats.'* The Jackal is rather larger than the fox, but its tail is shorter and less bushy. It is easily tamed, and is dog-like in disposition and habits. One species of the Jackal, Canis Corsac, the ADIVE, is not larger than a pole-cat, has a long tail, and is found in troops amidst the deserts of Tartary. Other species are the Cape Jackal, C. mesomela, (Gr. mesos, middle, melas, black,) and the C. anthtu, (Gr. anthos,) of Senegal. All agree in manners and general disposition, and in exhaling a strong and offensive odor, which, however, is "scarcely perceptible" in a state of domesti cation. Proteles Lalandii. The AARD-WOLF, or EARTH- WOLF, of Sooth Africa. This animal has interest as connecting together the Civets, Dogs and Hyaenas. It has the bones and external appearance of a hyaena, the head and feet of a fox, and the intes tines of a civet. The fore legs are considerably longer than the hind ones, and in this respect it is also like the hyaenas. It is about the size of a full grown fox, yet stands higher on its legs; but for its more pointed head, and the additional fifth toe of the fore feet, it might, at first sight, be easily mistaken for a young hyaena. Thn color is a pale ash, with a slight shade of yellow ish brown. The fur is woolly, except the mane, which is coarse, stiff hair, and bristles up when the animal is provoked. One of those animals was brought from Africa, by the traveler, Lalande, from whom it received its specific name. The generic term is from the Greek protefes, and relates to the superior length of the fore legs. Spell CANIDAE and give its derivation. What does the second division of DIGITIGRADES include? What other animals do they resemble? What is said of the origin and antiquity of the dog? What of their resemblance to Wolves and Jackals, and in what respects do they agree? How do his fidelity and attachment compare with those of other animals? In what CARNIVORA. 71 state of society and in what regions is he particularly valuable ? What does Cuvier remark respecting the dog? What qualification does this remark require ? What is said of their teeth, muzzle, tongue, eyes, feet, claws, &c. ? How many varieties of domestic dogs does Martin make ? Does their ferocity equal or surpass their strength ? How do they obtain their prey ? To what people are the Esquimaux dogs of great value ? What use is made of them? What works give interesting particulars respecting them ? What is said of the Greyhound ? Why is the New foundland dog so named? What is said of his fidelity and affection? What use is made of him ? In what does the Water Spaniel delight ? For what is it useful ? For what is the Bloodhound noted ? How are Mastiffs distinguished ? Of what use are Terriers ? In what does the Shepherd's dog excel ? Relate the story of the Ettrick Shepherd and dog. What is said of the dogs of St. Bernard? For what are they trained? What anecdotes can you give showing the imitative power and memory of dogs ? What is the size of the common fox ? Describe him. How long does he live ? How many species did Audubon enumerate ? How many are found in North America ? What fox furnishes the most valuable fur ? Where is it found ? Name and characterize the other principal species. How do the dog and wolf compare with each other? What are the traits of the wolf? What is said of it in English history? From what places has it been extirpated? Where is it still abundant? How do wolves hunt ? When are they most dreaded ? Why at that time ? What occur red near the Jural mountains? Are there many varieties of the common Wolf? Describe it. What is said of the Red Texan Wolf, and its prefer ences? What does Audubon say of the changes of color in quadrupeds ? Where is the Jackal found ? What is it supposed to be ? What is it called ? Why ? Of what is it particularly fond ? What is said of Jack als' hunts ? Are they of any use ? What is their size ? Why called aureus ? Are they easily tamed? What is said of the Adive? What of the Aard, or Earth Wolf? What does it connect? Describe its habitat, size, color, fur, &c. &c. SECTION XIII. 3. DIVISION OF THE DlGITIGRADES. MUSTELIDAE, (Lat. Mustela, a weasel.) The WEASEL TRIBE. The weasels are readily distinguished by their long snake-like bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth and predatory habits. Their relish for blood is strong. In pursuing their prey, they are bold, cautious and resolute, creeping toward their unsuspecting victim, usually a rabbit, rat or bird, and on a sudden, darting at it, and piercing its neck with its sharp teeth. Fixing themselves where some large vein invites them, they hang on until their prey ex pires, devouring its brain, and sucking its blood; but almost always leaving the flesh untouched. Their head is small, oval and flattened, and their bodies so pliable as to be capable of being insinuated into holes and crevices which it would seem they 7,3 CARNIVORA. could not possibly enter ; and their short strong limbs and sharp claws, enable them to climb with the greatest celerity and adroit ness. In their habits they are more or less nocturnal. Accord ing to Audubon, about twelve species of the true Martens are included in this family, four of which inhabit North America. Mustela vulgaris, (or Putorius Vulgaris.) The COMMON WEASEL. This is the smallest of the tribe, and well known, especially by farmers, as they often have occasion to lament its onsets upon their young broods of poultry. For this, however, they have some compensation in the destruction, by this animal, of numer ous rats and mice that infest their barns and out-houses ; so that it is sometimes said, weasels " ought to be fostered as destroyers of vermin, rather than extirpated as noxious depredators." This active little creature is sometimes tamed, and by its playfulness and unexpected display of affection, has awakened much interest. M. Erminea, or Putorius Ermincus. The STOAT, or ERMINE. This species closely resembles the Weasel, but is a third lar ger, being about the size of a cat. In the summer, its general color is a yellowish brown, when it is called a STOAT ; but it changes to a pure white in winter, when its fur is extremely beautiful, and it is called ERMINE. It is abundant in the northern parts of this continent, and in Europe and Asia. The fur of the Ermine is closest and most purely white in the most northern latitudes, and constitutes a valuable article of commerce. The white skins of this animal usually bring from ten to fifteen dol lars per hundred. The tail remains black at the extremity, du ring all the changes of the color. Formerly, the official robes of judges and magistrates were lined with this fur. In predatory habits, it is like the kindred species. Hares and rabbits fall easy victims to this animal, which kills them with a single bite, pene trating 4o the brain. It frequents stony places and thickets, and in a short race will outstrip a dog. Mephitis, (Lat. a noxious odor or exhalation.) MEPHITIC WEA SELS. The anicmls of this genus are so named from the intolerable odour which, whon irritated, or for self- protection, they give forth. They have on their fore feet nails, strong and well suited far digging. The distinguishing color of the genus is black, striped with white, lengthwise along the back, and the tail is long and bushy. The Mephitic weasels all move slowly ; seldom flee from man, unless when they arc near their burrows. Though fee ble and insignificant in some respects, yet they seem conscious of a power to " annoy beyond the point of endurance." Large num- CARNIVORA. 73 bers of them are sometimes found in the same hole. They feed on poultry, birds, eggs, small quadrupeds and insects. The head is short ; the nose rather projecting ; the snout generally blunt; the hairs on the tail are very long. Seventeen or eight een species have been enumerated ; one in South Africa, two or three in the United States, and the rest in Mexico and South America ; but of these species there are almost endless varieties in respect to color and markings. Mephitis Americana or M. Chinga. The COMMON AMERICAN SKUNK. This animal is about as large as a cat, and generally is of a blackish brown, with white stripes running lengthwise on the back. In the markings of white, it shows many diversities, and it has a long bushy tail. All the varieties of this animal have. a broad fleshy body, not unlike that of the wolverine. Its legs are short ; the fur is rather long and coarse, intermingled with much longer smooth and glossy hairs. Its length from the point of the nose to the root of the tail is seventeen inches. No quadruped found on this continent is more universally detested than the skunk. The offensive fluid is contained in two small sacs situ ated near the root of the tail. By day it is so thin and transpa rent as to be scarcely perceptible ; but at night has a yellow luminous appearance. He is himself a very cleanly animal, never suffering a drop of the fluid to touch his fur, nor does his burrow give forth any offensive smell. In the northern states, this animal retires to his burrow about December, and is not seen again till the following February. In the southern states he does not go into winter quarters, but continues to prowl at night during the winter. It is said his flesh is " well tasted and savory," and cooked and eaten by the Indians. The LONG or LARGE TAILED SKUNK, M. macroura, (Gr. /uax^o?, makros, long, oi^>«, oura, tail.) common in Mexico and Texas, is of the size of a common cat, and has five or six young at a time. The M. Zorilla, or CALIFORNIA SKUNK has white spots on the forehead and on each temple, and four white stripes on the sides and back, with a br.oad tip of white on the tail ; in form is a small image of the common skunk, and like it, so offensive as seldom to be approached. The African Zorilla, found at the Cape of Good Hope, has the tail spread out in the form of a plume, and does not give out the overpowering odor of other species. The M. mesoleuca, (Gr fitaog, mesos, middle, levxog, leukos, white.) The MEXICAN SKUNK has the long and under fur of the whole back and the tail, white. The long tail of this animal is 4 CAR.NIVORA. often first seen in the high grass and bushes, and makes a beau tiful appearance. The Teledu, or Skunk of Java and Sumatra, Mydaiis meliceps, (Lat. melis, a badger, caput, a head,) has a short tail covered with a mere pencil of hairs. In somethings, it reminds one of a hog. M. Maries. The MARTEN. Of this there are three varieties, the Common Beech, or Stone Marten, the Pine Marten, and the Sable, of which the furs are exquisitely soft and beautiful. Their agile and graceful motions are not excelled by any of the Weasel tribe. They reside in woods, and prey chiefly on birds, and small animals. They also feed on rats, mice, and moles, and will sometimes eat seeds and grain. The general length is about a foot and a half; the tail is ten inches long, bushy, and of a darker color than the other parts. The Marten is. of a dark, tawny color, with a white throat, and the under part is of a dusky brown ; the muzzle is pointed, and the eyes bright and lively. The fur is of two sorts ; the outer is long and brown, with vary ing shades, in different parts of the body ; the inner, very soft, short and of light yellowish gray color. M.fagorum, (Lat. of beech-trees.) The BEECH MARTEN is a va riety with a white throat, found in Northern and temperate Europe, and Western Asia. It approaches the habitations of men oftener than the Pine Marten, resorting for prey to the vicinity of farm yards and homesteads. Its fur, which is much inferior to that of the Pine Marten, is called in trade, the Stone Marten. Many skins of this animal are obtained from the north of Europe, and the fur is dyed to represent Sable ; though the practised eye easily distinguishes it from the latter. The richest furs of this Marten come from the most northern latitudes. M. Abietum, (Lat. of fir-trees.) The PINE MARTEN. This variety with a yellow throat, varies much in color, so that it is difficult to find two specimens alike, but generally is yellowish, blended into a blackish hue in other parts. It is found in Mount Caucasus, and the northern parts of Europe ; and is very numer ous in the wooded districts of the northern latitudes of this conti nent. It is particularly abundant where the trees have been killed by fire, but are still standing. Specimens have been obtained from near Albany and the Catskill mountains, and the northern parts of Pennsylvania. Its southern range is about lat. 40o, and the north ern about 680. The length is one foot five inches. This Marten is, in its disposition, shy, cruel, cunning and active ; does not ap proach the residences of men, but keeps rather in dense woods. The fur of this animal is valuable, next to the Sable; and when in fashion, Marten skins bring good prices. It is sometimes dyed, CARNIVORA. 75 and efforts are made to palm it upon buyers as fur of a more costly kind. The Hudson's Bay Company have sold as many as 1 1,000 skins in a year, and upwards of 30,000 have, in the same time, been exported from Canada by the French. According to Sir John Richardson, Martens of the finest and darkest fur "ap pear to inhabit certain rocky districts." The flesh of the Pine Marten is rank and coarse, but is eaten by the Indians. In con finement, it appears tolerably gentle, and loses much of its "snap pish character." They are trapped only in autumn and winter. Mitstela Zibellina. The SABLE. This is the most celebra ted of all the Weasel tribe, not only on account of the richness of its fur, but from the perils connected with the chase of it, carried on in the depth of winter, and in regions the coldest and most des olate traversed by human footsteps. It has long whiskers, round ed ears, large feet, (the soles of which are covered with fur,) white claws, and a long bushy tail. The general color of the fur, of which the hair lies each way, is brown, with the lower part of the neck and throat grayish. These animals inhabit the northern parts of Europe and Asia. . Vast numbers of them are killed in Siberia, and their skins form a very considerable article of com merce among the Russians. Sables' skins are in the highest perfection between November and January ; and within that time they are sought after by large numbers of hunters. They are tnkon in snares, or traps, which are usually pit-falls, with loose boards placed over them, baited with flesh. Sometimes fire-arms and cross-bows are used in taking them. Putorius Vison. The MINK. This animal is of a brown color, with a white chin and short ears. The feet and palms are covered with hair to the extremity of the nails, and the feet are semi-palmated. It is smaller than the Pine Marten, being thir- teon inches long, and the tail is half the length of the body. It presents varieties which are striking and permanent, both in respect to size and color. Next to the Ermine, it is the worst depredator that prowls about the poultry yards of the farmer. The Mink catches rats like the weasel or ferret, holding them by the neck like a cat, and it has no aversion to fish ; trout and salmon seem to be special favorites. It will steal them when it can, or dive after them in brooks and shallow water, swimming with considerable facility, and like the muskrat, diving at the flush of a gun. It resides of preference on the borders of ponds, and along the banks of small streams. This species is very numerous in salt marshes of the southern states, where it subsists principally on the marsh-hen, the sea-side finch, and sharp-tailed iitjch. It has not much cunning, and is easily taken in any kind 76 CARNIVORA. of trap. When taken young, it becomes very gentle, and much attached to those who fondle it. It does not emit its unpleasant odor except when it is hurt. The skins of tire Mink have been used for making muffs, tippets, &c., and sold for about fifty cents each. Some skins are of a beautiful silver gray color, the fur being quite unlike that ordinarily obtained. Such skins are rare ; six of them suffice to make a muff worth at least a hundred dol lars. (Audubon.) The Mink is constantly found in almost every part of North America. Mustela furo, (Lat. I rage.) The FERRET. This useful but ferocious little animal is kept in Europe, in a domesticated state, and is employed for rabbit-hunting, and for destroying rats. Its general form is like that of the Polecat, but it is smaller, being usually about thirteen inches in length. It has a very sharp nose, red and fiery eyes, and round ears. In the slenderness of its form, and the shortness of its legs, it resembles the Weasel. The head of M. Canadensis, the FISHER, or PENNANT'S MAR TEN, is more like that of the dog than that of the cat. It catches and eats fish. The BLACK-FOOTED FERRET is about a foot and a half long ; found in woody districts, as far as the Rocky Mountains. The P. pusillus, (Lat. very small,) is th£ smallest of the Weasels. It is one-third smaller than the Stoat, the Polecat, or Fitchet Weasel. M. Putorious, (Lat. Putor, stink,) is stouter than the common weasel. The under coat of fur is short, silky and pale yellow ; the outer is of a dark chocolate brown, and long and coarse. The fur is inferior to that of the Sable and Marten, but esteemed as an article of commerce under the name of Fitch. Lut.ra, (Lat. Otter,) (Gr. Aot>o, louo, to wash.) This genus includes a species known as the common or river Otters, whose habits are aquatic, and whose food is fish, and also the Sea Otters. In their skulls and muzzles, there are points of resemblance to the Seal, (phoca vitulina.) The limbs are short and strong, and so articulated as to allow of free motion ; the animal being able to turn them easily in almost any direction, and bring them on a line with the body, so as to act like fins. The teeth are sharp and strong, and the tubercles of the molars very pointed ; which aids them in taking and destroying their slippery prey. Their intestines are very long. The body is covered outwardly with long and glossy hair, with a softer, short er, downy fur, intermixed. The Otter is fierce, wild, and shy, and its habits principally nocturnal. The hunt of this animal has been a favorite, but a cruel sport. Pursued, he betakes himself CARNIVORA. 77 to the water, where he is more than a match for the strongest dog. His determined courage holds out to the last, and pierced with spears, he dies without uttering a cry. Eleven species are enumerated. Lutra vulgaris. The COMMON OTTER. This species is about two feet long, and its tail fifteen inches in addition. The tail is flat and broad, and the toes of the feet are connected by a com plete web. In its entire structure, the animal is well adapted for an aquatic life ; diving and swimming with- great readiness, and with much ease and elegance of movement. It has a black nose, and long whiskers. The ears are small and erect, the eyes very small, and nearer the nose than in most animals. The color is brown except small patches of white on the lips and nose. The size varies from two to three and a half feet. When it has seized a small fish, it immediately leaves the water and eats it, begin ning with the head, while the body is held in the fore paws. Larger fish are held down by the paws, and the head and tail often left uneaten. These animals destroy multitudes of fish, in ponds and rivers, eating but a small portion of the fish, when they have an abundance of prey. When fish are scarce, and they are pressed by hunger, it is said, they sometimes go far inland and attack lambs, sucking pigs and poultry, and even feed upon larvae and earth worms. The Otter's place of retreat is beneath roots of trees, or in holes near ponds and rivers. The female bears from three to five young at a time. The Common Otter is capable of domestication, but most readi ly when taken young, and fed with small fish and water. Some times it shows attachment, but if offended, "bites grievously." In some instances, it has been trained to catch fish, or to assist in fishing. When tamed, "they will allow themselves to be gently lifted by the tail ;" though they "object to any interference with the snout, which is probably with them the seat of honor." Usually they resort to fresh waters, but in some regions frequent the sea, and hunt far out from land. Few animals show more attachment for their young than the Otter. When these are taken from them, they express their sorrow in tones resembling the crying of children. Lutra Canadensis. The CANADA OTTER. This is larger than the Common or European Otter, having dark, glossy brown hair, with the chin and throat dusky white, and is five feet in length. The longer and outer hairs are glossy and stiff, but the inner fur is soft, dense, and nearly as fine as that of the Beaver. The ears are closer together than in the Common Otter, and the tail flattened horizontally for half its '78 CARNIVORA. length. The American Otter frequents running streams and large ponds, and sometimes is found on the shores of some of our great lakes. It prefers those waters which are clear, and a bur row in the banks, the entrance to which is under water. Their favorite sport is said to be sliding down steep banks, head fore most, sometimes for the distance of twenty yards. When shot and killed in water, they sink from the weight of their bones, which are solid and heavy, so that in deep water, the hunter may lose his game. The American Otter, like the European, when taken young, is easily tamed, will follow its owner, and sometimes is playful. Audubon had one which was very familiar, and much attached to him. And he relates that a landlord in the in terior of Ohio, had four Otters alive which were so gentle that they would come when he whistled for them, and approach him with much apparent humility. This species ranges almost the whole of North America, but is now obtained most readily in Maryland, and the western parts of the United States. The Brit ish provinces of North America annually furnish a considerable number. Their furs are much esteemed. Enhydra marina. (Mustela Lutris, Lirinceus.) SEA OTTER. The generic name enhydra, is from the Greek evvdoog, (enu- dms,) ei>, (en, in,) 'v<5u^, (hudor, water.) The palmated feet, and the teeth of this genus are so modified as to connect this Otter with the Seal, (Otia,) which have ears. The color is chestnut brown or black; the fur exceedingly fine and velvety; the size about twice that of the Common Otter. In length it is from four to five feet. The hind legs and thighs are short, and better adapted for swimming than in other mammalia, seals excepted ; the hind feet are flat and webbed, and clothed with glossy hairs. The hair, both on the body and tail, is of two kinds ; the longer hairs are silky and glossy, but not very numerous ; the fur is shorter hair, exceedingly fine and soft. This Otter runs very swiftly, and swims with great rapidity, either on its back or sides, and sometimes as if upright in the water. It has very long intestines, they being twelve times as long as the animal, while those of the Common Otter are but three and one-fourth times its length. It seems to have more the manners of a seal than a land otter; haunts sea. washed rocks, and lives mostly in the water. The female brings forth its young on land, and though the animal is marine, it is found occasionally, very far from the sea. The Kamtschatdales, on whose coasts the greatest numbers of these animals are killed, exchange the skins with the Russians, for those of the fox and sable ; and the Russian merchants for- CARNIVORA. 79 mcrly sold them to the Chinese, at a very high price, even as high as from eighty to one hundred dollars each. The fur is not prized so high as formerly. The Sea Otter is caught by placing a net among the sea weeds, or by chasing it in boats. It inhabits the waters that bound the northern parts of America and Asia, and the seas and bays from Kamtschatka to the Yellow Sea, on the Asiatic side, and from Alaska to California on the American. How are Weasels readily distinguished? What is their character? What their habits ? How many species of true Martens does Audubon in clude in this family? Who was Audubon ? Answer. One of the most en thusiastic, industrious and observing American naturalists. Died near New York city four or five years since, aged 76. How many of these inhabit North America ? What is said of the Common Weasel ? Describe the Ermine or Stoat. Describe its winter and summer dress. Which is the Ermine dress ? For what was this fur particularly used ? What places docs it frequent ? What is its pace ? Give the meaning of the generic term MKPHITES. Why is this genus so called ? What is said of their name ? What is said of the nails of these animals ? What of the tail ? What is their distinguishing color ? How are they striped ? What is said of their movements ? What gives them their power ? Upon what do they feed ? How many species have been enumerated? How many in the United States ? How many in Africa ? Where are the rest found ? What is said of their varieties ? To what do these varieties refer ? Give some account of the Skunk. What places does it frequent? Describe the Common American Skunk, and give its peculiarities. When in the Northern States, does it retire to its burrow, and when reappear ? How is it in the Southern States ? What is said of its flesh ? What is said of the Large Tailed Skunk ? Where found ? What is said of the California Skunk ? What of the African Zorilla ? What of the Mexican ? What of the Teluda of Java, and what docs it resemble ? How many varieties of the Marten ? What is said of their motion ? Where do they reside ? What is said of the fur ? Where is the Beech, or Stone Marten found? What distinguishes it? What is said of its fur? What is it called in trade ? Whence are many skins obtained, and what is said of their fur ? What distinguishes the Pine Marten ? What is the gen eral color ? Where is it found ? In what places is it particularly abun dant ? In what part of the United States has it been found ? What is said of its fur and flesh ? Which is the most celebrated of the Weasel tribe ? What countries does it inhabit ? At what time are the skins of the Sable in the highest perfection ? How are they taken ? How does the fur differ from the Marten ? What others are mentioned, either on the chart, or in the text ? From what animal is the fur called Fitch obtained ? Mention the varieties and habits of the Mink ? Where is it numerous ? What use is made of its skin ? What is said of the Ferret ? Which is the smallest Weasel ? Give the derivation of LUTRA ? Describe the Otters ? Repeat the description given of the Common Otter ? How does the Canada Otter compare with the European Otter ? Give some account of it. How exten sive is its range ? What is said of its fur ? What is the meaning of ENHY- DRA ? In what respect does the Otter resemble the Seal ? What is said of its size, speed, fur, &c. ? For what do the Russians exchange its fur ? In what waters is it found ? 80 CARNIVORA. SECTION XIV. III. DIVISION of THE CARNIVORA. II. PLANTIGLRADA. (Lat. planta, sole of the foot,gradior, to walk.) This name is given to those carnivorous animals which apply the whole, or part of the sole of the foot to the ground in walking. They are able to raise themselves on their hinder limbs or haunches, and easily keep an upright position. There is a slowness and heaviness in their motions ; their habits are generally nocturnal, and in northern latitudes, they are in a lethargic condition during the winter. First in order are the URSIDAE, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) the Bears forming a connecting link between this family and the herbivo- rous animals. These lay the whole of the foot upon the ground in walking, which occasions their well known heavy, shuffling gait, but allows them to raise themselves with facility, and to maintain an erect position. When in this position they fre quently use the fore paws in self defence, or else to strike or hug an assailant to death, by muscular pressure. The entire sole of the foot is naked. The feet have five toes each, fortified with strong, curved, and somewhat obtuse claws, adopted for digging; their grinding teeth are more or less tuberculated, and the food is either animal or vegetable. In form they are generally robust. The genera of this family inhabit both continents. Ursus. The BEAR. Of this animal, according to Audubon, eight species have been described, "three existing in Europe, one of which, the Polar Bear, is common also to America; one in the mountainous districts of India ; one in Java ; one in Thibet ; and three in North America." The head of the Bear, is large, the body stou-t, and thickly covered with coarse, shaggy hair; the ears are large and slightly pointed ; the limbs are stout and massive; the five toes have strong curved claws, fitted for digging rather than for taking prey ; the tail is short, and usually hidden in the hair of this animal ; the teeth are forty- two in number ; the grinders have flattened crowns, surmounted with tubercles, and are fitted for bruising vegetables, rnther than cutting flesh, and the incisor teeth give these animals but a limited power of cutting it, so that they are ranked as the most omnivorous of all the Carnivora. Some of them subsist on vegetable food alone, and nearly all are capable of supporting themselves upon it. They are nocturnal, but often seen wander ing about during the day. Their habits are unsocial, most of them frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns, and the CARNIVORA. 81 depths of forests. In winter, they dwell in caves and hollow trees, almost without food, and comparatively dormant. In that season the female produces her young. Though widely diffused throughout both continents, they are seldom met with in Africa. Bears are said to be very fond of honey, and will climb trees in order to get at the nests of wild bees, for though clumsy ani mals, they are expert climbers. In Russia and other northern regions, the skins of bears are among the most useful as well as most comfortable articles of winter apparel. They are made into beds, coverlids, caps and gloves, and used also for the ham mer cloths of carriages, for pistol holsters, etc. ; and the leather prepared from them is used in harness, and for other purposes where strength is requisite. Ursus Arctusj (Gr. ajjxrog, arktos, a bear.) This bear is found in mountainous districts of Europe, from very high lati tudes to the Alps and Pyrenees. It was once common in Great Britain ; but centuries ago was there extirpated. This bear of Northern Europe seems to be the only one with which Linnaeus was acquainted. To the people of Kamtschatka it gives the necessaries, and even the comforts of life ; its skins forming their beds and coverlids, bonnets for their heads and collars for their dogs; overalls are also made of the skins, and drawn over the soles of their shoes, to prevent them from slipping on the ice ; the intestines yield them material for masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun in spring, and as substitutes for glass, cover their windows. The flesh is much esteemed as food, and the hams and paws con sidered great delicacies. So great are the benefits which it yields, that the Laplanders, it is said, call it "the dog of God; " while the Norwegians say, " it has the strength of ten men and the sense of twelve." If this bear is unable to find a hollow tree or cavern for its wintry home, it constructs a habitation for itself, out of branches of trees, lined with moss, where it contin ues dormant and without sustenance until spring. The female produces two cubs at a birth, which at the first are about the size of puppies. The brown bear is long lived. One in the menagerie at Paris, France, is spoken of as forty-seven years old. This animal is four feet in length, and about two and a half feet in height. Ursus ferox, (Lat. ferox, fierce.) The GRIZZLY BEAR is the most ferocious and powerful of the family, frequently attack ing man. It sometimes weighs more than 1,000 pounds. The Indians fear it so much that a necklace of its claws, which may 82 CARNIVORA. only be worn by one who has destroyed this bear, is an orna ment that entitles the wearer to distinguished honor. In Califor nia it keeps among the oaks and pines, on the acorns and seeds of which it feeds. It is strong- enough to overcome and carry off a Buffalo. U. Americanus. The AMERICAN BLACK BEAR is smaller than the Grizzly bear, and of a more clumsy appearance. It feeds upon berries, succulent roots, and juicy plants. When in swamps, it wallows in the mud like a hog, living on cray fish, roots, and nettles ; sometimes it seizes on a pig, or sheep, or calf, or even a full grown cow. In robbing bee trees it is peculiarly expert. The young are at first not larger than kittens. The Cinnamon Bear, which is a permanent variety of this species, is quite a northern animal, and its fur is more valuable than that of the black bear. Ursus maritimus, (Lat. belonging to the sea.) or tlialarctos, (Gr. O&laaaa, tlialassa, the sea, a^jtrog, arktos, a bear.) The POLAR BEAR. This formidable species of bear has a long and narrow head, prolonged in a straight line with the forehead, which is flattened ; a long neck, and long, soft hair or fur, of considerable value. Its average length, when full grown, is from six to seven feet. Capt. Ross brought back a specimen measuring seven feet ten inches, and the weight of which, after losing thirty pounds of blood, was 1131 Ibs. Another specimen, described by Capt. Lyon, measured eight feet seven and a half inches, and weighed 1600 Ibs. The Polar Bear is entirely white, except the tip of the nose and claws, which are jet black. Dr. Kane, in his "Arctic Explorations," remarks that this animal is, " next to the Walrus, the staple diet to the North ; and excepting the Fox, supplies the most important element of the wardrobe." " The liver of the animal," he says, " is, for some reason, poisonous, though eaten with impunity by the dogs." The chief diet of the Polar Bear is obtained from the floating carcasses of whales and fishes, which often carry him, as a swim mer, far away from the shore. He also makes unceasing war upon the seals and walruses, and neither refuses the animal exuviae which the waters cast upon the land, nor the few berries afforded by the shrubs of an arctic climate. On the hind, these animals prey upon hares, young birds, etc. Their lodges are dens formed in layers of ice which are piled up so as to make stupen dous masses. The males are said not to hybernate, but to brave the severity of the winter upon the ice of the open sea, wander ing along the margin and swimming from floe to floe in search CARNIVORA. 83 of prey. The females, however, do not appear until the approach of milder weather, when they sally forth from their retreats, ac companied by two cubs. At this period, gaunt, lean and fam ished, they are peculiarly formidable, hunger and the presence of their young adding to their natural ferocity. This bear is, however, formidable at all times, strong and active as it is, run ning with great swiftness either on the ground or on the ice, and with its claws, easily ascending the slippery sides of icebergs. The affection of this animal for its young is much celebrated, and its sagacity is great. U. ornatus, (Lat., furnished or adorned.) The SPECTACLED BEAR, in the Cordilleras of the Andes, in Chili, has two semi-cir cular marks of a buff color above the eyes, appearing somewhat like a pair of spectacles. U. collaris, (Lat. cottare, a collar.) The BEAR OF SIBERIA has a large white collar passing over the neck and shoulders, on to the breast. U. Syriacus. The SYRIAN BEAR, mentioned in 2 Kings, ii, 23, is probably the first of which there is any record. U. labiatoiSi (Lat. labia, a lip.) The LABIATED or SLOTH BEAR, was, sixty years since, called the Five-fingered Ursine Sloth. The cartilage of the nose is capable of extension, and the lips of considerable protrusion. U. Malayanus. The MALAYAN BEAR. The long tongue of this Bear aids it in feeding upon the honey of bees, of which, as of other delicacies, it is extremely fond. It has also a taste for the young shoots of the Cocoa trees. The existence of bears in Africa was doubted by Cuvier, but there is now good reason to believe the animal is found in Ab yssinia, and the mountains of Arabia Felix. Procyon lotor, (Gr. TIQOXVUV, prokuon, nqoy pro, before, xvwv, a dog.) The RACOON. The remaining animals of this group form a sort of connect ing link between the plantigrade and digitigrade carnivorous tribes. The Racoon, which with one or two other species, was formerly included in the genus Ursus, is now separated from it, and included in the new genus Procyon. It is a native of this continent, and numerously found in its northern territories, also in the Eastern, Northern and Middle States of the American Union, and yet more abundantly in some of the Southern States. The average length of the animal is about two feet, from the nose to the tail. The head is somewhat like that of a fox, the forehead being broad and the nose sharp ; the ears are short, and slightly rounded ; the body is broad and stout ; the back arched ; 84 CARNIVORA. the limbs rather short, and the fore legs shorter than the hinder. The upper part of the body is of a grayish color mixed with black. The ears nnd under part whitish, with a black patch across the eve. Varieties, however, are seen, some of which are black, others, yellowish white. The tail is bushy, and rather long, with rings of black and gray. Albinos are some times found, with red eyes and only faint traces of rings on the tail. In its feet the Racoon is only partially plantigrade, and when it sits, it often rests the whole hind sole of the foot on the ground, in the manner of a bear. The nails are strong, hooked, sharp and without hair. The outer hair is long and coarse ; the inner, softer and more like wool. The Racoon is a cunning, and when mature and in good case, quite a handsome animal. It mounts trees with facility, and fre quently invades the woodpecker's nest ; and it digs up and de vours the eggs of the soft-shelled turtle. This animal sometimes makes great havoc among wild as well as domesticated birds, eating only the head, or the blood which flows from their wounds. Occasionally it ravages plantations of sugar cane and Indian corn, especially when the latter is young. Oysters are also a favorite article of food with the racoon. These it is very expert in opening, biting off the hinge, and dexterously hooking out the contents of the shells. Audu- bon remarks that " the habits of the muscles, (unios ) which are found in our fresh water rivers, are better known to the Racoon than to most conchologists, and their flavor is as highly relished by this animal as is that of the best bowl of clam soup by the epicure in that condiment." Swampy or marshy lands, abound ing in trees and coursed by small streams, are the Racoon's fa vorite resorts ; it traverses the margins of creeks and other wa ters, looking after frogs and muscles, which are found along their banks. It feeds chiefly by night, keeping by day in its nest or lair, which is usually made in the hollow of somo broken branch of a tree. It rolls itself up, with the head between the hind legs, and sleeps away the time until the approach of darkness, when it goes forth in search of food. Sometimes, however, it is seen in corn fields ; occasionally it will make an onset upon poultry during the day. The universal testimony is that it shows great slvness and cunning in its tricks and devices for procuring food. When in captivity, kind treatment soon renders it docile; it learns to be active during the day and to remain quiet at night. It shows an insatiable curiosity, prying into every corner and crev ice with the greatest assiduity. In its habits it then becomes omnivorous, eating any thing, " vegetable or animal, cooked or CARNIVORA 83 uncooked," with equal avidity. The Racoon exhibits a peculiar f}ndness for sweets of every kind, and a great dislike for acids. It is fond of water, and before eating its food usually washes it ; hence its name lotor, or washer. When hard pursued by the hunter, the animal takes to a tree, but unless the tree is very large, the pursuer is still after the " coon." If he cannot be taken otherwise, the axe levels the tree to the ground, when he is soon dispatched. The more common method of taking him is by box traps, baited with an ear of corn, a fish or a squirrel. For several months during winter, this animal hibernates in the hollow of some large tree, leaving its retreat only occasionally and when the weather is warm. The flesh is eatable, and the fur considered by hatters next in value to that of the beaver. Proycyon cancrivorus, (lat. cancer, a crab; voro, to devour.) CRAB EATING RACOON. This species has a longer and more slen der body than the common racoon. As observed in California, it conceals itself during the day, in the holes of decayed oak trees, which exist in the branches, not in the trunk itself, (Aud.) Be sides crabs, frogs and fish, it feeds on birds, eggs, fruits, etc., and is said to be specially fond of the sugar cane. Nasua, (lat. from nasus, a nose.) The COATI-MONDI, found in Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay, — is like the Racoon, characterized by nocturnal habits, a semi-plantigrade mode of progress, and facility of climbing, but is readily distinguished from the racoons by its snout, which is quite long and extremely flexible ; also by its longer and more slender body, and by its feet, which are stronger and well fitted for digging. The animal uses its snout in routing the worms and insects, which it digs up. The size is about that of a large cat, and in addition to insects and worms, it eats birds and eggs, and sometimes roots. Like the cat, it descends a tree with the head downwards, and it is even more active than that animal. The smell of the Coati seems to be more highly devel oped than any other sense. It is easily tamed, but is irritable and not to be touched without caution. Cercoleptes, (Gr. xegxog, kerkos, a tail, ASTTO?, leptos, thin.) caudivolvulus, (Lat. cauda, tail, volvulus, twisted.) The POTTO KINKAJOU, or MEXICAN WEASEL, — is found in Mexico, and the warmer parts of South America, resembling the Coati in its habits, but showing more activity, and having a long tail, which is prehen sile, and used after the manner in which the spider monkeys use theirs. Its size is that of a cat, but its limbs are shorter, thicker and more muscular. The tongue is long, slender, and very ex- tensible, and used for drawing out of crevices, insects which are beyond the reach of its paws. This animal is a great 83 CARNIVORA. of the nests of wild bees, for the sake of obtaining the honey, of which it is very fond, and has, therefore, been called the "Honey bee." Meles, (Lat. a badger.) M. vuJgaris, (Lat. common.) The BADGER. The Badger has teeth wh^ch are best suited for masti cating and bruising vegetable substances, and is less carnivorous than any of the PLANTIGRADES, except perhaps the bears. It is about as large as a dog of medium size, being about two feet three inches in length, but stands much lower on the legs, and has a broader and flatter body. The hairs taken separately are yellowish white at the bottom, black in the middle, and ashy gray at the point; the last color alone appears externally, and gives a sandy gray shade to the upper parts of the body. The face is white, and a long band of black runs along each side of the head, to the upper parts of the body. It is a quiet and inoffen sive animal, but is often subjected to such ill-treatment, that " badg ering" a person is a phrase used to express irritating him in every variety of manner. This animal inhabits most parts of Europe and Asia, but in some places is less common now than it once was. It is rather solitary and stupid, seeking refuge in retired places, where it excavates deep burrows, and shuns the light of day. The cruel sport of " baiting the badger," which consists in putting him in a kennel, and setting dogs to bite him through his thick hair and tough skin, is in some parts still continued. The Badger defends itself with great resolution, and sometimes to the destruction of its assailants. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Italy, France and China, and may be made into hams and bacon. The skin, when dressed with the hair, is impervious to the rain, and makes ex cellent pistol furniture and covers for traveling trunks, while the hairs or bristles are made into paint brushes. M. Labradorius. The AMERICAN BADGER. The general characteristics of the American are the same as those of the Eu ropean Badger. There is, however, a difference in the teeth of the American animal, and it has one tooth less than the Common Badger, on each side of the lower jaw. The length of this spe cies is about two and a half feet. The body is very thick and fleshy, the nose thinner than that of the European species, and the claws of the fore feet much larger in proportion, while the tail is comparatively shorter ; its fur is also of a quite different quality, and its appetites more carnivorous. The hair of the head and extremities is short and coarse ; that of the other parts is fine and silky. At the roots it is dark gray, then light yellow, then black tipped with white, so that in winter it has an aspect of hoary gray ; but in summer is more nearly a yellowish brown. It abounds in CARNIVORA. 87 the plains watered by the Missouri, and has been traced as far north as the banks of the Peace River. It is known to inhabit Mexico, but its exact southern range is perhaps not accurately determined. The sandy plains on the borders of Lake Winnipeg, are perforated with innumerable badger holes, which greatly annoy horsemen, particularly when covered with snow. Its bur- rows are sometimes six or seven feet deep, and run beneath the ground to the distance of thirty feet. It enlarges and pene trates the burrows of marmots, ground squirrels, etc., and feeds upon these animals, which it cannot obtain when the ground is frozen. During the snowy season, or from November to April, it remains in a half torpid state. The badger is a slow and timid animal, taking to the ground when pursued, and to escape from danger, burrowing in the sandy soil with the rapidity of a mole. *' The strength of its fore feet and claws is so great that one which had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted the utmost efforts of two stout young men, who endeavored to drag it out by the hind legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents of his fowling piece into its body." Early in the spring, badgers come abroad, at first fat, but soon become lean. At that time, 'they may be easily caught by pouring water into their holes, for the water not penetrating the frozen ground, soon fills the hole, and the animal is forced to come out. In this as in the Ovis montana, the Rocky mountain sheep, the fur, during the winter, changes from a furry texture to a woolly covering. In confine ment, the American Badger appears gentle, and "allows himself to be played with, and fondled by his keeper, but does not appear to be well pleased with strangers." It produces from three to five young at a litter. M. coliaris. The INDIAN BADGER, or BEAR PIG of the Hin doos, — is about the size of the common badger. It has the body and limbs of a bear ; the snout, eyes and tail are those of a hog. Gulo, (Lat. a glutton.) This genus includes the GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE, and the GRISON. These animals are semiplanti- grade in their walk, but resemble the weasel tribe in their teeth, and their thoroughly carnivorous propensity, as well as in the lengthened form of their bodies. Four species of this genus have been described. G. Arcticus. This species is found in the Arctic, or northern regions of both continents ; in size is about equal to the badger, but is more slender in body, and much more active. It seems to be intermediate between the badger and the polecat; in its general figure and aspect resembling the former; in its teeth the latter. The hair is of a chestnut color, verging, in some in- 88 CARNIVORA, stances, towards black ; its head is something like that of the polecat, hut broader, and indicates greater strength of jaw. The nature of the Glutton is indicated by its name; and its laniary teeth evince its voracious and blood thirsty appetite. It is sometimes called the "Quadruped Vulture," from the fact that it preys occasionally upon dead bodies of quadrupeds, chiefly those which have been killed by accident. It is said, these animals "do more damage to the fur trade than all other animals conjointly. They follow the Marten hunter's path round a line of traps, extending forty, fifty or sixty miles, and render the whole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits, which are generally the head of a partridge, or a bit of dried venison. They are not fond of the Martens themselves; but they never fail to tear them in pieces, and bury them in snow at a consider able distance from the trap. Drifts of snow often conceal the repositories thus made of the Martens, at the expense of the hunt er, in which case, they furnish a regale for the hungry fox, whose sagacious nostril guides him unerringly to the spot, and two or three foxes are often seen following the Wolverine for this purpose." Perhaps these attendant foxes have given rise to the roinurk that the Arctic Fox is the "Jackal or provider" of the Glutton. The Glutton feeds upon meadow mice, marmots and other rodentia, and occasionally upon disabled quadrupeds of a larger size. It resembles the bear, but is not as fleet ; is industrious, feeds well, and is generally fat. It goes abroad much in the win ter, and the track of its journey in a single night, may often be traced rOr miles. From the shortness of its legs, it moves with difficulty through the loose snow. Sir John Richardson says "the Wolverine is a great destroyer of beavers." It must, how ever, be only In summer, when these animals are at work, that it can surprise them, for an attempt to break through their frozen mud-Walled hou^e, would drive the beavers into the water, to seek shelter in their vaults, on the borders of their dam. What ever the boldness of the Wolverine, in defending itself against other quadrupeds, "it makes but a poor fight with a hunter, who requires no other arms than a stick to kill it." This animal has two secretory organs, from which he, on oc casion, discharges a yellowish brown fluid that gives forth an offensive odor. The female brings forth yearly from two to four cubs, covered with a downy fur, of a pale cream color. The Wolverine remains through the winter, as far north as 70o 11' latitude, but does not change its color on account of the intense cold. According to Lesson, it inhabits a complete circle CARNIVORA. 89 around the North Pole, in Europe and Asia, as well as America. The skins furnished by Wolverines, do not compensate for their destructive habits. The fur resembles that of a bear, and is much used for muffs, and when several skins are sewed together, makes a beautiful sleigh robe. In Kamtschatka, the women dress their hair with the white paws of this animal, which they esteem a great ornament. G. vittatus, (Lat. from vitta, a band or fillet,) the GRISON. A white line or band passes on each side of the front to the shoulders. They are most numerous in Guiana and Paraguay. G. or Ratellus mellivorus, (Lat. mel, honey, voro, to devour.) The RATEL of the Cape of Good Hope, in general characters, cor- responds with the glutton; in size is about equal to the badger. The color is of a dull ash gray, but whitest towards the head. It is said to feed principally upon the honey of bees, which inhabit the deserted lairs and burrows of the Ethiopian boar, the porcu pine, etc. Ailurus fulgens, (Lat. shining,) the PANDA, or WAH, — is found in the Himalaya chain of mountains, between Nepaul and the Snowy mountains. Cuvier declared this to be one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds, and included it in the Bear tribe. In the arrangement and form of the teeth, it shows some resemblance to the Nasua and Procyon. It is about the size of a large cat ; the soft and thickly set fur is above, of the richest cinnamon red, behind more fulvous, and beneath, deep black, while the head is whitish, and the tail whitish, annulated with brown. Its loud cry resembles the word wah, whence its name. " This elegant animal frequents the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes much of its time on trees, and feeds upon birds and the smaller quadrupeds." The generic name is from the Gr. ailouros, a cat. To what animals is the name PLANTIGRADES given ? What is the derivation of the word ? What their movements and habits ? When and where are they in a lethargic state ? From what is the family name URSIDAE derived ? To what animals are the bears a connecting link ? What is said of their gait ? What use do they make of their fore paws? Describe their claws. To what kind of food are their teeth adapted? Where are the genera of this family found? According to Audubon, how many species of the genus TTRSUS have been described ? Give their locations. Describe the bear. What is said of the number and kind of their teeth ? Which of the carniv orous animals is most omnivorous ? Do any bears subsist on vegetable food alone ? What are their habits ? What is their condition in the winter ? In what part of the world are they seldom met ? What use is made of their skins ? Where is the common bear found ? Is it now met with in Great Britain? What was the only species known to Linnaeus? What does it furnish the people of Kamtschatka ? What do the Laplanders call it ? Why ? What do the Norwegians say pf it ? What is said respecting its 9D CARNIVORA. winter home? Is it long lived? "What is said of the age of one in the Menagerie at Paris ? What is its size ? What is said of the ferocity of the Grizzly Bear? What use is made of its claws? How much does it weigh ? Upon what does it feed ? What is said of its strength ? What is said of the size, appearance and food of the American Bear ? What is the size of the young at first ? What is said of the Cinnamon Bear ? Describe the Polar Bear. What is its average length? What is said of its weight? What does Dr. Kane remark respecting this animal ? What is its chief diet ? On what else does he feed ? WThat do these animals eat when on the land ? What is said of their dens ? How do the males spend the win ter? Define and spell hybcrnate, migrate and emigrate. When do the female bears sally forth from their winter retreats, and what is their appear ance, and the degree of their ferocity? What is further said of the Polar Bear ? What is said of the Spectacled Bear ? What of the Siberian Bear? What of the Syrian Bear? What of the Sloth Bear ? What of the Malayan Bear ? Are bears found in Africa ? Were they known to exist there dur ing Cuvier's life ? What is said of the remaining animals of this group ? What name is given to the Racoon ? Give the meaning of the generic and specific terms ? How were the racoon and other species formerly arranged ? To what continent does it pertain ? On what part is it numerously found ? Describe the ani mal in his appearance and habits ? What is a favorite kind of food with the racoon? How does it get at the contents of the shells? What does Audubon say as to the racoon's knowledge of the habits of fresh water muscles ? What are its favorite resorts ? How does it appear in captivity ? What is said of its curiosity? Why is it called lotor? How does it spend the winter? What is said of its flesh and fur? How does the Crab-eating Racoon differ from the Common Racoon ? Where does it conceal itself in the day time ? On what does it live ? From what is the generic term nasua derived ? Where is the Coati mondi found ? What arc its charac ters ? How is it distinguished from the Racoon ? How does it use its snout ? What is its food ? In what respects does it resemble the cat ? What is further said of it ? Give the derivation and meaning of CKRCOLEP- TES. Where is the Mexican Weasel found? What other names has it? What animal does it resemble ? What is said of its tail and size ? What use does it make of its tongue ? What name has been given it ? Why ? What is said of the Badger's teeth ? What of its food ? What of its size and hair? What does "badgering" a person mean? Where is the animal found ? What are its habits ? What is " baiting the Badger?" What is said of the flesh, and what use is made of the skin ? Wherein does the Ameri can Badger differ from that of Europe ? Where does it abound ? What is said of its Northern and of its Southern range ? What is said of its bur rows ? How does it annoy huntsmen ? How long arid at what season is it torpid ? What is said of the strength of its fore feet and claws ? How are these animals easily caught in the spring ? How do they appear in confine ment ? What changes does the fur undergo ? What is said of the Indian Badger ? What does the genus Gulo include ? Give the characteristics of these animals. How many species ? To what is the species Gulo arcticus intermediate ? What is it sometimes called? Why ? How do these animals injure the fur trade? Upon what does the Glutton feed? What animal does it resemble ? What more is said of it ? How is the Grison marked, CARNIVORA. 91 and where most numerous? Describe the Rattel? Where is the Panda or Wah found ? What animals does it resemble ? What are its resorts ? SECTION XV. SUB-ORDER AMPHIBIA, (Gr. 'afuplGios, amphibios, having a double life.) , The term Amphibia, is, strictly speaking, applicable only to such animals as have double sets of lungs, or gills, giving them the power of living, indifferently, at the same time, either upon land or water; but it is commonly given to seal, otters, beavers, etc., and to many reptiles whose habits are at once terrestrial and aquatic. (PL VI. fig. 11.) PHOCIDAE, (Gr. qDcox?/, PhoM, a sea-calf or seal.) This tribe df animals, belonging to the carnivorous order, show a peculiar adaptation to the sphere assigned them by the All-wise Creator. None of the four-limbed mammalia display such complete adapta tion to residence in the water. Seals resemble quadrupeds in some respects, and fishes in others. They have round heads, and broad noses, not unlike those of dogs, with the same mild and ex pressive physiognomy; large whiskers ; oblong nostrils, and large, sparkling black eyes. In the seal there is no external ear; but a valve exists in the orifices which he can close at pleasure, in order to keep out the water; a valve is also found in the nostrils, which is useful for the same purpose. The body is covered with stiff, glossy hairs, which are closely set against the skin ; it is elongated and conical in form, gradually tapering from the shoul ders to the tail. The feet of the seal differ from those qf all other quadrupeds. They have the same number of bones, but are covered with a membrane which would make them resemble fins more than feet, but for the sharp, strong claws with which they are pointed. The limbs may be viewed as a sort of oars, or pad dles. In the front pair, the arm and forearm are very short, so | that but little more than the forearm advances from the body ; the hind limbs are directed backwards so as to almost seem like I a continuation of the body ; the thighs and legs very short ; the tail is short and thick ; the foot is formed on the same plan as the j forepaw ; but the toes are in contact; the web is folded when not ! in use as a paddle ; but spread out when the animal is swimming. i The seal moves in the water with great ease and rapidity, but on i the land, or on masses of ice, with extreme awkwardness. It is gregarious, living in herds more or less numerous, along the shores of the sea. The cellular tissue, situated between the skin and { muscles, is very loose and fibrous, and seems to be a receptacle 92 CARNIVORA. for the blood, during the suspension of breathing under water. It can remain in that element a long time without injury ; when it is submerged, the blood not freely circulating, and thus accu mulating in the larger veins. Its tissue appears designed in part to relieve the animal from the pressure of the superincum bent water. The blood is abundant and dark in appearance, showing that it has less oxygen than that of strictly terrestrial animals. Seals are found in almost every quarter of the globe, but they are most numerous in frozen and temperate regions. They exist in vast numbers in the seas around Spitzbergen, and on the coasts of Labrador, and Newfoundland. About thirteen species are included in tho genus Phoca. In their wide range, seals are sometimes found within the waters of the state oi New York. About the middle of the Spring of the year 1857, one wa% taken in the Hudson river, and another on the borders of Long Island. Dr. Dekay (N. Y. State Nat. Hist.) describes a female seal caught in Long Island Sound, near Sand's Point. At a for. mer period, these animals were abundant in our waters. "A certain reef of rocks in the harbor of New York, is called Robin's Reef, from the numerous seals which were accustomed to resort thither; robin, or robyn, being the name in Dutch for seal."* In the Kingston (U. C.) Chronicle, of February, 1823 or 1824, there was a notice of a seal taken on the ice of Lake Ontario, near Cape Vincent, (Jefferson county,) N. Y. In August, 18*24, a seal was exhibited alive in New York, which had been taken in a seine in the Chesapeake, near Elkton, Maryland. A seal, said to have been beautifully spotted on the under side, was taken some years since near Lynn, Mass. The length of the common seal, Phoca concolor, or P. vitul.ina, (Lat. calf-like,) (see Plate VIII. fig. 1.) is, on an average, about five feet; the color, yellowish gray, clouded with brown or yellow. The female produces her young during the winter, taking care of them at the place of birth for a few weeks, until they become sufficiently strong to be taken to the water, to which they are then removed by the parent, not without solicitude for their safety. By her they are taught to swim, and seek for fish, and when they are fatigued, she carries them on her back. As might be expected from the nature of its food, the seal has a fishy smell. It is reported that when assembled in numbers on shore, the odor is perceivable at some distance. In pursuing their watery prey, seals display much cunning and power of swimming. * Nat. Hist, of State of New York. CARNIVORA. 93 The voice of the animal when old, is a hoarse, gruff bark ; when young, a peculiarly plaintive whine. " With a good glass," says Dr, Kane,* "you may study these animals in their natural habit udes, undisturbed by suspicion. As thus seen, in the centre of a large floe, and within retreating distance of his hole, the seal is a perfect picture of solitary enjoyment, rolling not unlike a horse, stretching his hide, awkwardly spreading out his flippers, and twisting his rump towards his head. Again he will wriggle about in the most grotesque manner; the sailors call it 'squirm- ing,7 every now and then rubbing his head against the snow. The shapes of a seal, or rather his aspects, are full oi strange variety. At a side view, with his caudal end slued round 10 the side from you, and his head lifted suspiciously in the air, he is the exnct image of a dog, cluen de mer. During his wriggles, he resembles a great snail ; a little while after, he turns his back to you, and rises up on his side flippers, like a couching hunter, pre paring for a shot, the very image of an Esquimaux." The seals are proverbially shy. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders, to whom these animals are of inestimable importance, as furnishing them with the chief means of subsistence, are from earliest youth, trained to the pursuit of them, and look upon the most successful hunters of them as their great men. "No one can pass for a right Greenlander who cannot catch seals." This is not strange, considering the manifold benefits furnished the northern tribes by these animals. The boat, or kajah in which they brave the violence of a northern sea, and the perils of the chase, con sists of the skin of the seal placed over a light frame work of wood. The same skin furnishes the material for his dress; the flosh of the animal supplies him with his "most palatable and substantial food ; the fat gives him oil for lamp-light, chamber and kitchen fire. He can sew better with fibres of seal's sinews than with thread or silk. Of the skins of the entrails, he makes the windows of his house, curtains for his tents, his shirts; and pnrt of the bladders they use at their harpoons, and he makes train bottles of the maw or stomach." Seal skins and oil are to him also important articles of commerce. The fishing com mences in autumn, and is practised by means of nets stretched across narrow sounds where the seals are in the habit of swimming. Only the young ones can be taken in these nets ; the old ones are shot, or else the boatmen enter the recesses of the animals at night, with torches and bludgeons, and despatch them, which they do easily with a slight blow on the forehead or muzzle. * Grinnell Arctic Expedition. 9-1 CARNIVORA. x "To shoot seal," says Dr. Kane, "one must practise the Esqui maux tactics, of much patience and complete immobility, tt is no fun to sit motionless and noiseless as a statue, with a cold iron musket in your hands, and the thermometer 10o below zero. Very strange are these seal ! a countenance between the dog and the ape; an expression so like that of humanity, that it makes gun-murderers hesitate. At last, at long shot, 1 hit one. The ball did not kill outright; it struck too low. He did drown finally and sunk, and so 1 lost him. Curiosity, contentment, pain, re proach, despair, and even resignation, I thought I saw on this seal's face." . . . "A Danish boy who had joined us by stealth at Disco, told us that the animal's sinking was a proot that he had no blubber, and he was probably right." Though the orifice of the ear, as we have said, contains a valve which closes, yet the seal has a most delicate sense of hearing, and delights in musical sounds, a fact not unknown to the ancients. Laing, in his ac count of a voyage to Spitsbergen, states that when the violin was played, " a numerous audience of seals" would generally collect around the vessel, following her course for miles. In allusion to this peculiarity of the seal, Sir Walter Scott says, " Rude Ilciskar's seals, through surges dark, Will long pursue the minstrel's bark." The seal has often been domesticated, and it is said, made use of in fishing. The following is among the anecdotes illustrating this remark. "In January, 1819, a gentleman residing in the county of Fife, Scotland, completely succeeded in taming a seal. Its singularities attracted the curiosity of strangers daily. It ap peared to possess all the sagacity of a dog, lived in its master's house, and ate from his hand. In his fishing excursions, this gentleman generally took it with him, when it afforded no small entertainment. If thrown into the water, it would follow for miles, the track of the boat, and though thrust back by the oars, it never relinquished its purpose. Indeed it struggled so hard to regain its seat, that one would imagine its fondness for its master had entirely overcome the natural predilection for its native element." When companies of seals are seen at some distance " walking the water," their heads peering above it, they assume sometimes such appearances as have given rise to the stories of TRITONS, SIRENS and MERMAIDS, concerning which many marvelous things have been written. The P/wca Grocnlandica, or HARP SEAL, is about six feet in CARMVORA. 95 length, and noted for the variations of its color, as it advances towards maturity. The Phoca larbata, (Lat. bearded.) is larger, and has thicker and stronger moustaches than the others. Its length varies from seven to ten feet. Dr. Kane speaks of one which was shot by Capl. Haven, of the Grinneil Arctic Expedition, measuring "eight feet from tip to tip ; five feet eleven inches in his greatest circumference, and five feet six inches in girth behind the fore- flippers." "His carcass," says the Dr. "was a shapeless cylin der, terminating in an awkward knob, to represent the head." P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) or Slemmaf.opus cristat.us, (Gr. stemma, a wreath; &ps, face,) or HOODED SEAL, is distinguished for having a globular sac, which can be swelled upon the top of the head, in the male animal. This species reach the size of seven or eight feet, and live in the seas about Greenland and Newfoundland. The ELEPHANT SEAL, or SEA ELEPHANT, P. Macrorhinus, (Gr. makros, long, rhin, nose,) proboscideus, (Gr. proboskis, a trunk,) is the largest known species, being from twenty to thirty feet long, and having a girth at the largest part of the body, of eighteen feet. A full grown male of this species will yield seventy gallons of oil. This kind of seal is found on the southern coasts of Austra lia, Juan Fernandez, and the neighboring parts of South Ameri ca. Its voice is like the lowing of cattle, and it is inert in its habits. The name " Elephant Seal/' is given to the animals of this species, partly on account of the large size of their tusk-like canines, and partly from their power of lengthening the upper lip into a kind of proboscis. They are much sought after on ac count of the quantity of oil which they yield, and also of their strong skins, which are valuable, for harness making. The SEA LION, Plalyrhyncus leoninus, found on the north and south coasts of the Pacific, is from six to ten feet in length, and of a yellowish brown color. The males have a large mane upon their necks, partly covering the head and shoulders, and a very powerful voice, whence their name. The SEA BEAR, Arctocephalus ursinus, is so called from the fur and shape of the head. It grows to the length of five or six feet, and has small external ears. The membrane of the hind feet is prolonged into as many lobes as there are toes, and the fore feet are placed very far back. The color of the fur is brown, but when it is old, assumes a grayish tint. This species inhabits the coasts of the South Pacific, and is also said to be found in the northern hemisphere. Trichccus Roxmarus, the WALRUS, MORSE, or SEA Cow. 93 CARNIVORA. This animal resembles the seal in its general conformation, but is much larger, and more thick and clumsy in its proportions. Its distinguishing peculiarity is the construction of the skull. The lower jaw is without incisor and canine teeth, and is compressed laterally to fit in between two enormous canine teeth, or tusks, which arise out of the upper jaw, and are inclined downwards with a gentle curve. The length of the tusks is sometimes two feet. The alveoli, or sockets of these tusks, occupy the whole of the front portion of the upper jaw, and give a roundness to the form of the muzzle ; the nostrils do not end in a snout, but are far above the mouth, or what seems the middle of the face. The development of the brain is less in the Walrus, than in the seal, and it shows less intelligence. The ears are merely two small orifices ; the head is small in proportion to the bulk of the body; the neck short; the lips are thick, the upper one divided by a longitudinal furrow, and studded with strong bristles ; the skin is very thick and impenetrable, and covered with smooth, yellowish hair. This huge animal is often eighteen or twenty feet in length, and ten or twelve in circumference, around the chest. The Walrus is found in the icy seas of the north. Like the seal it is gregarious. It is not a ferocious animal, but on account of its great strength, and formidable tusks, is dangerous when attacked ; and the more dangerous because many hasten to the help of a companion when in trouble. They are said to be mo- nogamous. The females defend their young with great resolu tion and perseverance. These animals resort to islands of ice, or the ice-bound shore. The tusks furnished them by the Crea tor, assist them to mount the slippery acclivities, or ledges of ice, they striking the points of the tusks into the glassy surface in order to secure themselves firmly, and drawing up their unwieldy bodies. It is said their hind feet are furnished with suckers, which act on the principle of cupping glasses, exhausted of air, so that the feet adhere to the ice, and thus help the animals to propel themselves forward. Thus the Walrus can climb the ice berg with security, pass over its surface and betake itself at pleasure to the waters of the ocean. Captain Cook, in his Journal of his Voyages, speaks of meet ing with Walruses off the northern coast of America. "They lie," says he, "in herds of many hundreds, upon the ice, hud dling over one another like swine, and roar and bray so very loud that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of ice before we could see it. We never found the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch. These, CARNIVORA. 97 on the approach of the boatr would awaken those next to them, and tjie alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole herd would be awake presently ; but they were seldom in a hurry to get away till after they had been once fired at ; they would then tumble over one another into the sea, in the utmost confusion, and if we did not at the first discharge, kill those we fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. The dam, when in the water, holds the young one between her fore arms." The chief use of the walrus to man, is in its tusks, which yield the finest ivory, and in its abundant blubber, or fat, which yields oil. They, and indeed all the marine mammalia which are found in the Arctic seas, have abundant fat, as their defence against the cold. A beautiful and striking evidence of kind and intelligent design, of which numberless instances are presented to the student of Natural History, is seen in the fact that immediately beneath the skin, a thick layer envelopes the body, and being a bad conductor of caloric, besides other advan tages already referred to, prevents the vital heat from passing off. With the Polar Bear, U. Maritimus, the Walruses have frequent and desperate conflicts. They feed upon shell fish, arid marine vegetables, and perhaps a further use of their tusks is to root up their food from the spot to which it adheres. Their flesh, like that of the seal, is highly valued by the inhabitants of Arctic re- gions, and northern voyagers have often found it a most accepta ble repast. Give the derivation and meaning of AMPHIBIA. To what animals alone does it strictly apply ? To what others is it commonly given? From what is PHOCIDAE derived ? What is said of their adaptation to a watery resi dence ? Describe the Seal. What is said of its habits ? How is it enabled to remain in water a long time without injury? Where are Seals most nu merous? How many species does the genus include? Where have they been found in this country ? What is their size ? What does Dr. Kane say of these animals? To what people are they of inestimable importance? Relate the particulars which are given respecting them. What has occa sioned the stories respecting Tritons, Syrens and Mermaids? What is said of the Harp Seal ? Give some particulars of the Bearded, Hooded and Ele phant Seals. What is said of the SEA LION? Why is it so called? Give some account of the SEA BEAR. What animal does the Walrus resemble ? What other names has it ? What is its distinguishing peculiarity ? How long are the tusks ? Give its general characteristics. What is said of its intelligence ? What is its length ? Where is' it found ? What are its habits and disposition? With what are its hind feet furnished? What docs Captain Cook relate respecting Walruses? Who was Captain Cook? Ans. A celebrated English circumnavigator, who was killed by the natives at 0\vyheef Sandwich Islands, in 1779. What is their chief use to man ? What evidence do they give of kind and intelligent design on the part of the 93 CARNIVORA. Creator? With what animal doep the Walrus have severe conflicts? What is its food ? What is said of its flesh? * SECTION XVI. SUB-ORDER INSECTIVORA. (Lat. insecta, insect, voro, to eat.) The INSECTIVORA, as the term denotes, comprehends those ani mals whose food is especially insects, but not exclusively, as sometimes they feed on other, and even vegetable substances. They walk on the sole of the foot, (plantigrada.) The sub-or der includes three families. Their motions are feeble, feet short and slender, snout lengthened. In cold climates they pass the winter in a dormant state. HEDGE-HOGS, (Erinaceada, from erinaceus, Lat. for hedge-hog.) The true hedge-hogs are found in Europe, Asia and Africa, while others are found in Madagascar and the Oriental Islands. They are slow and inoffensive, but are self-defended by a coat of stiff, tough spines or prickles. They roll themselves up into a round ball, and thus the spines project from every part of the surface, and are a defence and safeguard. They lie concealed in some crevice between the moss-grown roots of a tree, among a mass of withered leaves, or in a hole which they have exca vated ; and in this condition, the animal remains during the day, protected from injury in the way before described, should its retreat be discovered. As the dusk of evening comes on, it issues from its lurking place and prowls about for food. If pursued it makes no defence, but rolls itself up and trusts to its spines for safety. These are, indeed, the only means of defence bestowed upon this little, weak and timid animal. It feeds upon insects, frogs, snails, fruits, and esculent roots. It is useful in gardens, and often kept in large kitchens for the destruction of beetles and cockroaches. The TENREC, (Centetes, Gr. xe^w, kenteo, to sting or prick,) called also the Asiatic or striped hedge-hog, of Madagascar, has no tail, but is covered with a spiny coat of mail. It rolls itself up in the way of the hedge-hog already mentioned, though not so easily, is nocturnal, and passes three months of the year in sleep. Some are not larger than a mole. The species are Tenrec Centetes acaudatus, Lat. a, without, cauda, a tail.) C. setosus, (Lat. bristly.) Its spines are short and rigid. Va lied Tenrec, C.semi-spinosus, (Lat. semi, half, spina, spine.) Its body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles. SOREX, (Lat. shrew.} The SHREWS have usually been con sidered a kind of mice and of the order Rodenlia. They are, CARNIVORA. 99 however, distinguished from the latter by their teeth, and the con ical form of the head, and nose tapering to a long point. They place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground, which makes their legs appear short. They have glands along the side of the body, which secrete a humor of an unpleasant and peculiar odor. Their shrill, piercing cry may often be heard in spring and summer. Water shrews, which are twice the size of the others, are found upon the banks of rivers, ponds, and marshes, and appear to collect their food, consisting of the larvos of the ephemeral flies, from the loose mud. Stationing themselves at the mouths of their holes, they look intently on the water, and if a shoal of minnows pass by, they plunge in among them, diving with much adroitness. Their fur repels the water, and while submerged they appear almost white. The Common Shrew, S. araneuSj (Lat. Spiders,) is covered with soft velvety fur, is easily distinguished from the mouse by its long, tapering and cartilagin ous snout; the eyes, too, are very minute, almost hidden in the surrounding hairs, and the ears are round and close. It is usu ally of a reddish mouse color above, grayish beneath, and some times tinged with yellow. Its entire structure is well adapted to burrow under the earth, but it can also move rapidly upon the surface. Its length, from the snout to the tail, is about five inches ; its tail is one inch long ; it feeds upon insects, worms and grubs. Sorex fodiens, (Lat. digging.) The WATER SHREW closely resembles the common shrew in its conformation. Its feet are rather broad and formed for swimming, having a lock of stiff hairs on the end of the toes ; its tail is rather slender and fringed with stiff hairs. Its swimming is principally effected by the al ternate action of the hind feet. The appearance of these ani mals, and their motions in water are quite amusing. A sort of musk is expressed from the region about the tail, and the skins are put into chests and wardrobes, among clothes, to preserve them from moths. The DESMAN or MUSK RAT, Mygale (Gr. spider -mouse,) mos~ cliata. This is known as the Russian Musk Rat, is about the size of a hedge-hog and distinguished from the shrews by its long scaly tail, flattened at the sides. Under the tail of the Des man are two small follicles, containing a kind of unctuous sub stance of a strong musk odor, from which the name of musk rat is given to it. The SCALOP, to which Linnaeus gave the name of Sorex aqtmticus, is a native of Canada and is now separated from the true shrews. 100 CARNIVORA. We come now to notice the MOLE (Ta/pa) — Family, Tatyida. This animal is five or six inches in length and formed for an un derground life. Its body is thick and cylindrical ; the he id is pro longed, especially the muzzle, which projects far beyond the jaws, and is very flexibile and strong, serving to convey the food to the mouth ; it has no external ears, but the auricular appara tus is highly developed, and the sense is very acute ; its eyes are very small and concealed by its fur, so that it is a vulgar opinion that it is deficient in these important organs. The head is not distinguished from the body by any appearance of neck ; the legs do not project perceptibly from the body. The mole is accustomed to burrow for its food, forming its abode or "encampment" under ground, and raising a larger hil lock than the rest for the reception of its young. Its subterra nean excavations are most distinctly and determinately made, having passages or " high roads " from one part of its domain to another. Into these roads open the excavations in which it daily searches for food. In this home, which is separated from that in which its nest is formed, it dwells from autumn to spring. The mole is essentially an accomplished miner, and unlike most of the mammalia, finds his happiness and his home in the subterra nean (underground) galleries which he excavates with admirable skill and industry. Its fore feet, which are broad and muscular, are constructed like hands and form complete paddles for throw ing the soil behind the animal. (See Plate VI, fig. 4 of Mole's foot.) It has been mentioned that there is no external conch to the ears, as the auditory opening concealed by the fur is small. "A valve, capable of being raised or lowered like an eye-Kd, the mechanism of which is visible if the fur be shaved away, closes this aperture at the will of the animal, so as to ex clude any particle of earth or sand." The eyes, too, which are exceedingly small and buried in the fur for protection, may be uncovered at pleasure, when it emerges to the light. The Crea tor has given it the power of vision, but in a very limited degree ; in fact it is in the very lowest stage of development, but it has all in this respect that is needed. Its keen sense of smell is its chief guide in searching for food, and dwelling as it does, in darkness, this sense is remarkably perfect. The structure of the mole is such as to concentrate the whole force and energy of the animal in the anterior portion, and thus is adapted to its habits and mode of life ; the hands are large, bread, and thick; the bones knit firmly and solidly together; the claws are enormous — these are the organs by which it throws CARNIVORA. 101 up the earth ; the head is an organ for boring or digging, very long and flat, with the cartilages of the nose ossified ; the liga ment of the neck, which in other animals is elastic, is here bone also, so that the strain in digging is hotter borne ; the pelvis is very small ; the bones of the hind limbs are small and slender and rhe hind feet, though having claws, are feeble in comparison with the spade-like hands, thus hindering not its course through its under-ground roads, but yet having sufficient strength, and not in the way. In short, were we called upon for striking evidence of the de sign and attentive care of GOD, we would point to the habits and manners of the MOLH, and the fitness and adaptation of the means and instruments with which it is provided. The mole does not, of its own accord, emerge from its subterranean abode, except to seek for some more favorable soil in which to construct its halls and winding galleries. Rich and cultivated meadows, abounding in worms and other insects, are its favorite localities in which it makes its burrows. Unlike the dormouse or marmot, it is not less active in winter than in summer ; the twilight hours of morning and evening are its period of labor. The nest where the female mole nurses her helpless young, (of which she has one brood yearly, generally four or five, some times as few as three, rarely six,) is formed in a vault, carefully constructed at the center of diverging passages, made soft with leaves, grass, and scales of bulbous roots. '• The parents afford a pattern of mutual affection and assistance." The food consists of worms, insects, and when it can obtain them, small birds or quadrupeds, to which roots are also added. It is impatient of hunger, and cannot endure a fast of more than six hours' duration ; an abstinence of twelve hours is said to produce death. Agriculturists complain that they suffer injury from the young corn which moles carry off for constructing their nests ; but its turning up and lightening the soil, and its destruction of insects, earth worms and noxious creatures found near the surface of the ground and so hurtful to grass, corn and other, plants, furnish advantages to the farmer which probably more than counter balance any injuries which he suffers from the doings of the mole ; at the same time, we should guard the undue increase of these mining animals. CONDYLURA, (Gr. xovdvlrj, kondule, a knob, otf^d, oura, a tail ; knobbed tail.) CRESTED or S>TAR-NosED MOEE. This name was given to this animal, by Illiger, under an erroneous 102 CARNIVORA. impression that the tail is " knobbed." There is but one spe cies well known, cristata, (crested,) found in various parts of the United States. The nostrils are surrounded by movable carti laginous points that radiate like a star wlien expanded. The color is brownish black above, a shade lighter beneath. The head is remarkably large ; the body thick and short, growing narrower towards the tail, which is smaller at the root, large in the middle, and tapering to a fine point at the tip ; the fur on the body is very fine, soft and shining. The shape of the body resembles that of the common shrew mole, and it is similar in its habits. The BANXRINGS, (Tupaida,) of Sumatra and Java, are remark able insectivorous animals. They are nocturnal, and squirrel- like in their appearance and habits. QUESTIONS ON THE INSECTIYORA. How many families does the INSECTIVORA include ? On what do they feed ? What is said of their motions and habits ? Where are the true Hedge-hogs found ? Where others ? How are they self-defended ? How do they conceal themselves ? How is the day spent ? When does it seek its food? How act when pursued? For what is it useful? Where is the Tenrec found ? What is it called ? How covered ? What are its habits ? What its size ? How many species ? Give their names and derivation. To what order have Shrews commonly been referred? How are they distin guished from mice ? How do they tread ? What have they upon the side of the body ? What is said of their cry ? To what places do Water Shrews resort ? What do they use for food ? What is said of their watching for minnows? What effect has their fur upon the water? How is the shrew distinguished from the mouse ? What is its color ? For what is it well adapted ? What is said of the Water Shrew ? What of the Russian Musk Rat? What of the Scalop ? For what kind of life is the mole formed? Describe the animal. How does it obtain its food? What is said of its ex cavations ? How are its fore feet constructed ? What is remarkable about the ear ? What is said of the sight and smell ? In what part of the body is the strength concentrated ? Give particulars as to its structure. Wherein does it give proof of divine care? Why does it leave its subterranean abode ? In what respect is it unlike the dormouse or marmot ? What is said of its nest ? What of its abilities to fast ? Why do agriculturists com plain of the mole ? What benefits does it confer upon the farmer ? From what is the term Condylura derived ? Was it rightly given ? Why is this animal called Crested or Star-nosed? Describe it. What is said of its shape and habits? What is said of the Banxrings? OBS. Here, at the close of the order CARNIVORA, and every other order, let the teacher have a general review, naming the sub-orders, tracing out the genera, families, &c., giving the specific name to each as he describes the animal, pointing them out when on the chart, telling all he can remem ber about them, either from the book or chart. If he omits anything, let it be mentioned by other members of the class. No pupil should ever be per mitted to pass the name of a person, or place, or even a word, without knowing who the person was, where the place is, and what the word means. MARSUPIALIA. 103 SECTION XVII. FOURTH ORDER. MARSUPIALIA, OR MARSUPIATA. (Lat. marsupium, a purse or bag.) This order is arranged into two sections, — Marsupials and Monotremata. These are not un frequently regarded as separate orders, constituting a sub-class termed Ovo-vivipara, (Lat. ovum, an egg ; vivo, to live, and pario, to produce,) and intermediate between the truly viviparous mammals and the oviparous birds and reptiles. The animals of this order are numerous and quite different in their organs from all other mammals. So peculiar is their internal structure that Cuvier remarks they may be looked upon as containing several orders running parallel with the or ders of ordinary quadrupeds. Their rank is low in the scale of intelligence. Of the two sections the marsupials show the least depaTture from the general type of the Mammalia. The most striking peculiarity, common to them all, is the immature state of the young at birth, they being much like the half formed chick in an egg which has been but a few days incubated •, and their reception, into a pouch or fold of a skin in the female, in which they .are nourished, remaining there five or six weeks, until they increase in size and are able to take care of them selves. Even for some time after the young one can procure its own living, and runs and plays by its mother's side, it instinct ively flies to the maternal pouch for protection from threatening danger. The pouch is supported by two bones placed amidst the abdominal muscles and called the marsupial bones. They are found in the male as well as in the female, and even in species where the pouch- formed fold of the skin is scarcely perceptible. It is remarkable that these mammals are confined almost entirely to Australia, including New Guinea and the islands immediately adjacent, excepting the Opossums, whose home is South America, but which are also found abundantly in the United States, resid ing in woods and thickets near hamlets and villages. Appear ances of secondary rocks seem, however, to indicate that at for mer periods they were more widely spread over the earth's sur face than they are at present. The Marsupials include between seventy and eighty known spe cies, arranged by Prof. Owen into sixteen genera. The whole are divided into five families, named from the more usual char acter of their food. I. The SARCOPHAGA, (Gr. <7«dl, sarx ; phagd, to eat.) FLESH-EATERS. These are found in New Holland arid Van Diemen's Land 104 MARSUPIALIA. alone; though remains of them have been found in the Stonefield slate, (England,) and in the gypsum quarries of Paris, (France.) They show great varieties of size, from that of a small wolf to a mouse, the larger ones being considerably fierce, des troying sheep, and even making their way into houses ; others attack poultry and suck their blood. Those of the smallest size show a likeness to the Insectivora, and live on trees. Prof. Owen enumerates three genera of the Sarcophaga, viz. : Thyla- cinus, Dasyurus and Phascogale. These, with others of the or- der, show a tendency to the multiplication of teeth, and peculiar ities of the arterial system and bodily organs. The Thyladnus, (Gr. Oukaxo;, thulacos, a sac ; Tvig, inis, offspring,) has incisors, £; Canines, {'-r > Molars, ffi =46. The species T. cynocephalus, (Gr. xvuiVy kudn, a dog ; xeqpu&q, kephale, head,) Dog-headed Thy- lacinus, Tasminianor Zebra VVolf, is an extremely active animal, of the size of a young wolf; has short smooth hair, of a dusky brown above, but barred or zebraed on the lower part of the back with about sixteen jet-black transverse stripes. This has to the other animals of the group, relations similar to those which the lion and tiger have to the larger quadrupeds of Africa and Asia. Formerly it preyed chiefly upon Phalangers and Kangaroos, re jecting the flesh of the Wombat, an animal common in the dis trict which it inhabits. Since sheep have been introduced, its favorite food is mutton, which puts shepherds on the alert to des troy these animals by every possible means. The Dasyurus, (Gr. daauz, dasus, thick ; oi^d, dura, tail,) has a conical shaped head, and on the hind feet the great toe is reduced to a tubercle, or entirely absent. It has four less molar teeth than the Thyla- cinus, making the number forty-two. One species is named D. ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) — Ursine Dasyurus — having very strong muscular jaws, and in its movements resembling the bear. Its vulgar name is "Native Devil." The Dasyurus is very destructive to poultry, eats raw flesh of all kinds and probably dead fish and blubber, as its tracks are found on the sea shore. In confinement it appears untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same time a low, yelling growl. The Phas cogale, (Gr. qptt^xwAtoj', pliaskolion, a bag; */«^£, gale a weasel.) has seven molars instead of six, on each side, above and below, making the whole number forty-six. The species P. penicillata, (Lat. penicillus, a little tail,) lives on trees, has fur short, woolly and thick, and is rather larger than the brown rat. II. FAMILY, the ENTOMOPHAGA, (Gr. fcVro,u«, entoma, insect; qpayw, to eat.) INSECT EATERS. These have three kinds of teeth in both jaws and a simple MARSUPIALIA. 105 stomach, like the preceding family, but more complicated in testines. This family includes three branches, or sub-fami lies; Ambulatories (walking;) Saltatoria, (leaping;) Scan- sorid) (climbing.) The only genus of the Ambulatoria, or Walking section, is Myrmecobius, (Gr. fiugp]$, murmex, an ant ; @IOM, biod, to live. The only species is M. fasciatus, (Lat. swathed,) which feeds on ants and has the reddish black of the body adorned with nine white bands, whence the specific name. Its length is ten inches. The Perameles, (BANDICOOTS,) is of the Leaping section, including animals which, in their general struc ture, form a link between the Opossums and the Kangaroos, evi dently approaching the latter in their form, and particularly in the development of their hind quarters ; with the Opossums they agree in having a simple stomach and ten incisors in the upper jaw. Some species, as P. lagolis, (Gr. laywg, logos, a hare,) make large and almost exclusive use of vegetable food. In most of this family the pouch opens backwards, the reverse of what occurs in the other Marsupialia, though in P. lagotis it opens anteriorly. The species are found in Van Diemens' Land and in New Guinea. The Scansoria, or Climbing section, include the Didelphida, or OPOSSUMS, in their geographical distribution confined to this continent. These animals are all small, the larg est being about the same size as the domestic cat, while some of them are no larger than mice. They number about thirty spe cies, ranging from Brazil to Virginia, under one genus THdelphis, (Gr. Slz, dis, double ; Sskylg, delpliis, a pouch,) with the exception of a single species, found in Surinam, in size larger than a rat, and from its aquatic habits, as shown by its broad webbed feet, ranked as a sub-genus, under the name Cheironectes, (Gr. #e^> cheir, hand ; vTjXfi}st neklcs, a swimmer.) The true OPOSSUMS, (Didelphis,) have fifty teeth, viz. : ten incisors above and eight below, four canines, twelve false molars, sixteen molars. The incisors are small and disposed in the form of a semi-circle ; the canines are large and strong ; the molars are crowned with sharp tubercles. The feet have each five toes, armed with strong curved claws ,• the inner toe of the hind feet, however, is desti tute of a claw, and is so placed as to be opposable to the oth ers, thus constituting a true thumb. The tail is more or less prehensile at the tip, and hence they are arboreal. The soles of their feet are covered with a naked skin of great sensibility ; the ears and tip of the muzzle are likewise naked. In some species, as D. dorsigerus, (Lat. dorsum, a back ; gero, to carry,) the pouch exists only in a rudimentary state, or slight folds of the skin. The young of these species, when of sufficient size, 106 MARSUPIALIA. leave the pouch of the parent and are carried on her back, where they hold themselves by entwining their prehensile tails around thatofthe parent. (See Plate V. fig. 7.) The species best known is the common Opossum, D. Virginiana, of the United States, as early as 1649 thus described : " This beast hath a bagge un der her bellie, into which she taketh her young ones, if at any time they be affryghted, and carryeth them away." The food of the Opossum is roots, poultry, and wild fruits. Like the spi der monkeys,, this animal uses the tail for climbing and swinging from branch to branch ; it crawls slowly on the earth. When attacked it will feign itself dead, and no. beating will induce it to show any signs of life. Even dogs are deceived, and turning it over, pass it by. The initiated determine whether it be alive or not " by the appearance of the last joint of the tail, which is never relaxed." From its assuming a feigned character, any adroit cheat, or sly deceitful acting, is said to be *' possuming," or " playing possum." It has been said, " if a cat has nine lives, this creature surely has nineteen ; for if you break every bone in their skin and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you may come an hour after and they will be gone quite away, or perhaps you may meet them creeping away." — (Lawson.) The color of the Opossum is greyish white, darker along the sides ; the flesh is very white and well tasted ; for this it is hunted, but not for its fur. * When disturbed or alarmed it gives out a very unpleasant odor. The Virginia Opossum is about the size of a domestic cat. Its hair is of two kinds ; the lowest a long woolly down, brownish at the tip, through which pass the long hairs of a pure white on the head, neck, and upper parts of the body. The tail is not so long as the body, covered at the base by long hairs, but only scantily furnished with bristles which come out from be tween the whitish scales that protect it for the greater part of its length. III. Family, the CARPoniAGA, (Gr. xagnog, karpos, fruit ; qpayo;, phago, to eat.) FRUIT EATERS have large and long inci sors in both jaws ; the canines sometimes wanting, and a still longer intestinal canal. They resemble the squirrel tribe, but are more closely related to the Kangaroos, the Kangaroo- rats, (Hypsiprimnus, Gr. "vymgvuvog, hupsiprimnos, high extremity or stern,) affording the connecting link. Of this family are the PHALANGERS, Phalangista, (Gr. qpaAaj'l?, phalanx, plu. yctlayyeg, phalanges, small bones of the hands or toes, (see Plate III. figs. 3 and 4.) Those are so named because they have the second and third toes of the hind feet united as far MARSUPIALIA. 107 as the \astphalanx, (or small bone,) in a common skinny sheath. They have short, woolly fur, and a long prehensile tail. Among these are the COESCOES, (sub-genus Cuscus,} of the Molucca Islands, said to suspend themselves by the tail at the sight of a man. The Petaurus, (Gr. petad, to fly ; aura, air,) has thirty-eight teeth ; no canines ; the skin expands between the fore and hind limbs, enabling it to take very long leaps, supported in the air as by a parachute. In leaping, it is aided by its flattened and bushy tail. P. sciureus, the NORFOLK ISLAND SUGAR SQUIRREL, or FLY ING SQUIRREL, rests by day, but at night skims through the air, half leaping, half flying from branch to branch, feeding upon leaves and insects. The IV. Family is the Poephaga, (Gr. 7t6rj, poe, grass, qoayw, phago, to eat,) GRASS EATERS. Sub-family Macropida, (genus Macropus, Gr. long-footed.) The KANGAROOS. The aspect of these animals is singularly striking — the front parts are light and graceful, while the hinder parts of the body, limbs and tail are very stout and muscular ; the head is lengthened ; the ear. very large ; the upper lip cleft ; the whiskers very short and few ; the hind limbs have very long tarsi, like those of the Kangaroo-rat, but are much longer and more robust ; the tail is long, triangular and very muscular. The teeth are comparatively few, viz. : incisors, f ; canines, 0 ; molars, £:£=24. The species are numerous. The one best known is the Macropus major, the GREAT KANGAROO. The natural posi tion of these animals is sitting upon their hind legs, in which attitude they are supported by the strong, muscular, and tapering tail. Their movement on all fours is awkward and constrained, but they bound or hop along on their hind limbs with great facil ity, each leap being about fifteen feet. They easily clear obsta cles seven or eight feet high. M. Brunii, Le Brun's Kangaroo, is the first of the Marsupials with which naturalists became ac quainted. It is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and was described by Le Bran as early as 1711. The Kangaroo was discovered by Capt. Cook in his first voyage. Since that period, (1770,) it has been brought over in abundance to Europe and this country; has bred freely and might become an associate of deer in parks and forests. The conical and tapering form of the body at once suggests to the beholder the idea of great muscular power in the loins and lower limbs, just the opposite to the mole. Its fore limbs are of little use in its forward movements. The defensive 108 MARSUPIAL1A, weapon of these animals consists of the large claw of the hind foot, which is lengthened, strong, and armed with a hoof-like nail. With this they can inflict a severe blow ; their eves are full and bright; the mouth small ; the ears large and pointed ; the fore paws are divided into five fingers, armed with nails for scratching or digging ; the hind feet have five toes, but the two inner ones are very small, and so united in their whole length under the skin as to appear but one. The Great Kangaroo in habits New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, and is about five feet without the tail, the length of which is about three feet. The female, like the Opossum, carries the young about in its pouch, from which they emerge when they desire exercise, and leap back again on the least alarm. The largest weigh 140 to 150 pounds. The Kangaroo's flesh is much esteemed ; it is hunted in Australia with a breed of dogs between the rnastifF and greyhound. The V. family is the Rhixopkaga, or ROOT EATERS, (Gr. V£a> rliiza, root; $, pous, a foot,) didactylus, (Lat. two-fingered ;) the UNAU. These animals have no incisor teeth, four canines, two in each jaw, fourteen molars, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw. The molar teeth consist each of a cylinder of bone, covered with enamel ; hence their surfaces are always concave, the enamel wearing less rapidly than the soft interior. No laminae, or folds of the enameled substance penetrate the body of the teeth, as in most other animals ; the canines are somewhat longer than the molars, and in form pyramidal. When these animals stand erect upon their hind legs, their fingers can reach to the ground ; and when moving upon all fours, they trail themselves slowly and painfully along upon their elbows. Their claws surpass the whole foot in length, and are very sharp and crooked. (See Plate VI. fig. 5.) In a state of rest, they are drawn down upon the palm and wrist, and can be extended only by the will and muscular effort of the animal. Sharp, and bent in form, they are so many effective hooks for holding on; while the rigidity of the limbs gives a firm hold ; the feet and thighs are jointed obliquely, which adapts them for embracing a branch ; and the great length of the arms aids these animals in seizing a fresh hold, and drawing twigs and leaves, their usual food, to their mouths. They are born and live on the trees, and never leave them, unless from the operation of force, or accident, resting not upon the branches, like the squirrel, or monkey, but under them, and moving and even sleeping sus- EDENTATA. 113 pended from them. It is remarked of some which were in a state of captivity, that they assumed, during sleep, "a position of per fect ease and safety, on the fork of a tree," the head being sup ported between the arms and chest, and the face buried in the long wool which covers those parts, and thus protected during sleep, from the myriads of insects which would otherwise assail it. The animals of the other genus, the Unau, or Choloepus didacty- lus, the two-fingered sloth, have essentially the sa-me singular conformation and habits as the three-fingered sloth, and are with those of the other genus, found among the tropical forests of South America, II. EDENTATA PROPER. MYRMECOPHAGADAE, ANT-EATERS. Myrmecophaga, (Gr. fttyurjZ, murmex, an ant, qo^'w, phago, I eat.) The Ant-eaters are distinguished by being entirely without teeth, and also by their hairy covering. The latter peculiarity separates them from the Pangolins, (Manis,) or Scaly Ant-eaters, of Asia and Africa, which animals, in other respects, they closely resemble. In this family, the jaws are produced into a very long and slender muzzle, which has a mouth of very diminished size. (See Chart.) The phalanges, or small joints of the toes (particu larly the last,) which bear the claws, are so formed as to allow them to be bent inwards only as in the Sloths ; and to this end, have very powerful ligaments, which keep them in a state of re pose, bent in along the sole of the foot, and do not allow the hand to be opened entirely, but only half extended, as seen in gouty or rheumatic people. (Plate VI. -fig. 5.) The toes are of unequal size, and vary in number, in different species ; as in the Sloths, they are united closely together as far as the claws, and are not capable of separate or individual motion ; but this disability is more than compensated by the increased strength which it pro duces. The claws are all large and powerful, especially that of the middle toe, which is enormous. In walking, these animals tread upon the outer edge of the foot, which is provided with a large callous pad for that purpose ; whilst their toes being bent ih wards, along the palms, the sharp claws are preserved from being injured by the friction of the hard ground. The Ant-eaters are remarkable for their very long and round ed tongues. With these, they take the ants which are their prin cipal food. On approaching an ant-hill, the animal scratches it up with his claws, and then protrudes his slender tongue, which has the appearance of an exceedingly long tape worm. The tongue is covered with a glutinous saliva; it is nearly twice the length of the whole head and snout together, and when not ex tended, is kept doubled up in the mouth, with the point directed 114 EDENTATA. backwards. The ants adhere to his tongue when it is thrust into their hills, and by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them. The eyes of the Myrmecophaga are exceedingly small; their ears short and round ; the legs robust and amazingly powerful, but so unfavorable for locomotion, that these animals are almost as tardy in their movements as the Sloths themselves, except when put to their speed, at which time, their motion is pretty rapid. Of the Ant-Eaters proper, we name three species. 1. M. jubata, (Lat. maned or crested,) the GREAT ANT-EATER. This animal is about four and a half feet in length, from the snout to the tail, which is three and one-quarter feet long, so that the entire length of the animal is seven and three-quarters feet; the height at the shoulders is three and three-twelfths feet, and but two and ten-twelfths feet at the croup, in consequence of which, being perfectly plantigrade, it necessarily stands lower behind than before, as is seen in the bear and badger ; the toes are four on the front, and five on the hind extremities. It is sometimes called Ant-Bear, from its mode of defence, which resembles that of the bear. When assailed by a dog, he seizes him between his strong fore legs, and squeezes him to death, or else deals out severe blows with his sharp prehensile claws. The clothing of the Great Ant-Eater consists of long, coarse hair, forming a mane down the neck and back, and enveloping the tail in a thick brush, which trails upon the ground. On the head the fur is close and spare. The color is generally a grizzled black ; a dark black stripe, bordered with white, passing obliquely from the side of the neck, to the upper part of the back. This singular animal has but a single young one at a birth, which for a whole year is carried about with the mother wherever she goes. Its digestive organs seem adapted for extracting nutriment from ants alone. In its habits, it is solitary as well as slothful. Like all other animals living upon insects, it can exist a long time without food. Its flesh, though black, and of a musky flavor, is sometimes found on the tables of Europeans, and by the Indians is highly esteemed. M. Tamandua. (Cuvier.) The TAMANDTTA. This Ant-Eater is much smaller than the one just described, being not so large as a fox, or even a good sized cat ; whereas the Maned Ant-Eater exceeds in length the largest greyhound, though much inferior to that animal in height, owing to the short ness of its legs. In the conformation of its extremities, and the number of its toes before and behind, the Tamandua is like the Ant-Bear; but it differs from that animal in the prehensile power of its tail, which makes it essentially an arboreal quadruped. EDENTATA. 115 The hair differs also, being short and shining, and of a consistence which makes it a medium as to its qualities, between silk and wool. The colors, are, likewise, more variable than those of the Great Ant-Eater. The Tamandua is found in the thick primeval forests of tropical America, living on trees, upon termites, honey, and according to D'Azara, upon stingkss bees, which have their hives among the loftiest branches of the forest. The female has but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with her on her shoulders, for the first three or four months. M. didactyla, (Lai. two-fingered, or toed.) The LITTLE or Two-ToED ANT-EATER. This is easily distinguished from the other two species, by its size, which does not exceed that of a large rat or squirrel ; also by the number of its toes, four on the hinder, and only two on the front extremities. The length from the snout to the tail is but six inches; that of the tail is seven and one-quarter inches; to wards the point the tail tapers, and becomes naked, and it is strongly prehensile. The snout is not so long in proportion to the body, as in the other two species; the legs are stout and short; the hair very fine and soft to the touch. Like the other species, the Little Ant-Eater has but one young at a birth, which it con ceals in the hollow of some decayed tree. Orycteropus Cctpensis, (Gr. OQVXTJJQ, orukter, a digger; novg, pous, a foot.) The AARDtVARK, or EARTH- HOG. This animal, of Southern Africa, is also to be numbered with the Ant-Eaters, though there has been some difference of opinion as to its proper location. It resembles both the Ant-Eater and the Armadillo, agreeing with the former in its general habits; but though without any scaly armor, more like the latter in its anatomical structure. Like the Armadillo, it has large and pow erful claws, adapted for digging up roots and insects, and for making burrows in the earth. When full grown, it is five feet long, from the snout to the end of the tail, which is about half the size of the body. Its tongue is not cylindrical like that of the Ant-Eaters proper, but flat and slender, and cannot be protruded so far. The flesh, particularly of the hind-quarters, is dried for hams, and much esteemed as food. Manis. (Linnasus.) The PANGOLIN, or SCALY ANT-EATER. The name Pangolin, which is given to the animals of this genus, is said to be derived from the word Pangoeling, signifying, in the Javanese language, "an animal which rolls itself in the form of a ball." The Pangolins are limited to the warmest parts of Asia and Africa. In common with the Hairy Ant-Eaters, they are without teeth, and have a very long extensile tongue, 118 EDENTATA. covered with a glutinous mucus, for securing their insect nutri. rnent, but they differ from them in their body, limbs and tails, which have as a panoply, their scales large, imbricated, (L e. hollowed like a roof, or gutter-tile,) and overlapping each other; they differ also in being able to roll themselves up when in dan ger, by which means their trenchant or sharp cutting scales be come erect, and present a defensive armor against their enemies. These animals are particularly remarkable for the strength and number of the vertebrae of the tail, (forty-seven in the large spe cies.) By some they are regarded as a kind of link between viviparous quadrupeds and the Lizards. M. macroura, (Gr. long-tailed,) or M. tetradactyla, (Lat, four- fingered.) (Linnaeus.) This species, found in Africa, is more than two feet in length, and the tail is more than twice as long as the body. The broad, striated and pointed scales, cover the whole body, except the un der part ; the legs are very short, and also scaled ; on each of the feet are four claws, those on the fore feet being stronger than the others. The scales are of a uniformly deep brown color, with a tinge of yellow, and a glossy surface. M. brachyura, (Gr. figa/vs, brachus, short; 'oujxi, oura, tail,) or M. penladactyla, (five-fingered.) The SHORT-TAILED MANIS. This Scaly Ant-Eater is a native of East India, where it re ceives different names, Tiled-Cat, Land-Carp, Caballe, &c. It has a much thicker and shorter tail than is found in the preceding species; the body is stout, and shorter than the tail. Each of the feet, as the specific term pentadactyla denotes, has five toes ; those on the fore feet, except the outer one, which is small, being very strong. The scales differ in shape from those of the Long-Tailed Manis, and are much larger and wider in proportion to the body and the tail ; they are so impenetrable that when the animal rolls itself up, the tiger, panther, or hyaena attempts to force it in vain. The middle claw of the fore paws, far exceeds the others in its proportions, and is admirably adapted for the destruction of the nests of termites, or white ants, which are a great part of its food. It is said the natives " have a method of making a hole in its skin with a knife, and thus of guiding and governing the animal at their pleasure, the point of the knife, which is kept in the hole, goading and irritating him." It is numerous in Ceylon. III. Dasypodidae, (Gr. duavg, dasus, hairy ; novg. pous, a foot.) The ARMADILLOS. This remaining family are arranged by Cuvier into five groups. They are distinguished by having molar teeth alone, and appear to have a place between the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, the latter EDENTATA. 117 being without teeth, and the Sloths, in addition to the molars, having large and powerful canines. Ant-Eaters differ from the Sloths and Armadillos, not only by being without teeth, but also by the want of clavicles, or collar bones. The most prominent distinction of the Armadillos, is the peculiar nature of their ex ternal covering. This consists of a bony, tessellated crust, in which their bodies are enveloped ; the hips and shoulders being covered by large, broad bucklers, while the intermediate back is shielded by transverse movable bands, similar in form and ap pearance to the plate armor of the middle ages. Hence the name Armadillos, (from Armada, armed, and of Spanish origin,) has been given to these animals. The transverse bands which are separated by narrow strings of membrane, overlap each other, as in the ancient coats of mail, so as to give greater freedom, and some degree of lateral motion. The tail, with the exception o>f one species, is covered with a series of rings; the limbs are in cased in a hardened, tuberculous sort of skin, and are very short and strong; the toes have strong claws, adapted for digging or burrowing, a process, which, in the light sandy soil traversed by them, they accomplish with surprising celerity. The molar teeth with which they are furnished, are never less than twenty- six in the whole; and in one species amount to ninety-eight I those of one jaw fitting into interstices of the other as in the Dol phins. (See Plate IV. fig. 11.) The eyes are very small; the ears large ; the long and slender tongue, like that of the Ant-Eaters proper, is lubricated with a viscid saliva, by means of which it readily takes up ants and similar insects, upon which it chiefly subsists. It however, also feeds on farinaceous roots, and on car rion, so that in Paraguay, deceased persons who are "interred at a distance from the usual place of sepulture, are obliged to be pro tected by a lining of strong boards." In searching for food, it is guided chiefly by the sense of smell ; its sight is poor, but this is compensated by the acuteness of its hearing. The Armadillos burrow with such rapidity that they soon disappear in the earth, when suddenly surprised. Their movement is a sort of waddling run, but rather rapid, most of them easily outstripping a man. In captivity, this is kept up by the hour together, and without any apparent motive. The greater portion of them are nocturnal, never moving abroad while the sun is above the horizon, but re maining concealed in their burrows. The female bears annually, and frequently six, eight, or even ten at a birth. The Armadillos are able, more or less perfectly, to roll themselves up into a ball. These hardy animals thrive and breed rapidly, with a moderate portion of care, in most temperate* countries, but their proper hab- 118 EDENTATA. itat is the tropical and temperate portions of South America. Of the nine or ten species, we particularize 1. Dasypus Peba, or D. novemcinctus, (Lat. nine-banded.) The PEBA or BLACK TATU. PI. VI. This species, found in Paraguay, Guiana and Brazil, varies in the numbers of its bands, so that it is sometimes called D. octo- cinctus, (Lat. eight-banded,) and D. septemcinctus, (Lat. seven- banded.) Its length, from the snout to the tail, is sixteen inches ; that of the tail is fourteen inches, and its circumference at the base, six inches. It is much hunted on account of the delicacy of its flesh, which when roasted in the shell, is fat and well tasted ; said to resemble that of a sucking-pig. Of individuals of this species, found in the Zoological Gardens of England, it is re marked, "they are fed on vegetable diet, and appear to be in ex. cellent health. During the summer, they are allowed the liberty of a little paddock, where, by the singularity of their actions, they attract a crowd of spectators, and come in for a share of the in terest excited by the gambols of their fellow countrymen, the Spider Monkeys." (Martin's Quadrupeds.) D. Apar. The MATACO. The animals of this species are distinguishable from all others of the genus, by "the faculty which they possess of rolling them selves up like a hedgehog, into a round ball, in which situation they may be tumbled about, or even, it is said, thrown over preci pices, without receiving any material injury." They are, how ever, less common than some of the other species. D.gigas, (Lat. a giant.) The GREAT ARMADILLO. This species have unequal toes and enormous claws, but what most distinguishes the animals of this group, is their possession of from eighty-eight to ninety-six teeth, a number greater than is found in any other mammal. (PI. VI. fig. 6.) The Great Armadillo is about three and one-quarter feet long, from the nose to the tail, which is one foot, five inches. It is sep arated from the other species of this genus, not only by its supe rior size, but by various remarkable characteristics. Its head is proportionably smaller; the forehead more protuberant; the face rather cylindrical in form, like that of the Peba; the ears are not very large, pointed, and crouched backwards; the bucklers of the shoulders and croup have nine and eighteen rows of plates respectively, and are separated by movable bands to the number of twelve or thirteen, formed of rectangular scales, about half an inch square. At the root, the tail is as much as ten inch es in circumference, and covered with ring plates, at the base, and with crescent-shaped lines*throughout the rest of its length. EDENTATA. 119 The claws are very large and powerful. This animal confines itself to the great forests, and burrows with surprising facility, being assisted in this by the strength of its claws. "Those who are employed in collecting the Jesuit's bark, frequently meet with it in the woods, and report that when any of their compan ions happen to die at a distance from the settlements, they are obliged to surround the body with a double row of stout planks, to prevent it from being scratched up and devoured by the Great Armadillo." Chlamyphorus, (qpo^ew, phoreo, I bear; xAa^, chlamus, a cloak.) The PICHIAGO. This edentate animal seems to blend in itself the characteris tics of several distinct tribes. Like the Armadillos, it has a tes sellated shield ; this, however, is not, as in them, attached by integ uments, to the entire under surface, but is connected with the back only, by a ridge of skin along the spine, and with the skull by two bony prominences from the forehead, the margins of which are beautifully fringed with silky hair. Its feet, eyes and snout, exhibit resemblances to the mole. From the appearance of the hind part of the tesselated shield, this animal has the specific name truncatus, (Lat. truncated, or cut off.) Naturalists have designated resemblances in it to the Sloth, the Aard-Vark, the Creator Maned Ant-Eater, the Echidna, and the Ornithorhyncus ; and to the Ruminants and Pachyderms. Dr. Buckland regards it as "one of the nearest approximations to the Megatherium, par ticularly in regard to its coat of mail, and in the adaptation of the animal for digging." Dr. Harlan says, "taken collectively, it furnishes us with an example of organic structure, if not unpar alleled, not surpassed in the history of animals." The Pichiago is quite small, the total length of the animal being only five inches and a quarter. "It is a native of Chili, but is so rare even there, as to be regarded by the natives as a curiosity." IV. Me.gatherida, (Gr. jus-yctS) megas, great ; Ortalov, therion, wild beast.) FOSSIL SLOTHS. This is a group of animals of such gigantic size, and massive proportions, that even their fossil remains strike the beholder with wonder and astonishment. Of such a character are these re mains, that we are constrained to bestow more space upon them than can be given to other fossil tribes. These are the MEGATH- EROIDS of Professor Owen, whose descriptions of them are ex ceedingly elaborate and interesting. Of these fossils, the. follow ing genera have been enumerated by him, viz., Megatherium, Mcgalonyx, Glossotherium, Mylodon, and Scelidotherium, all of which are found in South America alone. Of the Megatherium, 120 EDENTATA. nearly the whole skeleton has been considered, by comparing different imperfect specimens, found after three unusually dry seasons, in the river Salado, running through alluvial plains, to the south of Buenos Ayres. This has given rise to the not im probable "suggestion," that the long continued drought brought these extinct gigantic animals to a slender stream, running be tween mud banks, and that they may have been "engulphed in their efforts to reach the water." The Megatherium gives evidence in its remains, that it was more nearly allied to the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, than to the Armadillos. The skull is thought to resemble the former two; the rest of the body was adapted partly to the former and partly to the latter. When full grown, it is judged this enormous ani mal must have been not far from eighteen feet in length, and nine feet in height. (See fig. on the chart.) The thigh bone twice the thickness of the largest elephant's; the fore foot more than three feet in length, and more than one in width, and terminated by an enormous claw. The width of the upper part of the tail, could not have been less than two feet. The entire structure of this extinct animal, must have been admirably adapted for digging in the earth, so as to enable it to obtain the succulent roots which probably constituted the principal part of its food. Dr. Buckland, in his "Bridgewater Treatise," says, "The size of the Megatherium exceeds that of the existing Edentata, to which it is most nearly allied, in a greater degree than any other fossil animal exceeds its living congeners. The entire frame must have been an appa ratus of colossal mechanism, adapted exactly to the work it had to do; strong and ponderous in its proportions, as its work was heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of life and enjoyment to a gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they have ceased to be counted among the living inhabitants of our planet, have, in their fossil bones, left behind them imperishable monuments of the consummate skill with whic'i they were constructed." Megalonyx, (Gr. [teyus, megas, great ; "oi>v$, onux, nail or claw.) To the remains of this animal, this name was given on account of the size of its claws. Mr. Jefferson described it from some bones found in caverns in Western Virginia, and considered it to be carnivorous. Ele supposed it the largest of unguiculated ani mals, and probably the enemy of the Mastodon. Dr. Wistar, of Philadelphia, afterwards saw in the bones of the fossil foot, resem- blances-to those of the Sloth. Cuvier showed that it belonged to the Edentata. Professor Owen reviewed the whole subject, and arranged the animal as a distinct genus. EDENTATA. 121 Glossotherium, (Gr. ylwucra, gldssa, a tongue ; Or^lov, tlierion, a wild beast.) Tiiis genus is based " on a fragment of a cranium found in Mr. Damin's collection, discovered in the bed of the same river, in Banda Oriental, with the skull of the Toxodon." Reasoning from this fragment, Professor Owen found decisive evidence that the cranium was that of an extinct Edentate, and related to the genera Myrmecopliaga and Manis. Mylodon, (Gr. ^uAr], mul£t a grinding mill; odovs, odous, a tooth.) This fossil Edentate, according to Professor Owen, "holds an intermediate place between the Ai and the Great Armadillo." It must have had the size and proportions of a Rhinoceros, but with the limbs still more massive. So great was probably its muscular strength, it could overthrow trees ; and as it was a leaf-eater, and too bulky and ponderous for climbing, it could thus feast at its ease, on the abundant foliage. Scelidotherium, (Gr. axeA^, skelis, a haunch, or thigh ; tlierion, a wild beast.) This large extinct Edentate was allied to the Megatherium, and the Orycteropus, Cape Ant- Eater. What is the fifth Order of the MAMMALS ? Why did Cuvier give this name to the animals of this order ? Is it strictly applicable to all the genera? To which is it applicable ? Name the first family. What is its meaning ? Give the other name of this family and its significations. How many genera does it include ? What are the leading characters and habits of the Sloth or Ai? What gives them a firm hold on the branches of trees ? Do they ever leave them ? On what part do they rest ? What is said of their sleep during captivity ? What is said of the habits of the Unau and other tropical Sloths? Where are they all found? Give the name of the second family. What is its derivation ? How are the ANT-EATERS distinguished ? What peculiarly separates them from Pangolins ? What is said of their jaws, phalanges (small bones of the fingers and toes,) and toes? Are the toes capable of separate motion ? How do they walk ? Describe the tongue and its uses. What is said of the other parts of the animal? How many species of the ANT-EATERS PROPER are named? What is said of the size of the animal? How many toes has it? Why is it sometimes called Ant- Bear? Why Jubata or crested? What more is said of it? What is said of the size of the Tamandua ? In what respect does it differ from the Great- Ant-Eater ? How is the Little or Two- Toed Ant- Eater distinguished, and in what particular respect or feature does it differ from the other two spe cies? Where is the Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog found? What animals does it resemble ? What is its size ? Does its tongue differ from that of the A. E. Proper? Why was the name Pangolin given to the Scaly Ant-Eaters? To what region is it confined? How does it resemble the Hairy Ant-Eaters, and how differ from them ? For what are these animals particularly remark able ? Where is the Long-tailed species found ? What is said of the scales ? Where is the Short-tailed species found? What names has it received? 6 123 RODENTIA. How does it differ from the Long-tailed species? What more is said of it? What is the name of the Third Family? How does Cuvier arrange it? Has it teeth ? What is the chief distinction of the Armadillos ? Describe them. What is the origin of the name ? What is said of the tail ? How doe? the number of the teeth vary ? How do they resemble those of the Dolphin? What further is said of these animals? Where is the Peba found? How long is it? On what account is it hunted? What is said of animals of this species in the Zoological Gardens of England ? What dis tinguishes the Mataco from all others of the genus ? What is said of the toes and claws of the Great Armadillo ? What is its size ? How is it separated from the other species ? What is reported by the collectors of the Jesuits' bark ? Give some account of the Chlamyphorus ? What does Dr. Harlan remark ? What is its size ? What is the Fourth Family ? What is said of the size and proportions of these animals ? What of their fossil remains ? How many species does Prof. Owen name ? How has the structure of this animal been made out ? What suggestion has been made respecting it ? To what animals were they most nearly allied ? What is said of their size ? What of its fore feet and tail ? For what was it adapted ? Give the quotation from Dr. Buckland. Define the term Megalonyx. Why was this name given ? State Jefferson's views of this animal. What did Cuvier show ? Who arranged it as a dis tinct genus? What is the import of the term Glossotherium ? Upon what was this genus based ? How did Prof. Owen determine their relation to Ant- Eaters ? Explain the term Mylodon. What place does Prof. Owen assign it ? What is said of its size ? Define the term Scelidotherium. To what does it relate? What is said of the MEGATHERIUM on the chart ? Give its dimensions and trace it from its position among the Sloth Family, BRADYPIDAE, through all its grades. Trace the Armadillo in the same way. SECTION XIX. SIXTH ORDER. — RODENTIA. (Lat. rodo, to gnaw.) RODENTS or GNAWERS. The GLIRES of Linnaeus. The animals of this order may be at once known by their hav ing, for the most part, two incisors or front teeth in each jaw, remote from the back teeth or grinders; (the Hare family have two, four, and sometimes six in the upper jaw.) There are no canine teeth, but a vacant space appears between the front and back teeth. The greatest number of cheek teeth is twenty-two. The incisors have no roots, but are deeply inserted in their sock ets. The enamel of the front side being more durable than the other bony matter of the teeth, always preserves their chisel- like edge. The jaws are so articulated that the lower jaw, (be sides opening and shutting.) simply moves backwards and for wards, or horizontally ; so that the front teeth serve to file down, or reduce to fine particles, the hard substances which are brought RODENTIA. 123 under their action. To meet the wear of the enamel and other parts, the teeth constantly grow in a ratio corresponding with the decrease or wear. Should one tooth be lost by accident, or dis placed, the counter one of the opposite jaw becomes enormously long, so as to impede its feeding, as is seen in rabbits. The mo lar teeth have flat surfaces, with ridges of enamel running trans versely across, so as to be opposed to the horizontal movement of the jaw, and thus more readily grind their food. The entire dental arrangement evinces admirable beauty and simplicity of design. The Rodentia, according to De Kay, include not far from 300 species, spread over the globe, (except Australia,) of which seventy are found in North America. They are generally inof fensive, being of a gentle and timid disposition, and trusting for protection to flight or concealment ; seldom more than of a mod erate size, while a portion of them are the smallest of the mam mals. Of these last the Harvest Mouse is an example ; the lar gest Rodents are .the Beaver, Capybara, and Porcupine. The Rodents feed upon the harder sort of vegetable matter, as nuts, grain, roots, twigs, etc., (except rats and mice, which are omnivorous, eating anything that comes in their way, as most house-keepers know to their sorrow.) The Rodents have gener ally six or eight young at a birth, and this two, three, and even four times in a year. They are, however, kept from overrun ning the earth by the rapacity of beasts and birds that live upon them. Many are remarkable for their soft and beautiful fur. The Beaver, Chinchilla and Grey Squirrel are valuable in commerce. Some of them, as the squirrel and dormouse, use the fore paws to convey food to the mouth, to hold an object, and to climb. The form of the body is usually more or less conical, the chest and shoulders being small, whilst the loins and haunches are robust and muscular; the hinder limbs are longer than the fore i>nes, whence their movement is that of leaping or hopping along. "Most of them are nocturnal or crepuscular in their habits; many dwell in burrows ; some conceal themselves amidst herbage, some among the foliage of trees, and some build for themselves habitations which have ex'cited the interest and admi ration of men." (Pict. Museum.) We arrange the nutnerous animals of this order into eight fam ilies, viz. : 1. SCITTRID^E, (Squirrels,) 2. ARCTOMYDJE, (Marmots;) 3. GERBILLIDJE, (Jerboas;) 4. CASTORIDJE, (Beavers;) 5. HYS- (Porcupines;) 6. MURID^E, (Rats and Mice;) 7. CAVI- (Cavies ;) 8. LEPORID^E, (Hares ) Our limits will not l'2l RODENTIA. allow us to do more than to give brief accounts of some of the principal genera and species. T. Family Sciuridse, (Lat. Sciurus, a squirrel,) SQUIRRELS. This includes between sixty and seventy species. Audubon says about twenty well determined species are found in North America. They are arranged into two groups, viz. : I. Squir rels with free limbs; II. Squirrels with their limbs invested in the skin at the sides. These are not only the most elegant and sprightly, but the most numerous and widely scattered of the Rodents. They are distinguished by their simple grinders, hav ing tuberculous summits, and the lower front teeth paired and much compressed at the sides. The toes are long and accompa nied with sharp and hooked claws, and the rudiments of a thumb. There are four claws on each fore foot and five on the hind. The full development of the collar bones, (clavicles,) gives them much facility in using their paws as hands. In eating, the squir rels usually sit upon their haunches, and holding the food be tween the rudimentary thumbs of both paws, nibble it away un til the whole is consumed. The head is proportionably rather large ; the eyes full and prominent ; the tail long, with the fur disposed on its sides like a feather ; the ears in many species are tipped with a pencil of hairs. These animals are easily tamed, and from their playful and graceful manners, often be come great pets. Most of the species resort to trees, but the Ground Squirrel, (Tamiasor S. striatus,} burrows in the ground. The generic name, Sciurus, or Shadow-tail, is derived from Gr. o-xJa, (skia,} a shade, and OVQU, (oura) a tail. Of this name the English term squirrel is a corruption ; it refers to the fact that when the animal is at rest, its long and bushy tail is turned over the back and shades it. I. GROUP. S. vulgaris, COMMON RED SQUIRREL. This graceful and ac tive little animal is generally about fifteen inches long from the nose to the tip of the tail, having the ears terminated by long tufts of hair ; the color of the head, body, tail and legs of a bright reddish brown ; the belly and the breast white ; the eyes large, black and sparkling ; the fore feet strong, sharp and well adapted to hold its food ; the legs short and muscular ; the toes long and the nails sharp and strong ; the lip is cleft ; the fur short and silky. It lives in pairs, constructing in the hollow of a tree, or in the fork between two branches, a water-proof nest of curiously interwoven moss, twigs and dry leaves. In May RODENTIA. 125 or June it commences to rear a young family, usually four or five in number. In the fall of the year it carefully hoards up its winter stores, which are concealed in holes and crevices of trees not far from its retreat. In Sweden and Lapland, the color of the Common Squirrel becomes gray in the winter season ; in Siberia it is often seen entirely white ; in other regions slight va riations of color are also noticed. In the varieties found on this continent, the pencil of hairs which tufts the Common Red Squirrel is wanting. The Gray Squirrel, (S. Carolinensis, or S. migratorius, Lat. migratory,) is one of the most common American species, found along the Atlantic, from Hudson's Bay to Carolina. Of this De Kay enu merates five varieties. It is about the same length as the Com mon Squirrel, (15 inches.) One of the most remarkable pecul iarities of this species is a propensity to distant emigration in large numbers. The Northern Migratory or Gray Squirrels are as much dreaded by the farmers of the West, as the devouring locust by the East ern nations. Everything suited to their taste vanishes before them, and no obstacle can withstand their progress. It is be- lieved by many that they pass rivers seated on a piece of bark brought by them for the purpose, and their tails hoisted for a sail. Audubon saw troops of squirrels cross the Hudson river at different places between Waterford and Saratoga, in the au tumn of 1808 or 1809, but said they appeared to him unskillful sailors and clumsy swimmers. £ vulpinus, (Lat. vulpes, fox.) The Fox-SquiRREL abounds in the pine forests of the Southern States, feeding upon the seeds of the cones of the long-leaved pitch pine, (pinus palustris, Lat. marshy,) acorns and other nuts. It makes long journeys to visit corn fields when the corn is in the milky state, and often erects a temporary summer house in their vicinity. g, pachiis, thick; derma, skin.) The animals included in this order are for the most part of large size; some of them are of truly gigantic proportions, being the largest of all land animals. They are called PACHYDERMATA, on account of the massive thickness and solidity of the skin ; a peculiarity which strikingly distinguishes the more prominent species. These animals are thinly covered with bristly hairs, or else almost entirely naked ; and their external appearance is frequently rough and coarse. They inhabit the warm latitudes of Asia, Africa and America. One genus. (Sus,) the Wild Boar, is found wild in Europe; and two or three others, used for pur- poses of economy, are now almost universally distributed by do mestication. The Pachydermata, for the larger part, live upon vegetable food, such as grasses and watery herbage, and the suc culent plants of the tropics. Their molar teeth are compound, often triple, with flattened crowns; in many there is a peculiar development of the canines or the incisors into curved and pro jecting tusks. The muzzle is frequently produced into a probos cis, or trunk, as in the Elephants, Tapirs, and, in a less degree, in the Hogs. I. FAMILY PROBOSCIDAE, (Gr. nQo6o;xlg, proboscis, a trunk;) including the Elephant Mammoth, and Mastodon. These are Multungu/ate, (many-hoofed.) Elephas, (Gr. 'sMpas, elephas ) The ELEPHANT. Of this magnificent animal there are two species, Elephas Indicus, or Asiaticus, and E. Africus. Both species are distin guished by their enormous tusks, which project downwards from the upper jaw of the male Elephants, of India, and of both males and females, of the African Elephants; also by the absence of front teeth from the lower jaw,- and by having five hoofs on each fore foot. The enormously large tusks are seated in the bones, from which the incisor teeth proceed in other quadrupeds, and continue to grow while the animal lives. The grinders or molar teeth strongly resemble those of many of the RODENTIA. These are made up of a certain number of vertical laminae, each formed of bone, covered with enamel, and held together by a third sub stance, called the cortical, (Lat. cortix, bark.) They are changed six or eight times in the course of the Elephant's life. The PACHYDERMATA. 143 manner in which they succeed each other is quite peculiar. The old tooth is not pushed up by the new one, as is usually the case ; but the new one appears behind the old one, urging it forward, so that the latter wears away, and its place is finally taken by the new comer. The teeth are of immense weight, and with the tusk, are the most valuable part of the animal. (PI. IV. fig. 7. & 8.) The tusk is hollow for a great part of its length ; the cavity con taining a vascular pulp, which supplies successive layers within, as the tusk is worn down without. Blurnenbach, (see his Compar ative Anatomy.) says that some modern naturalists consider the tusks a species of horn ; and that balls with which the animal has been shot when young, have been found on sawing through the tusks, imbedded in their substance, in a peculiar manner. These organs, especially in the African species, are extremely large. Cuvier has a table showing their great size. The largest recorded in the table was a tusk sold at Amsterdam, which weighed 350 Ibs. O.ie possessed by a merchant of Venice, was fourteen feet in length. The largest in the Paris Museum is nearly seven feet long, and about five and a half inches in diameter, at the largest end. Professor Silliman, during his last tour in Europe, measur ed one in the British Museum, which was ten feet in length. One described by Hartenfels, in his Elephantographia, (Gr. Ele~ pkas, Elephant ; graplio, to write,) exceeded fourteen feet. Or dinarily, the tusk of the Indian Elephant does not weigh more than from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The first or milk tusks, never attain much size; but are shed between the first and second year ; and the permanent tusks of the female are very small, in comparison with those of the male. The feet have five toes, " encrusted," as Cuvier says, in the callous skin which covers the foot, and appearing in the hoof by the nails alone The foot is enclosed in a horny shoe or sock, which, when detached, pre sents a cavity that is quite t'ght, and used by orientalists as a ves sel to contain their food Professor Silliman measured the shoe of an Elephant, in the British Museum, and found it five feet in circumference. (Plate VI. fig. 9.) The immense weight of the head, renders indispensable a pow erful muscular apparatus, and to that end a large surface for the insertion of muscles is necessary. The extended surface of the head gives full room for the attachment of the muscles of the neck. These muscles are most powerful, not only supporting the neck, but assisting the animal in digging or employing the tusks as means of defence. The vertebrae of the neck are more fully developed than in the Ruminantia, and the spinous processes in the vertebrae of the back, are lengthened and strong. The 114 PACHYDERMATA. entire structure is well compared to the Cyclopean walls of some ancient city, huge, shapeless, and piled over against each other as if destined rather to sustain weight, than to permit motion. The internal organization, as a whole, is more simple than that of the Ruminants; but still Elephants feed on nearly the same sort of food. The stomach is of a very lengthened and narrow form, its greatest diameter being only about one-fourth of its length. There seems to be a receptacle, though less extensive than that of the Camel, to enable the Elephant to retain or secrete water that may be used for moistening its food, but at times is also used to disturb the insects, which during a march, or in hot weather, annoy or torment it. ^But the trunk is unquestionably the most remarkable part of this animal's structure. This is properly a continuation of the nose, and becomes more valuable as an organ of prehension, from the unwieldy size of the head, and the shortness of the neck. It is an organ of respiration, as well as prehension ; and it is also a delicate organ of touch and smell. The short neck, made neces sary by the weight of the head and tusks, prevents the Elephant from putting its head to the ground, or from stooping to the water's edge; but for this disability it is fully compensated in the advan tage of the trunk. This extraordinary organ has, according to Cuvier, not much less than 40,000 muscles, which enable the Elephant to shorten, lengthen, coil up, or move it in any direction. Its structure is cartilaginous, and composed of numerous rings ; a partition runs from one end of it to the other, so that although outwardly it appears like a single pipe, it is inwardly divided into two. "Endowed with exquisite sensibility; nearly eight feet in length, and stout in proportion to the massive size of the whole animal, this organ, at the volition of the Elephant, will uproot trees, or gather grass ; raise a piece of artillery, or pick up a comfit ; kill a man, or brush off a fly. It conveys the food to the mouth, and pumps up the enormous drafts of water, which by its recurvature, are turned into it, and driven down the capa cious throat, or showered over the body." Through the trunk the Elephant uses his trurnpet-like voice ; the end has two open ings or nostrils, like those of a hog, and also a finger-like append age, with which he picks up small objects. His skin is usually of a brownish gray color, sometimes slightly mottled with flesh color ; generally it is full of scratches and scars, which it re ceives in its passage through thick woods and thorny places. The form of the head varies with the animal's age ; and it in creases immensely in those of full growth. The tail is long, and has a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the ground. The strength PACHYDERM ATA. 14") of the Elephant in union with its capacity, renders it a most effi cient aid, where extraordinary animal force is required, as in dragging ships, heavy stores and ordnance. Its ordinary pace is equal to that of the horse at an easy trot. A consideration of the velocity of its motion, as compared with the mass of its body, may help one to judge of its very great force. Many arduous and difficult military operations in the East have been much indebted to the sagacity, patience and strength of the Elephant. The height varies considerably. The East India Company's standard for serviceable Elephants is "seven feet and upwards, measured at the shoulders, in the same manner as horses are." It has been said, they reach the height of seventeen or twenty feet ; but there is reason to believe they seldom exceed ten feet in height. Those from Pegu and Siam are much larger than those of Hin- dostan. The Elephant has long been the companion of the Orientalist, in great hunting parties, (see border of the chart.) and from a very early period, has been made to minister to the wanton and cruel pleasures of Eastern princes, by being stimulated to com bat, not only with other Elephants, but with various wild animals. The ivory of these animals, which is now sought for useful pur poses, and also for minor ornaments, was in great request with the ancient Greeks and Romans, for various domestic uses, as well as for the Chrys-elephantine Statuary, (Gr. Clirusos, gold ; Ele- phas, elephant,) of Phidias, such as the Minerva of the Parthenon, and the Olympian Jupiter. The exports of the tusks from the East have been, and still continue to be, large. In 1831-23 those to Great Britain alone, amounted to 4,130 cwt. ; a weight of ivory, taking the average of the tusks to be sixty Ibs. weight, involving the destruction of fwm 4.500 to 5,000 Elephants. It is said 45,000 tusks are now annually consumed in Sheffield, (England.) alone. The West ern and Eastern coasts of Africa ; the Cape of Good Hope ; Cey lon ; India ; and the countries to the east of the straits of Malacca, are the marts whence the supplies of ivory are obtained. The chief consumption of this article in England, is in the manufac ture of handles for knives; but it is extensively used for other purposes. Ivory articles are manufactured to a greater extent at Dieppe, on the French sea-coast, than in any other place in Eu rope. In preparations of ivory, the Chinese excel. No Europe an artist has, we believe, succeeded in cutting concentric balls after the manner of the Chinese ; and their boxes and other ivory articles are decidedly superior to any that are to be met with elsewhere. 146 PACHYDERM ATA. Though captured in India, and reduced to servitude, and ex tensively hunted in Africa, on account of his tusks, the Elephant is still found in great numbers in remote, secluded districts of the East, where large streams or rivers running through a wide and level region, are fringed by a luxuriant vegetation. A traveler who accompanied some Elephant hunters in South Africa, was told by an experienced hunter that he had seen as many as three thousand in a troop, ranging along the banks of the Fish river. " A herd of Elephants," says Pringle, " browsing in majestic tran- quility amidst the wild magnificence of an African landscape, is a very noble sight, and one of which I shall never forget the im pression." Sometimes they "tear up immense numbers of mi mosa trees, sprinkled over grassy meadows, which border the river's margin." Of the soft and juicy roots of these and other trees, they are very fond. In overturning the trees, they some times employ their tusks as we do a crowbar, thrusting them un der the roots to weaken their hold of the earth, and facilitate the work of tearing up the trees with their proboscis. The Elephant is known to have a strong relish for sweetmeats and arrack, a spirituous liquor distilled from rice; and by these things is occasionally encouraged to perform tasks requiring great skill and labor. In plantations of sugar cane, he revels with great delight. Sometimes he adopts curious methods to grat ify his love of sweet things. "It chanced that a Cooley, laden with jaggery, which is a coarse preparation of sugar, was sur prised in a narrow pass in the kingdom of Candy, by a wild Ele phant. The poor fellow, intent upon saving his life, threw down the burthen, which the Elephant devoured; and being well pleased with the repast, determined not to allow any person egress or ingress who did not provide him with a similar banquet. The pass formed one of the principal thoroughfares to the capital ; and the Elephant taking up a formidable position at the entrance, obliged every passenger to pay tribute. It soon became known that a donation of jaggery would ensure a safe conduct through the guarded portal, and no one presumed to attempt the passage without the expected offering." The Elephant possesses all the senses in great perfection ; that of smelling is in him exquisite. He is not often bred in captivity, it being found more advantageous to take a well grown animal from a wild herd, and discipline it for service. In captivity, it is very docile and gentle, but when provoked will take full revenge. This, some who visit menageries have found out to their sorrow. All Elephants are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge themselves, so far that nothing but the end of their trunk remains PACHYDERM ATA. 147 above the surface. There are various modes of capturing these animals. One of these is by decoy Elephants, which are well trained to their work. With two of these decoys, the hunters proceed into the woods. The females advance quietly, and by their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate male that they meet, that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions then forsake hirn. At length he is subdued by hunger and the fatigue of efforts to free himself from his bonds, and then the hunters drive him home between their two tame Elephants. When once captured, he is easily trained. When in captivity, maternal affection does not seem strong in the elephant; but in the wild state, the animal has given striking illustrations of such affection, as well as of marital and filial love. The young animal is exceedingly playful, ft becomes mature when between 18 and 24 years of age, and usually lives to a great age; Aristotle says, "more than 200 years;" it has sometimes lived even more than 400 years. The Elephant appears deeply susceptible of influence from kindness. The natives in the East are wont to address him with persuasive and endearing epithets, which he seems to compre hend and by which he is stimulated to exertion. Sometimes his actions and display of comprehension appear almost the result of a reasoning process. An officer who served in India remarks, "T have myself often seen the wife of a mohont, (for the officers often take their families with them to the camp,) give a baby in charge to an Elephant while she went on some business, and have been highly interested in observing the sagacity and care of the unwieldy nurse." Memory, which, as well as instinct, is given to animals for their well being, seems to have great strength in the Elephant. An illustration of this remark is given by Mr. Corse, in the PhiL Tran., and quoted by Swainson in his "Habits and In- stincts of Animals." "An Elephant which had escaped, and which was subsequently captured in company with a herd of wild Elephants, after an interval of eighteen months, was recog* nized by one of the drivers. When any person approached the animal, he appeared wild and outrageous as the other animals, and attempted to strike the person approaching him with his trunk, until an old hunter, riding boldly up to hirn on a tame Elephant, ordered him to lie down, pulling him by the ear at the same time, upon which the animal seemed quite taken by surprise, and in stantly obeyed the word of command with as much quickness as the ropes with which he was tied permitted, uttering, at the same 7 143 PACHYDERMATA. time, a peculiar shrill squeak through his trunk, as he had for- merly been known to do. By this circumstance, he was imme diately recognized by every person who had been acquainted with his peculiarity." When bogged in swamps, the elephant shows a sagacity which is remarkable. "The cylindrical form of his leg, which is nearly of equal thickness, causes the animal to sink very deep in heavy ground, especially in the muddy banks of small rivers. When thus situated, the animal will endeavor to lie on his side, so as to avoid sinking deeper ; and for this purpose will avail himself of every means to obtain relief. The usual method of extricating him is by supplying him liberally with straw, boughs, grass, &c. These materials being thrown to the distressed ani mal, he forces them down with his trunk, till they are lodged under his fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure. Having thus formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious animal next proceeds to thrust other bundles under his belly and as far back under the flanks as he can reach ; when such a ba sis is formed as may be to him proper to proceed upon, he throws his whole weight forward and gets his hind feet gradually upon the straw, &c. Being once confirmed on a solid footing, he will next place the succeeding bundles before him, pressing them well with his trunk, so as to form a causeway by which to reach the firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and probably the ex perience of his. past danger, actuate him not to bear any weight definitely, until by trial both with his trunk and the next foot that is to be planted, he has completely satisfied himself of the firm ness of the ground he is to tread upon." — (Svvainson.) The general characters and habits of the two species E. Asi- aticus and E. Africus, are the same, and yet there are some points of difference. The Elephant of India has a head or skull almost pyramidal in form ; that of the African species is more rounded in contour. The tusks and ears of the latter are the larger. So enormously large are the ears that they cover the animal's shoulders, and are often " used by the natives as a sort of truck, upon which to draw various loads." The teeth, too, are different in numbers, the African species having eight mo lars, whereas the Asiatic has but four, and they are in the for- mer also differently marked ; the Asiatic is the larger in its frame and its color is a paler brown, and it has four nails on each hind foot, while the African has only three ; it is considered essential to the perfection of the Asiatic Elephant that it have eighteen nails, five on each fore foot, and four on each hind one. The PACHYDERM ATA. 149 Asiatic species is also deemed the superior of the two in point of sagacity ; though Cuvier was of the opinion that even this species does not in intelligence surpass the dog, an opinion that finds corroboration in the size of the Elephant's brain, which is estimated to be only ^£¥ part of his body, while in man the brain is -Jj part. E. primigenius, (Lat. primus, first ; gigno,to produce.) The MAMBIOTH. This is the name of an extinct species of Proboscidce, remains of which have been discovered in the tertiary fresh water de posits of the Eastern and Western Continents. Abundant re mains of this species have been found in the frozen mud of Rus sian America ; they have also been traced in smaller quantities as far south in the United States as Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri and North and South Carolina. The Chart figures one of these ani mals dug up at Newburg, N. Y., twelve feet high and fourteen feet long. Mammoth bones and tusks occur throughout Russia, and particularly in Eastern Siberia. The skeleton of one six teen and one-half feet in length, obtained in Siberia, and having the skin attached to the head and feet, is preserved in the muse um at St. Petersburg. The hair of this specimen consists of two kinds, common hair and bristles; showing in the arctic char acter of its clothing that it was capable of living in high northern latitudes, like the Rein-Deer and Musk-Ox of the present day. It is inferred from the teeth of these animals that their food did not probably differ much from that now used by their survivors in tropical countries. E. Americanus. AMERICAN ELEPHANT. Dr. De Kay, (N. Y. S. N., 189,) designates a species under this name from specimens of teeth found in a diluvial formation near the Irondiquoit river, in Munroe County, ten miles east of Rochester. Mastodon, (Gr. fiaaTog, mastos, a nipple or udder ; odovg, odous, a tooth.) (Plate IV. fig. 9.) This is the name of an extinct genus of gigantic Pachyderms whose remains are found abundantly in tertiary and sometimes in secondary deposits. The animal must have equaled or exceeded the elephant in bulk, and greatly resembled him in shape ; the tusks, proboscis, and the general conformation of the body and the limbs were similar. The principal distinction between the two genera was formed by the molar teeth, the crown of which, unlike those of the elephant, exhibited, on cutting the gum, large conical points of a mammiform structure, whence the animal derived its name. The whole number of teeth was twenty-six. The Mas- 150 PACHYDERMATA. todon was probably less exclusively herbivorous than the ele phant. "There is scarcely a state east and south of the Hudson River which has not afforded specimens of the Mastodon" The gen'is ejnbraces species which " have been found in almost every partof the world, and in all latitudes." The term mammoth, which was; specially applied by the inhabitants of Siberia to a fossil elephant, has sometimes been improperly given to this animal. M. gigontOUS) now one of the attractions of the British Muse um, was found near the banks of the river La Pomme de Terre, a branch of the O.sage River, in Burton Co., Missouri, imbedded in a brown sandy deposit, full of the remains of cypress, tropical cane, swamp moss, stems of palmetto, &c. Five arrow heads were found with the remains, which were 20 feet 2 inches long, and 9 feet 6j| inches high. These remains were exhibited in Lpndon in 1842-3, under the name of the Missouri Leviathan. At the Bif bur den. The head, neck, shoulders and back are covered with al ternate stripes of white and black ; the nose is white, with faint 8 172 PACHYDERMATA. black markings ; the black stripes of the body become fainter on the haunches and disappear on the under parts. E. Quagga, or A. Quagga. The name, (Quagga,) of this ani mal, expresses the sound of its voice, which, in some degree, is like the barking of a dog. It is now sometimes tamed by the natives and used for purposes of draught, and occasionally a half domesticated specimen is offered for sale at Cape Town with a rider on its back ; but in the most tractable state to which it has hitherto been reduced, it is regarded as vicious, obstinate and fickle. ORDER PACHYDERMATA. Give the derivation of the term PACHYDERMATA. Why are the animals of this order so called ? Where are they found ? What genus appears wild in Europe ? What is the nature of their food ? What peculiarity have the canine or incisor teeth ? How is the muzzle prolonged ? What is said of the size and strength of these animals ? From what is the family name PROBOSCI'DKA derived ? What does it in clude? How many species of the Elephant? By what are both species distinguished ? How do they compare as to general characters and habits ? In what respects do they differ? What is said of the molar teeth ? What peculiarity in the manner in which they succeed each other? In what bones are the tusks seated . Describe the tusks. What is said respecting their length and weight? How is the foot enclosed? What is required by the immense weight of the head ? What is said of the muscles of the neck? To what is the entire structure compared? What is said of the internal organization? Which is the most remarkable part of the Ele phant? What are its uses? How many muscles has it? Describe it. What is found at its extremity ? What is said of the skin, head, tail and general appearance of the Elephant ? What indicates its very great force ? What is the East India Company's standard as to height for a serviceable Elephant ? Where are the largest found ? What use has been made of them by Eastern princes? What use was made of ivory in ancient >»mes? What weight of it was exported to Great Britain in 1831,2. Hotf G reat a destruction of Elephants did "this involve? Mention the chief marts whence ivory is obtained. For what purpose is it most used in England ? Where in Europe are ivory articles manufactured most extensively ? What people excel in preparing ivory articles ? Where are Elephants still found in great numbers? Of what roots are they especially fond? What ingen ious use do they make of, their tusks ? How is this animal stimulated to extra effort ? Repeat the story showing his love of sweet things. What is said of his senses ? What of his fondness for certain flowers and plants ? Why is he not often bred in captivity ? For what is he trained in India ? What is said of his fondness for water ? How is he captured ? What allu sions to the Elephant are found in the Holy Scriptures ? What is said of their affections ? How illustrated ? How are they influenced by kindness ? Give examples showing their sagacity and power of memory. Derive the specific -name of the Mammoth. What is said of thueir remains? Give the derivation of the term Mastodon. Is this a living or extinct genus ? In what deposits are its remains found ? How is it principally distinguished PACHYDERM ATA. 173 from the Elephant? What more is said of it? To what is the term Mam moth properly applied ? Where have numerous remains of the Mastodon been discovered? From what is the term SUID./E derived? How many species does it in clude ? What is the origin of the common Hog ? Where is the wild ani mal still found? How distinguished from the domestic Hog? What is next said of him ? What other differences between the domestic and the wild animal ? What is said of the variety of color in the common Hog ? What of its habits ? What people were forbidden to eat its flesh ? What do late experiments show ? From what may it be inferred that this animal was designed to be food for man? Give the opinion of Linnaeus. Why is the flesh of great importance to commercial people ? Does the value de pend chiefly upon the size ? What is said of the Chinese breed ? What further is said of the Hog ? What is the meaning of the word Babirussa ? How does this animal compare with the common Hog? What is said of its tusks? Upon what does it chiefly subsist ? How does it elude pursuit ? In what countries does it abound ? What is said of a pair taken to France ? What is the derivation of Pacochoerua ? Where are the animals of this genus found ? Why is it called Warty-Hog ? What is said of its teeth ? What is indi cated by its structure? Give the derivation of the term Dicotylcs. Where are PECCARIES found ? By what are they allied to the true swine ? How do they differ ? What is their most decided characteristic ? How many species ? Why is the COLLARED PECCARY so called and where found? What objection to it as a domestic animal? What is said of the WHITE-LIPPED PECCARY? Are they found in great numbers ? What is the derivation of the term Rhinoceros? In what regions is this animal found? What is its rank? How many species ? What is their chief peculiarity ? What is the meaning of the specific term unicornis ? Why is this name given to the Common East Indian Rhinoceros ? Describe this animal and give its habits. What did Pennant suppose it to be? What is its ordinary food ? Illustrate its capacity for food ? What more is said of it ? How does the R. of India differ from that of Java ? What is its range ? What does Marsden say ? What is said of the R. of Suma tra? How extensive is the range of the R. of Africa? How does the African species differ from the Asiatic? How many varieties or species are found in South Africa ? Describe the Black variety ? What is the chief difference between the two varieties ? How do the white and black R. differ ? Describe the R. simus. What use is made of its horn ? What account is given of the Rhinoceros? Give the derivation of the term Hippopotamus. Describe the character istics of this animal. How many species and what is their range ? Is it found in Asia ? What is the size of the adult male of the H. amphibius ? What seems its native element ? What is said of it on land ? When and what does it eat ? How do troops of them appear when in water ? What fact shows their fondness for that element? How are they harpooned ? What is said of their flesh and hides ? What is the most valuable part of the animal ? In what respects is their ivory superior to that of the Ele phant ? Are they easily domesticated ? What is said of one in the Re gent's Park, London ? How many species of the TAPIR ? Where is it found ? Give the general character of the genus. What animal does it resemble ? How does it 174 PACHYDERMATA. differ from it ? Describe the Tapir of South America. What animal often springs upon it ? What is said respecting its domestication ? What are its uses? How does the Asiatic compare with the AMERICAN TAPIR in size? What appearance has this animal ? How is it in captivity ? Where has the third species been discovered ? What Scripture animal is the Hyrax ? How is it described ? Who proved it to be a true Pachyderm ? How many ribs ha,s it? What larger animal does it resemble ? Describe the Daman or Hyrax of Syria. Is it easily captured ? On what does it feed ? How was it classed among the Jews ? What is said of the CAPE HYRAX ? Give the derivation of the term Palaeotherium. To what animal is it applied ? How many species have been discovered ? Where have the re mains been found ? What is the Zoological position of this genus ? What were the habits ? What does Buckland suppose ? What does Cuvier say respecting the discovery of this fossil genus? How is it characterized? Give the derivation of the term anoplotherium. What does it mean ? In what connection is it found ? Give the derivation of EQUIDJS. What animals belong to the ONE-HOOFED Mammalia, or solipedes ? Mention the UNEVEN-HOOFED animals, and the MULTUNGULATE, or many hoofed? What does the HORSE FAMILY include? Which are most valuable and widely distributed? How are the EQUID^E distinguished from other animals? What is said of the Ass? What of the Zebra ? What is said of the teeth of the Equidae ? What are their native regions? Which species have become domesticated? What does the term caballus mean? What is said of the qualities of the horse? What of his native regions ? What of his first subjugation? What countries produce the most beautiful breed of horses? How does the Arab treat his horse? Give Mr. Bell's remarks respecting the native country of the horse. Where is it now found? How usually captured ? What is said of its food? How is its age determined ? What is said of its attachments ? Give examples. How long does it live ? How widely diffused ? What is said concerning the use of the Ass in Oriental countries? What of its introduction into other countries ? What is remarked respecting WHITE ASSES? What of the breed of the MULE ? Give some account of the ONAGGER or ONAGGA. To what does the name DIZIGGUETAI refer? Where is this animal found? Describe it. Where is the Asinus Zebra found ? Give some account of it. Of what country is the Eqiius Burchellii a native? What is said of it ? What is said of the Asinus Quagga ? Trace the horse from the spe cies, (caballus,) through the higher divisions. Name the three families of the order Pachydermata from the chart. Mention the animals named in each, giving both the common and scientific names. Give the characteristics and peculiarities of each family, genus and species. Which is the largest animal of this order mentioned? Which the smallest figured on the Chart ? RUMINANTIA. 175 SECTION XXI. EIGHTH ORDER. — RUMINANTIA. (Lat. rumen, a stomach or paunch.) RUMINATING, or CUD-CHEWING ANIMALS. This pre-eminently useful order includes the oxen, sheep and goats, deer, giraffes and camels. They were very anciently recognized as a separate group, and taken as a whole are ex tremely compact and well defined. The camels alone present some si ight exceptions to the general character. Each foot ends in two toes, covered with two sharp pointed horny hoofs, fitting each other as though a single round hoof had been cleft in the middle. Behind these are two small spurs, or rudiments of lateral toes. Hence they are called animals with "divided, or bifurcate hoofs." The RUMINANTS are well known as herbivorous. Their name indicates the singular faculty which they have of masticating or chewing their food a second time, and by which they are special ly distinguished from all other animals. For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, or one divided into four dis tinct chambers or cavities, each having a distinct office to per form. The first is the rumen, or paunch, in full grown animals the largest of all, and covered with papilla, or flattened warts. Into this passes the hard and coarsely masticated food from the beginning of the muscular canal, which is at the end of the seso- phagus or gullet. From the rumen, the rudely bruised herbage is transmitted into the second stomach, called the reticulum, or hood, which is beautifully divided into hexagonal cells, like a honeycomb. Water is received from the mouth into this second cavity. The food is here moistened and moulded into small balls or pellets, and by a rapid and inverted action of the muscles of the gullet is propelled into the mouth, where it is more per fectly masticated, mixed with fluid and again swallowed, passing now into the psalterium, omasus, or manyplies, the third stomach. The inner coat of this division is set with parallel longitudinal lamina, or folds, resembling the leaves of a book. In the sheep it has forty, in the ox as many as a hundred of these folds. In these plates the superfluous fluid, which might otherwise have too much diluted the gastric juice, is absorbed ; and the sub-divided cud passes gradually into the fourth and last, or red stomach, (abomasus,) which is large and pear shaped, and wrinkled and hairy, as to its inner surface. This is the true digesting stom ach, and in the young, while sucking, is the largest of the four. 176 RUMINANTIA. For the purpose of assisting the reader to form a correct idea of this wisely arranged internal mechanism, ive give a section of a stomach, as in Plate VI. fi-g. 13, with the following EXPLANATION. In the stomach of the Ruminants, (fig. 13,) the gullet or oeso phagus (A) which is opened, expands into the paunch or Rumen (B) which is divided by a muscular wall ; the valve (C) allows the food only to pass gradually, by the action of the paunch, into the Reticulum or hood, (D,) which is opened to show the folds and cells called the honeycomb, and from which the food, moist ened and compressed, is passed back to the mouth a-nd chewed again. When swallowed the second time, it passes to the oma- sus, or third stomach, (E.) The gullet has a fold running down and walling in the orifice of the omasus, (F.) The fibres sur rounding this orifice contract on the application of crude veget able matter ; but when this matter has been elaborated in the rcticukun, and chewed the second time, the orifice expands, and by the action of the muscular fibres of the stomach, is brought higher up into the gullet to receive the then welcome mass. The laminated or leaf-like structure of the omasus, sometimes called the leaflet, is shown in the figure. From this the food passes to the fourth stomach, (abomasus, G,) which has digestive powers similar to that of the simpler stomach in other animals. The third stomach is the least essential to ruminants capable of enduring long thirst and of living upon dry shrubs, like the Camel and Llama. It cannot properly be said to exist in them, and the opening leads directly into the abomasus. It is remark able that the milk upon which young animals of this kind are fed, requiring no process of rumination, passes directly from the gullet into the fourth stomach. Another character of the Ruminants is the possession of inci sor or cutting teeth in the lower jaw only. Cuvier makes them consist of two divisions ; first, those without horns, and secondly, those with horns. The larger part have horns, particularly the males. The few species which want these organs have the tusks, or cutting teeth, which are deficient in the others. The vegetable nature of their food renders the flesh of these animals wholesome and agreeable. Their milk furnishes butter and cheese ; their skins, leather ; their horns, combs ; their wool, cloth and yarn ; their hair is used in the 'making of matresses, sofas, etc. The fat has the property of hardening as it cools, and is distinguished by the name of suet. Their tallow is made RUMINANTIA. 177 into candles and soap, and their bones are in great request for manure. Indeed, they seem to have been formed with the ex press design of ministering to man's comfort and welfare. They inhabit the known world, with the exception of Australia. Define the term Ruminantia. What animals does the order include ? Is the group well defined ? What exception is made ? Why are the hoofs of this order termed bifurcate or bisulcate ? Upon what do these animals sub sist, and what peculiarly distinguishes them from all other animals ? De scribe in full the stomacR of a ruminant, pointing out the parts as you pro ceed, on plate VI. fig. 13. How does Cuvier divide the Ruminants? To what species are the larger incisors confined ? What is the nature of their food ? What their uses ? Where are they found ? Name the seven families of Cud-chewing animals on the Chart. Which are without horns? Which have solid horns? Which hollow horns? Which is the tallest? Which most useful for food? Which for clothing? Which wild ? W hich domesticate d ? SECTION XXII. Camelida, (Gr. xapjlos, kamelos, a camel.) The CAMEL TRIBE. This family of the Ruminants differ, in some respects, from the others, forming a connecting link between them and the Pachyderms, or thick skinned animals. They are without horns; the hair inclines to be woolly; there are fleshy bosses, or hurnps on the back 4 These humps are of a firm, fatty con sistence, seeming like reservoirs of nutriment, being observed to diminish from absorption, during long abstinence, but to increase again when food becomes abundant." The eyes are large and projecting ; the ears small. The Camels have canine teeth in both jaws, and two incisors in the upper jaw, which are wanting in other Ruminants. The lower incisor teeth are six in number ; there are six molars on each side in the upper jaw, and five in the lower. The anterior one takes the form of an additional canine. This, however, is wanting in the Llamas. The upper lip is swollen and cleft in the center, and has a power of motion. It is used for feeling or examining the dry shrubby food on which these animals mostly live, before it is conveyed to the mouth. When in the midst of abundant pasture, they usu ally browse as much in an hour as serves them for ruminating all night, and for supporting them during the next day. But such pasturage they do not often find, and they are even thought to prefer nettles, thistles, cassia and other prickly vegetables to the softest herbage. •* They have seven callosities, or firm pads, EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. FEET AND STOMACHS. 1. Foot of an ox. Bisulcated foot, or bifurcated hoof ; cloven-footed 5 two-hoofed. 2. Camel's foot, showing the pad or cushion which prevents its sinking in the sand. 3. Llama's foot, showing the sharp hoof for climbing rocky hills. 4. Mole's foot, formed for digging or scooping out the earth. 5. Sloth's sharp, strong, crooked claws, for clinging to the branches of trees, on the under side of which they live suspended. 6. Foot of the Armadillo, Dasypus, fitted for rapid burrowing. 7. Lion's toe. A, represents the toe with claw sheathed. B, shows the retractile apparatus, with claw in same position. C, claw unsheathed. D, claw in same position, with tendons exposed. 8. Horse's foot ; solipedes, hoofs whole, not cloven or divided. Solidun- gulate, one-hoofed. 9. Elephant's foot, showing the horny shoe enclosing all the toes. 10. Rhinoceros' foot; three toes on each foot incased in hoofs. 11. The fore foot or hand of a Seal, used as a fin for swimming. 12. A Dolphin's fore fin, flipper or paddle for swimming. 13. Stomach of a ruminant or cud-chewing animal. A. ^Esophagus or Gullet, expanding into the rumen or paunch. B. Rumen or Paunch. It is the first stomach and much the largest in the adult animal, but small in the young. C. Valve allowing the food to pass from the rumen into the reticulum. D. Hood, Honey-comb-bag, Bonnet, or Reticulum. The second stomach. E. Omasus, Manyplies, or Psalterium. This third and smallest stomach does not properly exist in the Camel or Llama. F. Orifice of the Omasus. G. Abomasus, the fourth stomach, the true organ of digestion, is next in size to the rumen or paunch. In calves it is the largest stomach, the milk passing from the gullet immediately into it. When salted and cured, this stomach of the calf is called rennet, and used for making cheese. 14. Cells of the reticulum or second stomach of the camel. These cells can be dilated so as to contain an unusual quantity of water. PL .VI. RUMINANTIA. 181 for the support of their burden ; one on the breast, two on each of the fore legs and one on each of the hind ones. The toes do not present the true cloven figure, but are united underneath by an elastic pad, or cushion, connecting them together, but leaving the points free and separable, so that a larger surface thus comes into contact with the sandy earth. (Plate VI. fig. 2.) This, in connection with the elastic nature of the sole or cushion, enables the animal to tread with equal comfort over the yielding desert and the hard and arid plain. The Camel has great difficulty in moving upon a soft and muddy soil, as it slips at every step. So great is its aversion to treading upon such soil, it is said, that its drivers "have been obliged to spread their tent coverings over the obnoxious ground in order to conceal its appearance and induce the animal to pro ceed." The step of the Camel is noiseless. " What always struck me," says the writer of a work on Constantinople, "as something extremely romantic and mysterious, was the noiseless tread of the Camel, from the spongy nature of his foot. What ever be the nature of the ground, sand, or rock, or turf, or paved stones, you hear no foot-fall ; you see an immense animal ap proaching you stilly, as a cloud floating in the air ; and unless he wear a bell, your sense of hearing, acute as it may be, will give you no intimation of his presence.^' The sense of hearing, in this animal, is very delicate. It seems greatly pleased with the sound of bells, and with the cheering song of its driver; its sense of smell, also, is remarka bly acute. When the traveler across the desert is suffering from thirst, the camel, snuffing the gale, first indicates, by its dumb show, that the water is near of which the exhausted pil grim must soon "drink or die." The third stomach, or laminated omasus, of the Ruminants, is warding in the Camels. The paunch or pannel is provided with a large number of cells, in order that water may be retained to serve the wants of the animal in case of extreme necessity. A longitudinal ridge of muscular fibres divides the paunch into two portions, the left containing a row of cells, which, (in the Ara bian Camel,) holds four or five quarts of water ; the right has a smaller series, holding about a quart. (See Plate VI. fig. 14.) When the cells are filled, the fluid is kept from mixing with the food by the contraction of the orifice of each cell, and it can j be forced out at pleasure by the action of a muscular expansion covering the bottom of the cellular apparatus. The deep cells of the reticulum are arranged in twelve rows, and are formed by muscular bands intersecting each other transversely. This 182 RUMINANTIA. compartment in the Camel appears destined exclusively as a reservoir of water, never receiving solid food, as in the ox and sheep. Sir E. Home is of the opinion that k< Camels accustomed to journey for an unusual number of days without water, acquire the power of dilating their cells so as to make them contain a more than ordinary supply for their journey." When pressed with thirst, the Camel, by the contraction of the muscles, throws up water into the other stomachs, which serves to macerate its dry and simple food. As it drinks but seldom, it takes in a large quantity of water at a time ; and travelers, when straitened for that article, have been often known to kill their camels for the water which they expected to find in them. The large and prominent eye of the Camel enables it to take in a very extensive range ; its vision is very keen, but the ani mal cannot look upward; in the horizontal position in which the head is carried, the brow overhangs the orb so as to shield it from the glare of the sun in a burning sky. The Camel has been called "the ship of the desert." Here the Simoon, or hot wind, blowing from the south-east, carries along with it dense yellow clouds of sand, which impede respiration, and are often suffocat ing to travelers. Even when the lighter winds blow, the fine particles of sand, driven along in volumes, and loading the atmos phere, would, to animals with wide and open nostrils, occasion the greatest suffering; but the nostrils of the camel being in the form of narrow oblique slits, which it can open or close at pleas ure, it is, by breathing gently and gradually, enabled to exclude the suffocating mass. The Camel is full grown at the age of eight years. It generally lives forty years, sometimes much longer. It is said that instances have been known of Camels which have reached the age of one hundred years. The female has one young at a time which is suckled for a year. Her milk is described as rich, thick, and abundant, but rather strong in taste, though when mixed with water, it is a very nutritious diet. The entire structure of this animal is wonderfully adapted to the region of its abode, and to the habits and uses of man. " The pad or sole cushion of the spreading foot dividing it into two toes, without being externally separated, which buoy up, as it were, the whole bulk, with their expansive elasticity, from sinking in the sand, on which it advances with silent step; the nostrils, so formed that the animal can close them at will, to ex clude the drift-sand of the parching simoon ; the powerful upper incisor teeth, for assisting in the division of the tough prickly shrubs and dry stunted herbage of the desert; and above all, RUMINANTIA. 183 the cellular structure of the stomach, which is capable of being converted into an assemblage of water tanks," must be included among the plainest and most striking evidences of the Creator's wise and benevolent care, as presented in the "Animal King, dom." The Camel combines within itself qualities, the possession of any one of which serves to render other quadrupeds absolutely nec essary to human welfare. " Like the Elephant, it is manageable and tame ; like the horse, it gives the rider security ; it carries greater burdens than the ox and the mule ; and its milk is fur- nished in as great abundance as that of the cow : the flesh of the young one is supposed to be as delicate as veal ; the hair is more beautiful and in more request than wool ; nay, there is scarcely a part of their frame of which it can be said, it is use less.7' C. Ardbicus. The ARABIAN CAMEL. Of the two species, this is the best known, and sometimes is called the Dromedary, or runner, (C. dromedarius.) Plate II. fig. 3. The term dromedar.y is, however, more strictly ap plicable to a lighter variety, El-Heirie, which is unfit for burdens, but employed when despatch is required. The Arabian Camel is more extensively used than the Bactrian; and from its constitution, appears able to endure, for a greater length of time, the fatigues and deprivations to which these ani mals are subjected. It is the wealth of the Arab, and nearly the only beast of burden in Turkey, Persia and the north of Af rica. Having only a single hump, placed nearly in the center of the back, it is at once distinguished from the other species, which has two ; it is also of a size and stature somewhat smaller, being from five to seven feet high at the shoulders. The muz zle is less swollen than that of the other species ; the hair soft, woolly and very unequal, longest on the neck, the throat, and the hump. The color is always lighter than that of the Bactrian Camel, being, while the animal is young, of a dull, dirty white, but becoming, with age, of a reddish gray. The long woolly hair is woven into garments and tents, and the finer hair is im ported into Europe for the manufacture of artists' pencils. The best is obtained from Persia. Of the varieties of this Camel, the Turkish and Arabian is the strongest and most hardy. In China there is a swift breed to which is given the poetical name of "the Camel with the feet of the wind." The Arabian Camel is carefully trained, when young, to kneel and receive burdens. In temper, it is mild, submissive, docile 184 RUMINANTIA. and patient ; but is said to be very obstinate when over-loaded, often refusing to rise if the burden is felt to be beyond its strength. Numerous caravans of these animals, each with a load of five or six hundred weight, and arranged iwx"long rows, patiently pursue their toilsome way beneath a scorching sun, at the rate of aJhout twenty. four miles a day ; in some- instances, fifty miles have been traversed in that time, but this could not be continued for successive days. Clapperton's Journal of Travels in the fiast, (continued by Lander,) after mentioning the arrival of five hundred Camels, with salt, from the borders of the Great Desert, says : " They were preceded by a party of twenty merchants, whose appearance was grand and imposing. They wore black cotton robes and trowsers, and white caps with black turbans, which hid every part of the face, except the nose and eyes. In their right hand they held a long and light polished spear, while with their left, they held their shields and retained the reins of the Camels. Their shields were made of white leather, with a piece of silver in the center. As they passed me, their spears glittering in the sun and their whole bearing bold and warlike, they had a novel and singular effect which de lighted me. They stopped suddenly before the residence of the chief, and at the word, (• choir,') each of the Camels dropped on its knees, as if by instinct, while the riders dismounted to pay their respects. " Sometimes, while attending caravans across the deserts, these animals of the swifter breeds perform the office of scouts, keeping a look-out for danger from wandering tribes and for the approach of the water stations. They will then travel from seventy to one hundred and twenty miles in twenty- four hours. The swift Dromedary has been known to perform a journey of six hundred and thirty miles in five days. It will continue at a long trot of eight or nine miles an hour for many hours together. A modern traveler, (see Morgan's Algeria,) says, it was often affirmed to him by the Arabs and the Moors that the express Dromedary " makes nothing of holding its rapid pace, which is a most violent hard trot, for four and twenty hours upon a stretch, without showing the least symptoms of weariness or inclination to bait; and that having swallowed a ball or two of paste made up of barley, and perhaps a little pow der of dates among it, with a bowl of water or Camel's milk, if to be had, and which the courier seldom fails to be provided with, in skins, as well for the sustenance of himself as his Pega sus, the indefatigible animal will seem as fresh as at first setting out, and ready to continue at the same scarce credible rate for as RUMINANTIA. 185 many hours longer, and so on, from one extremity of the Afri can desert to another.'7 We know nothing of this animal in a wild condition, but in a domesticated state it has existed from the earliest times, in Egypt, Arabia, Palestine and the neighboring countries. Herds of Camels formed no small portion of the wealth of the scriptural patriarchs, (Job, xliii., 12.) and they are mentioned among the acquisitions of Abram on his first visit to Egypt, (Gen. xii., 16.) The Camel was well known to Aristotle, and described by him in his " Natural History." Its native country extends from Mau ritania to China, within a zone of one thousand miles in breadth. The Arabian Camel is found throughout the entire length of this zone, on its southern side, as far as Africa and India. It is nu merous in the Canary Islands, to which it has been introduced, and found also in Pisa, Italy. After the conquest of Spanish America, an attempt was made to introduce Camels into that country ; but the project was looked upon with disfavor by the " ruling Spaniards," and the animals gradually dwindled away. Camelus Bractianus. The BACTRIAN CAMEL. This species is found in the northern side of the zone above referred to, including the central portions of Asia and China and Thibet ; occasionally it is seen in other countries. As already stated, it is easily known from the Arabian by its having two humps, one near the shoulders, the other near the croup. This is a stronger and heavier animal than the other species, and nev er used when dispatch is needed. It is larger than the Drome dary, being twelve feet in length and eight feet in height, be tween the humps. The hair is shaggy, particularly under the throat ; the color generally dark brown, though variations occur in this respect, and also in respect to size, strength and fleetness, according to the breed and climate. The Bactrian Camel can carry a weight of twelve hundred pounds, but from five to eight hundred pounds is the usual burthen. The Camels not long since purchased by the United States government, with a view of testing their utility in crossing the wide extended plains lying between the Mississippi valley and the Pacific ocean, are described by one of their superintendents " as very superior ones, presenting a far more sightly appearance than the miserable creatures which have been exhibited to crowds in the strolling menageries." He says, "their stride is about 3 feet in length, and with steady traveling they will average 3J miles per hour. They do not kneel to receive their loads, as has 186 BUMINANTIA. been stated, at the word of command, but with a Kir-r-r, Kir-r-r, and a gentle pressure upon the neck, or a pull upon the halters, they assume the kneeling position." (Their not doing so, at the word of command, to receive their loads, may be owing to a defect in their early training.) The same writer remarks, "their cries are uttered to express their distress or dissatisfaction at all times. When half suppressed, they are the same as the lazy grunt of a hog whose repose is rudely disturbed ; but when enraged, it is much more wild and greatly like that of a Bengal tiger when his keeper 'stirs him up with a long pole.' We had about 600 pounds of corn on each of them for the first day after leaving Howard's Ranch ; but each day reduces it by feeding until we lay in another supply. They have worked admirably well so far, and promise to fulfill our most sanguine expectations in regard to the experiment." Give the derivation of Camelidce ? What orders does this family link ? "What is said of their teeth ? Which is wanting in the Llama ? What is peculiar in the upper lip ? For what used ? What is said of their brow sing ? How many callosities ? Where situated ? What is said of the cush ion on the foot, (see Plate VI. fig. 2.) and the aversion of the animal to mud ? What results from the spongy nature of its foot ? What is said of its senses of hearing and smell ? Give some account of the cells of the stomach and their uses, (Plate VI. fig. 14.) In what direction does it look? How is the Camel protected against the effects of the simoon ? How long does it live ? In what respects does it show the wise and benevolent care of the Creator V What qualities does it combine ? Which of the two spe cies is best known ? What is it called ? What is said of its powers of en durance ? How is it distinguished from the other species ? Where is the JBactrian Camel found, and how does it differ from the Arabian C. ? How large a burden does it usually carry ? What is the habitat of the C. ? What is said of the Camels purchased by the U. States ? Trace the genera of the Camel family upon the Chart, giving their spe cific names and a synopsis of each animal. RUMTNAXTIA. 1ST SECTION XXIII. Auchenia. (Gr. '<™/r|*>, auchen, a neck.) THE LLAMA. We have in this genus the Camels of the Western Continent, inhabiting the Cordilleras of the Andes below the line of perpetual snow. They are found principally in Peru and Chili, though in much fewer numbers than formerly. Sometimes they have been taken into Mexico, but rather as curiosities than for any other purpose. The Llamas were first noticed at Rio Bamba, about ninety miles south-west of Quito, and not far from the snow-capped mountain of Chimborazo; and at this very spot, they are now seen in considerable numbers. Rio Bamba is 11,670 feet above the sea-level, and the temperature of the air corresponds to this elevation. But these animals, as many as five hundred in a herd, are found at elevations still higher, — say from 13 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, and where the mercury falls every night below the freezing point. They do not, however, advance so high as the line of perpetual snow, preferring rather a middle region affording congenial tempera ture and food. As a protection against the cold of their elevated abodes, they are clothed with a long and woolly fur. The name Auchenia refers to the long slender neck of these animals, in which they resemble the Camels proper. They are also like them in the great cellular development of the second stomach; the cellular apparatus of the paunch ; the absence of the third or plicated stomach, and the concomitant power of enduring thirst, or rather abstaining from water altogether; in the large, full, over-hung eye ; the division and mobility of the upper lip; and the fissured form of the nostrils, and the meagre limbs. Con trasting the location of these animals with that of the Camels, we naturally look for a deviation in the structure of the foot. The pad which connects the toes of the Camel beneath, would have afforded no very sure footing for an animal destined to climb the precipices of the Andes. We accordingly find in the Llamas toes which are armed with strong nail-like hoofs, (Plate VI. fig. 3,) completely separated from each other, and each defended with its own pad or cushion, — thus admirably adapted to firm progression either in ascent or descent; while there is nothing in the structure to hinder great rapidity upon comparatively smooth and level ground. The humps of the true Camels are not found on the backs of the Llamas, yet there is said to be in the latter a con- |gg RUMINANTIA. formation resembling those excrescences, and "consisting of an excess of nutritious matter, in the shape of a thick coat of fat under the skin, which is absorbed as a compensation for want of occasional food." The genus Auch-enia is now generally considered to include three species, viz., the Auchenia Llama, or Guanaco, which is used for burdens, and the Auchenia Alpaca and the Vicugna, which are raised for their flesh and wool. Cuvier regards the Paco or Alpaca, as a variety of the Llama, with the wool more amply developed, but the Vicugna as a distinct species. Llama is the common term with which the Peruvians designate their sheep. The wild Llama is usually of a deep rich fawn, verging to white on the under parts. The wool is long and shaggy, but shorter on the neck and limbs than on the body. The long slender neck is "held erect and swan-like;7' the head is small; the lips are thick; the eye large and brilliant. On the breast, there is a bunch which constantly exudes a yellowish oily matter. The length of this animal is six feet ; the height at the shoulders about four. The reclaimed Guanaco or domes ticated Llama, is greater in size than the wild animal; the body is slender, and the limbs more muscular; the wool smoother and closer; — the physiognomy is no longer wild and independent, and its air betokens mildness and subjection. The color is white, brown, black, and sometimes mixed or piebald. Its step is slow and regular, and it has not the strength or energy of the wild Guanaco, — carrying at the most but one hundred and fifty pounds. Under this load, however, it will travel with firm and sure step fourteen or fifteen miles a day, along rugged mountain-passes and the narrow ledges of precipitous rocks ; but if loaded too heavily, or urged beyond its wonted pace, — camel-like, it lies down and refuses to move another step. All that the conductor can do, in such a case, is to sit down by the animal and wait until " by his blandishments, he prevails on it to rise spontane ously." The difference in weight and speed between this animal and the Camel, the Peruvians make up in the great numbers which they use of these beasts of burden, — one drove sometimes including more than five hundred that subsist in traveling as they are able. Formerly these animals were used in bringing down the products of the mines, and 300,000, it is said, were once employed in the mines of Potosi alone. Mules, however, are now chiefly used for that purpose; though the Llama is still employed to some extent; its labor involving less expense. The white Llama is said to have been the presiding divinity of the natives of Callas before that province was annexed to the empire RUMINANTIA. 1 R9 of the Incas; the "priests of the sun" sacrificed it, at stated sea- sons, to the orb of day. Frequently the Llama, but preferably the Alpaca, was a pet in the Indian's cabin. In intelligence these animals rank high among the ruminants. As regards patience and resignation, they are said to equal the ox, while in point of sensibility, they are unsurpassed by any other quadrupeds. The size and shape of the eye indicate a strong and quick sight as well as a peculiar capacity for bearing the reflection of the sun's rays in the same manner as the Camel resists that glare of the sands which in man so often produces ophthalmia. (Gr. bleared ness of the eyes.) Auchenia Llama. The GUANACO. The animals of this species are rather larger than sheep, but smaller than heifers. Their compact bodies, their long legs, and their feet having toes armed with nail-like hoofs, fit them for dwelling in their wild state, among crags and precipices, where the hunter would be foiled if he dared to venture. Vast herds of wild Guanacos associate, during the summer, free as the air, — feeding upon the herbage of their elevated abode, and the grass or rush called icho, which covers the mountain slopes. As long as green and succulent vegetables can be procured, the animal never drinks. The cells of the stomach in this animal probably retain the moisture of the masticated vegetables for the necessities of the system, perhaps even adding to it by a liquid secretion of their own. It is a proof of Divine Providence that formed to dwell in such regions, the Guanacos are not only able to live without water, but if they can obtain their natural food, do not even require it. Auchenia Alpaca. PACO, or ALPACA LLAMA. The great peculiarity of this species is its long, fine and silky wool, covering the neck as well as the other parts of the body. The staple of our common wools is not more than six inches long; but that of the Alpaca averages from eight to twelve, and sometimes reaches twenty inches ; acquiring strength without being accompanied by coarseness, — the reverse of which occurs in other woolly tribes. Each filament, or thread, appears straight, Well formed, and free from crispness; and the quality is more uniform throughout the fleece. There is also a glittering bright ness upon the surface, which gives it the glossiness of silk, espe cially, when it comes out of the dye-vats. It is distinguished by softness, an essential property in the manufacture of fine stuff; and being exempt from spiral, curly and shaggy portions, — when not too long, it spins easily, and yields an even and true thread. It is, besides, less liable than other wool to form knots 190 RUMINANTIA. difficult to unravel ; it is not injured by keeping, nor does it lose in weight; and it is less subject to injury from moths, as the fol lowing fact will show, A small bundle of Alpaca wool, with a few locks of other wool mixed with it, was accidentally thrown into a closet and forgotten. At the end of twelve months, the closet was opened, when it appeared that the moths had nearly eaten up the common, without injuring, at all, the Alpaca wool. The fleeces of Alpaca wool range, in Peru, from ten to twelve pounds each, whereas, "those of our full sized sheep seldom go beyond eight pounds, and the small species four pounds." As far back as the days of Philip II., efforts were made to introduce these animals into Spain ; but failed through the intervention of war. They were taken to France, in the days of Napoleon I., where they have found a congenial climate ; and they have lived to their full period in the low lands of Spain. They have also been bred in Hamburg and in England, where the wool seems to improve. The staple of some Alpaca wool from the Earl of Derby's flock, was exhibited in England some ten or twelve years since. This appeared about a foot long, and it was estimated the animal had seventeen pounds of it on his back. The meat of the Alpaca has been compared to "venison, and even heath-fed mutton." Its quality could hardly fail to be good as the animal eats nothing but the purest vegetable sub stance, and in habitual cleanliness, is said to surpass every other animal. The Alpaca is also far less subject to disease than sheep; and as it seldom perspires, the fleece does not require washing before it is taken from the back. It has extraordinary foresight of storms, and power to contend with them, so that, in its native climes, seldom is one missing after a tempest. The first marketable fabric made from the wool of this animal, was presented at Greetland, near Halifax, (Eng.,) about twenty- five years ago. It was there sold, at a very high price, in the form of ladies' carriage shawls and cloakings, as curiosities. The quantity manufactured and used since that time, has steadily and greatly increased. From Alpaca wool, plain and figured stuffs are produced, which have a beautiful luster. The difficulty which was at first found in dying it, being now overcome, the most deli cate colors are obtained, such as royal blue, scarlet, green and orange, as seen in the mousselines de laines, and other ladies' dresses now in use. The blacks are superior, and the damask patterns very showy in their appearance. In some instances, Al paca takes the place of Angola, or goat's hair wool ; and in France, RTJMINANTIA. JQJ it has been used for cashmeres and merinoes. English capitalists have introduced the animal into the colony at the Cape of Good Hope, where it has succeeded well, the shearing yielding eight and a half pounds a sheep. Alpaca goods are, to some extent, man ufactured, and largely imported, and used in the United States. Alpaca Vicugna, or Auchenia Vicuna. THE VICUNA. This is a much hardier animal than the Guanaco. It inhabits ranges nearer the line of perpetual snow, where the cold is in tense, and is rather pleased than annoyed by snow or frost. In size, it is less than the Guanaco. The wool is of a pale yellow ish fawn color, and exquisitely fine, having a texture which may be termed silken. It is used for manufacturing expensive shawls and other articles of dress. For the sake of it, eighty thousand of these animals, it is said, are killed every year. They are not unlike goats, except that they are larger, and have more horns. The Vicunas are found in flocks, appear timid, and flee at the sight of men and of wild beasts. What is the habitat of the Llama ? Where was it first noticed ? To what does the name Auchenia refer? In what particulars do they resem ble the Camels proper? What deviation is there in the structure of the foot? (PL VI, fig. 3.) Has it the humps of the Camel? How many species are included in the genus Auchenia? What are their respective uses? How did Cuvier regard the Alpaca and Vicugna? How do the Peruvians use the term Llama ? Describe the wild Llama ? What is the size ? What is said of the reclaimed Guanaco as compared with the wild Llama ? What of its uses as a beast of burden ? What of the White Llama? How do these animals rank in intelligence? What is the. size of the Guanaco? Upon what does it feed? What proof of divine providence is referred to? What is the great peculiarity of the Alpaca Llama ? What is said of its wool ? How early were attempts made to introduce it into Spain ? When were they taken to France ? In what other countries have they been bred? What is said of the cleanliness of the Alpaca? When and where was the first marketable fabric made from the Alpaca wool ? Where is most of the spinning and weaving of this wool now performed? What is further said of its manufacture? How does the Vicugna compare with the Guanaco in hardiness and size ? What is said of its wool ? What animal does it resemble ? What Llamas are named upon the chart? What is said of them ? Trace them ? ] 92 RUM1NANTIA, SECTION XXIV. CAMELOPARDAE. (Gr. x&pqlos, kamelos, a camel ; pardalis, a leopard.) THE CAMELOPARDS. These singular and beautiful ruminants, in their general struct ure, most nearly approach the Deer, but have points of resem- blance also to the Antelopes and Camels, besides striking pecu liarities of their own. They have persistent horns, common to both sexes, and are the tallest of all known quadrupeds; fre quenting the wooded plains and hills that skirt the arid deserts, or the verge of mighty forests where groves of mimosa trees beautify the scenery. Camelopardalis Giraffe is the sole species, including two varieties, — the ons native to Nubia, Abyssinia, and the regions adjacent, and ranked by Swainson as a distinct species, — the other, found in Southern Africa.* (See Chart.) The general characters of the Giraffe are the following, viz., " Lip not grooved, entirely covered with hair, much produced before the nostril ; tongue very extensile ; neck very long, and having a short thick mane; body short; hind legs short; false hoof none; tail elongate, with a tuft of thick hair at the end." This animal at once impresses the beholder with its towerin'g height, varying from fifteen to twenty feet. The males are generally fifteen or sixteen, and the females thirteen or fourteen feet in height, and their young at birth, six feet. Its thickness is not what might, perhaps, be expected from the height. In order to support its very long neck, (but having only the number of bones found in the human neck,) the withers are ele vated; the spinal processes of the vertebrae are prolo^ed to meet the elastic ligament which rims along the neck, anu assist to keep it in its natural position. It is said above, — "the hind legs are short." This describes them as they appear; but in reality the front and hind legs are about the same length ; the * The Commentator on the "Pictorial Bible," where a good cut of the Giraffe is given, says, with reference to the word Chamois, used, Genesis iii., 21, "The Arabic version understood that the word Giraffe is meant here, which is very likely to have been the case, for the Chamois is not met with so far to the Southward as Egypt and Palestine." The Jews had, probably, many opportunities of becoming acquainted with the animal while in Egypt, as had also the seventy (translators of the Septuagint) who resided there, and who indicate their knowledge of it in their translation of the Hebrew name/ RUMINANTIA. 193 thighs in front are so long in comparison with those behind, that the back of the animal seems inclined like the roof of a house; and this gives to it an appearance of unwieldiness and unfitness for active movements. But the seeming drawbacks related to its structure and condition, are balanced by marked and peculiar advantages. A man on horseback can, without stooping, ride under the body of the animal, — the height to the tip of the shoulder being ten feet. Why that neck of prodigious length? Why the disproportioned height of the fore and the hind parts of the body, giving to the animal its appearance of unwieldiness and clumsiness? The answer is, — the animal derives a large part of its food from the leaves of trees, particularly the mimosa, — a species of acacia, called acacia giraffe. The peculiarity of the Giraffe's form enables it to reach the high branches which are uncropped, because above the reach of ordinary animals; and a shorter neck, on the other hand, would not have allowed it to reach the earth in districts where woods are less common. In reaching the high branches, it is also aided by the tongue, which has the power of motion in such a degree, accompanied with the faculty of extension, that it performs "the office of the proboscis of an elephant in miniature." This organ may be extended sev enteen inches after death, but in the living animal, can lie so diminished in size as to be inclosed within its mouth. Ac cording to Sir Everard Home, its actions depend on the com bined powers of muscular contraction and elasticity ; its increase and diminution of size arising from the blood vessels being at one time loaded with blood, and at another empty. The Cam- elopard seizes the foliage with its long and narrow tongue, using it as a prehensile organ, and a beautiful accessary to the other parts of the structure, — rolling it around the object with considerable pliability. The tongue is used as an organ of examination, for the power of prehension is so great, that when extended to the utmost, it can grasp an ordinary lump of sugar, of which the animal seems very fond. He retroverts the tongue for the purpose of cleansing the nostrils, — an office which its flexibility enables him to per- form in the most perfect manner. The tongue, it is said, can be so tapered as to enter the ring of a very small key. The eyes are large and prominent, and soft and gentle in their expression ; the ears large and spreading ; the lips, especially the lower one, being movable ; the head is small, but elegantly modeled, taper ing to the singularly narrow muzzle, with a well-formed mouth. Both the male and female Camelopard have horns, — not such as are periodically shed and renewed ; nor yet true and promi- iql RUMINANT1A. nent horns, like those of the Antelope, but consisting of two porous, bony substances, about three inches long, with which the top of the head is armed, placed just above the ears, and crowned with a thick tuft of stiff upright hairs; a considerable protuberance also rises in the middle of the forehead, between the eyes. By some, these horns muffled with skin and hair, are said to be "useless as instruments of defence," — others say, — " We have seen them wielded by the males against each other with fearful and reckless force." The Giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly elevating the head; but strikes the cal lous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack with a sidelong sweep of the neck. The imperfection of the horns has been plausibly ascribed "to the state of the circulation of the blood in the arteries of the skull." The long neck is supposed to impede the circulation, so that the vital stream ascends with difficulty, — it rises slowly, in more moderate quantity, and is " inadequate for a supply of osseous matter, remarkable either for its abundance, or its rapid elaboration." Who does not see the wisdom of this ordering? What could the long-necked Cam- elopard do with the ponderous horns of the Moose, or the Wa- pite ? " It is not for nothing that the neck is elongated, that the head is light, and the tongue made flexible; — it is not without design that the horns are rudimentary; for such modifications the instincts and the habits of the creature demand ; the one part involves the other." Professor Owen has noticed a further beautiful provision in this animal, which is, that its nostrils are provided with cutaneous sphincter (Gr. aqruj'j'w, sphingo, to con strain ) muscles, and can be shut at will, like the eyes. He supposes that the object of this mechanism, is to keep out the sand when the storms of the desert arise. The hair of the Giraffe is short and close; the ground color of a light grayish fawn, marked with numerous triangular spots, with a darker hue, less regularly shaped on the sides than on the neck and shoulders. The Northern variety of the animal is of a paler color than the Southern. The eyes of the Giraffe are so placed that he can see much of what is passing on all sides, and even behind, without turning the head. Hence it is difficult to approach him ; and when surprised or run down, he directs most accurately the rapid storm of kicks with which his defence is made. Ordinarily, however, this ani mal seeks safety in flight. Its motion is extremely rapid, espe cially along rising ground ; but cannot be maintained for a sufficient time to enable it to escape from the Arab mounted on his long-winded steed. The pace is an amble ; the animal RUMINANTIA. 195 moves two legs on each side at the same time, but when put in motion, it can, for a while, keep a horse at a pretty smart gallop. The lamented Anderson says, in his "Lake Ngami," — "It is a curious sight, a troop of Giraffes at full speed, balancing them selves to and fro in a manner not easily described ; and whisking, at regular intervals, from side to side, their tails, tufted at the end, while their long and tapering necks, swaying backward and forward, follow the motion of their bodies. They are so long-winded, that a swift horse seldom overtakes them under less than two or three miles." The author of the "Menageries" remarks, — "Until the year 1827, when a Giraffe appeared in England, and one in France, the animal had not been seen in Europe since the 15th century, when the Soldan of Egypt sent one to Lorenzo De Medici, which was familiar to the inhabit ants of Florence, where it was accustomed to walk at ease about the streets, stretching its long neck to the balconies, and first floors, for apples and other fruits, upon which it delighted to feed." In 1836, four Giraffes were introduced into England by the Zoological Society, at an expense of between eleven and twelve thousand dollars. One of them soon died ; but the others lived, and one of the females had several young ones, which were sold and taken to different parts of the world. In our own country, the Camelopard is often exhibited. The animal, it is said, is often seen in a tame state, it Grand Cairo, in Egypt, and is found figured in the sculptured remains of that country. Pompey the Great exhibited in the theatre, ten of these ani mals, which he had brought from the scenes of his military enterprise. His rival, Julius Caesar, also exhibited them. After him, several Roman Emperors showed them in the public games and processions. All these were probably obtained from the northern or north-eastern part of the African Continent, and by way of Egypt. What is said of the structure of the Camelopards? How many varieties and where found? What are the general chai'acters of this animal? What its size? How is its long neck supported? Are its hind legs really shorter than its fore legs? What compensation is referred to? What aids it to reach high branches? What is said of the tongue? Has this animal horns? Why are they imperfect? What provision is noticed by Professor Owen? How do the varieties differ in color? How do the eyes of the Giraffe assist him in self-defence? What is the remark of Anderson? What more is said? What is said on the chart of its size ? 195 RUMINANTIA. SECTION XXV. MOSCHIDAE, or MUSK DEER. (Gr. /MOO-/O?, moschos, a Musk.) These are so called, from the fact, that one species yields the well-known perfume, called musk. According to Cuvier, "they are much less anomalous than the Camels, and only differ from the other Ruminants in the absence of horns, in having a long canine tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which comes out of the month in the males, and, finally, in having in their skeleton, a slight fibula, (clasp, or connecting link,) which has no existence in the Camels." The distinction of the other canine tooth noticed by Cuvier, is not, however, confined to the Musks, — as some of the males of other deer, the Muntjak, for example, show a similar forma- tion ; that of the Moschus moschiferus, (Lat. musk-bearing,) is three inches long. In general form, the Musk deer differ only a little from other Deer ; but the body is rounded and stouter, arid the neck shorter, — the head is not carried erect, and the bearing not so bold ; the limbs are more tapering, and the hind quarters considerably elevated ; the face is narrow and length ened, and they are destitute of horns, None of them have tear openings, or tufts of bushy hair on their legs, like the other deer. They have large, dark and brilliant eyes, rather small ears, and short tails; they have also front and hind hoofs, — the front hoofs being long, narrow and pointed, the hind ones high set, small and conical. In the true musks, however, the hoofs are broad and expanded; the hind ones large, almost touching the ground. Besides the true and celebrated Musk Deer, the family includes four other species, one found in Ceylon, and three in Java, in cluding the smallest, and according to some, the most elegant of the Ruminants. Moschus moschiferus. The THIBET MUSK. (Plate VII. fig. 1.) This is a mountain animal, — timid, shy, and a lover of soli tude, having somewhat the form of a roebuck, but thicker and more clumsy. It is six inches higher behind than at the shoulder, where it measures about two feet three inches. The ears are long, and rather narrow; in the inside, pale yellow, and dark brown, outside. The hair is long, coarse and harsh, and mixed with brown yellow, and whitish, which produces a dark red tinge on the back, fading off to whitish beneath. — the tail is nearly rudimentary, and covered by the hair ; a tuft hangs on each side from the lower jaw. This animal being extremely cautious, and THE UNIVERSITY EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. 1. The Musk-Deer, Moschus Moschiferus. 2. The Common Stag, or European Red Deer, Cervus Elephas. 3. The Moose, Flat-Horned Elk, or Black Elk, C. alces. 4. The American Elk, Round-Horned Elk, or Wapiti Deer, filephas Cana- densi*. 5. The Caribou, or American Reindeer, C. ranyifer or R. Tarandus. 6. The Fallow Deer, C. Dama or Dama vulgaris. 7. The Roe-buck, C. Capreolus or Capreolus Dorcas. 8. The Muntjak, C. vaginalis. ox. 9. The Musk Ox, Ovibos Moschatlts, Little Bison of the Chipewyans and Copper Indians. SHEEP. 10. The Moufflon, Ovis musimou or Caprovis musimont Wild Sheep or Siberian Goat of Pennant. 11. The Argali, or Wild Sheep, Caprovis Argalis* 12. The Many-Horned Sheep, Ov is polycerata. GOATS. 13. The Syrian Goat, Capra Syriaca. Its large pendulous ears are from one to two feet long, and at times so troublesome that the owners are obliged to trim them. Amos iii. 12. 14. The Ibex, Capra Ibex. ANTELOPES. 15. The Kudoo, Antilope strepsicoros. 16. The Blessbok, A. albifrons. 17. The Prong-Horned Antelope, A. Americana or Antilocapra A. 18. The Common Antelope, or Sasin, A. ccrvicapra. 19. The Dorcas Gazelle, A. Dorcas, or Gazella Dorcas. 20. The Oryx, A. Oryx, or Oryx Gazella. 21. The Chamois, or Gems, A. rupricapra, or 7?. Tragus. 22. The Mhorr, Gazella Mhorr, or A. Mhorr. 23. The Gnu, or Gnoo, A. Gnu, or Catoblepas Gnu. 24. The Bekker-el-Wash, or Wild-Ox of the Arabs, A. Bubalis. or Alcepha- lus Bubalis. 200 RUMINANTIA. residing among broken crags and precipices covered with pines is yet eagerly, and often with peril of life, hunted for its perfume' peculiar to the male alone. Its habits are similar to those of the Chamois, — it climbs and bounds over the Alpine ridges of Cen tral Asia with astonishing activity, assembling in herds, and sometimes in considerable numbers. Occasionally, it is killed with a cross-bow, a string having been set in the path of the animal. The bag containing the perfume, is kidney. shaped, and about the size of a hen's egg. It has two openings, the larger one oblong, the smaller round, and covered with hair. The musk, on the application of pressure, may be driven through the openings, — it is an unctuous, dusky red substance, and when dry, is more or less granulated. The hunters cut. off the bag and tie it up for sale ; but like many other articles of commerce, it is often adulterated by the addition of blood and other matter, and pieces of lead have sometimes been found enveloped in it for the purpose of increasing the weight. The quality and quantity of the musk in a given bag vary, according to the age of the ani mal. To the taste, it is bitter, and somewhat acrid. No sub- stance is known to have a stronger, or more subtle and perma nent smell. It strikingly illustrates the extreme divisibility of matter, for a single grain of it will perfume a whole room, and its odor continue for days without any diminution. When once introduced, it is exceedingly difficult to destroy its perfume. Vessels of silver do not for a long time part with the scent of musk that has been placed in them. When exposed in large quantity, its effect is really violent upon the nervous system ; blood has been forced from the nose, eyes and ears of those who have imprudently inhaled a large amount of the vapor. Pur chasers of the article sometimes secure themselves from the sud den effects of the smell by covering the face with a handkerchief several times folded. For nervous diseases and convulsions, it has been used as a medicine. Orientalists make warm winter dresses for themselves out of this animal's skin, with the fur preserved; they also prepare from it a soft and shining leather. The Romans and Tartars even eat the flesh, though that of the male is highly flavored with musk. Moschus Meminna. The MEMINNA. This beautiful little Musk, about seventeen inches in length, and weighing only five and a half pounds, is a native of Ceylon, frequenting woods and groves, but never found in the plains. It has large dark eyes, and smooth shining hair, of an olive color, clouded with reddish about the limbs. The sides are dappled with interrupted lines and irregular dots of white ; the throat RUMINANTIA. 201 and chest are also white, and from the former, two lines of the same color on each side radiate backwards, the lower one ex tending to the shoulders. (This peculiar marking specifically varied in a slight degree, characterises the remaining species of this genus.) Moschus Napu. The NAPTJ, or CHEVROTAIN. This Musk Deer is a native of Java, and is about the size of a rabbit, — the legs are scarcely as thick as a common quill ; the general color is a uniform ferruginous brown, clouded with black; and the animal has throat marks as above referred to. To this species, Sir Stamford Raffles has given the specific name Javanicus. He remarks, that it " frequents thickets near the sea-shore ; and feeds principally upon the berries of a species of Ardisia ; can be easily trained when taken young, and will become quite familiar." Moschus Kanchil. KANCHIL MUSK DEER. This is by some regarded as the most elegant, as it is one of the smallest of the Ruminantia, — and is also found in Java and Sumatra. Its height is about nkie inches; its length, four teen. The color is a deep yellow brown, approaching to black on the back, a bright bay on the sides, and on the under parts white. The markings of the throat have the upper line of white extending from the face to the shoulder, differing in this respect from those of the Napu. It has long canine teeth, and a tail tufted and white at the tip. Berries and wild fruit consti tute its food. Among the Javanese, it is said to have a reputa tion for strategy similar to that of the fox. A Malay proverb doscribes a great rogue as being "as cunning as a Kanchil." "If taken in a noose laid for it, the Kanchil, when the hunter arrives, will stretch itself out motionless, and feign to be dead ; and if, deceived by this manoeuvre, he disengage the animal, it seizes the moment to start on its legs, and disappears in an in stant." A still more singular expedient is mentioned, viz., "that when closely pursued by the dogs, the Kanchil will sometimes make a bound upwards, hook itself on the branch of a tree by means of its bent tusks, and there remain suspended, until the dogs have passed beneath." Linnseus placed tbe Musk Deer between the Camels and Deer. Swainson places them between the Camelopards and Deer. Why arc the MuskDeer so called ? What is Cuvier's remark respecting them? What is said of their general form, &c. ? How many species does the family include ? What is said of the size of these animals ? Describe the Thibet Musk? What is its great peculiarity? What shows the powerful nature of the Musk ? What property of matter does this illustrate ? To 202 RUMINANTIA. what medicinal use has it been applied? Give some account of the Mc- minna? What peculiarity has it in common with the remaining species of this genus? Where is the Napu found ? What does Sir Stamford Raffles say of it? Where is the Kanchil found? What is its size? What reputation has it among the Javanese? What Malay proverb is mentioned? How is its cunning illustrated? Where did Linnaeus and Swainson place Musk Deer? Where are they placed on the Chart? SECTION XXVI. SOLID-HORNED RUMINANTS. CERVIDAE. (Lat. Cervus, a stag.) The DEER FAMILY. We come now to a group of animals which have been ever greatly admired. They seem, many of them, to have been formed to embellish the forest, and impart animation to the sol itudes of nature. In their internal structure, they closely resemble the ox, but they are "without the gall-bladder; the kidneys are formed differently; and the spleen is larger in pro portion to the size of the animals." Of the genus Cervus, the general characters are simple. Incisor teeth are found, eight in number, in the lower jaw alone ; the grinders are six on each side above and below; the canine teeth are generally wanting. The pupils of the eye are elongated, and below the inner angle of the eye, there is a deep fossa, or opening, generally known as the lachrymal sinus. In some, this opening, called by the French, larmiers, (from Fr. larme, a tear,) is of considerable size. It has been supposed "to communicate with the nostrils, and assist them in maintaining respiration, during great exertion or swiftness; " but its use is not fully ascertained. The cavity secretes a wax-like substance, which sends forth a strong odor. The ears are large and pointed ; the tail short ; the legs slender; and the feet bisulcated. The horns, or antlers, — excepting in the case of the Rein Deer, found alone in the males, — are solid, and in a large part of these animals, annually shed and renewed. "The form of the horns is various. Sometimes they spread into broad palms, which send out sharp snags around their outer edges; sometimes they divide fantastically into branches, some of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared up ward in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect posture ; yet, in whatever way they grow, they appear to give an air of grandeur to the animal." The geographical range of the Deer includes the entire globe, with the exception of Austra lia and Southern Africa. The species found in the colder RUMINANTIA. 203 regions, are generally marked by superior size, and a greater development of the horns ; and by having a broad muzzle cov ered with hair. The production, loss and renewal of the antlers of this family of quadrupeds, are among the most remarkable phenomena of animal physiology. The subject is treated with great ability and clearness in W. C. L. Martin's work on the Mammalia, from which we extract the following : " The horns are seated upon an osseous peduncle, or footstalk, rising from each frontal bone at its central point of ossification, — thes3 peduncles are enveloped in skin. It is not until in the spring, or beginning of the second year, that the first pair of horns begin to make their appearance. At this epoch, a new process com mences, the skin enveloping the peduncle swells, its arteries enlarge, tides of blood rush to the head, and the whole system experiences a fresh stimulus. The antlers are now budding," for, on the top of their footstalks, the arteries are depositing lay ers of osseous matter, particle by particle, with great rapidity. As they increase, the skin increases in an equal ratio, still cov ering the budding antlers, and continues so to do until they have, acquired their due development and solidity. This skin is a tissue of blood vessels, and the courses of the large arteries from the head to the end of the antlers are imprinted in the latter in long furrows, which are never obliterated. In ordinary lan guage, the skin, investing the antlers, is termed velvet, being covered with a fine pile of close short hair. Suppose then, the antlers of the young deer, now duly grown, and still invested with this vascular tissue ; but the process is not yet complete. While this tender velvet remains, the deer can make no use of his newly acquired weapons, which are destined to bear the brunt of many a conflict with his compeers; it must, therefore, be removed ; but without giving a sudden check to the current of blood rolling through this extent of skin, lest, by directing the tide to the brain, or some internal organ, death be the result. The process then is this : — As soon as the antlers complete, (ac cording to the age of the animal,) the footstalk, always covered with skin, they begin to deposit round it a bone, or rough ring of lone, with notches, through which the great arteries still pass. Gradually, however, the diameter of these openings is contracted by the deposition of additional matter ; till, at length, the great arteries are compressed as by a ligature, and the circulation is effectually stopped. The velvet now dies for the want of the vital fluid ; it shrivels, dries and peels off in shreds, the animal 204 RUMINANTIA. assisting in getting rid of it by rubbing his antlers against the trees. They are now firm, hard and white ; and the stag bears them proudly, and brandishes them in defiance of his rivals. From the burr upwards, these antlers are no longer part and parcel of the system, — they are extraneous, and held only by their mechanical continuity with the footstalk on which they were placed ; hence their deciduous character ; for it is a vital law, that the system shall throw off all parts no longer intrinsic, ally entering into the integrity of the whole, — an absorption process soon begins to take place just beneath the burr, removing particle after particle, till at length the antlers are separated and fall by their own' weight, or by the slightest touch, leaving the living end of the footstalk exposed and slightly bleeding. This is immediately covered with a pellicle of skin which soon thick ens, and all is well. The return of spring brings with it a re- newal of the whole process, and a finer pair of antlers branch forth." The rapidity with which this firm mass of bone is secreted, is worthy of particular notice. The budding horns of a male Wapite, are several inches high in ten days from their first ap pearance ; a month afterwards there is an interval of two feet between them, measuring from branch to branch. When the process is ended that completes the horn, the deer seems con scious of his strength, and goes forth prepared to encounter any creature, even man himself, that may dare to invade his haunts. Thus he continues for a season, — but when he again sheds his horns, betakes himself to the recesses of the forest until they are replaced. The Common Stag sheds his horns about the end of February, or in the month of March ; the Fallow Deer from the middle of April to the first week of May. In the Stag, the horns do not appear until the second year. The first shed, is straight, or single, like a small thrust sword or dagger, — whence the young male is termed Daguet, (Fr. dague, a dagger,) by the French ; the next horn has commonly but one antler ; the third has two, and sometimes three ; the fourth has three or four, sometimes five or six. Up to this time, the animal is called a Young Stag, — the fifth horn has five or six antlers; the sixth is shed when the animal is about seven years of age. In addition to the growth of antlers, the horns become larger, have the fur rows more marked, the burr more projecting; and the supports of the horns become, every year, shorter and wider. By these signs, the age of the animal, from eight years and upwards, is determined. After the seventh year, there is no fixed rule as to the antlers. They are multiplied towards the summit of the RUMINANTIA. 205 beam, where they are united into a sort of crown, and are said to be palmated. The oldest have not usually more than ten or twelve antlers; though it is said some have borne the enormous number of thirty-three. (See Plate VII. fig. 2.) Deer are remarkable for the acuteness of their hearing and smelling, and it is therefore very difficult for the hunter to ap proach them when he follows the course of the wind. They are very nice in choosing their food, and will not eat that which has been handled or touched by any foreign substance. The flesh of many of these animals, as is well known, is used for food, and familiarly known under the name of venison. Strong and lasting leather is made from their skins. According to Dr. De K;»y, (N. H. S. N. Y.,) this family "comprises forty-five real or nominal species, distributed, according to the ideas of sys tematic writers, into eight or ten genera. But six species are found within the United States, and of these three only exist in the State of New York." Elaphus Canadensis, or C. Canadensis. The AMERICAN STAG, or WAPITI, or ROUND-HORNED ELK. This animal, which is frequently called the Canada Stag, is of a much larger and stronger make than the Stags of Europe; and in fact is one of the most gigantic of the deer tribe, being from four to five feet in height and from seven to eight feet in length. Their horns are shed annually ; they are round and very large, branching into serpentine curves, but never palmated, and measuring six feet from tip to tip. (Plate VII. fig. 4.) Under the throat of the male is a dewlap composed of black hair from four to six inches long ; the tail, in both sexes is very short. Most of the upper parts of the Wapiti are of a lively yellowish brown color; the neck is mixed red and black ; the rump yellowish, bounded by a dark, circular marginal line ; the limbs on the front are deep brown ; the tail yellowish. The Wapiti feeds on grass and young shoots of trees; is easily tamed and has been trained to the harness. It is said to make a shrill, quivering noise, "not very unlike the braying of an ass." The flesh is somewhat coarse, and not highly valued; but its hide, when made into leather is said not to turn hard in drying after having been wet, a quality which places it in high estimation. The Wapiti is found, not only in the northern parts of this continent, but on the western prairies, and in California, Oregon, and New Mexico. C. axis. The Axis. (So named by Pliny.) Of this beautiful deer there are two varieties. The common Axis, in its size and general form, nearly resembles the fallow deer, being, at the shoulder, about two and a half feet in height. 206 RUMINANTIA. It has a rich fawn-colored skin, spotted with white, and hence sometimes receives the specific name maculosa, (.spotted.) Along the back the ground-color changes to nearly black ;. but the un der parts are snow white. A broad dusky spot appears upon the forehead, and a line of the same color extends along the middle of the nose. The Axis is a native of India, and is particularly numerous on the banks of the Ganges. It roams among the thick jungles, near streams of water, and is hunted under the name of the Spotted Hog-Deer. This animal feeds in the night, is timid, mild and inactive, excepting when the females have young, at which time the male is bold and fierce. It has been kept with success in menageries and parks, to which, from its form and color, it is highly ornamental. The larger variety, A. major, (Lat. greater,) a native of Borneo and Ceylon, is about the height of a horse, and has horns which are three-forked, thick and rugged, and nearly three feet long. Capreolus Dorcas, (Gr. doyxug, dorkas.a gazelle,) or C. capre- olus, (Lat. Roebuck or Chamois.) The ROEBUCK. This species of deer, once common in England, is now con fined chiefly or entirely to the Highlands of Scotland. They are of less size than the fallow deer, being only two feet four inches in height, and three feet six inches in length. The color is reddish brown on the back, the chest and under parts of the body are yel lowish, and the croup white ; the horns are round, divided into three branches, and about nine inches long. (Plate VII. fig. 7.) The Roebuck does not live in herds, but singly and in pairs, amongst the shady thickets and rising slopes. This deer is very cunning, when pursued, sometimes baffling the dogs by making a few enormous leaps, waiting until the dogs have passed and then resuming its former track. It is said to be very fond of the Rulus saxatus, called in the Highlands, the Roebuck-berry. In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, these animals browse on the tender branches of the fir and birch. The flesh is delicate food, and the horns are used for carving-knives. By the old Welsh laws, a Roebuck was valued at the same price as a she-goat. It can be easily subdued, but never perfectly tamed, always retain ing some portion of its natural wild ness. C. leucurus. (Gr. levxog, leukos, white ; oi>oa, oura, a tail.) The WHITE-TAILED DEER. This resembles the European roebuck. On the Columbia river it is the most common deer; the tip and under part of the tail are of a cream white. C. macrotis. (Gr. /uax^og, makros, long; olz, ous, ear.) The MULE DEER. RUMINANTIA.. 207 This takes its name from its long ears, which are half the length of the whole antler. The hair is waved or crimped like that of the elk ; upon the thighs near the croup it looks like white thread cut off abruptly. C. elaphus. (Gr. skacpog, elaphos, a stag.) The RED DEER, or STAG. This noble species is found native in the European forests and in those of Asia where the climate is temperate. It is the largest of the English Deer, associated with the forest laws, so oppressive that they affixed a less value to the life of a man than that of a stag ; and it is blended with the legends of deadly feud, as in the celebrated ballad of "Chevy Chase." The Red Deer is distinguished by its brown color, and a pale spot on the rump, and sometimes attains a great size. Pennant speaks of one that weighed 314 Ibs., exclusive of the entrails, head and skin. Ac cording to Buffon, the small size of some* of these animals is ow ing to a deficiency of nourishment, as in rich pastures its size be comes greatly increased. The horns are round, having the antlers turned towards the front, the summit terminating in a fork, or snags from a common center. (Plate VII. fig. 2.) It is very common in France, and is supposed to have been originally introduced from that country into England. In the latter country it is now largely superseded by the common or Fallow Deer, which is of a more manageable and placid disposition and affords far superior venison. The Red Deer has a fine eye, an acute smell and a good ear ; when listening, raises his head and erects his ears ; when going into a coppice, or other half-covered place, stops to look around him on all sides, and scents the wind to discover if any object be near that might disturb him. He eats slowly, and after his stom ach is full, lies down and leisurely ruminates. The pursuit of this deer is a very favorite amusement in Eng land, summoning into action all the energy of youth and man hood. The animal in stalking is generally shot ; but when wounded and yet able to fly, the dogs are let loose in the chase. In olden times, the dogs were mainly relied on for taking and killing deer, so that fleet and courageous hounds became the pride of nobles and princes. It is said he is particularly de lighted with the sound of the shepherd's pipe, and is by that instru ment sometimes lured to his own destruction. In winter and spring, this animal rarely drinks, the dews and herbage being suffi cient to satisfy his thirst ; but during the parching heats of summer, he not only frequents the brooks and springs, but searches for deep water wherein to bathe and refresh himself. He swims with great ease and strength, particularly when he is in good condition, his 203 RUMINANTIA. fat contributing to his buoyancy. The female bears one young, seldom more, in or near the month of May. The fawn, or calf, as it is called, the first year, does not quit the dam during the entire summer. The female is most assiduous in concealing and tending the young one, which is needful to secure it against as saults, not only from the cat and dog tribes, but even from the stag himself, who is not overstocked with paternal affection,, C. Dama, (Lat. a Fallow Deer.) The FALLOW DEER. This has the same general form, aspect and manners as the Stag, with a more gentle disposition. The size is smaller, but the chief difference between the Fallow Deer and the Stag re lates to the horns, (Plate VII. figs. 2 and 6,) which, in the former, are broad and palmated, at their extremities pointing a little for ward, and branched on their hinder sides. It is less delicate than the stag in its choice of food, and browses much closer ; is at full maturity when three years old. There are two varieties of this animal in England, where it adorns the modern parks. The beautiful dappled variety is sup- posed to have been brought from the south of Europe, or the western parts of Asia; the other very deep brown variety is said by Pennant to have been introduced by James I., from Nor way. On the continent of Europe, as well as in England, they are confined in parks ; but they are found wild in Moldavia as well as Lithuania. The venison of this Deer is of the richest and most delicate kind ; the skins of the buck and doe. are unri valed for durability and softness; the horns, like those of the stag, are manufactured into knife handles and other articles, while from the refuse, ammonia or hartshorn is extracted. This species is represented in the sculptures of Nineveh. C. Virginianus. The AMERICAN DEER. This species resembles the English Fallow Deer, and is so named by Professor Emmons, (Mass. Report.) The color is bluish gray in the autumn and winter, dusky reddish in the spring, changing to bluish in the summer; the young animal is spotted with white. The horns are of moderate size, curving forward, having the concave part in front, " with from one to six points occasionally palmated." In the adult males the horns show a great variety, which is regulated by their age, the season of the year, and the abundance or scarcity of their food. These animals range from Canada to Mexico. In some places, the united attacks of men and wolves are largely diminishing their number. Their horns are usually cast in the winter. Dr. De Kay says the reason so few of the horns are found, is that as soon as they are- shed they are eaten up by the Rodents or gnaw- RUMINANTIA. 209 ing animals. In frontier countries these animals are exceedingly useful, not only for the food which they furnish, but for their skins, which form an important article of commerce. They live upon twigs of trees, shrubs, berries and grasses ; for the buds and flowers of the pond-lily, they are said to show a peculiar fondness. The female has one, sometimes two fawns at a birth, in the latter part of spring or early in the summer. C. alces. The ELK or MOOSE. Flat-Horned Elk, Black Moose or Elk. (See Plate VII. fig. 3.) This animal, surpassing all the true deer in size and strength, is found in the northern parts of Europe and America. The name which it bears is of Celtic origin, coming from "Elch," whence is derived the latter word alee or alces, which is the Celtic trans ferred to the Roman language. In America, it is known under the various names of Flat-Horned Elk, Black Elk, or Moose. The latter, which is the more common term, is a corruption of the Indian appellation, Moosoa or Musee, wood eater. The Elk is six or seven feet in length, and from four to five and a half feet high at the withers ; the head is large and elon gated, and is, including the upper lip, covered with short pro jecting and flexible hair, something like that of the Tapir ; the eyes are moderately large, and placed near the base of the horns ; the ears long and asinine ; the neck very short and strong and furnished with a mane; the lachrymal pit is small ; horns are found in the male only. The hair of the lips and throat, in connection with its very long and flexible tongue, serves to direct food to the mouth. The food consists of shoots and twigs 'of trees, particularly of striped maple; the Elk also feeds upon high coarse grasses, but when wishing to graze, reaches the ground with difficulty, and sometimes feeds leaning on its knees. It likewise peels old trees and feeds upon the bark. During the summer, Elks frequent the neighborhood of lakes and streams, often resorting to the water as a refuge from tormenting musqui- toes, and feeding upon aquatic plants; like the C. Virginianus, they are said to be particularly fond of the roots of the pond- lily. In winter, they betake themselves to the wooded hills. The Elk can hardly be said to be gregarious, but two or three being seen together, except at particular seasons. Some natu ralists consider the Moose of this country to be a different species from the Elk of Europe, asserting that in the heavy palmated horns of both, there is a difference which indicate a diversity of species ; but according to DeKay, this difference is not uni form, and the animals should be considered of the same species. The horns, perfected in the fifth year, are from ten to twelve feet 210 B.UMINANTIA. apart, and weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. The snags or branches sometimes amount to twenty-eight. The body of the Elk is round and compact, supported by legs of disproportionate length ; the hair is full and coarse, longest upon the head and withers; it is black at the tips, gray in the middle, and white at the roots. The dress of summer is of a browner tint than that of the winter. (See the figure above the Camelopard on the Chart.) In its ungainly form and awkward movements, this animal ex- hibits a strong contrast to the others of the same family. The shoulders being rather higher than the croup, it does not bound like the deer, nor gallop like the horse, but shuffles or ambles along, its joints or hoofs cracking at every step. Like those of the Rein Deer, the hoofs are broad and divided so that they di verge on pressing the ground, thus giving the animal a sort of natural snow-shoes. When each part is brought smartly together by the sudden raising of the limbs, the cracking noise above mentioned is produced and may be heard at a considerable dis tance. When increasing its speed, the animal straddles his hind legs to avoid treading on its fore heels, tossing about the head and shoulders when breaking from a trot into a gallop. In its progress, it holds up its nape so as to lay the horns horizon tally back, and prevent their entanglement among trees. The Moose is a timorous and wary animal, and as its senses of hear ing and smell are acute, must be approached with great caution. When it notices the coming of the hunter, it at once endeav ors to escape, trotting off with great rapidity; at this gait, it soon leaves the hunter far in the rear, stepping with ease over fallen timber of the largest size. When hard pressed by the hunters wearing snow shoes, if it breaks into a gallop they soon overtake it; though in the winter it may sink at every step, it still keeps on its way, the sharp ice wounding its feet, and its lofty horns becoming entangled in the branches of the forest as it passes along. The trees are broken with ease, and wherever the Moose runs, the hunter perceives it by the snapping off of branches of trees as thick as a man's thigh with its horns. The chase may last in this manner for a whole day, sometimes for two or three days together; for the pursuers are often "not less excited by famine than the pursued by fear." The poor animal "at last quite tired and spent with loss of blood, sinks like a ruined building, and makes the earth shake beneath his fall." The flesh is highly esteemed ; the nose and tongue in particular are thought to be great dainties. The Elk can be easily domes ticated, and has been used for draught. The male sometimes KUMINANTIA. 211 becomes very large, attaining the weight of eleven hundred pounds. Elks were formerly used in Europe for conveying couriers, and could accomplish 36 Swedish, or 234 English miles in a day, when attached to a sledge. Dorelli, a Swedish gentleman, recommended that they should be used in time of war as flying artillery, to reconnoitre and carry dispatches. The skin is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished with waistcoats made of Elk's hide, which could hardly be penetrated by a ball. C. rangifer, or Rangifer tarandus. The REIN DEER. The Deer of this species have received many names. They are found throughout the arctic regions of Europe, Asia and America ; but those of Lapland and Spitzbergen are said to be the finest. Their general height is about four and a half feet; their horns are long and slender, having round, branched and recurved antlers, the summits of which are palmated ; (Plate VII. fig. 5 ;) the body is of a thick and square form ; the legs are stouter in proportion than those of the Stag ; the size differs with the cli mate, those in regions farthest north being the largest ; the color is brown above, varying, however, with the age of the animal and the season of the year. As the Rein Deer grows older, it often be comes of a grayish white beneath, and sometimes almost entirely white; the space about the eyes is always black. Both sexes have canine teeth; both also have horns, but those of the male are larger, longer, and more branched than those of the female. The male sheds his horns about the last of November ; the fe male retains hers until she brings forth ; if barren, she drops them in the beginning of November. The horns, during the early part of their growth, are extremely sensitive, and the ani mal experiences much suffering from the gnats and musquitoes. The hoofs are long, large and black, as also are the false or sec ondary hoofs behind. While the animal is running, the latter hoofs, as in the Elk, make, by their striking together, a remark able clattering noise, which may be heard at a considerable dis tance. Richardson, who has given many particulars respecting this Deer, thinks that in the fur countries of this continent, at least two varieties exist, called by him the " Barren Ground Caribou," and the " Woodland Caribou." The Woodland animal goes south in the spring, and is confined to wooded districts ; the Barren Ground animal goes northward, retiring to the woods only in the winter, and passing the summer on barren grounds, or on the borders of the Arctic Seas. Bucks of this latter vari ety, when in good condition, weigh, according to Richardson, from 90 to 130 Ibs., without the offal. Sir John Franklin states 2]2 RUMINANTIA. the weight of the Woodland Caribou to be from 200 to 240 Ibs. It has been asserted that some Rein Deer have weighed as much as 400 Ibs., though the correctness of this is questioned. The Rein Deer of Norway and Sweden are small when compared with those of Finland and Lapland, which; in their turn, yield to those of Spitzbergen, and those again fall short of the Polar races. The Barren Ground Caribous feed, in summer, upon the shoots of grasses growing in the valleys of the north, returning to the woods in September ; they there feed upon the tree lichens and mosses found on the rocks and ground. They root for the lichen like swine in a pasture. The forehead, nose, and feet, are covered with a hard skin closely attached to those parts, and are thus guarded against injury by the icy crust which covers the surface of the snow. The Rein Deer of the Eastern conti nent are sustained by the same kind of food as the American animal. The Caribou is not less necessary for the support of our northern native tribes, than the Rein Deer of the Eastern Continent for that of the Laplander and other people of the north. Of the Caribou horns the Indians make their fish spears ; the hide, dressed with close and compact fur and remarkably imperv ious to cold, forms their winter clothing, and from it is made a soft and pliable leather for moccasins and summer garments. When sixty or seventy skins are sewed together, they make a tent sufficient in size for the residence of a large family. By pouring one third part of melted fat over the pounded meat, and incorporating them well together, a composition called pemmican is made. This, if kept dry, may be preserved for three or four years, and containing much nourishment in small bulk, is well fitted for use in extensive journeys, as is abundantly proved by the experience of traders and others traversing the northern lati tudes. Another mixture, called thucchawgan, made of pounded deer's meat and fish, is either eaten raw or made into soup. The Caribous travel in herds varying in number from eight or ten to two or three hundred ; their daily excursions being gener ally towards the quarter from which the wind blows. They are approached with more ease than any other deer found on this continent. A single family of Indians have sometimes destroyed two or three hundred in the course of a few weeks. To the In dians this animal is solely a beast of chase, not, as among the Laplanders, being used for purposes of draught. It is hunted or taken in traps or pounds, or lured to its fate by other artifice. Sometimes the hunter takes advantage of the animal's inquisi- tiveness, by creeping behind an object affording him partial con cealment, where he imitates the bellowing of the animal, at the RUMINANTIA. 213 same time having his deer skin coat and hood drawn over his head. In this attempt he seldom fails to shoot down the animal before he comes within a distance of twelve paces. The rude inhabitants of the whole of northern Asia use the Rein Deer as a beast of burden ; but in Lapland, where it is essential to meet the wants of a pastoral people, it is most highly appreciated. In that country the horse and ox could not exist ; but the Rein Deer supplies their place, furnishing, as it does, food and clothing, and submissively and patiently yielding its labor. The movements of the Laplander and his habits of life are, in fact, controlled by his deer. He must go where they go in search of lichens an'd mosses, and is obliged to make periodical journeys involving much labor and fatigue, in order to keep them from being an noyed by the gadfly (Oestrus Tarandi,) which not only torments them with its sting, but even deposits its eggs in the wound which it makes in their hides. Often the hides are pierced in a hun dred places, like a sieve, by this insect ; and some deer die in the third year from this cause. The Laplander flees with his deer to the mountains in .order to escape this insect, not only, but the scarcely less dreaded musquitoes, which are more ferocious in the cold climates than in the tropics. His deer are the Lap lander's wealth. When in good circumstances he has three or four hundred of them, and can live in comfort. He who has only one hundred is thought to be in a condition somewhat pre carious, while he who has but fifty commonly joins his animals with the herd of some richer man, and himself performs the neces sary menial service. The civilization of Lapland, which is on the advance and promoted by intercourse with other nations, depends upon the Rein Door as the only beast of burden and conveyance. When a traveler crosses the border line of Lap land, he must, for further progress, like Bayard Taylor, step into the sledge drawn by the rapid Rein Deer. The sledge is a light vehicle, running, not on wheels, but on its flat boards, which are covered with leather. The Rein Deer is yoked to it by a collar, and guided by reins attached to its horns. "Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe Yield to the sledge their necks, and whirl them swift O'er hill and dale, heap'd into one expanse Of marbled snow, far as the eye can sweep, With a blue crust of ice unbounded, glazed." With the usual load of from two to three hundred pounds, they will trot over the glazed snow at the rate of ten miles an hour. Journeys, by these animals, of one hundred and fifty 214 RUMINANTIA. miles in nineteen hours are not uncommon. In truth, some sto ries of their swiftness would appear incredible, if not so fully (it- tested. Pictet, with three deer, went in 1769 to the north of Lap- land, in order to observe the transit of Venus. "The first per- formed 3089 feet, 8 inches and T9yCF in two minutes, making a rate of nearly nineteen English miles an hour; the second went over the same ground in three minutes, and the last in three minutes and twenty-six seconds." One is recorded to have "drawn, in 1699, an officer, with important dispatches, eight hundred English miles in forty-eight hours; and the portrait of the poor deer, which fell dead at the end of its remarkable journey, is still preserved at the palace of Drottingholm, Sweden." C. muntjac, or Cervulus (Lat. dim.) vaginahs. (Lat. sheathed.) The MTJNTJAC or KIJANG. of India. (PI. VII. fig. 8.) This animal is a little larger than the Roebuck ; has a pointed head and rather large ears ; its eyes are large with lachrymal sinuses ; the tail is short and flattened ; the male has large ca nine teeth in the upper jaw ; the female has none, and is without horns. The horns in the male are short and simple, " rising from a footstalk apparently beneath the skin, and running ob liquely upwards, one on each side of the forehead, beginning as low down as the inner angle of the eye." On the face, two rough folds of the skin, following the direction of the prominent part of the forehead, unite so as to mark the face with the letter V. The general color is a reddish brown above ; the under parts and front of the thighs, pure white. The Chinese Muntjak is of a grayish brown color, with pale ringed hair. The Munt jak is one of the most elegant and beautiful of the deer kind. It possesses " a great portion of craftiness, combined with much indolence." As it gives forth a strong scent, dogs easily follow its path. In its flight, it is at first very swift; but it soon slack ens its speed, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which it started. After making several such circuits, if still followed, it thrusts its head into a thicket, and thus remains fixed, as in a secure place, unmindful of the approach of the sportsman. The male animal has a great share of courage, and when the dogs are at bay with him, he makes, with his tusks, a most vigorous defence, and many dogs are wounded in the attack. Dr. Horsefield, whose account of this animal is the most satis factory, states that the Muntjak "selects for its retreat certain dis tricts which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these dis tricts are known as the favorite resort of the animal for several generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, di versified by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities RUMINANTIA. 215 of the more considerable mountains, or approaching the con- fines of extensive forests." These districts, common in Java, are " covered with long grass, and shrubs, and trees of moderate size, growing in groups or sirr-1! thickets." The long grass, saccharum spicatum, and a plant called PJiyllanthus Emblica, constitute the principal food of the Muntjak. The flesh is said to afford excellent venison, and is often found on the tables of European residents. Among the Mali rattas, this animal iscalled Baikar. It uses its long sinuses apparently for the purpose of smelling, "dilating them to a great extent, and applying them to various objects." The SOUTH AMERICAN DEER form a beautiful group. Of these we can notice only 1st, C. nemorivagus, (Lat. nemus, a wood; vagus, wandering,) — the GAUZU-VIVA, a delicate little deer, which is but twenty-six inches in length, approaching, in its aspect, that of the sheep. In this species, the lachrymal si nus, or, tear pit, is scarcely perceptible. The lower part of the head and legs is whitish ; about the eyes, on the inside of the fore legs and under part of the body, the color is a palish cinna mon ; the neck and other parts brownish. The horns are very short. It is found in Brazil. 2. C. rufus, (Lat. red.) The PITA. This is about twenty-nine inches in height; in its general color reddish brown, but in some parts whiter. It lives in the low marshy grounds of South America ; is found in large herds, and "as ten females are seen for one male," and as the former are without horns, the existence of deer on this continent, with out horns, has by some been incorrectly reported. The Pita shows little power of endurance when pursued, being soon run down by dogs ; sometimes it is captured by the lasso and balls. FOSSIL CERVIDJE have been discovered, the most remarkable of which is the Megaceros (great horned) Hibernicus, the gigantic Irish Deer, larger in size than the Moose ; the antlers over five feet in length, from 'the burr to the tip, in a straight line, and nearly eleven feet apart, reckoning from the extreme tip of the right to that of the left antler. QUESTIONS. What is said of the internal structure of the DEER FAMILY ? Give their general characters. Are the horns found in both sexes ? What is said of their form ? How extensive is the range of the Deer ? What is remarked of the loss and renewal of the antlers? Briefly describe the process. At what time does the Common Stag shed his horns ? How soon, in the young animal, do the horns appear? What determines the age of the Stag? 218 RUMINANTIA. How many antlers have the oldest? What is said of their hearing and smell? How many species does the family include? How does the W<']i>- ti compare with thie European Stag? What is said of his horns? What other characteristics are given ? Upon what does it feed ? Is its flesh highly valued? Where is it found? How many varieties of the Axis? Describe the Common Axis. Where found ? What do the hunters call it ? What is said of the larger variety? Where is the Roebuck now found? Give its size and other particulars. What is said of the White-tailed Deer ? What of the Mule or Long-eared Deer ? Where is the Red Deer, or Stag found? With what is this associated ? How is this distinguished ? What is said of its size or weight ? What species has largely superseded this in England, and why? What is said of the chase of the Deer? Give other particulars. How does the Fallow Deer compare with the Stag? When is it mature? How many varieties in England? Where is it found wild? What is said of its venison ? From what part of the animal is hartshorn obtained ? Which English sp. does the American or Virginia D. resemble ? Describe it. What is its range ? Why are so few of its horns found ? How is it useful in frontier countries? What is said of the size of the Elk? What is the origin of its name? What is the animal called in this country? Explain the term Moose. Name its characteristics. Of what roots and twigs is it particularly fond? Does the Am. differ from the Eur. sp.? What is said of its horns, hair, £c. ? How does it contrast with other Deer ? What is peculiar in its hoofs ? What of its efforts to escape from hunters? For what purpose were Elks formerly used in Europe? Of what regions is the Rein Deer a native ? Give its size and other characteristics. How many varieties, according to Richardson, are found on this continent? Give the weight of each? Which Rein D. are the largest? On what doi's the Caribou feed ? What is said of its uses? What is pemmican ? What is thucchawgan ? How does the Caribou travel ? For what do the In dians use it? How is it hunted? What are the uses of the Rein D. on the Eastern Continent ? How does it affect the character and condition of the Laplander ? What is said of the size of the Muntjac ? Give some ac count of its disposition and habits. What S. American Deer are mentioned ? Give some account of them. Which is the most remarkable of the fossil Deer? Compare the description of the Flat-Jiorned Elk with the figure above Camelopard, on the chart. Give the genera, species, &c., of the Round- horned Elk or Wapiti. What else is it called? Trace the Rein D. and compare the description in the book with the figure on the chart. SECTION XXVII. BOVIDAE. (Lat. Bos, an ox.) The OXEN. — Bisulcated. (Lat. ^ Bis, two; sulcus, furrow, two hoofed or furrowed. )(P1. VI. fig. 1.) The animals of this family have characteristics easily recog nized and generally familiar. Both sexes have horns which are permanent, hollow and smooth, except at their base, where they are ringed ; also rounded and tapering to a point, so as to form a crescent. The horns are supported by bony cores, having cavities, or cells communicating with the interior of the skull ; RUMINANTIA. 217 the muzzle is large ; the. neck thick, deep and compressed, — its skin forming a pendulous dewlap ; the body is heavy and mas sive ; the limbs stout ; there is a distinct ridge upon the back, which is sometimes produced into a dorsal hump ; the expression of the countenance is often, particularly in the males, malignant and threatening, betokening the ferocity that belongs to several of the species ; — the Cow and Ox, however, exhibit a quiet, decided gentleness of physiognomy. The oxen are social in their habits ; and some are gregarious, associating in immense herds, as the Bison or Buffalo. The organs of digestion in this family are after the same plan as those of the other ruminant, or cud-chewing animals, and need not be here particularly de scribed. The main food of the Ox family is herbivorous ; for although they do browse upon shrubs and trees, yet grass and herbage they prefer. (For the kind of teeth in this family, see Plate IV. fig. 10.) When hungry, they have been known to feed on plants not designed for their use, and by which they have been injured. Meadow-Saffron, (colchicum autumnale,) for instance, is deleterious to them if taken in any large quantity ; and Hellebore, (Helleborus ,) is said to be poisonous to them ; Yew, (t,axus bac- cata,) is fatal to them, as it is to herbivorous animals generally. In a state of "domesticated nature," — that is, when not stall-fed, or at all using artificial grasses, but roaming at large, oxen are said to eat two hundred and seventy-six plants, and to reject two hundred and eighteen. Heifers waste away in enclosures where the Meadow-Sweet, (spiraea ulmaria,) grows in abundance, and covers the ground ; but to the GOAT this is nourishing food. The present races of wild cattle are probably all descended from those which were, at some period, subservient to man. The an cient Urus, or Wild Ox, was a savage, untamable animal, with large spreading horns, and of great size. Bos taurus. (Lat. a Bull.) This animal, with flat forehead, and the withers not humped, was properly regarded as the type of the entire tribe. This species includes the Common Ox which is so widely diffused, and of such extended and varied utility ; — of which more than forty synonyms have been given. The horns dif fer much as to their form and direction, from the influence of domestication; the colors are various, as reddish, white, gray, brown and black. "The male is called a bull; the female, a cow; and the young, a calf; the name Ox is given to the gelded male ; and he is called an ox-calf, or bull-calf, until he is twelve months old ; a steer until he is four years old. and after that an ox or bullock." The Ox is less used for farming purposes than formerly ; the 218 RUMINANTIA. horse and improved agricultural implements taking its place ; it reaches its full vigor in three years, and its term of life is about fourteen. The breeds of the animal are numerous, and gener ally distinguished by the length or shape of the horns. The " Durham," or short-horned breed, is perhaps most valuable for the dairy, as well as for a tendency to fatten rapidly, and at an early age." The "long-horned," the " middle-horned," and the "polled," or hornless breeds, have each their particular values. The "Alderney Cow," with "crumpled horn," has long been celebrated for the richness of its milk. Within the last half century, many and successful efforts have been made to improve the breed of cattle both in England and in this country.* Con siderable benefit has resulted from the labors of Agricultural Societies, and, in particular, from the stimulus which, by the offer of premiums, they have given to the raising of cattle for exhibition at the annual COUNTY and STATE FAIRS. The uses of the Ox are well known, and we need not describe them ; every part of the animal is of value. Formerly, the cruel sport of bull- baiting was much practiced ; and in some countries, particularly Spain, it is still a popular diversion. Bos Indicus. The ZEBU, or BRAHMIN BULL, of India. (See Chart.) This is distinguished for a more lengthened form of the head, with a decidedly concave line of profile ; an arched neck ; a lump of fatty substance rising from the withers ; an arched back, sinking and rounded qff on the hinder part ; an enormous dew lap dangling down in folds ; long, pendulous ears ; a mild and sleepy eye ; and long and tapering limbs. The size varies from that of a large mastiff to that of a full grown buffalo. Over the whole of Southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipela go, and the eastern coast of Africa, the Zebu supplies the place of the Ox. In some places, it is saddled and ridden, or harnessed in a carriage ; traveling from twenty to thirty miles in a day. Its beef is inferior to that of the Ox. The hump is deemed the most delicate part. This sometimes becomes greatly increased in size, and has even been known to reach " the enormous weight of 50 IDS." Among the Hindoos, the Zebu has a "charmed life." They venerate this animal, and hold its slaughter to be a sin ; though they do not object to work it. In the streets of Calcutta, "some particularly sanctified" Zebus may be seen wandering at their ease in the public streets, and taking their food where they list. The utmost a native does when he sees them honoring his goods too much, is to "urge them by the * See "American Herd Book," and other Agricultural works.. EUMINANTIA. 219 gentlest hints, to taste some of the good things in his neighbor's stall." If lying down in some narrow way, a person must not disturb them ; but he must either proceed by another road, or wait until the sacred animals are pleased to rise ! B. Dante. THE DANTE. This is an Egyptian species, re sembling the preceding, figures of which are found on ancient tombs of Egypt. BISON. (Gr. Biacav. named from the Thracian BlaToveg, Bis- tones.) The BISON. This generic name first used by Pliny, applies to two living species,— -one of them European, and now almost extinct; the other American, and still found in great numbers. AUDUBON enumerates five species, three of which, however, are more gen erally arranged either with the genus Bos, or the genus Bubabus. The European Bison is now found living in the Moldavian and Wallachian districts, and in some parts of the Caucasus ; the other species at one time " ranged over nearly the whole of North America;" it is now found in vast herds in some of the Western prairies, and is thinly scattered along the valleys which border upon the Rocky Mountains. The districts which these animals inhabit, are described very graphically in Washing ton Irving's "Tour in the Prairies." They delight in level prairies, covered with luxuriant vegetation, bordering the hills of limestone formation, where saline springs or marshes abundantly occur. The American species, B. Americanus, has fifteen pairs of ribs ; the European has fourteen, (one more than the common ox.) This points out the main difference between the two species. The Bison is marked by its broad and slightly arched fore head, and the long and wavy hair upon it, forming on the chin and breast a kind of beard ; by the elevation of the withers, aris ing from the lengthened spinous processes for the attachment of the ligament and enormous muscles of the neck, serving to sup port the large and ponderous head ; and by a continuous fatty deposition, or sort of hunch, — from which the back gradually declines, the hind quarters appearing disproportionately weak arid small ; and by its short but amazingly powerful limbs. The horns are short, tapering and erect; the general color dark umber brown, becoming in winter tinged with a grayish white. The aspect of ihis anim il is fierce, wild and malicious; the eyes being small, fiery, and half hid in the shaggy hair inter mingled with wool, which copiously overspreads its head and shoulders. The height at the shoulders is upwards of six feet ; the length (exclusive of the tail, which is twenty inches) is eight and a half feet; the weight of a fat bull is generally near two 220 RUMINANTIA. thousand pounds ; that of a fat cow, nearly twelve hundred, which is considered a good weight in the fur countries. The Indians have long been hunters of this animal, which they call the Buffalo ; using bows and arrows, which, wielded by their skillful hands, strike the huge creature to the ground. The female is beyond all comparison swifter than the male, and is the constant object of the hunter, from the superior quality of her flesh. The Bison is a shy and wary animal ; usually it flies before its pursuers ; but sometimes, led by an infuriated individual, the whole herd will turn, and rushing towards the hunters, trample them down in their headlong course. Next to man, the enemies which these animals most greatly dread, are the grizzly bear and the wolf, by which many of them are destroyed; the wolves assail ing them in packs and making great havoc, especially among the smaller animals. While feeding, they are frequently scattered over a vast surface ; but when they move onwards in a mass, they form a dense, impenetrable column, which once fairly in motion, is scarcely to be turned. They swim large rivers in nearly the same order in which they traverse the plains; and when flying from pursuit, it is vain for those in front to halt suddenly, as the rearward throng rush madly forward and force their leaders on. The Indians sometimes avail themselves of this habit. Driving a herd of these animals to the vicinity of a precipice, and setting the whole in rapid motion, they, by shouting and other artifices, impel the affrighted animals onward to their own destruction. The herds of these animals found together, sometimes number "countless thousands." Lewis and Clark say, that "20,000 would be no exaggerated number" for a herd which they saw, and which "darkened the whole plain." To Cat! in 's account of his travels among the North American Indians, reference may be had for many interesting accounts of "buffalo hunts." The risk of this chase is considerable, but its rewards are great; few animals minister more largely to the wants, and even to the comforts of man, than the Bison. The flesh is said to be juicy, bearing ( The tongue, well cured, is thought to surpass, as a relish, that of the common ox, — the hump also is esteemed pecul iarly rich and delicate. Much of the pemmican used by North ern voyagers, or by those attached to the fur companies, is made of bison meat, — one bison furnishing meat and fat enough :o make 90 Ibs. of the article. The Indian tribes make every part of the animal subservient to their necessities and comfort, — the "Buffalo robes," — the skin dressed with the hair on, — defenvling RUMINANTIA. 221 them against the cold ; the horns are converted into powder-flasks ; and the ribs of the animal, strengthened by some of the stronger fibres, are made to furnish the bow, by which others of the spe cies are to be destroyed. Catlin says, that "there are, by a fair calculation, more than 300,000 Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by these animals supplied with all the luxuries of life which they desire, as they know no others." The advance of white population over the regions of the West, bearing with "them the institutions of civilization is, however, modifying this statement, and gradually contracting the range of the Bison. Bubalus Buffalus, or Bos Bubalus. The BUFFALO of Asia. This animal, in its general aspect and carriage, resembles the Bison, or perhaps the Domestic Ox, though larger and stronger, — but differs from the Bison in its horns, which are enormously large, bent down and recurved at the tip ; in its ears, which are half the length of the head, and slightly covered with hair; and in the fur, which is rough, irregular and bristly. Of this species, there are two varieties, the B. Arnee, (Shaw,) and the B. Rhainsa. The Arnee is the wild Buffalo of India, found on the margins of old and thick forests; and, like the Rhinoceros, confining itself to the most swampy parts of the region where it dwells. Its horns are often five feet in length, and so in clined together at the points, as to form a figure somewhat lyre- shaped. It is also remarkable for the shortness of its tail, which reaches no lower than the hock. It is one third larger than the Rhainsa, or tame Buffalo, being ten and a half feet long, and six to six and a half feet high at the shoulders. Its strength is so great, it is a formidable enemy even to the tiger, who shuns an encounter with him ; and such is the power of his charge, that he frequently prostrates a well-sized elephant. The Rhainsa is universal in India and adjacent countries, and was formerly, as now, used as a beast of burden in Egypt, Greece and Italy. In the latter country, it is, on account of its great strength, very use ful for carrying purposes, especially in marshy and swampy dis tricts, where the roads are two or three feet deep with mud. The hide of the Asiatic Buffalo is peculiarly thick and strong, and in great request for making harness. Bos Gaums, the Gour, or Gaur, of mountainous parts of Central India. This has the hind hoof only half the size of the fore one, — the general color is brown, but the legs are white ; the horns are bent downwards at the front ; "the limbs have more of the form of the deer than any other of the bovine genus." It is asserted 222 RUMINANTIA. that the tiger has no chance in a combat with a full grown Gour. This animal does not, like the Buffalo, wallow in swamp and mire. The large quantity of milk given by the cow, is said to be occasionally so rich as to cause the calf's death. Poephagus. (Gr. noy, poe, grass ; qpdyw, phago, I eat,) or .Bos grunniens, (of Linnaeus.) The YAK. Of this genus, there is but one species, P. grunniens, found in the woods and recesses of the Thibet mountains. It has fourteen or fifteen pair of ribs, and resembles the Buffalo in its form, but is smaller. Both sexes grunt like a pig, whence the specific name, grunniens, (Lat. grunting.) The tail has full flowing hair like that of a horse, and is used in India as a fan or whisk to keep off the musquitoes, — when fixed into an ivory or metal handle, it is called a cJwwrie. Elephants are sometimes taught to carry a chowrie, and waive it about in the air. The neck and back are surmounted by a sort of mane ; the hair of the body is black, — smooth and short in summer, but thick and harsh in winter; the back and tail are often white. The Yaks dislike the heat of summer, and hide themselves in the shade and water. The hair is applied to various purposes by the Tartars. They weave it into cloth, of which they not only make articles of dress, but also tents and the ropes which sustain them. There are two varieties, — those used for the plough, and those used for riding. The former are ugly and short-legged, and guided by the nose, carry their heads very low; the latter much handsomer, having twisted horns, a noble bearing, and an erect head ; also a stately hump, and a rich silky tail reaching nearly to the ground. Bos moschatus. (Lat, musky,) or Ovibos moschatus. The MUSK Ox. (Plate VII. fig. 9.) This animal has sometimes been removed from the genus JBos, in consequence of the absence of the naked muzzle which is possessed by others of the bovine groups, and ranked as a con necting, or intermediate link between the ox and the sheep ; hence the generic term ovibos, (Lat. ovis, a sheep; and bos, ox.) It may be doubted, however, whether, on this account, it should be separated from the bovines. The full-grown male is about the size of a small two year old cow ; the female is con siderably smaller ; the horns are united at the top of the head, — flat, broad, and bent down against the cheeks, but become round and tapering, and turning up, end in a sharp point about the level of the eyes. The animal is covered with long bushy hair, which reaches almost to the ground. The general color of the hair is brown, or brownish black, except a portion in the middle of the back, which is dirty gray ; in the female, the general RUMINANTIA. 2'23 color is black; the head is large and square; the eyes mod erately large; the ears short, and scarcely visible through the surrounding long hair. Under the hair of the body, is an admir able second coat, consisting of brown, or ash-colored wool ; the legs are short and thick, covered with close hair, unmixed with wool; the tail very short ; the hoofs are small compared with the size of the animal, — resembling those of the Rein Deer. It is said "none but an experienced hunter can distinguish the dif ference of the impressions made by the toes on the snow." Its food is also like that of the Rein Deer, — lichens in winter; — grass in summer. The length of the Musk Ox from the nose to the root of the tail, is ahout five and a half feet ; and its weight, ac cording to Parry, about 700 Ibs. It is gregarious, being found in herds, twenty or thirty in number. The home of these ani mals is in the barren lands of North America, in regions above the 60lh degree of latitude. They are hunted by the Esquimaux, bul not without danger, as when provoked or wounded, they are apt. to turn upon the pursuer. The poor creatures seem to fancy that the report of guns is thunder, and crowd together in a mass, so that they afford a good mark. If, however, they get sight of one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and then they are very dangerous enemies. Sometimes the Esquimaux turn the animals' irritation to good account; — for, after the adroit hunter has provoked the animal, and induced it to attack him, he wheels around it more quickly than it can turn ; and by re peated stabs, puts an end to its life. The speed of the Musk Ox in running, is great, and it climbs rocky paths and broken and uneven sides of hills, with great agility. Sir John Richardson says, the wool of this animal "resembles that of the Bison, but is perhaps finer, and would be highly useful in the arts, if it could be procured in sufficient quantity." The same author informs us, that " when the animal is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and re sembles that of the Caribou, but has a coarser grain." When lean, these animals " smell strongly of musk, their flesh, at the same time, being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior to that of any other ruminant animal in North America." QUESTIONS UPON THE BOVIDAE, (OX FAMILY.) How is Bovidae derived ? What is said of the general character of this family ? What of the horns in particular ? What of the appearance and habits of these animals ? What kind of food do they use ? What plants are hurtful to them ? How many plants do oxen eat? How many do they reject? Which species furnishes the type of the entire tribe ? How many synonyms have been given ? Give the different names appropriated to this animal ? How arc the breeds of this animal usually distinguished ? What 10 223 RUMINANTIA. is said of the Durham breed? What other breeds are mentioned? By what means has the breed of cattle been improved? How is the Zebu dis tinguished ? How extensively does it supply the place of the ox ? What uses are made of it? How is it regarded by the Hindoos? What is said of the Egyptian species ? How many species of Bison are there ? Where is the European species now found ? What has probably prevented its en tire extinction ? In what part of North America is the other species found? What is the main difference between the European and the American species ? How many ribs has the common ox ? Give the distinctive marks of the Bison? Describe its disposition and habits. What enemies does it most dread ? How do the Indians avail themselves of the habits of this animal ? What is said of the largeness of the herds ? Mention the uses made of the different parts of the Bison. How many Indians does Catlin estimate are daily supported by its flesh ? How does the Asiatic Buffalo differ from the Bison ? How many varieties of this species ? What is said of them ? In what countries is the animal used ? Where is it especially useful ? What is said of the Gour ? How does it differ from the Buffalo*? Give the derivation of the term Pocphagus ? How many species of the Yak ? What renders the specific name appropriate ? What use is made of its tail? What of its hair ? How many varieties of this animal ? Why is the generic Ovibos applied to the Musk Ox ? What is the composition of that term ? What characteristics are given ? Where is the home of this animal ? What more is said of it ? Name the genera and species of the Ox Family found upon the chart, tracing and giving some account of each as you proceed. SECTION XXVIII. Ovidae. (Lat. ovis, a sheep.) The SHEEP. These differ so slightly from the Goat in anatomical struct ure that both genera are by some naturalists united. The chief distinctive characters consist "in the sheep having no beard ; in the horns being directed backwards, and then in- clining spirally more or less forwards ; in having a convex fore head ; and in the existence of a sac, or fossa, situated at the base of the toes, lined with hair, and furnished with sebaceous follicles." The males also differ from the goat in being inodo rous. The age of sheep is reckoned from the first shearing. Their value, both for food and clothing, is well known, and is in- calculably great, while they are reared upon soils where other animals could not obtain sufficient for their support. The fila ments of wool taken from a healthy sheep, present a polished, glittering appearance; those of a sickly, or half-starved animal, exhibit a paler hue. The dressed skin is largely used for the binding of books, and for different kinds of apparel. The bones, when calcined, are employed as tests in refining processes ; from the entrails are prepared strings for musical instruments. Sheep furnish milk which is thicker than that of cows, and yields a RUMIN.ANTIA. 225 greater quantity of butter and cheese. In some cases, water must be added in order to produce whey. The history of these animals is intermingled with poetical descriptions and national customs and enactments. They are mentioned in the earliest scripture records, and formed the chief wealth of the ancient patriarchs. Among the Jews, under the economy of Moses, the lamb was offered in sacrifice, — pointing to "Christ, the Heav enly Lamb;" and in the New Testament these animals are the subjects of many beautiful and touching parables. Ovis aries. The COMMON SHEEP. This exhibits numerous varieties, and many of its form have been raised to the rank of species. The Ovis Hispanicus, the Spanish, or Merino Sheep, is among the most celebrated. These sheep, it is said, are the regenerated stock of the sheep of Boeotia, and survived the conquest of Spain by the Goths and Vandals. They have been transferred to Great Britain, Germany and the United States ; and are remarkable for the fineness of their wool. In Germany, the wool has been brought to the highest perfection. Merino Sheep were introduced into Great Britain in 1787. The original stock in this State, (N. Y.,*) was derived from Holland; the Merino variety was first introduced in 1801 ; though their importance was not fully appreciated until seven or eight years after that period ; when the excitement respecting them became very great, and they were sold at enormous prices. Of the Merino Sheep, there are three varieties, viz., the Paular, the Negretti, and the Gaudaloupe breeds. The quality of the wool has been improved by the introduction of Saxony Sheep, (originally of the same Merino race,) The breeds of sheep are distinguished by the comparative length of the fibres, which compose their fleece. They are de signated as short wooled, middle- wooled, and long-wooled sheep. 1o the short-vvooled division belong the *' Merino, Saxony and Australian breeds, whose short, fine and silky wool is used in the manufacture of broadcloths. The middle-wooled breeds, such as the English South-down, Suffolk and Cheviot, furnish material for the coarser cloths, flannels and similar fabrics. The Leicester breed, and some others, are long-wooled. The fibre of the wool in these sheep is strong and transparent, but is deficient in the powet of felting, on which the compactness of cloth depends. This wool is used for merinoes, moussehnes de lame, hosiery, etc. Welsh sheep are noted for the superior flavor of their flesh, and "in the London market Welsh mutton is always in demand." * DeKay. 226 RUM1NANTIA. O, Ammon Argalis, or Siberian Sheep. The ARGALI. This is one of the varieties of wild sheep, native to Siberia, and ranging over the mountains of Asia, — a strong, muscular, and active animal, about as large as a small fallow deer, and having thick, roughly ringed horns. (Plate VII. fig. 12.) In summer, its hair is smooth, and of yellowish gray color ; but in winter, it becomes thick, harsh and reddish ; the muzzle, throat and under parts, continuing white at all seasons. The whole form of this animal appears better adapted for agility than that of the com- mon sheep. O. Canadensis. The TAYE, or BFG HORN SHEEP, of Canada. This is identical with the O. Montanus, of Geoffrey, and a variety is the O. California, of Douglas, which Dr. Gray says is probably the same as the Ammon, of Siberia. O. Musimon, or Musmon. The MOUFFLON, of Cyprus, Can- dia, and Corsica. (Plate VII. fig. 10.) This differs from the Argali, only in being rather smaller, and in me horns being very small, .^r altogether absent in the female. Like the Argali, it makes its home upon the mountains. It has been supposed that the primitive stock may be traced either to this, or the preceding species, — the hair of both species possess ing the essential character of wool, — an imbricating scaly sur. face, — which gives to the covering of the domestic breeds the re- mzrkable felting property upon which its utility so much depends. O- polycerata. (Gr. no'^vy, polus, many ; xt'^aj, kcras, horn.) The MANY-HORNED SHEEP. This species found in Iceland and the most northern parts of the Russian dominions, resembles the common sheep in its body and tail, but has three, four, five or more horns. (See Plate VII. fig. 13.) The wool is long, smooth, hairy, and of a dark brown color. Under its outer coat, is a fine, short and soft kind of wool, or fur. O. laticauda. (Lat. latus, broad ; ciuda, tail.) The BROAD- TAILED SHEEP, — is common in Tartary, Arabia, Persia, Barbary, Syria and Egypt. This sheep is chiefly noted for its large, heavy tail, often so loaded with fat as to weigh from ten to twelve pounds, and according to some, double that weight, and a foot broad ; sometimes it is necessary to support it artificially. The upper part is covered with wool, but it is bare underneath, and the fat, of which it consists, is regarded as a great delicacy. O. strepsiceros. (Gr. OT^E'CJPW, strepho, to twist ; xeyug, keras, horn.) THE CRETAN SHEEP. This is chiefly found in the Island of Crete, but is kppt in several parts of Europe on account of its singular appearance ; RUMINANTIA. 227 the horns being very large, long and spiral, those of the male upright. — of the female, at right angles with the head. O. Guineensis. The AFRICAN, or GUINEA SHEEP, — found in all the tropical climates of Africa. It is large, with rough, hairy skin, short horns and pendulous ears, a kind of dewlap under the chin, and a long mane reaching below the neck. It is stronger, larger and more fleet than other sheep, and better suited to a forest life ; but the flesh is quite indifferent food. SHEEP. What are the distinctive characters of the Sheep ? How does the wool of the healthy sheep appear ? What are the uses of this animal ? With what is it associated ? What Scripture references are given ? What is said of the varieties of the Common Sheep? Which is the most celebrated? What is said of their origin ? Where is their wool brought to the highest perfection? When was this variety first introduced into the State of New York ? How has the quality of the wool been improved ? How are the breeds of sheep distinguished, and how designated? What breeds are included in the Short- Wooled division ? What in the Middle- Wooled, and what in the Long- Wooled? In what respect is the fibre of the Long- Wooled Sheep deficient? For what is the wool much used ? What is said of the Welsh variety ? Where is the Argali found? What is said of it? How does the Moufflon differ from the Argali ? In what respects does it resemble it? What is said of the Many-Horned Sheep? Where is the Broad-Tailed Sheep ? What is said of its tail ? Where is the Cretan Sheep found? What is said of its horns? Where is the Guinea Sheep found, and what is said of it ? Trace the varieties mentioned on the chart, — tell where they are found, and their peculiarities. SECTION XXIX. Capridae, (Lat. capra, a goat.) The GOAT FAMILY. The distinguishing characteristics of the Goat family are that they have hollow horns turned upwards and ringed ; that they have eight cutting teeth on the lower jaw and none in the upper; and that the male has a beard. The muzzle is comparatively narrow, with no naked space about the nostrils ; the tail is short ; there are no fissures, or tear-pits, beneath the eyes, nor tufts of hair upon the knees. Either " native or naturalized," this ani mal appears in almost every part of the world. It is capable of enduring all kinds of weather, being found in high northern lati tudes, and also thriving in the hottest parts of Africa and India. The internal organization of the animal is almost entirely simi lar to that of the sheep, (Ovida.) "He is, however, stronger, lighter, and more agile, and less timid than the sheep. The sup pleness of his organs, and the strength and nervousness of his 228 RUJVIINANTIA. frame, are hardly sufficient to support the petulance and rapidity of his natural movements." (BufFon.) The milk of the Goat "is sweet, nutritious, and medicinal, ow- ing to the character of its food, which consists chiefly of what is obtained from high hills, or from pastures where aromatic shrubs . abound. Anciently the skin was deemed valuable for clothing ; the best Turkey or Morocco leather is made from it, and from the skin of the kid is prepared the softest and handsomest leather for gloves. The strong odor of the Goat is well known, and it is said to be "refreshing" to horses. The female bears, generally in the last of February, usually two, sometimes three and even four young. Among the Greeks and Romans the Goat, because an enemy to the vine, was sacrificed to Bacchus. This animal is remarkably sure footed. Pennant says, "two yoked together, as they often are, as if by consent, take large and hazardous leaps, and vet so time their mutual efforts as rarely to miscarry in the attempt." The Goat butts, raising himself on the hind legs, and then coming down sidewise against his enemies. The varieties are numerous, and some of them have been exalted to the rank of species. Hircus (or Copra) Aegagrus. The WILD GOAT. This is re garded by Cuvier and others, as the parent stock of the Domes tic Goat in all its varieties. It is found in herds, freely ranging in the great mountain chains of Asia. In Persia it is called the Paseng. The size is rather larger than that of the domestic breed ; the horns also usually exceed those of the common Goat ; the color is a brown ish gray above and white beneath. The male has a large brown ish beard ; the female neither beard nor horns. Capra hircus. The DOMESTIC GOAT. (Lat. hircus, a he-goat.) This animal, like others reclaimed and subject to man, exhib its great varieties in respect to size, color, the quality of the hair, and even the largeness and number of the horns. C. Angorensis. The ANGORA GOAT. (See Chart.) This is a native of Angora, in Asia Minor ; generally is of a milk-white color, short legged, with black, spreading, and spi rally twisted horns and pendulous ears; its silk-like wool, which is its chief excellence, covers the entire body in long, hanging and spiral ringlets, and from it the finest camlets are made. The CASHMERE GOAT, which is found in Thibet and roams the pastures of the Himalaya mountains, has an undercoat of wool, exquisitely delicate and fine. From this are manufactured the Cashmere shawls so highly valued by the fashionables of both hemispheres. It is remarked that the lower the temperature RUMINANTIA. 229 where the animal pastures, the heavier and finer is its wool. The Goats which feed in the highest vales of Thibet are- of a bright ocre color ; in lower ground the color changes to a yel lowish white, and still lower down to entirely white. The high est parts of the Himalaya mountains inhabitable by man have a kind of black Goats, which yield wool from which are made shawls that in India command the highest price. The fine curled wool of these Goats lies close to the skin, just as the under hair of the common Goat lies below the coarse upper hair. The flesh of the Himalaya Goats is said to taste as well and its milk to be as rich as that of the common Goat. The Angora Goat loses the delicacy of its hairy covering when exposed to a change of climate and pasture. It is said the people of Cashmere constantly work 16,000 looms, each loom giving employment to three men, the annual sale being calcu lated at 30,000 shawls. The "NATURALISTS' LIBRARY," (RUMINANTIA, part II. by Sir William Jardine,) says that "a fine shawl, with a pattern all over it, takes nearly a year in making. The persons employed sit on a bench at the frame, sometimes four people at each, but if the shawl is a plain one, only two. The borders are marked with wooden needles, there being a separate needle for each color, and the rough part of the shawl is uppermost while it is in a process of manufacture. The Cashmeres which are obtained from the kingdom of that name are most sought after. India, however, produces several Goats besides the true Cashmere breed which yield wool from which shawls are made. Twenty-four pounds weight of the best wool of Thibet, sells at Cashmere for twenty rupees." C. Jaela,orC. Niibiana. The ABYSSINIAN GOATS, found in the mountains of Abyssinia and Upper Egypt, and also on Mount Sinai, differ from the Goats of Thibet, in having close smooth hair, a convex forehead, and a projecting lower jaw. The SYRIAN GOAT, (Capra Syriaca,) is distinguished by its large pendulous ears, (see Plate VII. fig. 14,) which are usually from one to two feet in length, and sometimes so annoying to the animal that the owners are obliged to trim them to enable it to feed with more ease. It has black horns which bend a little for wards, and are only about two inches long. The hair is colored like that of a fox, and it has two fleshy protuberances under its throat. It is very numerous in Syria, where it finds pastures specially adapted to its wants. Pennant says that "it supplies Aleppo with milk." It is no unimportant part of the wealth of a pastoral people, its flesh being used for food and its hair •230 EUMIXANTIA. wrought into cloth. This was one of the animals offered in sac rifice by the ancient Hebrews ; it was this Goat over which the Jewish High Priest, putting his hands on the Goat's head, " con- fessed the iniquities of the children of Israel," and then "sent him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness." The long ears of this animal illustrate those words of scripture, Amos iii. 12, "As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion .... a piece of an ear." So large and thick are the ears of this Goat that they make a considerable mouthful even for a lion. C. Ibex. The IBEX. Of this species there are several varieties in the mountain ranges of Europe, Asia and Africa, but more especially those of Asia and the bordering parts of Europe, all, however, resem bling each other in their structure and general habits. This ani mal is much larger and stronger than the common domestic Goat. " The color is a deep hoary brown, the under parts of the body and insidesof the limbs are of a much paler and whitish hue ; the body is thick, short and strong ; it has a small head, large eyes, and strong legs; very short hoofs ; a short tail ; and extremely large and long arched, brown colored horns, with knobs on the upper surface." (Plate VII. fig. 15.) The fore legs are considerably shorter than the hind, which enables the animal to ascend more easily than he can descend lofty mountain heights. In manners and voice the Ibex is much like the Chamois. It is found in small flocks consisting of ten or fifteen individuals. When hard pressed, these animals sometimes turn upon the hunter, hurling him down the most frightful declivity. It is a native of the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains and of the Alps. C. Americana. ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT. These animals inhabit the lofty chain of mountains whence they1 derive their name, ranging from 40o to 65o North Latitule- They resort to grassy knolls begirt with craggy rocks as afford- ing them places of refuge against the onsets of dogs and wolves , visiting, daily, caves in the mountains said to be encrusted with an effervescence of salt, of which they are fond ; they are of larger size than the common Goat, have black horns, which are smooth and polished at the tips, and curved backwards, and ol)- 7 scurely ringed at the base, where they are sometimes a foot in circumference. On account of the great size of the horns, :.his animal is called by the hunters, the *' Big-horn." The muzzl* is extremely small ; the color white ; the hair long and straight; the skin very thick and spongy, and principally used in making moccasins. The flesh, when it is in season, is said to exceed in RUMINANTIA. 231 flavor the venison obtained in the same region, and the fleece is also highly valued, being next to that of the Cashmere Goat in fineness. Give the chief characteristics of the Goat Family. What is Buffon's re mark? What are the uses of the Goat? What 'remark is quoted from Pennant ? Has this family many varieties ? Which species is regarded as the purest stock? Where is it found? How does it compare in size, &c., with the domestic breed ? In what respects does the Domestic Goat vary ? Describe the Angora Goat. Where is the Cashmere Goat found ? What articles are manufactured from its wool ? What shawls command the high est price in India ? What is said of the wool of which they are made ? Has change of climate any effect upon the wool of the Angora Goat? What is said of the manufacture and sale of the Cashmere shawls? How do the Abi/ssii.i in Goats differ from those of Thibet? For what is the Syri an Goat distinguished ? What is said of its hair, &c. ? What use was made of it by the Ancient Hebrews ? What words of Scripture do the ears of this animal illustrate ? What is the habitat of the Ibex ? What is said . of its varieties? How do they compare with the Domestic Goat? Give the character of this animal. Does it ascend or descend most easily? What animal is it much like? What is the range of the Rocky Mountain Goat? What are their particular resorts? What do the hunters call this animal? For what are its skin and flesh used? Name, trace and characterize the species on the chart. SECTION XXX. Antelopida. "Bright eyed." (Gr. avOog, anthos, a flower or beautiful ornament ; wt/;, dps, eye.) ANTELOPES. (Bisulcated or Cloven-footed.) This beautiful family of Ruminants is by some considered a connecting, link between the Goat and Deer families. Like the Goats, they never shed their horns ; in size and general struc ture, the nature and color of their hair, and their swiftness of foot, they resemble the Deer. The hind limbs, like those of the hare, are much longer than the fore ones. This not only helps them to be more fleet, but increases their security in climbing precipices, which they are delighted in doing. The larger part of the species are brown on the back, and white on the under part of the body, with a black stripe between the brown and white. The tail is of various lengths, but always covered with pretty long hair ; the ears, which are beautiful and well placed, terminate in a point. The hoof is cloven like that of a sheep ; the perennial horns are conical, bent back, and ringed at the base, never showing the angles and ridges which distinguish those of the sheep and goats. This last is, perhaps, the most general 232 RUJVIINANTIA. character of the family. The case of the horns is thin, and as a group, the Antelopes are numbered among the HOLLOW-HORNED ANIMALS. A large part of them have lachrymal sinuses or "tear-pits," as seen in the Deer, and which can be opened at the will of the animal. These are furnished at the bottom with a gland that secretes an oily, viscous substance of the color and consistency of ear-wax, and turning black upon exposure to the air. The common Indian Antelope, and the Gazelle, according to observations of them away from their native climes, use this organ when any strange substance is brought to their notice, par ticularly if it be odoriferous ; and they appear to derive great pleasure from protruding the sinus and rubbing it against the odorous body. The possession of sinuses distinguishes the An telopes from the Goats and the Sheep ; and this, connected with the absence of horns in the females of many species, also makes this family an intermediate link between the rest of the Hollow- Horned Ruminants and the Cervine, or Solid-Horned Animals. A few species of Antelopes have an additional gland running lengthwise between the sub-orbital sinus and the mouth, but hav- ing no internal opening, and secreting an oily substance. An- other and more general character of this family than even the lachrymal sinuses, is the inguinal pores or folds opening inwards and secreting a substance similar to that of the other glands to which we have now referred. The form of the upper lip is quite various In some species it forms a broad naked muzzle, as in the ox ; in ethers it is hairy and attenuated, as in the goat , and in still others it shows a mod ification of both these characters. The hair of the Antelope is usually short and smooth, and of an equal length on every part of the body ; some, however, have bristly manes along the neck and shoulders, and a very few species, like the Gnu, have a beard on the chin and throat. Generally these animals are found in large herds, but some species reside in pairs or families. Africa may be regarded as the "head quarters" of the Ante lopes. The nature of their habitat varies in different species. This family has been arranged into two grand divisions, the ANTELOPES OF THE FIELDS, and the ANTELOPES OF THE DES- ERT, between which the most obvious distinction is that in the Antelopes of the Fields "the nostrils are free from hairs, whilst in the Antelopes of the Desert, the nostrils are beaded within, or covered with bristles." (English Cyclopedia.) I. ANTELOPES OF THE FIELDS. These are arranged into three groups. 1st. True Antelopes, " which have a light, elegant body ; slen- IIUMINANTIA. 233 der limbs ; small hoofs ; a short or moderate tail, covered with elongated hairs at the base ; lyrate or conical horns, placed over the eye brows." 2d. Cervine Antelopes, " approaching the Deer in character. They have a rather heavy, large body ; strong, slender" limbs; a long tail, cylindrical at the base, with the hair longer at the end, often forming a compressed ridge." The muffle resembles that of the Deer. 3d. Goal-like Antelopes, having *' a heavy body ; strong legs ; large hoofs and false hoofs ; very short tail, flat and hairy above ; recurved, conical horns." The species in each of these groups are quite numerous; but though all are handsome creatures, we must content ourselves with noticing the more prominent. TRUE ANTELOPES. A. Dorcas. (Gr. deQjto/uat,, derkomai, to see.) The GAZELLE, or the CORINNE. (Plate VII. fig. 19.) This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Antelopes. Its large, mild, and black eyes beam with lustre, and its light and graceful figure has made it a favorite with Oriental poets. In the sacred writings it is alluded to under the name of the Roe, " swift upon the mountains." The Gazelle is common in the northern parts of Africa, where large troops of them bound along with such amazing fleetness that they seem bird-like. The Ariel (A, Arabica\ a variety of this species, abounds in Arabia and Syria. " The wild Gazelle o'er Judah's hills Exulting still may bound ; And drink from all the living rills - . .. That gush on holy ground." So swift is this animal that the greyhound is generally unable to overtake it, unless aided by falcons which fly at its head, and thus check its speed until the dogs regain their lost distance. In some parts of Syria, the gazelle is taken by driving a herd into an extended enclosure surrounded by a deep ditch. A few open- ings are made through which the affrighted animals leap and fall into the ditch, when they are easily taken. If pursued in the open field, it flies to some distance, then stops to gaze a mo ment at the hunters, and again renews its flight. A flock when attacked in a body, disperse in all directions, but soon come together again, and when brought to bay, defend themselves 234 RUMINANT1A. with courage and obstinacy, uniting in a close circle, with the females and fawns in the center, and presenting their horns at all points to their enemies; yet notwithstanding their courage, they are "the common prey of the lion and panther, and are hunted with great courage by the Arabs and Bedouins of the des ert." When taken young, the Gazelle is easily domesticated ; and it is frequently seen at large in the court-yards of the houses in Syria, the exquisiteness of its form, and its great beauty and playfulness rendering it a special favorite. The size of the Gazelle's body, (3J feet long,) about equals that of the Roebuck, but the legs are considerably longer, and the entire form is lighter and more elegant; the fur is short and close pressed ; the color a dark fawn above, and white beneath, the upper parts being divided from the lower by a deep dark band along the flanks. The horns are black, lyre-shaped, and have twelve or fourteen rings. Upon the monuments of Egypt and Nubia, this animal is frequently found sculptured. A cir cumstance of this creature's extreme affection, and which ended fatally, occurred not very long since in the island of Malta. A female gazelle having suddenly died from something it had eaten, the male stood over the dead body of his mate, butting every one who attempted to touch it ; then suddenly making a spring, struck his head against the wall, and fell dead by the side of his com panion. A. (or G.} mhorr. The MOHR. (Plate VII. fig. 22.) This Gazelle is 4 feet 2 inches long, and 2J feet high at the shoulder, (8 inches taller than the preceding,) found in Western Africa, and much sought after by the Arabs on account of pro ducing the bezoar stones, called Mohr's eggs in Morocco, and valued in eastern medicine. The Mohr is said to live in pairs, not in flocks like the other species. A. euchore. (Gr. si), eu, well; ^o^og, choros, dance.) The SPRINGBOK, or the SPRING-BUCK. This animal of Southern Africa, in the gracefulness of its proportions and the beautiful variety of its colors, is scarcely surpassed by any other of the Antelope tribe. It is nearly a third larger than the Gazelle ; its horns are black, irregularly lyrated, and of moderate length. The most marked peculiarity of this species is a line of long white hairs arising from two lon gitudinal foldings of the skin, commencing about the middle of the back and extending to the tail. In their ordinary state, the edges of these foldings approach each other, and are so near to gether as to conceal, in a great measure, the stripe of white. But when the animal leaps, as it sometimes does, perpendicularly S, RUMINANTIA. 235 to the height of six or seven feet, the folds are expanded and form a broad circular mark of the purest white extending over the whole croup and hips, producing a very remarkable and pleasing effect. Immensely large herds of these animals are found on arid plains of the interior of South Africa; but when the pools and pastures to which it has been wont to resort, are dried and burnt up by the excessive heat, it migrates to the cul tivated districts of the Cape. Travelers who have witnessed these marches estimate the numbers that unite in their migra tions at from 10,000 to 50,000. "Cumming's Adventures" give some graphic views of these " grand migrations." Before the migration is closed, it is said, those which happen to get in the rear of the troop are lean and half starved, being left nearly destitute of food in consequence of the cropping of the scanty pastures almost bare by the preceding ranks ; but when the troop begin to retrace their steps northward, those which formed the van during the advance, are necessarily in the rear returning ; hence they soon lose their plump condition, and, in their turn, are subjected to want and starvation. In their approaches to the settlements of men, thousands of these animals are killed for food. Great numbers of them are also destroyed by panthers, hycenas and wild dogs. On the return of the rainy season, they retrace their steps to the plains of the interior, and in a brief pe riod not a Spring-Buck is to be seen. So fearful is this animal of man, it is said, that "if it has to cross a path over which a man has passed before, it does not walk over, but takes a leap ten or twelve feet high and about fifteen feet long, at the same time curving its back in the most extraordinary manner." It is from this habit of leaping, the dwellers at the Cape have given it the name of Spring-Suck. A. cervicapra. (Lat. stag-goat.) The COMMON ANTELOPE, or SASIN, of India. This species is spread in large families, over every part of In dia's rocky and open plains. It is remarkable for the form and beauty of its horns, which are ringed and spirally convoluted, (Plate VII. fig. 18,) having two or more turns, according to the age of the animal. When full grown, it is four feet long and two and a half feet high ; almost black above and white beneath ; on the knees are tufts of long bristles, forming small knee brushes; the other parts have the hair short and close. The Sasins are soswift that except when taken by surprise, greyhounds are slipped after them in vain ; the dogs are more likely to be injured than the game. Capt. Williamson, in his " Wild Sports 'of the East," says he has seen an old buck Antelope lead a herd of females 236 RUMINANTIA. over a net at least eleven feet high ; and that these animals fre quently vault to the height of twelve or thirteen feet, passing over ten or twelve yards at a single bound. They are usually hunted by the Cheetah, which "creeps cat-like towards the herd and bounding upon a selected victim, dashes it to the ground with a blow." In size they equal the fallow deer. They are bold and familiar in captivity, and would be graceful ornaments to public parks. The fakirs and dervishes of the East polish their horns and wear them at their girdles instead of swords and daggers, which their religious vocation prevents them from using. A. tragulus. (Lat. dim. goat.) The STEIN-BOCK, or STONE- BUCK. (3 ft. 4 in. long, 1 ft. 7 in. high.) This ranks as one of the most elegant and graceful of the Antelope tribe. The legs are longer and smaller in proportion to its bulk than in any other species. A remarkable distinction in this species, (existing also in the Spring or Prong Buck,) is the to tal absence of spurious hoofs, both on the fore and hind feet, a character which " no other ruminating animals of the hollow- horned family possess." The Stein-Buck resides in pairs on the stony plains and mountain valleys of South Africa. When closely pressed, and without power to escape, it will hide its head in the first hole or corner it meets with, and thus patiently resign itself to its fate. A. oreotragus. (Gr. t^o? oros, mountain ; igbyog, tragos, goat. Mountain-goat.) The KAINSI, or KLIPPSPRINGER. (3 ft. 2 in. long.) This is an antelope which inhabits the most barren and inacces sible mountains of the Cape, and appears to supply, in South Af rica, the place of the Chamois and Ibex ; the general color of the hair above is a lively mixture of yellow and green, and light sandy yellow tinged with red beneath ; the texture of the hair in this, as in the Spring or Prong Bock, is so fragile that it breaks with the slightest touch, crushing like straw between the fingers, and it is so wanting in elasticity that it never regains its original form. The legs are more robust than in most other species ; and the hoofs, instead of being pointed and flat beneath, are en tirely round and cylindrical, being worn only at the tips, upon which alone the animal treads. This, with other peculiarities of structure enables the Klippspringer to bound with very surprising agility among the most dangerous rocks and precipices. A, saltiana. (Lat. leaping or bounding.) The MADOQUA. (2 ft. long, 14 in. high.) This antelope is found in all parts of Abyssinia, where it was first discovered by Bruce, and lives in pairs in mountainous dis tricts. It is well nigh the smallest of all horned animals, be- RUMINANTIA.. 237 ing " scarcely the size of a good English hare ; " the color is like that of the American Gray Squirrel, intermixed with deep red dish brown above, and pure unmixed white beneath ; the tail is a mere stump ; the legs very long in proportion to the weight of the body, and so small that they scarcely equal the little finger in thickness. A. perpusilla. (Lat. very small.) KLEENE-BOC. This is an exceedingly small species, about a foot high with horns only an inch and a half long ; found at the Cape of South Africa, and called by the Dutch Colonists, Kleene-Boc, (Little Goat-) When domesticated, it soon becomes familiar, and learns to answer to its name. CERVINE ANTELOPES. A. oryx. (Gr. "o£»u£, orux, a gazelle.) The GEMS-Boc or ORYX.) This strong cervine animal is about five feet long, and from three to four feet high, found in the southern and central parts of Southern Africa, and once common but now rare in the Cape Colony. It possesses many of the beautiful peculiarities of the antelopes, but in form it is somewhat anomalous.. The horns are black and almost perfectly straight, and situated in the plane of the forehead, about 2J feet long, blunt in the male, but very sharp- pointed in thd female ; (Plate VII. fig. 20.) the general color of the body is dark rusty iron gray above, but the head and under parts are white. There are beautifully black bands on the head and flanks, producing a contrast of colors which has a singular effect upon the animal's appearance. In coloring and height, the Gems-Boc resembles the Ass ; but in its erect mane and its long sweeping tail it is like the horse, while its head and hoofs are those of the antelope. It always keeps to the open field, living in small families. Anderson says "it is the swiftest quadruped he met in South Africa, and lives on grass, succulent plants, (often of a very ac rid taste,) shrubs, &c. It rarely if ever attacks man, but can defend itself with its formidable horns, even against the lion." Others say that even " the lion himself is afraid to attack this powerful and courageous animal, and that sometimes when pressed by famine, he has ventured to do so, he has been beaten off with disgrace, or even paid for his temerity with his life." The Oryx has been said to live without water, but Anderson re marks that "troops" of this animal "have been found dead or dying near pools purposely poisoned by the natives to capture wild animals." 238 RUMINANTIA. A. leucoryx. (Gr. fovxbg, leukos ; OQV%. orux, the gazelle.) The WHITE ORYX. This species, called by some the "Milk-White Antelope," is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelope genus, it being the one that gave rise to the fabulous unicorn of the ancients. The horns are more distinctly ringed for about half their length than in the preceding species, gradually curved throughout the whole course, and in a side view appearing to be one and the same. The neck, throat, and some portions of the face are brown ; but the other parts are milk-white. This species is found represented on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia ; " in the inner chamber of the great pyramid at Memphis, a whole group may be seen, (with one exception,) shown in profile, so that but one horn appears " The White Oryx is gregarious; its range is more northern thanthatof the Gems-Boo, including Nu bia and Senegal ; its food consists of different species of acacias. GOAT-LIKE ANTELOPES. A rupicapra. (Lat. Rock-Goat,} The CHAMOIS, or GEMS. This interesting animal is the only Antelope of Europe, being found in all the high mountain-chains of that region, and also those of Western Asia. The horns of the Chamois are usually but six or seven inches long, nearly parallel in their whole extent,— and bent backwards like hooks at their tip. (Plate VII. fig. 21.) Its length is about three feet three inches ; and its height at the shoulders, a little more than two feet; the face is straight and goat- like ; the ears are small, erect, and pointed , the long hair of the body hangs down over the sides, and is of a deep brown color in winter, a brownish fawn in summer, and in spring, slightly mixed with gray ; the pale yellow of the head is banded with dark brown on each side. Beneath the external covering, is a short thick coat of fine wool, which lies close to the skin, and protects the animal from the severe weather of cold mountainous regions, and the bruises to which, from its habitat, it is liable. The hoofs are admirably adapted for security, enabling it to avail itself of every little roughness and projection, either from the naked granite, or from, the icy glaciers. In its elevated home, the Chamois displays all the vivacity, restlessness and agility of the Common Goat. It does not bear heat, and is, therefore, in summer found on the tops of the highest mountains, or in deep glens where the snow lies during the year ; in winter, it descends to lower ridges, and then only is it hunted with any prospect of success. All its senses are exceedingly acute ; and these, combined with its agility, are its means of RUMINANTIA. 239 security. Its sense of smell, it is said, will enable it to perceive an aggressor at the distance of one and a half miles. It is rest less, and very much alarmed until it gets a sight of the object of its terror, leaping upon the highest rocks at hand, in order to obtain a more extensive prospect. When undisturbed, its voice is a low kind of bleating ; if excited by the approach of a hunter, it utters a suppressed whistle, or hissing sound, and all the while, shows much agitation ; but when the hunter comes near, it flies with its utmost speed, — bounding from ledge to ledge, where the eye can mark no footing,—and from crag to crag, and point to point — sweeping over the glacier, — throwing itself down precipices of fearful depth, and pitching, almost by miracle, upon the slightest projection. " It does not descend at a single bound, nor in a vertical direction, but by projecting itself obliquely or diagonally forwards, striking the face of the rock three or four times with its feet for the purpose of renewing its force, or directing it more steadily to the point it aims at; and in this manner, it will descend a rock almost perpendicular, of twenty or thirty feet in height, without the smallest projection upon which to rest its feet." The hunting of the Chamois, is among the most perilous of human undertakings, and involves "a perversion of mental ener gies capable of better things." It has been remarked; "no Chamois hunter ever dreams of any other death than that of fall ing from the brink of a precipice, or being buried in some chasm beneath the treacherous snow;" yet urged on by a sort of fas cination, "he pursues his course of life with feelings allied to those of the gambler, alternating with hopes and fears." The Chamois seldom drinks. Its food consists of mountain herbs, flowers, and the tender roots of trees and shrubs. This gives a richness and a fine flavor to the flesh, which is much esteemed as a venison. For this and the skins, the Chamois hunters jeopard their lives. The animal can seldom be captured alive, and rarely thrives in captivity. "Like the Swiss, its congenial home is among its native mountains, and in its native liberty." A. furcifer. (Lat. Prong-bearer;] or Antilocapra Americana. The PRONG- HORNED ANTELOPE. The absence in this animal of inguinal and lachrymal openings, and 6f accessary hoofs, together with the fact that it has branch ing horns, (Plate VII. fig. 17,) of which no instance occurs among the other species of Antelopes, led Audubon to refer it to the genus Antilocapra, derived from the two genera, Antilope and Capra, Goat- Antelope. This Antelope is confined to the Western portions of North America, and is never seen East of the Missis- 040 RUMINANTIA. sippi, but ranges as far South as California and New Mexico, feeding on moss, buds, &c. It is shortly, but more compactly built than the Virginia Deer, but in its elegant and stately 'form, resembles more the Antelope than the Deer family. The horns of the male are curved upwards and backwards, with a short triangular prong about the centre. In winter a ridge of coarse hairs, resembling a short mane, appears on the back of the neck, of which, in sum- mer, only a black stripe remains, — the color is a reddish dun, with the throat and the clink on the hinder parts white. The head, ears and legs are covered with short close hair of the com- mon description, but that of the body is long and padded, and of a texture altogether different from that of other animals ; it being hollow like the feather of a bird, brittle, and when bent, not returning to the original straight form. The animals are grega rious, sometimes several hundreds being found together, and they migrate from North to South according to the season. When the ground is clear, their speed surpasses that of most other animals, but a good horse easily outstrips them after a slight fall of snow. They are sly, but extremely curious ; and the Indians, and even the wolves, it is said, know how to take advantage of their curiosity to get within reach of them, by crouching down and moving forwards, or stopping, alternately. These Antelopes will wheel round and round the object of their attention, decreasing the distance at every turn, till at last they approach sufficiently near to be shot or captured. Sometimes they are caught in pens,x in nearly the same manner as the bison ; but in the deep snow of winter, when they are suffering for want of food, they are generally dispatched with clubs,— Audubon says, "principally by the women." They are fattest in autumn. "Their liver is much prized as a delicacy, and we have heard that many of these animals a-re killed simply to pro cure this choice morsel." (Anderson.) Their flesh, however, is not highly esteemed by the Indians, who hunt them only in times of scarcity. II. GROUP. — ANTELOPES OF THE J^ESERT. A. Gnu. The GNOO, or HORNED- HORSE. This equine Antelope is sometimes called Catobfepas, (Gr. xaTafiltnMv, Katablepon, looking down.) a name well expressive of its sinister aspect, shaded as its face is by overgrown horns, bent down and outwards, on the sides, broad at the base, and bent up at the tip. (Plate VII. fig. 23.) It has a wide and bristly nose, RUMINANTIA. 241 with large covered nostrils ; and in size about equals a well grown ass. The neck, body and tail, precisely resemble those of a small horse, and the pace also, which is a species of light gallop, is so perfectly similar, that a herd of Gnoos, when seen at a distance, flying over the plains of South Africa, " might be readily mis taken for a troop of the wild zebras, or quaggas, which inhabit the same locality, if their dark and uniform color did not distin guish them." They are naturally wild and difficult to approach, and when provoked very dangerous if wounded, turning upon the hunter and pursuing him, dropping on their knees before making an attack, and then darting forward with amazing force and velocity. " When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric manner; then springing suddenly into the air, they begin pranc ing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost speed. Suddenly, they all pull up together, to overhaul the intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence fighting in the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ; then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whisk their tails, with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain enveloped in a cloud of dust." (Cumming's South Africa.) They are said to. be subject to a cutaneous eruption at particular seasons of the year, which they sometimes communicate to do mestic cattle, and which invariably ends in death. Their flesh is in good repute both among the natives and colonists. A. Caama. The LECAMA, or HARTE-BEEST. This species of Bovine Antelopes inhabit the plains of South Africa, and are the most common of all the large Antelopes in that country. They are of a gray-brown color; reside in large herds ; and are much hunted by the natives and colonists. Their p;»ce resembles a heavy gallop, but yet is tolerably quick. In their manners, they are mild and tractable ; but when put upon their defence, they make good use of their powerful lyrate horns, like the Gnoo, dropping upon their knees before charging, and after advancing some distance in this position, suddenly darting with great force against the hunter. The flesh is much esteemed, being more like ox-beef than that of any other Antelope, except, perhaps, the Eland. The Strepsicerae (twisted horns) is another small group refer red to in the " Penny Cyclopedia," under the name of Antelopes, and including some very interesting Ruminants. They are named from the subspiral, or twisted form of their horns; and distinguished among the " Hollow. Horned Bovine Ruminants," by being marked with white stripes and spots. Agassiz has 042 RUMINANTIA. remarked, that the horns of the Strepsicerae and the sheep are twisted in opposite directions. A. Stepsiceros. The KUDOO. This magnificent animal is found in South Africa. It is one of the largest of the Antelopes, being upwards of eight feet long, and four feet high at the shoulder. The horns of the Kudoo, for which it is most remarkable, are nearly four feet long, and beau- tifully twisted into a large spiral form, of about two turns and a half. A bold ridge runs over the horns and fbllowstheircurvature. (Plate VII. fig. 15.) The leading color is a bright fallow. brown, with a narrow white stripe along the spine. In its external aspect, the animal more nearly resembles the ox than the Antelope. Although large and heavy, it can leap with wonderful activity. The weight of the horns is considerable, and in part to relieve itself from that weight, and in part also to keep the spreading horns from entanglement in the bushes on which it lives and feeds, the Kudoo usually bends its head back and rests its horns upon its shoulders. When closely pursued, it takes to the water, and seeks to escape by its power of swimming. A. areas. (Gr.ogei&g, oreias, of the mountain.) The ELAND, or the BOSELAPHUS, (ox-stag.) of the ancients. We have in this animal the largest of the Antelopes, — measur ing eight feet two inches in length, and full five feet in height at the shoulder — being quite as large as a good sized horse. It has very thick, nearly straight horns, about a foot and a half long, and covered, for the most part, with a thick spiral wreath. The ears are large. A protuberance, of the size of a man's fist, appears on the larynx ; from this organ, the animal probably de rived the name of Eland, (as it is called at the Cape Colony.) When full grown, it weighs from seven to nine cwt. ; and, contrary to the usual rule observed among Antelopes, is commonly ex tremely fat. The flesh is more highly prized than that of any other animal in South Africa. The Eland is mild and inoffensive in its disposition, so that a man may penetrate into the very midst of a herd without alarming them. Being quite heavy, the great ob ject in hunting this animal, is to turn the game in such a direc tion as to drive it close to the residence of the hunter before it is killed; and the Cape farmers, it is said, "very frequently succeed in accomplishing this masterpiece of South African field sports." A. picta, (painted.) The NYL-GHAU. This large and magnificent Antelope is about the same size as the Gnoo, standing about four feet high at the shoulder. It is found in the forests of N. W. India, ranging thence as far as Persia. The face of this species is long and narrow, surmounted RUMINANTIA. -i_ 0,4, , 243 -.^-'-l^agf5* with short, smooth, and nearly parallel horns. The fore-quarters are considerably raised, and there is a slight elevation upon the withers; the neck is long and horse-like; from the throat and shoulders hangs a dense bunch of hair ; the haunch is small and low, so that the hinder limbs are short. The Nyl-Ghau is less graceful in its proportions than the Stag, but more muscular and powerful. The color of this animal is a slaty blue ; it has, how ever, several white spots which, contrasting with the slaty blue, or dark brown of the other parts, suggested the specific name of picta. It is extremely vicious, and cannot be approached with out danger. In making an attack, it first falls upon its knees, like the Gnoo, and then springs violently forward. It is the common prey of the tiger ; and hunters erect their platforms near the mangled remains of this animal, well knowing that the tiger will return to glut himself with the remainder of his prey. During the day, the Nyl-Ghau conceals itself in the forests, and at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing harm to adjacent cultivated fields. It has been often taken to England, where it breeds, and is not an uncommon animal. QUESTIONS ON ANTELOPES. What is the derivation of the word Antelopidae ? What families are the Antelopes thought to connect ? In what respect are they like the goats ? In what like the deer ? What advantages do their hind limbs give them ? State the color of the larger part of them. What is said of the tail, ears and hoofs ? What is the most general character of the family ? Are their horns solid or hollow? What is said of their tear-pits? From what do these distinguish them? What makes this family an intermediate link be tween the two kinds of horned animals? What additional glands are spoken of? What is said of the form of the upper lip ? What of the hair ? Are they gregarious? What two grand divisions do the Antelopes em brace ? What is the most obvious distinction between the two ? Name the groups of Antelopes of the Field, with their characters. Where is the Gazelle found ? Give some account of its peculiarities and habits. Where is the Molir ? Why is it sought after by the Arabs? What is the locality of the Springbok? Is it larger or smaller than the Gazelle? What is its most marked peculiarity? What is said of its leaps? What of its migra tions? How widely is the Common Antelope diffused? What is said of its horns? Illustrate its swiftness. What animals are used in hunting it? How large is it? What Antelope is next mentioned? What is said of it? Where is the Klipspringer found ? What is peculiar in its hair? What enables it to bound with very great agility? Who first discovered the Madoqua 1 What is said of its size, color, &c. ? Where is the Kleenbok found? What is said of it? To which division of the Antelopes of the Field do the preceding ones belong? Where is the Oryx found? What is. its size ? Give some description of it ? What is said of it by Anderson and others ? Which is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelopes ? To what fabulous animal did it give rise ? How ? Where is it found sculp- 244 CETACEA. tured? What is its range? To what division do the two preceding Ante lopes belong ? Which is the only Antelope of Europe ? What characteris tics are mentioned ? Further describe it. What is said of the hunt of this animal? How is its flesh esteemed? To what genus is the Prong-Horned ^Antelope referred? Name its characteristics and habits. To what division do the two last named species belong? What are Antelopes of the second group called? Which of these is first mentioned? Name its dis tinctive traits and habits. Give some account of the Lecama. What other small group of Antelopes is mentioned? Why are they so named? What distinguishes them ? What has Agassiz remarked? What is said of the Kudoo? For what is it most remarkable? What animal does it most re semble ? Which is the largest of the Antelopes ? What gave it the name Eyland? What is said of it? Where is the Nyl-Gkau found? Give a description of it. Name the species on the Chart. Trace them. Give the most prominent characteristics of each as a general review. SECTION XXXI, NINTH ORDER. CETACEA. (Gr. ^ws, a whale.) WHALES, DOLPHINS, ETC. MARINE-MAMMALS. This is an order of mammiferous animals inhabiting the sea ; surpassing all others in size, though lower in organization than those living upon the land. Moving in the water by means of fin-flippers, or paddles, "the earlier naturalists placed them among the fishes; but all now unite in placing them among the mammals." Like them, they are viviparous, (born alive,) suckle their young, have warm blood, and breathe by means of lungs. The contour of the body, is fish-like, no neck being distinguisha ble, and the whole tapering down gradually from the head to the tail. The tail, however, terminates, not vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, in a cartilaginous fin, and is moved upwards and downwards by muscles of enormous force and volume. In length, it is only five or six feet ; but in width, from eighteen to twenty-six. So powerful is it in the largest varieties, that they frequently force themselves out of water. The greatest velocity is given by the upward and downward strokes ; a slower motion is obtained by cutting the water sidewise, and obliquely down wards, as a boat is forced along by a single oar in the operation of skulling. So rapid are the movements of the Cetacea, they have been called the "birds of the sea." The flippers, or pad dles, the anterior limbs, are generally stretched out in a horizon tal position. When dissected, the bones of the paddles are found CETACEA. 245 to be short and flattened, yet distinct and handlike ; but the whole of this osseous frame-work is enveloped in a cartilaginous cover, ing, so as to form an undivided oar. The chief use of the pad- dies seems to be that of balancing the animal, for as soon as life is extinct, it falls over upon its back; they are also employed in turning and giving direction to the velocity produced by the tail. The Cetacea regularly resort to the surface to take in a fresh supply of air. They also descend into the remotest depths of the ocean ; in the case of the larger animals sometimes encountering a pressure which has been estimated at two hundred thousand tons, or one hundred and fifty times as great as that of the atmos phere, and sufficient to force water through the hardest wood, causing it to sink like so much lead. For sustaining so vast a pressure, their structure is most wisely adapted. The body is covered with a coat of peculiar elasticity. The naked skin is itself much thickened; but by an open texture of its interwoven fibres, it is made to contain within itself, a thick layer of oil or blubber, and thus the animal can endure, without injury, the greatest weight of water. "A soft wrapper of fat, though double the thickness of that usually found in the Cetacea, could not have resisted the superincumbent pressure ; whereas, by its being a modification of the skin, always firm and elastic, and in this case, being never less than several inches, and some- times between one and two feet thick, it operates like so much india-rubber, possessing a density and resistance which, the more it is pressed, resists the more."* As the blubber is specifically lighter than water, it also makes the animal more buoyant. A dead whale floats ; but the body, when stripped of its fat, sinks immediately. Another important use of the blubber, is to pre serve the vital heat of the body in a cold medium, which has a constant tendency to abstract caloric. Without this layer of blubber, which is one of the worst conductors of heat, the whale would be unable to resist the low temperature of the Arctic Seas, and must perish from cold. The eyes of the Cetacea are admi rably adapted to the dense medium in which the animals dwell. As compared with the size of the body, the eyes are small, — generally not larger than those of an ox ; in the Beluga, or White Whale, they are smaller than the human eye; in the Por poise, not so large as those of a sheep. In the Cetacea, "the humours of the eye are so adjusted in their form, density and refractive power, as to prevent any dispersion, or decomposition of the rays." The refractive power of the aqueous humor, * Naturalist's Library. Mammalia, VII., 48. 246 CETACEA. which is great in respect to land animals, would, in water, be comparatively weak ; this defect is, in the case of the Cetacea, supplied by the spherical form and great refractive power of the lens of the eye. The outer, or sclerotic coat is, in these animals, remarkably thick and tough, it being as dense as tanned leather, serving both to preserve its spherical form, and to defend the ani mal from injury. This coat increases in thickness towards the back part, and is full five times the thickness behind, that it is on the front part. To this, Dr. Paley (see Nat. Theol.) has well referred, as strikingly evincing Divine contrivance. The front part sustains the pressure from without, and needs no addi tional support; but were the back part to yield, the globe of the eye would be distended in that direction, and the whole interior of the eye suffer derangement. As a safe-guard, the sclerotic coat is, therefore, remarkably strengthened behind. One of the most extraordinary things in the economy of the Cetacea, is the length of time during which they can suspend respiration. While, in most animals, it can be suspended only for a few minutes, in some of the larger whales it may be sus pended from one to nearly two hours, they remaining under water for that time. This fact points to the peculiarity of their breathing apparatus. The whale has a reservoir wherein there is an overplus of oxygenized blood which, on occasion, is emptied into the general circulation ; it is thus able to continue longer under water, and less frequently resorts to the surface in order to inhale oxygen from the atmosphere. Whales have no nostrils, properly so called, and their mouths are seldom opened in the free air. The process of breathing is therefore carried on through tubes, called blow-holes, or spiracles, opening on the top of the head, and allowing a free passage to and from the lungs. These openings are called blow-holes, because the expulsion of the long-confined and heated air, as the animal rises to the sur face, is attended with considerable noise, and the casting forth of water or steam. The " spoutings " are heard as far as two miles, and sometimes reach the height of twenty or thirty feet. They are most conspicuous in the larger genera ; quite marked in the intermediate dimensions ; but in the smaller, seldom or never vis ible. After the " spoutings are out," as the whalers say, most of the Cetacea descend into the depths of the ocean. The lungs are guarded from injury that might hence arise, by the conical stopper which, like the cork of a bottle, fits itself to the blow hole so perfectly, as to exclude every drop of water. Habitually, the whales take their sustenance under water; but, "by a slight alteration in a few cartilages at the top of the windpipe, and in CETACEA. 247 the direction of the air tubes, they feed as safely in the deep ocean as others do in the most balmy atmosphere." The external opening of the ear is minute, and in some species, hardly discoverable. This can be closed at pleasure. The hearing, as well as sight, is quick beneath water, — whales have the sense of smell in some degree; showing themselves sensible of the noxious smell of bilge-water, pumped from the hold of vessels. The senses of taste and touch they possess, but in a less degree than other animals. The stomach of the whale is divided into five, and sometimes seven distinct sacs, or pouches; instead of a single spleen, they have several, which are small and globular. The teguments of the tongue are soft and smooth. Those of the Cetacea which are possessed of teeth, have them all of conical shape, and all alike. The brain in these animals is small, though the size of it varies in different genera. In a young Greenland whale it was found to be -^oVo" Par^ °^ the whole animal. The proportion in the Dolphin is much greater, the brain being Jj part of the whole, and approaching quite near to that of man. The degrees of intelligence manifested by the Cetacea, are various, and so are their dispositions; but all agree in the mutual regard which they entertain, — the mother for her young, the cub for its parents; _and members of the same family, or shoal, for one another. The female has but one young at a time, in the early spring, which is about ten or twelve feet long at birth; the mammae are two in number, and situated near the vent. The Catacea may be divided into four families, viz : I. The DSLPHINIDAE, including Dolphins, Porpoises, etc. ; II. CATADON- TIDAE, or PHYSETERIDAE, Spermaceti Whales; III. BALAENIDAE, True Whales, Common, Right or Whale-Bone Whales ; IV. HERBIVOROUS CETACEA, including the Manatees, Dugongs, etc. I. DELPHINIDAE. (Gr. Jelcplg,, Dclphis, a dolphin.) This is tlTe Dolphin tribe, characterized by the moderate size of the head, and usually by the presence of teeth in both jaws. They are voracious feeders ; their flesh is, for the most part, rank, oily, and unwholesom3. They include seventeen genera, and sixty-four species, and are the most numerous family of the Cetacea; are scattered in all seas, and frequently ascend rivers. One genus (Inia) is found in the mountain lakes of Peru, — the fountains of the Amazon, and a thousand miles from the ocean. " They are the Carnasslers of the waters, preying upon the fkhing tribes, which they chase in all directions; and their teeth are modified accordingly." 2!$ CETACEA. Delphinus. (25 species.) Deiphinus Delpliis. The COMMON DOLPHIN. (Plate VIII. fig. 4. and PI. VJ. fig. 12.) The animals of the genus Deiphinus, have more teeth than any other of the Mammalia, the number averaging ninety in each jaw ; in form, simple and conical, but adapted for seizing only. The jaws of these animals project so as to be like a slender beak, separated from the forehead by a groove, or furrow, that resem bles the bill of a goose. (Plate IV. fig. 11.) There is a fin upon the back. The Common Dolphin is usually six or seven feet long, sometimes nine or ten feet. Its form is admirably adapted for swimming. The tail is large and powerful. This animal is familiar to fishermen and mariners, and cannot but be regarded with interest, on account of its beautiful and graceful form, the fleetness with which it darts through the waters, its gambols and leaps, and its social habits. So smooth are the bodies of Dolphins, that "their sportive gam- bols create surprisingly little disturbance of the water." To the ancients, the manners of the Dolphin were well known, and to them, its playful, social disposition, made it a great favorite. It is accurately figured on many of their coins. Among the Greeks, it was sacred to Apollo, who was worshiped at Delphi with Dolphins for his symbols. It early appeared on the shield of some of the princes of France, gave name to a province of that empire, and a tille to the heir-apparent of the crown. The brilliancy and variety of many of the Dolphins found in the Southern and Equatorial seas, cannot be adequately repre sented by pictures, or exhibited in words. The Dolphin, "with its many dying colors," of which poets have sung, is, however, not the true animal, but a scomberoid fish, Coryphaena hippurus, the Dorado, of the Portuguese; though, as Dr. J. E. Gray re marks, "to this fish, which changes color in dying, most mari time persons generally confine the name of Dolphin." But, however it may be celebrated in story and in song, the Dolphin appears quite wolfish in its habits, — in troops, hunting down its prey, — in its rapid course, forcing the flying fishes to take refuge in the air; but continuing the chase until the exhausted victims are taken. Of the many wonderful stories related by ancient naturalists respecting the Dolphin, we have room for only the following. Pliny says that, "in Barbary, near the town of Hippo, a Dolphin used to frequent the shore, and receive food from any hand that supplied it, — that it would mix with persons bathing, allow them to mount its back, and obey their direction, with all celerity and precision." The ancients speak of the CETACEA* 219 Dolphin as peculiarly partial to children; and here we quote a further incident from Pliny, which has pathos, whatever may be thought of its truth. A Dolphin, which he says had penetrated the Lake of Lucrinus, in Campania, every day received bread from the hand of a child, answering to his call, and transporting him on its back to school on the other side of the lake. This intimacy continued for several years, when the boy dying, the affectionate Dolphin, overwhelmed with grief, soon sunk under its bereavement. Mnnodon. (Gr. [ibvog, monos, solitary ; oSovg, odous, a tooth.) Monoceros, the specific name is from Gr. {i6vog} (monos,) and xegug, (keras,)horn. This is the Narwhal. (Nar, signifies in Icelandish, a horn ; whal or wale is synonymous with our word, whale, and derived from the same Teutonic root.) It is also called the Sea Uni corn, or Unicorn Whale. This Whale has no teeth, prop erly so called; it has, however, two tusks, one on each side the head. Only the left tusk projects, (from the upper jaw of the male,) the other remaining within the head, whence the name Monoceros, or Unicorn. This horn, or tusk, is eight or ten feet long, tapering, with a rope-like twist, to a point, and harder and whiter than ivory. Formerly, the tusks brought a high price. Many medicinal virtues were attributed to them. They are still of value as an article of trade. The kings of Denmark are said to have a magnificent throne made of these tusks, which is pre served with great care, in the castle of Rosenburg. The length of the Narwhal is from twenty to thirty feet, and, including the tusk, between thirty and forty. It is thought the animal uses the tusk to pierce the ice for the purpose of breathing, and also in capturing the fishes on which it feeds. It usually precedes the Mysticetus, both using the same kind of food. Hence, when Greenlanders see unicorns, they prepare for fishing in earnest. It is on record that the thick oak timbers of a ship have been pierced by the horn. Sometimes the Narwhal drives it into the sides of the huge whale, and greedily receives the oily blubber which oozes from tho wounds thus inflicted. Dr. Scoresby describes the Narwhals as active and inoffen sive, — often sporting about his ship, sometimes in bands of about twenty together, raising up their long tusks, and crossing them with each other as if fencing. Our own lamented Kane says, "the play of a group of Narwhals is graceful, striking and beautiful." The blubber yields a superior oil. This and the fljsh also are highly valued by the Esquimaux and Greenlander. Their tusks afford them wtupuuo of defence, and even the intes tines thry use for lines. 250 CETACEA. Beluga. The WHITE WHALE. Of this genus there are two species, viz. : the Northern Belu ga, (B. catodon.) the Australian Beluga, (B. Kingii.) The shape of the Beluga is that of a double cone, one end of which is con- siderably shorter than the other, and extremely well adapted to motion in the water. It is known by its -white color. The length varies from twelve to twenty feet. The tail is powerful, bent under the body in swimming, and impels it forward with the velocity of an arrow. The eye is scarcely larger than that of a man ; the iris is blue. It has no olfactory nerve, no exter nal ear, and the mouth is small when compared with the bulk of the animal. Its food is codfish, haddocks, and other fish. The favorite resorts of the Northern Beluga are the higher latitudes of the Arctic regions, Hudson's Bay, Davis' Straits, and the northern coasts of Asia and of this continent, where they fre quent large rivers. They are found in the Gulf of Sr, Law rence, and go with the tide as far as Quebec; and there are fisheries for them as well as for porpoises in the river St. Lawrence. They yield a considerable quantity of oil which is said to be of the finest quality. Of their skins a sort of morocco leather is made, which, though thin, is strong enough to resist a musket ball. They are not shy, but often follow ships and tumble about the boats in herds of thirty or forty, bespangling the surface 6with their sparkling whiteness. The whaler seldom disturbs these beautiful creatures; they being very active, it is difficult to strike them ; the harpoon often gives way, and they are of compara tively little value when killed. They are said to visit the west coast of Greenland about the end of November, and are then very useful to the natives as their provisions fall short. In taking them, harpoons and strong nets are employed. The internal membranes are used for windows and bad-curtains, and the sinews for thread. The flesh resembles beef, but is to some extent oily. Phoccena. (Gr. cpdxuiva, phokaina, a porpoise.) The characteristics of this genus are as follows: "Mead rounded, not much elevated ; mouth terminal ; snout, short and rounded ; a dorsal eminence, (as in the Globicephalus.) usually of a small size; gregarious; piscivorus." (N. H. S. N. Y.) Phocana cojnmunis. The COMMON PORPOISE, or PORPESSE. (French, Porcpoisson.) (PI. IV. fig. 11.) Of all the Cetacea, this and the allied varieties are most com mon, being found in almost all the seas of Europe, and in large numbers on the coast of the American continent. It is common in our rivers and bays. It was formerly " so abundant on the shores of Long Island as to have induced the inhabitants to form CETACEA. 251 establishments for its capture." The Common Porpoise, like the Common Dolphin, is the smallest of the varieties. Between the two there is a general resemblance in color, shape and disposi tion. The scarf skin of the porpoise is very soft to the touch, and easily detached. The eye has the iris of a yellowish hue, and the pupil in the form of V reversed. The opening of the ear is not larger than the prick of a pin; that of the blow. hole is on the top of the head, between the eyes. The dorsal fin, o'1 eminence, is not bony, but composed entirely of fat, and incapa ble of separate movement ; and the tail is without any osseous part within. The fat, or blubber is white, from one to two inches thick, and when heated yields an oil that is fine and much val ued. It is "cut through on the back and belly and is peeled off in halves; it is scraped off with an instrument resembling a currier's knife, and the skin is then sent to the tanner. The leather made from thisskin is said to be the strongest known, and is used more particularly for the upper leather of boots and shoes." (N. H. S. N. Y.) The deep bluish color of the Porpoise fades away on the sides, till it acquires a silvery whiteness. It has ninety-two teeth, cutting and somewhat rounded at the edge. The brain is large and has deep convolutions lying over the cere bellum. The porpoise, the dolphin, and the monkey are the only animals that in this respect resemble man. The food of por poises is chiefly fish, and they occasionally pursue shoals of her ring and mackerel, which they drive into the bays in very great apparent terror. They are great enemies of salmon, which, when pursued by the porpoise, often spring several yards out of the water ; but from the quickness of their foe, are unable * escape. The flesh of the porpoise was once esteemed a volu tuous kind of food, and is said to have been found on the table, of the old English nobility as late as the time of Queen Eliza beth. Later thaa this it was extensively used in some countries, especially during the time of Lent. GRAMPUS. (Phoccena orca.) The term Grampus is a corrup tion of the French, Grand-poisson, great fish, pronounced by the Normans, Grapois, whence came the English word GRAMPUS. American sailors have given it the namesof "Killer and Thrash er." By some, (see Cat. of British Museum in Eng. Cyc.,) a por tion of the animals once included under the genus Grampus, has been formed into a new genus, "Orca," which includes the | KILLERS proper, and has four species. The body is thick in proportion to its length, and of oval shape. The snout short and roundish : the lower jaw somewhat bent upwards, broader, but not so long as the upper. The teeth are 25'2 CETACEA. forty-four in number, eleven on each side above and below, va rying in number with age, sometimes are as many as sixty, and interlocking when the jaws are shut. The dorsal elevation, im properly called a fin, is from four to six feet high; the pectoral or swimming fins are large and oval, and it has a strong tail. The color is glossy black above, white beneath ; occasionally there is a large white patch behind the eye, resembling an eye lid. The length is from twenty to thirty feet; the circumference from ten to twelve. The favorite abode of the Grampus is the coast of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Davis' straits ; it is also found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. It was formerly numerous on the coast of New York State. It is a very powerful and vora cious animal, devouring great numbers of fishes, large ones es pecially, such as the cod, haddock, and turbot, and even seals and porpoises have been found in their stomachs. " They go in company by dozens, will attack a young whale, and bait him like so many bull-dogs." The oil which they yield is of excellent quality. Fishermen sometimes call them Finners, or Black-fish Whales. Stories are told of their attacking whales, joining in herds for that purpose ; but these perhaps need confirmation. Sir Joseph Banks says of one that was captured in the Thames, (Eng.,) " It pulled the attached boat twice from Black wall to Greenwich, and once as far as Dept- fbrd, at the rate of eight miles an hour, and it was for a long time unimpeded by the lance wounds which were inflicted on it when it came to the surface. So long as it was alive, no boat would venture to approach it ; and the dying efforts of this formidable creature were terrible. It was finally killed opposite the Greenwich Hospital." G. Cuvieri, or Phocccna grisea, (of Lesson,) is a handsome species inhabiting the North Sea ; has been taken on the West coast of France ; is ten or eleven feet long ; has only eight teeth, and these in the lower jaw. It is famous for uttering loud cries like the Deductor (or Howling) whale, and associating in groups like that whale. Delphinapterus. This genus includes two species, D. Peronii, Peron's Dolphin, and D. Borealis. The head is rather convex in front, nose depressed, forming a slender beak, and there is no dorsal fin. The form and proportions are elegant. The snout, as far as the eye, and the under parts of the body and the tail are of silvery whiteness; a bluish black covers the upper parts of the body, giving it the appearance of having on a black cloak. The iris is of an emerald green color. The D. Peronii is the Right- Whale Porpoise of the Whalers, found in the higher CETACEA. 233 southern latitudes. The D. Borealis inhabits the North Pacific. (See Peale's description in the U. S. Exploring Expedition.) Globicephalus. (Globe-headed.) This contains five species, viz.: G. Swineval, Pilot- Whale, (North Sea;) G. intermedius, the Black Fish, (N. America ;) G. a/finis, Smaller Pilot- Whale, (locality unknown;) G. Sieboldii, Naiso Gota, (coast of Japan;) G. macrorhynchus, South Sea Black Fish. They are character ized by the absence of a snout, by having a globular head, an eminence resembling a fin on the back, and a single spiracle, sit uated near the back of the head. The length varies from six teen to twenty-four feet; the pectoral fins are from six to eight feet, and the tail five feet in length. The second species resem bles the Grampus in size, and is probably often confounded with it. The teeth aro from twenty to twenty-eight in number in each jaw, and when the mouth is closed, they " shut together like a rat- trap." It is called the Deductor. With blind confidence, these animals follow one as a leader, the main body keeping close to him, *' as sheep follow the wether." Efforts are therefore made to en trap the leaders, and then many others are taken. They are in offensive, and so timid that men in boats, with ineffective weapons, and with shouts and noise in the water, drive them in great num bers to the shore, to their own destruction. When any one strikes the ground, it is said that it sets up a howling cry, and immediately others crowd to the spot as if for its relief. This circumstance has given it the name of theca'ing (calling) whale. It is also called the Black Whale Fish, (species G. intermedius, or melas,) and Bottle-head. Of all the Cetacea it is the most so ciable, vast numbers being found together, whence it is named the Social Whale. Large herds of these whales are fre quently stranded and perish on the coast, particularly in high northern latitudes. "At Wellfleet, near Cape Cod, in 1822, a herd of one hundred, varying in length from ten to fifteen feet, were stranded and captured. In 1823, one was taken in Salern harbor, Mass. ; in 1832, one at Fairfield Beach, Conn. ; in 1834, two on the east end of Long Island." (Nat. His. S. N. Y.) II. CATODONTIDJE. (Gr. X«T«, kata, under; odovg, odous, a tooth ;) or PHYSETERIDJE, (Gr. tpvaijTfy, Phuseter, a blow-pipe, or bellows.) TOOTHED WHALES. This family of the Cetacea are distinguished by the enormous size of the head, which occupies more than one-third of the whole bulk of the animal, and ends in a broad muzzle, appearing as though it had been abruptly cut off. The lower jaw is narrow, 254 CETACEA. • slender and pointed, and has numerous stout conical teeth, while the upper jaw contains either none or a few which do not per- fjrate the gums. Hence the name Catodontida. The blow-holes have but one orifice, situated at the top of the muzzle. The three genera constituting the family, agree in their essential char acteristics; we therefore omit a detailed and 'separate description and confine our remarks to the Calodon, or Pkyseter macrocepha- his, (,uax£0£, long; xeqpata;, a head,) the Northern Sperm-Whale. It is sometimes called the Cachalot,, a term derived from Coehon, a tooth, in the Basque (Spanish) language. The Sperm-Whale (Plate VIII. fig. 3,) is of enormous size, being between seventy and eighty feet in length, and from thirty to thirty-five in circum ference. From its frequent paroxysms of fury it is one of the most dangerous monsters of the deep. It is found in all latitudes, but is a native of the Arctic and Antarctic Seas, where it is seen attended by its young. Sperm-Whales usually appear in parties of from two to five hundred, guarded by one or two males of the largest size. In the upper part of the head there is an immense cavity, divided into compartments and smaller cells, filled with oil which is fluid when the animal is alive, but hardens when cooled or after the animal is dead, and is known under the name of sperm aceti. A hole is made in the head as soon as the whale is killed and the spermaceti is baled out with buckets. When the first process of squeezing and draining the oil is over, the yellow, unctuous and impure mass of cetine is put into bags made of hair or woolen, and further pressed between plates of iron in a screw press until it becomes hard and brittle ; it is then broken into small pieces and thrown into boiling water, where it melts and the impurities are separated from it. After being cooled and taken from the first water, it is put into a boiler of clean water and a weak solution of potash is gradually added. This is thrice repeated, after which the whole is poured into coolers, where it crystalizes, and on being cut, exhibits the beautiful flaky appearance belonging to the spermaceti of commerce. An ordi nary sized whale will yield from ten to twelve barrels of crude spermaceti. Ambergris, which is used as a perfume, and often found floating on the surface of the sea, is a fatty concretion formed by disease in the intestines. Upon the ivory teeth of the Sperm-Whales, sailors often show their taste in carving fig ures of various kinds. These whales produce but one young at a time, about fourteen feet in length, and having a skin much thicker than that of the old ones. The milk by which the young are nourished resembles that of quadrupeds. The throat of the Sperm-Whale is capacious enough to give passage to the body CETACEA. 255 of a man, presenting a strong contrast to the contracted gullet of the mysticctus, or Greenland Whale. The mouth is lined with a pearly white membrane. The eyes are small in proportion to the size of the animal, and furnished with eye-lids ; the skin is usually smooth, but in old whales sometimes wrinkled. At each breathing time, the Cachalot makes from sixty to seventy expira tions, remaining at the surface of the water ten or eleven min utes. It continues below the surface for periods of from an hour to an hour and twenty minutes, consuming about one-seventh of its time in respiration. The Sperm- Whale feeds upon seal and fishes, which it pursues with great pertinacity ; but a large species of cuttle fish, (Octopus,) is said to constitute its principal food. Its forty-eight huge teeth, which it sometimes employs in biting boats, make it formidable to whalers. Sometimes it swims off to a distance, and then rushes at the boat with its head, thereby knocking it to pieces. One of these whales sunk a ship by three or four blows from its head. The Sperm- Whale fishery is a principal branch of the industry of the United States, hundreds of ships being engaged in this important branch of the fisheries. The names of the genera as given in the Catalogue of the British Museum, are Genus I. Catodon, 3 species; C. macroce- phalus, Northern Sperm-Whale ; C. colueti, Mexican Sperm- Whale ; C. polycyplius, South Sea Sperm-Whale. Genus II. Kogia, one species ; K. breviceps, Short-Headed Whale. Genus III. Physeter. P. lursio, the Black Fish. III. BALAENID^. (Gr. fialaivu, lalaina, a whale.) TRUE or WHALE-BONE WHALES. These include but a limited number of species, comprised in four, or according to Dr. J. E. Gray, three genera. They equal the Sperm-Whale in size. The head is very large, but does not, like theirs, terminate in a broad, abrupt muzzle. They have two nostrils, separate and longitudinal. The jaws are toothless ; the blow-holes distinct, situated on the top of the head and each a foot long. The absence of teeth specially distinguishes these from other whales ; their place in the upper jaw, which is ex tremely narrow, is supplied by baleen, or whalebone, consisting of pendent, horny plates, or lamina (see Chart,) each fringed so closely as to fill up the cavity of the mouth and form a strainer retaining the Clio Borealis. minute crustaceans, and other small tenants of the sea. These are carried by thousands into the vast spoon-shaped lower jaw. The laminae or plates are three or four hundred in 256 CETACEA. number on each side, the longest often fifteen feet long; the Baleen of the Balaena alone is designated as Whalebone, or Whalefin, as it is called in commerce. That of the other genera, (Bal&noptera and Megaptera.) is called Finner-Fin, or Hump. back-Fin ; the tongue is very large, thick and fleshy, fat, soft and spongy, not unfrequently twenty feet long, and nine or ten wide. The blubber obtained from these whales is extremely abundant, a single whale often yielding forty tuns, or three hundred and twenty barrels of thirty-one and a half gallons each ; much more than this is frequently yielded. The Arctic and Antarctic Seas are the principal, but not the exclusive re sorts of the True Whales. See "Note" at the end of the " Cetacea." Balaenamysticetus. (Gr. 9 The rapidity and variety of motion of which Birds show them selves capable, may well excite admiration. The Swallow arid the Eagle can dart through the air at the rate of sixty miles an hour; the Falcon at the rate of forty or fifty miles in the same time ; the Passenger Pigeon outstrips the wind, which, when most vio lent, traverses only sixty miles an hour; the Curlew traverses three elements with ease, — running rapidly upon the ground ; perfectly at home on the ocean wave, and borne in the air as it flies swiftly frorn one continent to another. For this fleetness of motion, the skeleton of a bird is strikingly adapted. (Plate XII. fig. 2.) It unites lightness with firmness; the great bones of the limbs, and many of those of the body, are hollow reservoirs of air, communicating with the lungs. Sacs, or bladder-like receptacles, which can be filled with air, are dis tributed about the body; some of them internally; others be tween the muscles and the skin, down the throat and chest, or along the tendons of the shoulder ; and these communicate with each other and with the lungs. The last named organs adhere closely to the ribs, occupying (Plate XII. fig. 2, E.) the hollows between them and on each side of the spine ; the lungs are very large, but can be very little expanded or Contracted. To compensate for this incapacity, which might impede their breathing, the ends of the branches of the wind pipe open into them ; but these again communicate with the membranous sacs, or buoyant air cells, that run along the whole length of the body, — so that a probe thrust into the lungs of a fowl, easily finds a passage into the in ternal parts of the frame ; and air blown into the wind-pipe, will be seen to distend the bird's body like air blown into a bladder. By the great development of the breathing apparatus, the blood is more rapidly and effectually oxygenized, and muscular energy accumulated for the action of flight ; while, by the animal heat which is thus given out, the air contained in -the complex respir atory apparatus is rarified ; and thus the body is increased in bulk, but rendered specifically lighter. The wings of a bird correspond to the arms and hands of man ; but the hand in the bird consists of only two fingers, (Plate XII. fig. 2d, N.,) and a thumb, all of which are rudimentary. From the bones of the bird's hand (M) arise the primaries, or great quill-feathers of the wings, — ten in number, and by their form, stiffness, and relative strength, indicating the character and the power of the flight. The secondaries spring from the principal bone of the forearm, (K. L. ;) the number of these varies in dif ferent species ; they are generally stouter, longer, and more flex ible than the primaries, and differ less in form from the general 270 ORNITHOLOGY. covering of the body. The bone of the upper arm (hmnerus, I.) gives rise to another series of feathers, called tertiartcs, which, in such birds as the Plovers, Curlew, etc., are greatly lengthened ; but in their structure are yet weaker than the secondaries. Fastened to the little bone which represents the thumb, are two or three short and stiff feathers, called the wingletj (or bastard- wing ;) they lie upon the base of the first primaries, at the edge of the wing. Corresponding with the series of feathers, there are both on the outer and inner surface of the wing, several rows of smaller ones, called coverts, from their office of protecting the basal part of the quills; the feathers covering the shoulder-blade, or scapula, are called scapulars. If we examine each feather separately, we find it composed of two parts ; (1) a light but firm shaft, hollowed below for strength and lightness, into a horny lube, containing the blood-ves sels by which it is sustained ; (2) the vane, or beard of the feather, composed of a double series of layers, or thin parallel plates on each side of the shaft, and set at an angle to it. Towards the shaft of the feather, these layers are broad, and of a semi-cir cular form, to serve for strength, and for the closer grafting them one against the other, when in action. Towards the outer part of the vane, the layers grow slender and taper, to be more light. On their wider side, they are thin and smooth ; but their upper outer edgs is parted into two hairy edges, each side having a dif ferent set of hairs, broad at the bottom, and slender and bearded above. By this means, the hooked beards of one layer always lie next the straight beards of the next, and lock and hold each other. No resistance is of&raft to the flight of birds by this ar rangement; while beneath theglflkere is a layer of soft down, which preserves them from coldflp the effects of which, but for this provision, they would have beerVtmuch exposed. The wings are usually placed at that part of the body which serves to poise the whole and to support it. The feathers of the wing overlap each other, and present a continuous surface of great breadth, by repeated strokes of which upon the air, the bird performs its flight. (Plate X. fig. 2.) "Each feather is concave, whether we regard it transversely or longitudinally ; its stem, or middle, is remarkably strong, though very light, and the beards which present their edges in the direction of the stroke, are linked to each other by a series of minute hooks." These arrangements add to the power of the wings in their downward strokes upon the air. Every part of a bird, except the beak and the lower, or poste rior extremities, is, in general, clothed with feathers. Tne fret ORNITHOLOGY. 271 are protected by a naked, scaly skin which, in some cases, ex tends above the tarsus, and partly up the leg. The "soles of the toes are covered with a granulated and callous modification of this skin. (Plates IX. and X.) In Birds, particularly those of extended and powerful flight, the greatest part of the muscular force centers in the wings. The muscles which produce the downward stroke of the wing, are enormous ; for their attachment, the breast-bone is greatly enlarged, and its surface is also increased by having its middle portion raised into a perpendicular ridge, the two faces of which, from their direction, afford an advantageous point of resistance, or purchase. A bird can move its wings with a degree of strength which, when compared with the animal's size, is almost incredible. The flap of a Swan's wing has power sufficient to break a man's leg ; and a similar blow from an eagle has been known to produce instant death. The powerful muscular action involved in flight, would nat urally tend to draw the shoulders together; b it this tendency is resisted by the insertion between the two bones (coracoids) to which the shoulder bones (H) are joined, — of a singular arched bone, called the wish-bone or merrythought. (G.) In the domes tic fowl, the bone is feeble ; but in birds of powerful flight, as the Hawks, the Swallows, and the Humming-Birds, it is very strong and elastic. On the other hand, when the bird never rises upon the wing, as in the case of the Ostrich and Emu, this bone is reduced to a mere rudiment. The bones of the lower, or pos terior extremities also differ materially in structure from those ofquadrupeds. These consist of (1) a thigh-bone, (or femur,) R. ; leg. bones, (tibia and fibula,) S. ; (these leg-bones are really two, but the fibula is very small, and becomes anchylosed to the tibia j i. e., immovably fixed by a continuation of bony secre tion ;) (2) the metatarsal, or shank-bones, U. U., at the lower end of which there are as many processes as there are toes, each pro cess being furnished with a pulley for moving its corresponding toe ; (3) the toes, of which the usual number is four, — a number never exceeded ; while a few birds have only three ; and the Ostrich only two. The three toes are directed forwards, and one, answering to the great toe, backwards. This, at least, is the general rule. The back, or great toe, is wanting in some birds. In the Swallows it is directed forwards ; but in the Climbing Birds, as the Parrots and Woodpeckers, the outer toe and back toe are both directed backwards; while the Swifts have all the four toes directed forwards. As the upper limbs, or anterior extremities, are exclusively for EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. BEAKS AND HEADS OF BIRDS. 1. Owl's head, showing the egrets or tufts of feathers on each side, close to the ears. 2. Head of an Eagle, showing the strong curved beak of a raptorial bird. Order Haveners, (birds of prey.) 3. Falcon's beak, showing the notches and teeth near the tip of each man dible, for holding its prey. 4. Recurved beak of the Avoset, Stilt Plover, &c. 5. Merganser's bill, with serrated margins and abruptly hooked tip. 6. Loag, slender, curved bill of the Curlew, formed for penetrating the mud on the sea-shore, xi search of insects, slugs and small testaceans. 7. Bill of the Humming Bird, formed for saarching out insects in flowers and sipping the honey dew. Order Tenuirostres, (slender bills.) 8. Beak of the Crossbill, the crossed points of which it inserts to open the cones of pines and fir trees, upon the seeds of which it feeds. 9. Beak of Parrots, Mackaws, Lories, &c., having the upper mandible greatly curved over the lower, which is considerably shorter. 10. Beak of the Petrel, so furrowed as to appear of distinct pieces. 11. Puffin's beak, transversely furrowed on both sides, appears as though a sheath had been slipped over both mandibles. 12. Duck's bill, broad, long and soft, with plaits on each side for straining insects, worms, &c., out of the mud. 13. Beak of the Hornbill, of a light honeycomb structure ; the horn or hel met is hollow, and by some supposed to act as a sounding board. 14. Beak of. the Whip-poor- Will, deeply cleft; the mouth fringed with strong, stiff hairs, (vibrissse.) Order Fissirostres, (split bills.) TAILS OF BIRDS. 15. Fan shaped or rounded tail. 1G. A forked tail, Indicating a swift flyer, as in fly-catchers, (Muscicapidae.) 17 and 18. Lyre shaped tails, as in the Chatterers, (AmpelidEe.) 19. Doubly forked tail, as in Psalurus bifurcatus, a species of night-jar found in Brazil ; very rare. FEET OF BIRDS. 20. Foot of the Golden Eagle, showing its feathered tarsi, and the power ful talons of a rapacious bird. 21. Foot of a scratching bird, showing the three front toes united by a mem brane up to the first joint, the hind toe articulated upon the tarsus, and the horny spur in the male bird. Order Rasores, (scratchers.) 22. Foot of the Ptarmagin, covered with hairlike feathers as far as the claws. 23. Woodpecker's foot, with toes in pairs, (yoke-footed, or Zygodactylus.) Order Scansores, (climbers.) 24. Webbed foot of a swimming bird. Order Natatores, (swimmers.) 25. Foot of a Phalarope, with lobate membranes or festoons on the toea sufficiently broad to assist them in swimming. 26. Grebes' foot, not webbed as in most water birds, but each toe flattened so as to serve as a separate paddle. 27. Foot of the Sacred Ibis, a wading, shore, or stilt bird. Order Gralla- tores, (waders.) 28. Claw of Heron, showing the comb-like divisions of its inner edge. TT..1X. ORNITHOLOGY. 275 flight, and the bird depends principally on its bill for gathering its food, it became necessary, as the bones of the back have scarcely any motion, that the neck should be as it is, long and flexible. Hence, while in the mammals, the vertebras of the neck are seven, — there being no more even in the Camelopard, — the deficiency of motion in the back is made up in birds by an increase in the vertebrse of the neck, (B.) proportioned to their wants Thus the Raven has twelve neck bones, the Domestic Cock thirteen, the Ostrich eighteen, the Stork nineteen, and the Swan twenty-three, which is the largest number yet ascertained, while the smallest is ten. These are so joined together, that the head can be turned completely around, (the position which the bird takes when at rest,) or moved in any direction, so that the bird can touch every point of its body with its bill. The trunk is sustained on the thighs by very powerful mus cles ; another set of which passes from the lower part of the thighs to the toes, turning over the knee and heel, in such a way that the flexion or bending of these joints shall shorten them. Hence, the simple weight of the body flexes the toes, so that birds are enabled to sleep perched on one foot. But the pectoral mus cles, as a general rule, show the greatest development. The breas* bone, or sternum, is made to project forwards with an ele vated ridge or keel. To this, the powerful muscles which depress the wings, are attached, The depth of the keel is a partial criterion as to the power of flight ; in the Harrier it is deep; in the Ostrich, where the wings are not sufficiently developed to raise the bird from the ground, it is quite flut. The jaws of the bird are not furnished with teeth, but the place of these organs is supplied by a casing of horn, termina ting; in a point at the tip, and brought to an edge on the side of the jaw. This horny casing is known as the beak or bill ; the name mandibles is given to the upper and lower divisions. In Birds of Prey, \see Plate of Birds' Beaks and Heads,) the beak is like a carving or dissecting knife ; in the Woodpeckers it is an effective chisel ; in the Snipe and Woodcock, it is a long and slender probe, furnished at the tip with copious nerves of sensa tion for feeling in the deep earth of bogs and marshes ; in the Parrots, it is a climbing hook, or a fruit knife; in the Swallows and Goat Suckers, it is a fly-trap; in the Swans, Geese and Ducks, it is a flattened strainer, with nerves on the inside for the detection of the food remaining after that particular operation which almost every one must have observed a duck perform in muddy water ; in the Storks and Herons, it is like a fish-spear ; in the Cross-Bills, or Seed-eating Birds, it forms a pair of Seed- 12 276 ORNITHOLOGY. crackers for extricating the kernel from the husk which cov ers it.* Varying as the beak does in different kinds of birds, it in no instance performs a proper masticating function ; though it may divide flesh, crack a nut, and with the assistance of the tongue, shell it; and though it may separate the grain from the husk, as is constantly seen in the Goldfinch and Canary. A nearer ap proach to mastication, is the bruising down of hard seeds by means of a knob in the middle of the palate, as is seen in the Buntings. The stomach in Birds, consists of three parts, (not always, however, distinctly developed,) viz., the crop or craw, the mem branous stomach, and the gizzard. From the want of masti cating power in the bird, it, of course, swallows its food entire. When the food is flesh, the process of digestion is sufficiently simple, and so rapid as to need no preparation. To prepare for the digestion of hard grains and seeds, which are the food of so large a number of species, a sort of internal grinding mill is fur nished by the gizzard. This organ, which is seen to most advantage in grain-eating birds, is made up almost entirely of two semi-globular masses of dense muscle, whose flaf faces, covered with a thick leathery skin, work over each other like a pair of millstones, and by the aid of small angular stones, sand, etc., swallowed for the pur pose, very quickly grind down the hardest substances. In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, (London,) is a large glass bottle entirely filled with pebbles, &c., taken from the stomach of an ostrich. The experiment has been made, without injury, of conveying bullets beset with needles, and even lancets into the stomachs of granivorous birds, with the effect of the total destruction of those sharp instruments in a short period. The organs of the voice in birds bear a striking resem blance to certain musical wind instruments. The larynx is made up of two parts ; the second part, or lower larynx, contains a second rima glottidis, (cleft or opening of the throat,) furnished with tense membranes which perform, in many birds, the same office that a reed does in a clarionet, or hautboy, while the first tor upper rima, (cleft or opening,) of the throat, like the ventage or hole of the instrument, gives utterance to the note. None of the endowments of this interesting class more minister to the pleasure and delight of man than their powers of song. The development of the senses of birds varies in the different * See Penny Cyclopedia ; Art. Birds. ORNITHOLOGY. 277 tribes, according to the mode in which they are adapted to take their prey. Of the five senses, sight, smell and hearing are most acute in birds. The crystalline humor of the eye is flat in birds; the vitreous humor is very small. The color of the iris varies in different species, and in many cases is very brilliant. Birds have three eyelids, two of which, the upper and lower, are closed in most of the race by the elevation of the lower one, as may be seen in our domestic poultry. But the third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, forms the most curious apparatus. When at rest it lies in the corner of the eye ; but by the combined action of two muscles which are attached to the back of the sclerotic cjat, (the white,) of the eye, it can be drawn out so as to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, like a curtain, and its own elasticity restores it to its resting place. This, it is said, enables the eagle to look at the sun. The rapacious birds seem most remarkable for their length of sight ; others, as the swallow tribe, which fly with extraordinary swiftness, have an almost inconceivable quickness of sight. The sense of hearing in birds appears to be in general tolera bly acute, especially in the nocturnal birds of prey, which have what other birds are without, an external cartilaginous ear. The sense of smell does not seem to be very highly devel oped in the birds as a class, but is strong in the vultures. Few of them have a tongue which serves as an organ of taste> but some of the swimmers and the parrots generally have one that is soft, thick and covered with papillae, and there can be no doubt that these taste food of a soft or fluid nature, and select that which they like best ; for the most part, however, the tongue is an organ for taking food rather than of taste. The sense of touch is in birds generally very obtuse. The dress or plumage of birds is admirable for its fitness to the ends for which it was designed ; for its softness, smooth ness, compactness, and various hues. The most brilliant col ors are lavished upon the "winged denizens of the air." This is particularly true of birds of the torrid zones. Those of the temperate zones are not so remarkable for the elegance of their plumage; but the smaller kinds make up for this defect by the melody of their voices. While the birds of the warmer regions are very bright and gorgeous in their colors, they have scream ing voices, or are totally silent. The frigid zones, where the seas abound in fish, are stocked with birds of the aquatic kind far more than any other regions. These usually have a warmer coat of feathers, or they have large quantities of fat lying under neath the skin, which serves to defend them from the rigors of the climate. 278 ORNITHOLOGY. Birds are oviparous; in other words, are produced from eggs consisting of a living point attached to a globular sac of nutri ment called the yelk, surrounded by a layer of albumen, the glair or white part, and enclosed in two series of membrane and a hard calcareous shell. The egg is developed into a living, ac tive chick, by the warmth which the parent supplies while sitting upon the nest wherein the eggs are deposited ; or it may be hatched in a breeding machine, by means of artificial heat of about 96o Fahrenheit. The instinct of birds is wonderfully ex hibited in constructing and locating their nests as places of com fort and concealment, and in the exquisite workmanship displayed in some of them. The process of incubation lasts a few weeks, when the young is ready for exclusion. By means of a horny pointed scale at tached temporarily to the tip of its beak, it succeeds in breaking the egg-shell and forcing its way to freedom. "At the end of the second day, the first moving of the heart is perceptible, and on the fifth, the whole frame of the little creature can be dis tinctly seen in motion. The feathers make their appearance in a fortnight. At the commencement of the fifteenth day, the chicken begins to breathe, and on the nineteenth it is able to peep." The gallinaceous and swimming birds can run about and pick up their own food as soon as they escape from the egg ; but more commonly the young are, for several days, unable to quit the nest, and as is well known, are anxiously fed and cared for by the parent birds. Few things have attracted more attention than the migration of birds. The immediate cause of this is doubtless to be traced to temperature and to food, particularly that which is adapted to the sustenance of the young ; and the instinct of the bird accord ingly leads it from one climate to another. The change of plumage, termed moulting, takes place in all birds at least once a year, and sometimes oftener. Apart from the ailment connected with this change, birds are subject to very few diseases. In all countries they are said to be more long lived than the quadrupeds of the same climate. Fowls sometimes live 20 years. Linnets and other little birds shut Pigeons, longer. up in cages often live 15 years. Canaries, 25 years. Robins, 17 do. Parrots, 30 do. Eagles, over 100 do. Pelicans, 80 do. Cockatoos, reach 120 do. Geese, 80 or 90 do. Swans, from 300 to 360 do. The fossil remains of birds, though not numerous, are entitled ORNITHOLOGY. 279 to attention. Considerable interest was awakened by the discov ery, by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst College, of many large bird tracks in the new red argillaceous sand-stones of the valley of the Connecticut river. Remains of. colossal birds of the Os trich type have also been obtained from Australia, which possess peculiar value from their relation to such birds as the DODO, known to have existed at a former period, but now no longer to be found. The classification of birds into orders is founded upon charac ters derived from the beak and feet. The subordinate divisions take their rise chiefly from the form of the beak, and run into each other by almost imperceptible gradations. The number of species has been estimated at six thousand. These have been arranged into two grand divisions, viz. : LAND and WATER, or TERRESTRIAL and AQUATIC BIRDS, the former being divided into five, the latter into two orders, making the whole number seven, ' RAPTORES, (Raveners,) INSESSORES, (Perchers.) SCANSORES, (Climbers,) > LAND BIRDS. ORDERS. < RASORES, (Scratchers.) CURSORES, (Runners,) GRALLATORES, (Stilts or Waders,) ) TTr ,-> . NATATORES, (Swimmers,) \ WATEK BlKDS' What is the second branch of Zoology called ? Give the derivation of the word. To what division of animals do birds belong? How are they distinguished from the Mammalia or first division of warm blooded animals ? Are they Bipeds or Quadrupeds ? What have they been styled ? What does their formation for flight involve ? Explain or show how their struc ture is adapted to it. What is said of the rapidity and variety of their motions ? Explain the skeleton of the bird as given on Plate XII. Name the different kinds of feathers and their situation, as illustrated in Plate X. Name the parts of which each feather is composed. In what does the greatest part of the birds' muscular force center? Illustrate its power. Show the use of the wish-bone or merrythought. Give some account of the bones of the lower extremities as illustrated in Plate XII. State the variations as to the number and direction of the toes in different birds. Show the benefit accruing from the numerous joints or vertebras in a bird's neck. State the number found in different birds. Give some ac count of the muscles of a bird and their action. Strictly or properly speak ing, have birds any teeth ? What supplies their place ? What are its up per and lower divisions called ? Describe the different kinds of beaks. Do birds really masticate their food ? What approach to mastication is seen in the Bunting? Of how many parts does the stomach consist? What are their uses ? What facts show the power of the gizzard ? What do the birds' organs of voice resemble ? Illustrate this. What senses are most acute in birds ? What is said of the eye and its appendages ? What birds are most remarkable for their length of sight? What for quickness? What is said of their senses? What of their plumage? How are their 2SO RAPTORES. young produced? What is said of their nests? Describe the different stages of the incubated egg. What is said of the migration of birds? What does the term moulting mean? How often does it occur? Are birds long lived? What facts show it? What is said of their fossil remains? Upon what is the classification of birds based? What is the estimated num ber of species? What are the Grand Divisions of birds? In how many orders are they respectively included ? Name them. SECTION II. LAND-BIRDS. (FIRST DIVISION.) FIVE ORDERS. 1. ORDER.— RAPTORES. (Lat. rapio, to seize.) BIRDS OF PREY, or RAVENERS. This order is sometimes named ACCIPITRES, (Lat. Hawks,) and divided into two sub-orders: 1. Accipiires diurni, (Lat. Hawks of the Day,) 2. Accipitres nocturni, (Hawks of the Night.) The BIRDS OF PREY are among the largest and the most mus cular and powerful of all the feathered tribes. They are easily known by their strong hooked beak, and large acute talons or claws. (Plate IX. fig. 20.) By the claws the first blow is given to the prey, which, when grasped by the feet, is torn open by the bill. For aid in this operation, the typical Raptores, (the Fal cons proper,) have a strong and sharp tooth-like projection from one or both of the mandibles; (Plate IX. fig. 3;) but in those of this order that feed upon carrion or small animals, this projection is nearly or entirely deficient. The base of the beak is covered with a naked skin called the cere, in which the nostrils are pierced ; the stomach consists of a membranous sac, without a muscular gizzard. The flight of these birds is lofty, vigorous and long-sustained. Their increase is slow, and they are comparatively few in num ber. They annually produce not more than two or three eggs, generally pure white. The females of the order, contrary to the general rule in birds, are one-third larger than the males. The Birds of Prey are found in all parts of the world. They include three distinctly marked families, viz. : 1. Falconida, the Falcons ; 2. Vulturinida, the Vultures ; 3. Strigida, the Owls. FIRST FAMILY. — THE FALCONS. Falconida, (Lat falco, a falcon.) This family is arranged by Swainson into five sub-families, viz.; (1) AquiUnce, Eagles; (2) Milvina, Kites; (3) Buteonince, Buzzards; (4) Falconina, Falcons; (5) Accipitrina, Hawks. RAPTORES. 281 The Falcons, as a family, exhibit, in their structure and habits, the highest development of the destructive faculty. In these the head is wholly covered with feathers, except the cere at the base of the beak ; and the leading genera have, in the beak, the sharp projecting tooth referred to above. (See Plate IX. fig. 3.) The eyebrows usually overhang the eye, giving a stern expression to the countenance. The points of the strong and highly curved talons are kept from injury by a mechanism for raising them from the surface on which the bird rests ; a process analogous to the sheathing of the claws in the Cat Family of the Mam malia. The falcons are widely diffused ; some species have been re claimed and trained for the pursuit of game. NOTE. — It would be interesting and might be instructive to give minutely the characteristics and habits of all the genera and species included in this and in the other orders and families of the Birds ; but from the restricted limits of the present volume, and the great number of species, (6000,) in the feathered tribe, our notices, when given, will necessarily be brief, while very many species must be passed by altogether. 1st SUB-FAMILY. Aquilina. (Lat. aquila, an eagle.) The first place is given to the EAGLE, (in treating of the Fal con tribe,) riot because it presents most distinctly the family traits, but on account of its great size and strength, the grandeur of its aspect, and the dignity of its movements. This bird was honored by being in the Holy of Holies of the ancient Jewish temple, and every tyro in classical study knows that the old Romans re garded it as the " Bird of Jove." Eagles are birds of high and powerful, but not of rapid flight. Usually they prefer to strike their prey upon the ground. They breed in solitude on the inaccessible crags of lofty mountains. In these birds, the notch or tooth of the upper mandible is almost obliterated ; the claws are remarkably strong and curved ; the under surface is grooved ; the hind and outer claws are the longest. (See Plate IX. figs 2. of Beaks, and 20 of Feet.) The GOLDEN EAGLE, Aquilachrysaetus,(Gr.chfusaetus, golden eagle,) is a truly magnificent bird, about three feet in length, having plumage of a deep and rich umber brown, glossed on the back and wings with purple reflections; the feathers of the head and neck are of an orange-brown hue, and when under the rays of the sun, have an almost golden appearance ; the tail is striped with gray and obscure brown, but in the young bird is, in the under part, white. (This variation in the plumage of the young bird has led some to describe it as a distinct species, by the name of the Ring-tailed Eagle.) 282 RAPTORES. The longevity of the Golden Eagle is almost proverbial. One that died in Vienna, (Austria,) is said to have lived in confine ment one hundred and four years. This species is found throughout the middle and north of Europe, and in North Amer ica. ' The BALD or WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, Haliactos, (Gr.hals, the sea; aetos, an eagle;) hucocephalus, (Gr. white-headed,) is, when full grown, three feet long, and more than seven feet across at the expanse of wings. The general color of the upper parts is a deep, dark brown; the head, chief part of the neck, and the lower parts are white. The wing is admirably adapted for the support of so large a bird, measuring two feet in breadth on the greater quills, and sixteen inches on the smaller. The Bald Eagle is an occasional visitant to the Northern Hem isphere of the old world ; on this continent it is common, breed ing, according to Audubon, as far south as Virginia, though its nests are most frequent in the fur countries. The ardor and energy of this bird might awaken deep interest were they not associated with so much of robbery and wanton exercise of power ; for it habitually spoils the Osprey or Fish- Hawk, (Plate X. fig. 3, a,) of his watery prey, and will even, in "hard times," steal from the vultures the carrion on which they are feeding. The falls of Niagara are one of its favorite haunts on account of the fish caught there, and the attraction presented by the numerous remains of squirrels, deer and other animals which perish in attempting to cross the river above the cataract. The nest of the Bald Eagle is usually placed on a very tall tree that is destitute of branches to a considerable height ; it is never seen on rocks. Dr. Franklin thus speaks of this eagle, the em blem of our national union : " For my part, I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen as the representative of our country. He is a bird of a bad moral character; he does not get his living honestly. You may have seen him perched upon some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches for the labors of the fishing- hawk ; and when that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing it to its nest for the support of his mate and youn£ ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him, and takes it from him. With all this injustice he is never in good case, but like those among men who live by sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and very oft en lousy. Besides, he is a rank coward ; the little King-bird, not bigger than a sparrow, attacks him boldly and drives him out of the district. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America, who have driven RAPTORES. 233 out all the King-Birds from our country, though exactly fitted for that order of knights which the French call Chevaliers d' Industrie." WASHINGTON SEA-EAGLE, H. Wasliingtonii, is a new species first observed by Audubon in 1814, who named this " magnificent bird," the largest of the eagles, after Washington, the "father of his country." The HARPY EAGLE, Harpuia, (Gr. harpuia, from harpazo, to seize,) destructor, (Lat. destroyer,) is one of the " Short- Winged " Eagles found in New Mexico, New Granada, and Guiana. In size and powers of body it equals the Golden Eagle. (See Chart.) The beak above is convex ; the upper mandible is slightly notched, somewhat like the True Falcons ; the tarsi are lengthened, very strong and feathered at the base. When full grown, this bird's head has a thick downy plumage, of a light slaty-gray color. On the back part of the head, there is a crest of dull black feathers, which ordinarily is slightly raised above the level of the feathers on the back of the neck, but on any sudden excite ment is elevated at right angles to them ; the back and wings are black ; the under surface is pure white ; the tail has four transverse black bands, alternated with whitish, or ash-colored spaces. (See fig. on Chart.) In the nakedness of its legs, it approaches the Sea-Eagles. The Harpy is a solitary bird, frequenting the thickest forests, where it feeds upon the sloths; it also preys upon fawns and young quadrupeds. One of these birds, taken near the mouth of the river Amazon, while on its passage to England, is said to have destroyed and eaten a King of the Vultures. After its ar rival, a cat was put into its cage, and the eagle, with one blow of its immense foot, broke its back. The BRAZILIAN CARACARA EAGLE, Polylorus or Aquila Bra- ziliensis, differs from the Harpy Eagle in having more slender and lengthened tarsi, and in the comparative weakness of its toes. It is of the size of the common Kite, and has a tail nine inches long. It is all over covered with dusky and blackish feathers; hence is called by some morphnus, (Gr. morphnos, ob scure, or dark.) For its food it seems content with any animal substance ; it is by no means shy, but is seldom attacked, as it rarely molests domestic poultry. The FISH HAWK, or BALD BUZZARD, Pandion, (Gr. proper name,) halietus, has very long and curved talons, the outermost •versatile, or capable of being revolved. These are well adapted for holding this bird's slippery fishy food. As already said, it has, in the Bald Eagle, a persecutor that often snatches from it ;*~ hard-earned prey. (Plate X, fig. 3, b.) The nlum~~" 234 RAPTORES. Fish-Hawk is much like that of water fowl, white below, with a few brown streaks or speckles on the throat. This bird is spread over Europe and part of Asia ; it is found in North America from Labrador to Florida. The HARRIER, CIRCUS, (Gr. kirkos, a circle.) has the sides of the head furnished with a circle of feathers much like the disk of the Owl's head. The COMMON HARRIER, C. cyaneus, (Gr. kuaneos, dark blue,) ranges from Labrador to Texas, and sometimes is seen in the Western prairies in flocks of thirty or even forty in number. The notes of this bird, while on the wing, "sound like the sylla bles, pee, PEE, PEE, the first slightly pronounced, the last louder, much prolonged, and ending plaintively." The Common Harrier feeds on insects, small lizards, frogs, &c., but occasionally will attack partridges and plovers. SECOND SUB-FAMILY. KITES. MilvinfB. (Lat. milvus, a kite.) The length of the wings and the forked tail are the characters which most separate the Kites from the rest of the Birds of Prey. The COMMON KITE, or GLEDE, M. ictinus, (Gr. iktinos, a kite,) or M. regalis, (Lat. royal.) is found in various parts of Europe. According; to Charles Lucien Buonaparte, it is very common near Rome, (Italy,) especially about herds of cattle. Formerly, more numerous than now, it was a great scourge to the poultry yard. In falconry, the Glede was very docile, being used both as pur suer and pursued. THE SWALLOW-TAILED HAWK, or FORK-TAIL, Nauclerus, (Gr. naukleros, a ship master,) furcatus, (Lat. forked,) differs from the true kite, (milvus,) in having a more largely forked tail. The Fork-tail, in steering its course through the air, reminds one of the helmsman who is guiding some noble bark amidst the waves. Its flight is graceful and long protracted. It has been seen as far north as Pennsylvania; in Mississippi and Louisiana it is abundant. The Swallow-tailed Hawks always feed upon the wing. In calm and warm weather they are seen soaring very high, and pursuing the large insects called " Musquito Hawks." The upper plumage is black with reflections of purple ; the head and under parts white. The genus El anus has several species, among which are E. melanopterus, (Gr. black-winged.) the BLACK-WINGKD SWALLOW- HAWK, of Africa; E. dispar, (Lat. dissimilar.) the BLACK-SHOUL DERED HAWK, a beautiful bird found from Texas to South Caro lina. RAPTORES. 285 The genus Ictinia, (Gr. iktin, a kite.) is characterized by its strong and short bill, the upper mandible of which is "somewhat angularly festooned," and the lower distinctly notched. The MISSISSIPPI KITE, /. plumleus, (Lat. leaden or dull,) is by some naturalists ranked among the Buzzards. Twenty or more of these birds are sometimes seen together, sweeping around some tree, and catching the locusts which are numerous early in the season. The back and wings of this bird are of a slate blue ; the head and under parts whitish, spotted with brown. This Kite is said to fly to a great height, where it remains for a while poised ; it cleaves the air rapidly, in order to seize the insects which are its prey, added to reptiles and birds. THIRD SUB-FAMILY. The BUZZARDS. Buteonina. (Lat. buteo, a buzzard.) Buteo, sub-genus of Falco. The Buzzards are, as a group, distinguished by their short beaks, expanded wings, and squared tails. They are com mon in most of the wooded districts of Europe, and the adjacent parts of Asia, and have been met with in the fur countries of North America. They are indolent, sluggish birds, often remain ing perched on the same bough the greatest part of the day ; and generally feed upon small quadrupeds, reptiles, and various spe cies of insects. The skins of the Buzzards are covered with fine down. In Cairo, (Egypt,) and in some other places in the East, the skins, after the feathers are removed, are tanned with the down upon them ; as thus prepared, they are used by wealthy Turks and Persians for lining their silk robes. The COMMON BUZZARD, B. vulgaris, has a general plumage of chocolate brown ; the primary feathers are black with the in ner webs white, barred with brownish black ; the tail has ten dusky bars on a reddish brown ground ; the under parts are yel lowish white. This bird builds its nest on high trees, though it has been known to construct it upon rocks. It often seizes upon the nest of a crow, which it enlarges and lines with wool and other soft materials. The female lays from three to five eggs of a whitish cast, spotted with pale brown, and almost without any of the tinge of red which is peculiar to diurnal birds of prey. The length of the Common Buzzard is about twenty-nine inches; the expanse of the wings about fifty inches. The RED-TAILED BUZZARD, B. Borealis, (Lat. northern,) pe culiar to the American Continent, is found throughout the United States. This is a very wary bird, and hard to be approached by any one bearing a gun. In common with some other Falcons, it 288 KAPTORES. is much annoyed by parasitic fly-ticks. Unlike the eagles, pairs of these birds, after rearing their young, "become as shy to each other as if they had never met, and will " chase and rob each other of their prey on all occasions." Farmers, to whom this bird is known as the Hen-hawk, usually regard it with anything but com placency. Other species of the genus Buteo found in the United States, are the RED-SHOULDERED BUZZARD, B. Hneatus, (Lat. marked with lines,) of the Western and Southern sections of the Union ; the Rough-legged Buzzard, B. lagopus, (Gr. ha re- footed,') found east of the Alleghanies, also in the north of Europe, and noted as a great destroyer of meadow mice. The HONEY BUZZARD, Perm's, (Norman, perner, to take,) api- vorous, (Lat. bee-eating.) is distinguished by having a feathered band about the eyes. This bird is found in the warmer parts of Europe and of Asia. Its food does not consist of honey, as its specific name seems to indicate, but of bee.s, wasps, and their lar- V8B. It is a bird of passage, leaving Europe in the beginning of winter. Its length is about two feet ; expanse of the wings fifty-two inches. FOURTH SUB-FAMILY. The FALCONS, Proper. Fakonina. (Lat. falco, a falcon.) (Falco is the typical genus of the Falconidce, and includes the greater portion of this sub-family.) The PEREGRINE or SULTAN FALCON, F. peregrinus, (Lat. wan dering,) is one of the most remarkable members of the Falcon family. It ranges over Europe, the north of Asia, America and New Holland. When full grown it is a foot and a half in length. We have already referred to the Falcon's strongly notched beak. The beak is of a blue color, approaching to black at the point; the back and upper surface of the bird is of a bluish slate color ; the breast reddish white, with dark brown transverse bars. On account of the large size of this bird's feet, it is called the Great- fooled Hawk ; from -its successful chase of ducks, it is sometimes named the Duck-Hawk. The flight of the Peregrine Falcon is amazingly rapid. It does not merely dash at its prey and grasp it with his claws, but strikes its victim with its breast, and actually stuns it with the violence of the blow be fore seizing it with its claws. Peculiar interest attaches to the "Sultan" bird from its connec tion with falconry, an art of great antiquity and extensively prac ticed by English nobles from the period of the Heptarchy to the RAPTORES. 287 days of Charles II. Indeed, a person of rank in England would at one period of her history scarcely be seen out of doors unless he had upon his hand a hawking bird. This in old illuminations and ancient seals is the criterion of nobility. At the present day hawking is still practised in some Oriental countries. So bold is the Falcon, it was generally employed to take the formidable Heron. When used anciently for hawking, the fal cons were taken into the field with hoods over their eyes, and with little bells on their legs; the sportsman carried a lure to which the bird had been trained to fly by being fed regularly upon or near it with fresh killed meat. When the falcon closed with its prey, they both came to the ground together, and it was the sportsman's business to reach the place of conflict as soon as possible, and assist the falcon in vanquishing its prey. This bird constructs its nest on ledges of rocks, laying four eggs of a reddish brown color. The GYRFALCON, or JERFALCON, F. gyrfalcon. The name Jer- falcon is a corruption of Hierofalcon, Sacred Falcon. This bird is by some regarded as the boldest and most beautiful of the tribe, approaching in size nearly to the Osprey. It is a native of Ice land. In the days of falconry, the Jerfalcon was highly esteemed, and used for the larger game, such as cranes and herons. Its plumage is white with dusky lines. The MERLIN or STONE FALCON, P. asalon, (Gr. aisaldn,) is the smallest of the European species, being not much larger than a black-bird ; in olden times it was considered as the " lady bird," and used for taking partridges, which it would kill by a single stroke of the neck. It is not uncommon both in Europe and America, and is a migratory bird. The KESTRAL, or WINDHOVER, F. tinnunculus, (Lat. akestral,) inhabits Asia and Africa, as well as Europe. Its length is from fourteen to fifteen inches. Farmers often mistake it for the Spar row-Hawk, and take every opportunity to destroy it ; but as its natural food is field-mice, they ought to look upon it as a bene factor, and protect, instead of remorselessly killing it. Its nest is usually built in some deserted one of a crow or magpie. FIFTH SUB -FAMILY. HAWKS. Accipitrince. (Lat. accipiter, a hawk.) The Hawks have short beaks, hooked from the base ; and short wings, reaching no farther than two-thirds of the extent of the tail. The upper mandible has & festoon, or prominence in place of the notches of the true Falcons. £83 RAPTORES. Of the genera, we name Astur, (proper name,) characterized by its short beak, its somewhat oval nostrils, and the scutellated acrotarsia, or highest parts of the tarsi. The GOSHAWK, (or Goosehawk.) A. palumlarius, (Lat. from Palumbes, a wood-pigeon,) receives its name palurnl)arius, from its preying upon pigeons. These, together with pheasants, par tridges and grouse, constitute its food. Hares and rabbits, also, it sometimes devours. A full grown female is about twenty-four inches in length ; the male bird is one-fourth, and sometimes one-third less. The upper surface of the wings and tail feathers is black; the throat and under parts nearly white, with spots and bars of black. The Goshawk flies low, pursuing its prey in a line after it, or in a manner which falconers call "raking." It abounds in the forests of Continental Europe, and is found in the temperate regions of Asia and America. It has been seen in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, (Penn.) The Goshawk was also one of the falconry-birds ; the female generally " flown " at the large-winged bird ; the male at par tridges. Birds of the genus decipher have smooth and elongated tarsi. The SPARROW-HAWK, A. fringillarius, (Lai. fringilfa, a chaf finch,) is the type-bird cf this Sub-family. It is widely spread throughout Europe ; found also in Japan and Southern Africa. The adult male is about twelve inches, the female fifteen inches long. The individuals of this species show considerable diver sity of color. The Sparrow-Hawk is a great enemy of quadrupeds and small birds, and is often very destructive to poultry. When taken young, it is easily tamed, and then will " associate with quite in congruous companions." "A gentleman had a Sparrow-Hawk which used to live in his dove-cote among his pigeons ; would ac company them in their flights, and be uneasy if separated from its strange friends." It builds its nests upon high trees, laying four or five eggs of bluish white, marked with dark brown. The CHANTING- HAWK, Melierax, (Gr. meti, honey ; hierax, a hawk,) is the only known bird of prey whose voice has any sweetness, or is at all pleasant to the ear. It is a native of Af rica. This Hawk chants every morning and evening ; sometimes it continues its notes the whole night long. In size it equals a Goshawk. RAPTORES. 289 SECOND FAMILY. THE VULTURES. Vulturidae. (Lat. vultur, a vulture.) This Family of the Raptorial Birds, feed on the flesh of ani mals already dead. Decomposition is not, however, a necessary condition of their food, as is shown by the fact that they may fre quently be seen regaling themselves on -the flesh of an animal within half an hour after it has been killed. Their geographical distribution is confined to warm climates, where they act as scavengers to purify the earth from the putrid substances with which it otherwise would be encumbered. They are generally protected by the natives of the countries which they inhabit, on account of their utility in disposing of decayed animal remains. It has been a disputed point, whether Vultures are directed to their fetid food by the sight, or the smell. Audubon was in favor of the former, as the directing power ; and their lofty flight and telescopic eye, are extremely well adapted to assist these birds in detecting any dying or dead animal ; but many facts mignt be adduced, tending to show that these birds are guided to their food by the action of both sight and smell. The Vulture tribe are, on the whole, considerably larger than the Falcon birds, but they are much less courageous. The beak is lengthened, curved downward at the point, and not in the least notched ; the talons are comparatively weak, by no means corresponding with the stature of these birds, and used by them far less than the beak. In order that the parts of the bird which come in contact with its offensive food might not become soiled or matted, as feathers, of course, would be by such con tact, the head, and sometimes the neck, in a greater or less de gree, are naked, or else covered only with a thin down ; the legs, also, at the lowest part, are covered with scales, and not with feathers, as in the Eagle. The wings are strong and large, and the general plumage uncommonly thick and coarse. THE GRIFFON VULTURE, Vultur fulvus, (Lat. tawny,) is found throughout a large extent of the Eastern Continent. This Vulture has its head and neck covered with close set, short and white downy feathers. The general color is yellow brown; the length more than four feet. CATHARTES. (Gr. Kathartes, a purifier.) The Vultures of this genus have a stout beak, but not the fleshy crest which these birds sometimes exhibit ; and the head and neck are plumeless. THE TURKEY VULTURE, or TURKEY BUZZARD, C. Aura, (Gr. aura, air,) is a species that inhabits a vast range of territory in 290 RAPTORES. the warmer parts of this continent. In the Northern and Middle States of the American Union, it is partially migratory, the greater part returning to the South on the approach of cold weather. When full grown, it is not far from three feet long ; and the wings expand six and one-third feet. The Turkey Buz- zards live upon all sorts of foodj "they suck the eggs and devour the young of many species of birds, and even eat birds of their own species when they find them dead. They are daily seen in the streets of the Southern cities, along with their relatives, and often roost with them on the same trees." (And.) In Jamaica, this bird is protected by a fine of five pounds ster ling inflicted upon any one who destroys it within a prescribed distance from the principal towns. THE BLACK VULTURE, or CARRION CROW, C. atratus, (Lat. clothed in black.) — is smaller than the preceding; — less elegant in form, and less graceful in flight. It is a constant resident of all the Southern States, and is seen, during the whole day, in the principal Southern cities, flying or walking about the streets. Those of Charleston resort at night to a swampy wood across the Ashley river. Audubon, and "his friend John Bachman, vis ited this roosting place together." They estimated the number of these vultures which they saw, at several thousands, spread over an extent of two acres. THE CALIFORNIA VULTURE, C. Californianus, is found in the valleys and plains of the Western Slope of this Continent, and in size bears the same proportion to the other species as a Golden Eagle to a Goshawk. The length of this Vulture is fifty-five inches. It builds its nest upon the loftiest trees; the eggs are two, nearly spherical, and Jet black. THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, Neophron percnopterus, (Gr. perknos, black; pteron, wing;) sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, or Hen, has a pure white plumage, except the great quill-feathers, which are black ; the length is a little more than two feet. Sarcoramphus. (Gr. sarx, flesh; rhamphos, beak.) The Vultures of this genus, have a fleshy tuft growing on their beaks, somewhat like the wattles, or fleshy excrescences of the Turkey; they have also the Turkey's naked neck and long and oval nostrils. THE CONDOR, S. gryphus, (Gr. grups, a griffon,) — is a bird respecting whose magnitude exaggerated statements have been often made. It may, indeed, be ranked among the largest birds which have the power of flight ; but the greatest authentic meas urement makes its length not more than five feet, and its expanse of wings not more than fourteen. RAPTORES. 291 The beak of the Condor is four inches long, and straight at the base, but the upper mandible becomes arched to a point, and terminates in a strong, well covered hook, — so strong as to be able to pierce the body of a bullock. Around the lower part of the neck in the male and female birds, there is a broad white ruffof downy feathers, which forms the line of separation between the naked skin above, and the true feathers covering the body below it ; on the head is a species of comb. (See figure of Con dor on the Chart.) The Condor is found in the Andes from one end of South America to the other; but is most numerous in Peru and Chili, and is frequently met with at an elevation of from 10,000 to 15.000 feet above the level of the sea. Here, amidst perpetual snow, Condors may be seen in groups of three or four, but never in larger companies, like the true Vultures. The Condor descends to the plains only when driven by the demands of appetite ; but soon leaves them again for a lighter atmosphere. " The pecul iarities of structure," says Dr. Roget, "have probably a relation to the capability we see them possess, of bearing with impunity, very quick and violent changes of atmospheric pressure. The Condor of the Andes is often seen to descend rapidly, from a height of above twenty thousand feet, to the edge of the sea, where the air is more than twice the density of that which the bird has been breathing, thus encountering, in its descent, varia tions of barometrical pressure extending from twelve to twenty- nine inches." The general color of the Condor is brownish ; the feathers on the back, however, are sometimes perfectly black. This bird does not build any nest, but, after the manner of many sea-birds, lays two white eggs, somewhat larger than those of a Turkey, on the bare lofty rock. It is very strong, and highly tenacious of life. Two Condors will attack and kill the Llama, or even the Puma; by their repeated buffeting and pecking, wearying it so completely that it finally yields to their power. So destruc tive is the Condor, that various methods are employed by the natives in S. A. to capture it. Sometimes a person clothed in the skin of a newly killed animal, goes out, and entices the Condor to attack him ; while companions, who have secreted themselves, rush out from their hiding places, and seize it. THE KING VULTURE, S. papa, is much smaller than the Con dor, but of a brighter plumage, and among the handsomest of the Vultures. When pressed with hunger, he will, in the absence of his favorite carrion, feed upon snakes and lizards. He is said to be called the KING Vulture, because he keeps some smaller 292 RAPTORES. Vultures under subjection, and "does not suffer them to approach a dead body until he has completely satisfied his own appetite, which is certainly none of the smallest." This Vulture is a native of South America ; near the central portions of which it is abundant, and it is occasionally seen in Florida, U. S. Gypaetus. (Gr. gups, a vulture; aetos, an eagle.) The birds of this genus, are included by Gmelin, under the genus Falco. On the Chart, these are accordingly arranged with the Falconida, but they perhaps approach most nearly to the Vul tures in habits and conformation, and we have thought best to place them with the Vulture Family, as is done by Prince Buona parte and Mr. Gray. They have the weaker talons of the True or Griffon Vultures; the head and neck, however, are feathered, like the Eagles, and they reject putrid matter unless hard pressed by hunger. THE LAMMERGEYER, (German, LamVs Eagle,} or BEARDED VULTURE, G. barbatus, (Lat. bearded,) is a celebrated bird, — not, however, strictly a true Vulture, as its head and neck are feath ered, and it rejects putrid flesh, except when pressed with hunger. The term bearded is applied to this bird on account of the long tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed. It destroys hares, and young or sickly sheep and goats ; when emboldened by hunger, it does not fear even to attack man himself. The young Chamois, the Mountain Hare, and various kinds of birds fall victims to its appetite. The head and neck of this Vulture, are a dirty white ; the lower parts of the neck, breast, and belly, orange red; the back, and wing-coverts, deep gray brown. The Bearded Vulture, the largest bird of Europe, is a little more than four and a half feet in length; the expansion of its wings is from nine to ten feet. This Vulture inhabits the highest mountains of Europe and Asia, and is also found in the lofty mountains of Central Africa. THE SECRETARY- VULTURE, or SERPENT-EATER, Gypogeranus. (Gr. gups, a vulture ; geranos, a bird,) has, in regard to its true position, been a puzzle to naturalists. This very remarkable bird has long legs like a wading bird, but, in other respects, seems to rank between the Vulture and the Eagle. It feeds exclusively upon reptiles and serpents. A pendent crest appears on the back of the head, reminding the beholder of the pen stuck behind the ear by writing clerks, — hence, the name " Secretary." It chiefly inhabits the arid plains in the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope. Attempts have been ma,de to introduce this bird into the Antilles with a view to diminish the Yellow Serpent, Trigonocephalus, (triangular-head,) which is six or seven feet long, poisonous, and in those islands, very abundant. RAPTORES. 293 THIRD FAMILY. OWLS. Strigida. (Gr. or^/l, strix, a screech-owl.) The family of Strigidce comprise the Hawks of the night, (Accipitres nocturni.) They have the head very large, with great, dilated and projecting eyes, looking forwards, and capable of taking in every ray of light. The power of vision is increased by the manner in which the eye is fixed in a bony socket, just like J the watch-makers glass. The pupil is so long that the bird is daz zled in full day, and hence in part arises the stupid appearance which Owls exhibit in the sun-light. Each eye is encircled by a concave disk, or circular fringe, formed of singularly diverg ing feathers, and assisting these birds to concentrate their whole faculty of sight upon the object directly before them, just as we use a tube in looking at a painting, or some object which we wish to see more distinctly. In those Owls which are partly diurnal in their habits, this circular fringe is scarcely discernible. When the feathers which form the hinder part of the disk are separated, the great ear is seen, enclosed between two valves of thin skin, from whose edges these feathers grow, and which are capable of being widely opened, at the bird's will, so as to catch every sound that may give notice of its prey amidst the silence and darkness. The plumage is loose and downy, — a character which reaches even to the wing-quills; hence the flight of the Owl is almost, or entirely noiseless. The downy feathers present various tints of dull yellow, and brown and white ; often they are spotted minutely, and very delicately penciled. The Owls have the strong hooked beaks and acute claws of the raptorial birds. In some species of this family, there is a series of feathers more or less lengthened, on each side of the top of the head, and which can be erected at pleasure ; when raised, they have some little resemblance to horns, or to the erect ears of a cat. These are called HORNED, or EARED OWLS. (PL IX. fig. 1.) The geographical distribution of the Owl family is very wide, species being found in Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Aus tralia. They feed on birds and quadrupeds, and some species on fish. The large-horned Owls, of Europe and America, at tack hares, partridges, grouse, and even the turkey ; but mice, shrews, small birds, snakes and crabs, suffice for the inferior strength of the smaller Owls. THE OWL FAMILY may be arranged into three divisions: (1.) the BARN OWLS ; (2.) the TUFTLESS OWLS ; and (3.) the HORNED 294 RAPRODES. OWLS. The species are exceedingly numerous, and our notices of them must be few and general. (1.) BARN OWLS. Strix. (Gr. from strizo. to screech.) This genus includes the Barn, or typical group of Owls, having great ears, covered with a large operculum, or ear-flap. The beak is lengthened, and covered only towards the point ; the tarsi are rather long and feathered, and the toes clothed with hair. The Barn Owls are eminently nocturnal ; they are without egrets, or tufts of feathers upon the head; their colors are generally white and pale buff, marked and speckled with bluish gray ; their voices loud and discordant. The Barn, or Screech Owl, S. Jlammea, (Lat. flaming,) is common in the temperate and warmer regions of Europe. It hides during the day "in deep recesses, among ivy-clad ruins, in antique church towers, in the hollows of old trees, in barn-lofts, and in similar places of seclusion." At night it sallies forth for prey, which consists of mice, rats, moles, and shrews. The length of this Owl is about thirteen inches. THE AMERICAN BARN OWL, -S. -A?nericana, is closely allied to the European Barn Owl ; the color is of a darker brown, with the ruff red, and the length from seventeen to eighteen inches. It is much more abundant in the Southern section of the Union than in the other parts, and is also found quite plentifully in Cuba. (2.) TUFTLESS OWLS. These differ from the rest of the family, (excepting the Barn Owl.) in the extraordinary extension of the fringes of feathers about the eye ; and also differ among each other in their adapta tion to diurnal or nocturnal habits. Like the Barn Owls, they are widely diffused over the globe. Surnium. (Gr. owl, or inauspicious bird.) THE HOOTING OWLS. The Owls of this genus hoot, and are of very large size. The legs are rather short, with the toes feathered. The plumage is very soft and downy ; ^the facial disks are complete ; the wings, very large and much rounded. THE GREAT CINEREOUS OWL, -S. cinereum, (Lat. ash-colored.) is very large, the female being about two and a half feet long. They range from the North-East coast of the United States to the Columbia river. The comparatively small size of their eyes seems to indicate that they hunt by day, as Audubon suggests ; RAPTORES. 295 the unusually small feet and claws also indicate that they do not prey on large animals. They are not found in any great numbers. Surnia. (Gr. owls.) This is a genus of Owls having small heads, feathered claws, and wedged tails. Unlike the Barn Owl, they seek their food during the day. Among the species is the BURROWING OWL, S. cunicularia. (Lat. from cuniculus, a rabbit,) found on the plains near Columbia river, and through out the whole extent of the Rocky Mountains. It resides in the forsaken burrows of the Badgers and Marmots, (see Prairie Dogs in our account of the Rodentia ;) it does not, however, appear to live on terms of intimacy with those animals. The burrow selected by this bird, is usually found at the foot of the worm- wood bush, (artemisia absinthium,} upon the summit of which, this Owl often perches. The plumage, as Mr. Townsend states, swarms with fleas, probably left in their burrows by the Marmots and Badger. "I know," says Mr. T., "of no other bird infested by that kind of vermin." The eggs of this Owl are about as large as those of the common House-Pigeon. The length of the male is ten inches, of the female, eleven inches. THE GREAT SNOWY OWL, S. nyctea,(Gr. from nttx,) is nearly as large as the Eagle Owl, and on account of its snowy white- ness, one of the most beautiful of the tribe. It is found in the high mountain latitudes of both continents. (3.) HORNED OWLS. These are so called, from having the head furnished with a pair of tufts of feathers longer than the rest, which are placed above the ears. The tufts are termed egrets, and in many spe cies, can be raised or lowered at will. Of this division, is the genus Bubo, (Lat. Horned Owl,) in which the ear-opening is small. THE GREAT HORNED OWL, EAGLE OWL, B. maximus, (Lat. greatest,) is one of the largest of the nocturnal birds, being not much inferior in size to the Golden Eagle. It is very destruc tive to grouse, hares, and even fawns. Formerly, this bird was sometimes used by falconers to entrap the Kite. It inhabits the great forests of Europe ; but is seldom seen in England. Pliny refers to it as an ill-omened bird, on account of whose visits ancient Rome twice underwent lustration. THE VIRGINIA HORNED OWL, B. Virginianus, is a native of North America, being found in almost every part of the United States, and in the fur countries where the timber is of large size. Audubon represents it to be quite equal to the Eagle Owl in 296 RAPTORES. size. "It sails," says Wilson, "with apparent ease, in large cir cles, and rises and descends without the least difficulty, by merely inclining the wings or its tail as it passes through the air." Even when "not more than fifty yards distant, it utters its mournful /too, Aoo, hoo-e, in so peculiar an under tone, that to those not acquainted with the bird, it might seem they were produced by an Owl more than a mile distant." This Owl is very powerful and daring, attacking half-grown Turkeys with success, and making large havoc among other fowls. THE LITTLE SCREECH OWL, B. Asio, sometimes called the MOTTLED OWL, and when young, the RED OWL of Wilson, — is only about ten inches long ; and usually found about farm houses, orchards, and gardens. Audubon "carried one of the young birds in his coat-pocket from Philadelphia to New York, traveling alternately by water and by land. It remained gener ally quiet, fed from the hand, and never attempted to escape." The Little Screech Owl is found in the Eastern States, and in Virginia and Maryland. Otus. (Gr. ous, an ear.) In this genus, the conch of the ear is of enormous size. THE EARED OWL is common to the Eastern and Western Continents ; in Pennsylvania, it is much more numerous than the White or Barn Owl. (Wilson.) Of this genus, there are two species, — the O. vulgaris, the Long-Eared Owl, and O. brachyo- tus, (Gr. brachus, short,) the Short-Eared Owl. In the latter, the head tufts are inconspicuous. The size excepted, these Owls resemble the Great Horned Owl. What is the first order of LAND BIRDS ? What other name is sometimes given to it? Into what sub-orders is it divided? Give the general charac ters of the Birds of Prey. What is the comparative size of the females of this order ? How many families do they include ? Into what SUB-FAMI LIES does Swainson divide the FALCONS ? What is said of the Falcons as a family ? Why in treating of the Falcon Tribe is the first place given to the Eagle? Have Eagles a distinct notch or tooth in the upper mandible? What is said of the Golden Eagle ? Why is it called Golden ? Is the fcing- tailed Eagle a distinct species ? What fact is given showing the longevity of the Golden E. ? What is said of the size, plumage, &c. of the Bald or White-Headed E. ? What is one of its favorite haunts ? What does Dr. Franklin say of it ? When was the Washington Sea E. first observed ? What is said of the Harpy Eagle ? What of the Caracara Eagle ? What is said of the Fish-Hawk or Bald-Buzzard ? What of the Harrier ? What characters separate the Kites or Second Family from the other Birds of Prey ? What is said of the Common Kite or Glede ? What of the Swallow or Forked-tailed Hawk ? What of the genus Elanus and its RAPTORES. 297 species ? What of the genus Ictinea 1 What species is mentioned, and what is said of it ? Give some account of the Third Sub-Family. What is said of the Com mon Buzzard ? What of the Ked-tailed B. ? What other species of the genus Buteo is mentioned ? What is said of the Honey Buzzard ? What is the Fourth Sub-Family? Which is the typical genus of the FALCONID^E ? What is said of the plumage and flight of the Peregrine Falcon ? What gives peculiar interest to this bird ? What is meant by Falconry ? State some particulars respecting it ? What is said of the Jer- Falcon ? What of the Merlin and Kestrel? What is the Fifth Sub-Family? Mention their characters. Give an account of the Gos-hawk ? Which is the type bird of this Sub-Family ? What is said of it ? Where is the Chanting Hawk found ? Why is it so named ? Which is the SECOND FAMILY of the Birds of Prey? On what do they feed ? To what climates are they confined ? How are they treated by the inhabitants? What has been a disputed point? How do they compare with the Falcons ? What characteristics are given ? What is said of the Griffon Vulture ? What of the Turkey V. or Buzzard? What of the Black V. or Carrion Crow? What of the Egyptian V. ? To what genua does the Condor belong ? Give particulars respecting it. What is said of the King V. ? To what genus does the Lammergeyer or Bearded V. be long ? What is said of it ? What of the Secretary Vulture or Serpent Eater ? Which is the THIRD and last FAMILY of the Birds of Prey ? Give the characteristics and habits of the Owl Family. What is their Geographical distribution? Into what divisions are they arranged? What species of the Barn Owls are mentioned ? What is said of them ? How do the Tuft- less 0. differ from the Barn 0. ? What is said of the Gr^at Cinerous 0. ? What of the Burrowing Owl ? What of the Great Snowy 0. ? Why are the Horned Owls so called? What is said of the Great Horned 0.? What of the Virginia 0. ? What of the Little Screech 0. ? What Eared Owls are mentioned of the genus Otus ? Trace thus every bird of this Family men tioned on the Chart. The HARPY.EAGLE is of the species destructor, genus Harpyia, sub-family AQUILINE, family FALCONID^E, order RAPTORES, sub class, LAND Birds, class BIRDS, division of WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS, sub- kingdom, VERTEBRATES. Give the derivation of these several terms. 293 INSESSORES. SECTION II. ORDER II.— INSESSORES, OR PASSERES. PERCHING BIRDS. These birds are of smaller size than those of the other orders. Naturalists regard them as exhibiting, in the highest degree, those properties by which, as a class, birds are distinguished. So many are the variations of form and structure which are found in this group, (about equaling in number that of all the other orders taken together,) that but few positive characters can be assigned, which are common alike to the whole group and to a particular division. Its distinctions are mostly negative ; for the group includes neither swimmers, waders, nor climbers, neither rapacious nor gallinaceous birds ; and yet, by comparing the va rious tribes which it includes, a general resemblance of struc ture becomes apparent. These birds have the power of grasping the branches and twigs of trees with their feet, and are accustomed to rest upon them ; hence they are called Perchers ; (Plate X. fig. 4.) the hind toe is al ways present and placed on the same level or plane as those in front ; and the claws are incapable of being raised as in the Birds of Prey. The larger portion of the species usually dwell in woods and thickets. All have the faculty of flight in full perfection, and in the Swifts and Humming Birds it may be regarded as at its highest development. The beak in the Perchers differs greatly in form, but its common shape is that of a cone, more or less lengthened. In some of the genera a notch appears near the tip of the upper mandible, indicating some affinity for the habits of the Falcon tribe ; but. this gradually disappears in the others. The food of these birds is various in its kinds ; but by far the larger part feed either upon insects or the seeds of vegeta bles, which they almost always procure by the beak alone. This order has peculiar interest as including the sweet song sters whose soothing influence is so widely felt and acknowledged. The larynx, or organ of voice, is in these birds always of complex structure, so that there are few of them that do not, du ring the pairing season, either sing or utter some peculiar note or chatter analogous to song. The instinct of birds in building their nests, is in those of this order most strikingly displayed. Admirable indeed are the com pact felted nests of the Hummin nr ,* 3 0-2 INSESSORES. bristles at the base ; the wings are rounded ; the third and fourth primaries the longest ; the first scarcely longer than the sixth. The color is a greenish olive ; the length seven inches. This bird attracts attention by its singular notes, and the oddity of its mo tions. It comes from the tropical regions of America early in May ; along the Atlantic does not advance farther than the southern part of New York ; it is, however, not uncommon in the Western States. It leaves us among the earliest, going South about the middle of August. FOURTH FAMILY. CHATTERERS, or WAX- WINGS. Ampelida, (Gr. afinellg, ampelis, a vine or singing bird.) The beak in the Chatterers is stouter in proportion to its length than in the Fly-catchers, the form of the lower mandible ap proaching that of the cone-billed birds ; the upper mandible is, however, ral.her broad at the base, flat, with the upper edge more or less angular and ridged, and the tip distinctly notched. The feet are, for the most part, stout, with the outer toe united to the middle one as far as, or beyond the first joint. In many, the wide gape extends beyond the eye, and in some it is nearly as wide as in the Night-jars. The absence of bristles from the gape indi cates that the wide opening is not to catch insects on the wing, as in the Swallow family. The Chatterers feed chiefly on ber ries and other soft fruit, which they swallow whole ; and this food naturally requires a wide passage ; occasionally they feed on insects. Their home seems to be in fruit-bearing trees, and they very seldom come to the ground. The species in this family are not very numerous ; but they are of varying forms, and widely scattered. Many of them are distinguished for their soft and silky plumage and the brilliant colors which adorn it. The plumage of the head forms a long and pointed crest, which is capable of being erected, and is com mon to both sexes. Some of these birds are distinguished by hav ing singular appendages to the secondaries of the wing, and sometimes to the feathers of the tail ; the shaft of the feather being extended beyond the vane, and its tip dilated into a flat oval appendage of a brilliant scarlet hue, and exactly resembling the appearance of red sealing-wax. Hence they are sometimes called Wax-wings; from the silky softness and smoothness of their plumage, and particularly that of the tail, they are also named SILK-TAILS. The BOHEMIAN CHATTERER, or SILK- TAIL, A. garrulus, or Bombycilla, (Gr. Bombux, silk-worm,) garrulus, is the only spe- INSESSORES. 3J3 cies known in Europe ; south-east of Germany it is quite abun dant. Its general plumage is of a purplish red hue ; the crown and crest are of a chestnut brown ; some five or six of the secondary feathers, and, in very old males, some of the tail feath ers also, have the extended scarlet appendages which are refer red io above. Prince Bonaparte gives a very amiable charac ter of the European Wax-wing in a state of nature. In the spring it eats all sorts of flies and other insects ; in autumn and winter different kinds of berries. It is fond of the berries of the mountain ash ; of grapes it is exceeding greedy, and is, therefore, with reason, called ampelis. When taking wing it ut ters a note resembling the syllables zz, zi, zi, but it is generally silent, though it bears the name of Chatterer. In captivity it eats almost any vegetable substance, losing at the same time, all its vivacity and its amiable social habits. Its length is nine or ten inches. This bird was seen by Dr. Richardson inN. Lat. 50o, in flocks, near the Great Bear Lake ; it has also been pro cured in the vicinity of Philadelphia. The CEDAR WAX-WING, or CEDAR BIRD, B. Carolinensis, ranges from Texas as far north as the Fur countries, and west ward to the Columbia river. Its nest is built in the fork of a cedar or apple tree, and is composed of stalks of grass, coarse without and fine within. In this it lays three or four eggs of a bluish white, marked with dots of black and purple. It devours every fruit or berry that comes in its way. Dr. Brewer says it remains all the year round at Boston, and confers great benefit on the farmer by destroying thousands of the destructive canker- worm. Audubon thinks the name of Fruit devourers would be more appropriate for these birds than that of Chatterers. " By way of dessert," however, they eat largely of winged insects, being troubled with most voracious appetites. The A. cotinga, (Gr. from kotillo, to chatter,) (see Chart,) an inhabitant of Brazil, is sometimes called the Pompadour Chat terer, from having been introduced into Europe by the thought less and extravagant mistress of Louis XV. The RED, or JAPANESE WAX- WING, B. phanicoptera, (Gr. phoinicos, red; pteron, wing,) bears great resemblance to the Cedar Bird. It was discovered by means of the scientific mission to Japan, instituted by the government of the Nether lands. The BELL-BIRD, Procnias, (Gr. prokne, a proper name or Swallow,) carunculata, (Lat. from caruncula, a small piece of flesh.) is a species of the Chatterers distinguished by the soft car buncle or fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak. It is the 324 INSESSORES. celebrated Campanero of South America, whose voice, during the stillness of mid-day, it is said, exactly resembles the tolling of a bell. At uncertain intervals, the Chatterers appear in particular districts in immense flocks, and so remarkable have such visita tions appeared, that they have been recorded as events of history, and regarded as ominous, in some way, of great public calami ties. FIFTH FAMILY. SHRIKES, or BUTCHER BIRDS. Laniadce, (Lat. lanius, a butcher.) The structure of these birds closely resembles that of the Perchers, but their beak is very similar to that of the falcons, in its strength, its arched form, its strongly hooked point, (see Chart,) and in the distinct tooth which precedes the usual notch of the tooth-billed tribe. This peculiarity of beak is accompanied by a carnivorous appetite, a rapacious cruelty, and a courage alto gether raptorial, and which, as indicating a kindred nature, have induced naturalists to associate them with birds of prey. The Shrikes not only devour the larger insects, especially grasshoppers, but even attack and overpower small birds and quadrupeds, seizing them with their beak or claws, and bearing them to some station near to tear them in pieces with their toothed and crooked beak. These birds live in families for a few weeks after the breeding season ; they fly irregularly and precipitately, uttering shrill cries ; nestle on trees or in bushes ; lay five or six eggs and take great care of their young. Many of them have the curious habit of impaling their prey upon a large thorn, and then pulling it to pieces and'devouring it at their leisure. Hence they have derived the name of Butcher -birds. Mr. Bell, when traveling in Russia, had one of these birds given to him, which he kept in a room, having fixed up a sharpened stick for him in the wall ; and on turning small birds loose in the room, the Butcher-bird instantly caught them by the throat in such a manner as soon to suffocate them, and then stuck them on the stick, pulling them on with bill and claws ; and so served as many as were turned loose, one after another, on the same stick. The power which the Shrikes have of clutching with their toes is remarkably great. They always hold their prey in one foot, resting on the tarsal joint of that foot, unless when they have fastened the prey upon a thorn, when they pull it to pieces in a contrary direction. They show great boldness in defending INSESSORES, 325 themselves and their nests from their more powerful enemies ; and the parents evince great attachment to each other as well as to their young. This family comprises a large number of species, distributed through all quarters of the globe. Some of them have a remarkably melodious song. The GREAT GRAY SHRIKE, L. excubitor, (Lat. a sentinel,) re- ceives its specific name from its habit of watching for birds of prey, and chattering loudly as soon as it perceives them. Bird- catchers sometimes avail themselves of this peculiarity in taking-; hawks. A pigeon is fastened to a net by way of bait. A string is attached and brought within the turf hut where the bird-catcher sits. Close to the hut a shrike is tied to the ground, and two pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for the bird from the weather, and as a refuge from the hawk. As soon as the hawk appears in the distance, the shrike becomes agitated ; as it draws nearer, he begins to scream with fright; and just as the hawk pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf, which is the sig nal to the bird-catcher to pull the string, thereby enclosing the hawk within the folds of the net. The nest of this bird is built on trees, and contains about six grayish-white eg^s, ash-colored on the larger end. The length of the Great Gray Shrike is from nine to ten inches. The GREAT AMERICAN SHRIKE, L. lorealis, (Lat. northern,) is larger in size, but in other respects, does not differ much from the preceding European Shrike. The RED- BACKED SHRIKE, L. collurio, (Gr. kolluridn.) has derived its English name from having the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts of a rusty red color. (See Chart.) What is the 2d DIVISION of the PERCHERS? Why are they so called? In what birds is the notch most remarkable? What are their habits? How does their beak differ from the Falcons' ? What is said of the TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS? Do they include all the musical birds? What is the exception? Into how many FAMILIES are these birds divided? What is the 1st FAMILY? What is said of their numbers? How many American sp. docs Audubon enumerate? What is said of the habits and size of these birds? What office do they perform? What is said of their migrations? Into how many GROUPS may they be arranged? Which are the TRUE WARBLERS? What sp. are particularly mentioned? Which is the smallest of European birds? What birds are included in the 2d GROUP ? What in the 3d GROUP? What celebrated bird is found in this group? How does it differ from the A. Robin? What is the 4th GROUP? What A. sp. is mentioned? What is the 5th GROUP? What is a familiar example? Why is the Penduline Tit OP Bottle Tit so called? Name the 2d FAMILY. What is said of their numbers, favorite haunts and average size ? What of their beak, food and plumage ? For what are 14 323 INSESSORES. the ORIOLES distinguished? For what the BREVES and AFRICAN THRUSHES? What sp. illustrate the general character and habits of this family? To what sub-family does the AMERICAN ROBIN belong? What is said of the Mocking-bird? What of the Cat-bird? Of the Misletoe Thrush? Of the Water Ouzel or Dipper ? What is the 3d FAMILY? Why are they so called? How do they appear to connect the Split-billed and Tooth-billed birds? Into how many genera does Audubon arrange them? What are the EUROPEAN FLY-CATCHERS sometimes called and why ? Mention the sp. What is said of the King bird? What of the Phebe B. ? What of the Wood Pewee and the Amer ican Redstart? How have the Greenlets been arranged? What is said of them? What is the 4th FAMPLY ? Give the characteristics of these birds. What is their food ? What is said of their plumage ? Why are they called WAX- WINGS? Name and describe the only E. sp. ? What is said of the Cedar B. ? What of the Pompadour Chatterer ? Of the Asiatic Wax-wing ? Of the Bell B. ? What has been inferred from the appearance of immense flocks of Chatterers in certain districts ? What is the name of the 5th and last FAMILY ? What is said of the structure of these birds? What accompanies their peculiarity of beak? Is their food confined to the larger insects? What curious habit have they? What name is hence given to them? What is related by Mr Bell ? What is said of the power of their toes? What of their boldness? Does this family include many sp. ? What is said of the G. G. SHRIKE ? What of the Great American S. ? What of the Red-backed S. ? Trace those mentioned on the Chart. SECTION V. THIRD DIVISION OF THE PERCHERS. CONE-BILLED BIRDS. Conirostres. (Lat. conus, a cone ; rostrum, a beak.) This division is less numerous than the Dentirostres, but still includes a great number of birds of varying size, structure and habits. Naturalists regard this tribe as typical, not only in the Order of the Perchers. but in the whole Class of Birds. The chief character by which they are associated together, is found in the beak, which, though differing in shape and compar ative size, is generally short ; at the same time, it is thick, and very strong, more or less conical in form, and usually without a notch at the tip. In one .pretty large group, however, the TANAGERS, of Louisiana, and South America, — gay, fire-colored birds, — the beak, while partaking of the conical form of this division, is distinctly notched ; constituting them one link of connexion between this and the preceding tribe, (Dentirostres.) INSESSORES. 327 The feet in the Cone-billed Birds are, upon the whole, formed more for perching than for walking, though many birds of this division, walk habitually upon the ground. Seeds and grain are the principal food of these, the "Hard- billed " Birds ; and for opening the different capsules, and seed vessels, as well as for crushing hard seeds themselves, their stout and horny beaks are peculiarly fitted. Some of these birds, however, join insects to vegetable food ; and a part of them are nearly or quite omnivorous. As the form of the beak varies from that of a short and broad cone, so does the appetite proportiona- bly vary from an exclusive seed diet. The Cone-billed Birds, particularly the FINCHES, seem to prefer the temperate and colder to the warmer regions; but they are represented in all the countries of the globe. The families of this tribe are the follow ing, viz: (1.) Corvida, or Crows; (2.) Sturnida^ or Starlings; (3.) FringillidO) or Finches; (4.) Loxiada, or Cross-bills; (5.) Bucerotidce, or Horn-bills; (6.) Musophagidce, or Plantain Eaters. FIRST FAMILY. THE CROWS. Corvidce, (Lat. corvus, a raven.) THE CROWS are among the largest of the Passerine, or Perch- ing Birds, They are widely spread, but yet comparatively few in number. Their beak is powerful, more or less compressed at the sides, conical, but long, having the upper mandible usually arched, the gape nearly straight, and the nostrils concealed by stiff bristles, pointing forwards. The plumage is dark and som bre, often black,*more or less glossed, and sometimes varied with gray or white. To this sombre coloration, the Jays, however, are an exception, being usually arrayed in the richest azure and purple. They are also more exclusively arboreal than others of the family which walk a great deal on the ground. The CorvidcB are birds of firm and compact structure ; their wings are long, pointed and strong ; their feet and claws robust. Their disposition is bold and daring ; they are very sagacious; easily tamed, and rendered familiar. Most of them have the faculty of imitating with much accuracy the sounds which they hear, and even words of human language. They show a strange propensity for thieving, and for hiding substances that can be of no use to them whatever, particularly if they display metallic or polished surfaces, or brilliant colors. They may be ranked as omnivorous ; insects and their larvae, grain, fruits, bread, flesh, 323 , INSESSORES. both when fresh and when putrid, they can, by turns, devour with avidity. "THE CROW, (Corvus,) "as Svvainson strikingly remarks, "is the type of types, or the preeminent type of all birds, uniting a greater nujnber of properties than are to be found in any other genus of birds. Like the Hawk, it soars in the air, and seizes living birds; like the Vulture, it devours putrid substances, and picks out the eyes of young animals; like the Climbers, it dis covers its food when hidden from the eye, by pecking; like the Parrot family, it has a taste for vegetable food; has great cun ning, sagacity, and powers of imitation, even to counterfeiting the human voice; like the Waders, it walks with facility, and has great powers of flight; like the Aquatic birds, it can both catch and feed upon fish. Thus it unites some of the properties of all other birds, and stands the preeminent type ofthe Perchers." The largest and most powerful species of the genus Corvus, is the well known Raven, C. corax, (Lat. a raven,) — the CORBIE, of Scotland* celebrated even from the time of the universal deluge, and ever looked upon as a bird of dark omen. It is twenty-five inches in length, and fifty inches in the spread ofthe wings, — ranging from the Arctic seas to the Cape of Good Hope, in the Eastern Continent, and from the same seas to Mexico, on the Western; unchanged in character, amidst all the variations and extremes of heat and cold; traveling in pairs, and flying so high that it would escape notice but for its frequent crying, in all times and places, showing itself possessed of acute and powerful sight and smell ; and at perpetual variance with all other feathered tribes. THE COMMON * CROW, C. Americanus, is seventeen inches in length, being somewhat smaller than the Common Carrion Crow of Europe, from which it differs in its voice, its gregarious habits, and the shape of its tongue. Both are regarded and treated as nuisances. Tens of thousands of them are shot every season. They may be of some use to farmers in ploughing time, by picking up worms and the larvee of insects; but of other good deeds of the Crow, we are ignorant. No sooner are the seeds in the ground, than he begins to search after and devour them; for Indian Corn and eggs he seems to have a wonderful inclina tion ; and even relishes young chickens, turkeys and goslings; at the same time, he is very cunning in avoiding the sn ires which are devised to entrap and destroy him. The FISH CROW, C. ossifragus, (bone-breaker,) — found on the sea-coast as far North as New York, like the Raven and Common Crow, robs other birds of their eggs and their young ; but, being regarded INCESSORES. 329 as inoffensive, it is usually unmolested. It takes the liberty, however, to feed with great freedom on the best garden fruits. The MAGPIES, Pica, (Lat. magpie,) and the JAYS, Garrulus, (Lat. chatting, or talkative,) are near relatives of the Crows. The well known BLUE JAY, G. cristatus, (crested,) is capable of living in cold as well as warm climates, and is found in all parts of the United States. It is truly omnivorous, and, in times of scarcity, has been known to feed even on carrion. Though extremely beautiful in its appearance and graceful in its movements, (see Plate X. fig. 4c.) it is a deceitful, and often a very mischievous bird. The NUT-CRACKERS, Nucifraga, (Lat. nux, a nut; frango, to break ) all belong to this family. In their habits, they resem ble both the Jays and the Woodpeckers, — climbing trees and perforating their bark, and devouring all sorts of fruits and insects, as well as small birds. The FRUIT CROWS, Coracince, are a sub-family of South American Birds, about whose proper place there has been some question among naturalists, but which are placed by Swainson with the Corvida. The most remark able of these are the Capuchin Baldhead, Coracina gymnocephala, (Gr. bald headed.) a bird about as large as the Common Crow, of Spanish-snuff color, or, as some say, capuchin color. Its large beak and ample forehead, bare of feathers, to which the specific name refers, give it a very singular appearance. The Crested Crow, C. cephaloptera, (Gr. head-winged,) is also a sin gular looking bird, of a uniform blue-black hue, having the head and base of the bill ornamented with a crest, forming a sort of parasol, to shade the face, and reaching to the end of the bill, compressed in the same manner as in the Rupicola, or Cock of the Rock. "The sides of the neck are naked, but long feathers forming a loose pelerine, and hanging down lower than the breast, spring from beneath the throat and from the sides of the neck. This crest and feathers of the pelerine give metallic reflections/' (Lesson.) In the family of the Corvida are included the Birds of Para dise, which some naturalists have, with reason, erected into a separate family, called ParadiseadfE, including some of the most singular and magnificent of the feathered tribes. They are natives of New Guinea, to which they are almost confined. Of these birds, splendid as they are, fiction has presented many strange and exaggerated descriptions. For a long time, it was asserted that some of them are without legs ! They considera bly resemble the Crows in their general structure, and they also approach them in si/e. In these birds, the wings are long and round, the tail varying in length at the extremity, or else 830 INSESSOKES. rounded. The tarsi are robust, long, and covered by a single feathered scale ; the toes long and strong, especially the hind toe; the claws large, curved, and powerful. The sides of the body, the neck, the breast, the tail, and sometimes the head, are ornamented with lengthened and peculiarly developed showy feathers ; the plumage of the face and throat, is commonly of a scaly or velvety texture, and most richly glossed with metallic hues, while other parts of the body are frequently arrayed in rich and brilliant colors. There are several species of these birds, but the EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE, which is figured on the Chart, is the one best known. It is impossible adequately to describe its beauty of form, and the vivid and changing tints of its plumage. The generic part of the scientific name, Paradisca apoda, is from the Greek Paradeisos, a pleasure-ground ; thp specific name, which means footless, was given it by Linnaeus, " because the older naturalists called it footless. 'r The truth is, the natives of New Guinea were accustomed to dry birds of this species, (having first cut off the legs,) and to offer them for sale. They were taken to other countries in this "footless" condition ; and hence, conjectures arose that they lived in the air, buoyed up by the light ness of their feathery covering; that the shoulders were- used for a nest ; that the only rest which they took, was by suspending themselves from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail j that their food was the morning dew, — and other things of a like character, — amusing enough, but entirely without foundation, in fact. So far from living wholly on dew, this bird eats no small amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, etc., which, however, it will not touch when dead ; it also feeds largely on the seeds of the teak tree, and on figs and aromatics; when alive, it is about the size of a Common Jay, or Pigeon ; its note is like that of the Starling. The body, breast, and lower parts, are of a deep rich brown ; the forehead is clothed with close-set feathers of a velvety black shot with green; the throat of a rich golden, green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the tail are clothed with a splendid plume of downy feathers of a soft yellow color. By these are placed two long filaments, or thread-like shafts, which extend nearly two feet in length. (See figure on the Chart.) "Of these beautiful feathers, the bird is so proud, that it will not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon them, and it is constantly examining its plumage, to see that there are no spots on it. When in its wild state, it always flies and sits with its face to the wind, lest its elegant flying plumes should be dis arranged." The female is without these floating plumes of the INSESSORES. 331 male, and her colors are less lustrous. The Emerald, in its motions is lively and agile, and, in general, it perches only upon the tops of the most lofty trees. These birds are killed by the natives with blunt arrows, and sold to the Europeans ; this forms a gainful traffic ; and hence, the Chinese, it is said, fabricate imitations of these " celestial fowls," of the feathers of Parrots and Paroquets, which they sell at high prices to strangers. SECOND FAMILY. THE STARLINGS. Sturnidce. (Lat. Sturnus, a starling, or stare.) THE STARLINGS are u numerous and widely distributed fam ily ; larger, for the most part, than the average of the perching birds ; but of less size than the Crows, which, in structure and manners, they much resemble. The beak in these birds, is of a form well adapted for penetrating the earth in search of the worms and underground larvee upon which they feed. The plumage is commonly of dark colors, but has a peculiar richness; black, glossed with lustrous hues of steel blue, purple, or green, of the prevailing color, but occasionally it is relieved by broad masses of crimson or yellow, (and, in a few instances, of white,) as in the Icterus, or Baltimore Oriole. The Starlings live in societies, sometimes immensely numer ous, and seem universally to prefer the locality of plains fre quented by cattle ; in this particular, resembling the Maize Birds. THE COMMON STARLING, (S. vulgaris,) it has been observed, becomes wonderfully familiar in the house ; is very docile ; always gay and wakeful; soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself «.o their humors ; he repeats correctly the airs which he is taught, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the same room with himself; but his acquirements are of little value, for he forgets as fast as he learns The Starling lays, twice in a year, from four to six eggs of a delicate pale blue, or of an ashy green color. It is about the size of the Blackbird. THE MEADOW STARLING, or Meadow Lark, (Sturnella ludo- viciana.) is a beautiful bird, found abundantly throughout the United States, and as far North as the Fur countries, wintering in the Carolinas, or Florida. It builds its nest at the foot of some tall, strong grass. This bird, though useful in destroying 332 INSESSORES. thousands of larvae in meadows, is a little too fond of scratching up the seeds of grain, and of plucking up young corn; it has been known even to kill and eat small birds. The male is about eleven inches in length. THE RED-WINGED STARLING, *S. prczdatorius, (Lat. plunder, ing,) ranges from Labrador to Mexico, — north of Maryland being migratory. From its strong predilection for corn or maize, and its extensive depredations upon the young ears, it has acquired a bad reputation, having among other names, that of CORN or MAIZE THIEF. A remarkable characteristic of this bird is, that the male is nearly two inches longer than the female, and of proportionate magnitude. THE BOAT-TAILS are American Birds, and the largest of the Starling family, and might easily be mistaken for Crows. Their t ills are so concave on their upper sides as to resemble a boat, \vhence the sub-family name, Scapliidurina, (Gr. skaphis, a boat; oura, a tail.) The typical birds of this group, (Scaphi- are found in South America. Another genus, sometimes included in the Boat-tail Birds, is Quiscahis, which has several representatives in the United States. Among these are (1) the Boat-tailed Grackle,or Great Crow Black Bird, Q. major, (Lat. greater,) about sixteen inches in length, and found in the Southern States, particularly on the sea-coast. The food of this species consists, principally, of the small crabs, called 4 fiddlers;" (2) the Purple Grackle, or Common Crow Black bird, is a constant resident in the Southern States, but migrating very far North. It appears in the State of New York about the middle of April, and is notorious, and dreaded for its attacks on Indian Corn; (3,) the Rusty Crow Blackbird, Q.ferrugincus, (Lat. iron-colored.) of similar character and habits with the pre ceding, but ranging still farther North. The sub-family, LamprotornitKE, (Gr. lamprotes. splendor; nrnis, a bird,) includes Grackles found in Asia and Africa, in which they represent the Boat-tails of America. THE ORIOLES, or Hang-Nests, Icterus, (Gr. Yellow Thrush,) — sub-family, Icterina, — are a numerous and beautiful group of American Birds, of which the Baltimore Oriole, 7. Baltimore, is the most noted. This is sometimes called Golden Oriole, Golden Robin ; and also Fire-Bird, Fire Hang-Bird, from the bright orange seen through the green leaves, and resem bling a flash of fire; but more generally, the Baltimore Bird ; its colors of black and orange, resembling those of the arms or livery of Lord Baltimore, formerly proprietary of Mary land. The materials which this bird uses for making its nest, INSESSORES. 333 vary with the temperature. In Louisiana, its nest (see Plate XI. fig. 4) is constructed of moss, woven throughout, so that the air can easily pass through it, and it is placed in the coolest posi tion"; so strongly is it secured, that no wind can carry it off without breaking the branch to which it is suspended. In Penn sylvania and New York, the nest is constructed of the warmest and softest materials, and so placed as to be exposed to the sun's rays. In summer, the Baltimore Orioles are dispersed over the United States, and as far North as Nova Scotia. The song of this bird, is a clear, mellow whistle, repeated at short intervals. The male, according to Audubon, does not receive its full plumage until the third spring. The principal food of the Oriole consists of caterpillars, beetles, and bugs, particularly one of a brilliant glossy green. Dr. DeKay, in the Natural History of New York, includes the Crow Blackbirds, (QuiscaZus,) the Orioles, (Icterus,) the Cow Bunting, (Mofothrus,) and the Bob-o'lirik, (Dolichonyx,) in one family, Quiscalidce. But Audubon arranges these together, with the Marsh Blackbird, Agelaius, in the family Agelaina, MINO BIRD. — Among the Starlings we also place the Mino Bird, Eulabes, (Gr. eulabes, circumspect, or religious,) Javana- cus, or Gracula religiosa ; following Swainson in this arrange ment, who deems it quite unreasonable to place this long-legged Grackle close to the short-legged ROLLERS, as M. Lesson has done. This bird has a short and stout beak, with the tip dis tinctly notched. Its plumage is of a deep velvety black, with a white space in the middle of the wing ; behind the eye spring fleshy carbuncles of a bright orange color. The Mino Bird feeds on insects and fruits. It is easily tamed; learns to whistle and talk with great facility, and is therefore a great favorite with the Javanese. Marsden says, it has the fac ulty of imitating human speech in greater perfection than any other of the feathered tribe. There is said to be a smaller variety of this bird in India. THIRD FAMILY. FINCHES. FringiUidcR. (Lat. Fringitta, a finch.) The Finches are a large and interesting family, the smallest of the Perchers, and, for the most part, excellent songsters. They have short, thick, and powerful beaks ; both mandibles are usually of equal thickness, and their length and breadth nearly alike, so that when the beak is closed, it generally appears like a. very, short cone divided in the middle by the gape. In some EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. Fig. 1. Nest of the CHESTNUT CROWNED TITMOUSE, suspended from the fork of a twig, nine inches long, more than three in diameter, entrance at the top less than an inch wide, made of the softest materials. Fig. 2a. Nests of the AFRICAN WEAVER-BIRDS, (REPUBLICAN GROSBEAKS of Swainson.) The numerous entrances to this BIRD TOWN lead to regu lar streets, having nests on each side, at about two inches distance from each other ; the general roof or cover is built by the united labors of the birds, and sometimes shelters hundreds. That from which this fig ure was taken was thought to contain a society of eight hundred or a thousand. Fig. 2b. Hive nests of the SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRDS. The lower surface abounds with perforations admitting the birds to their nests, but ex cluding snakes and other intruders. They never occupy the old nests, but continue to add successive tiers until the branches yield to the ac cumulated weight. Fig. 3. Nest of the WOOD SWALLOW. Fig. 4. Nest of the BALTIMORE ORIOLE, closely interwoven with flax, hemp, tow, hair, and bits of thread, cord, &c., stitched through and through with horse hair, securely suspended from the branch of a tree. Fig. 5. Nest of the PENDULINE TITMOUSE, or BOTTLE TIT, made of the down of the willow, poplar, and thistle, lined with feathers, containing from ten to fourteen eggs. Fig. 6. Nest of the PENSILE WEAVER-BIRDS, or WEAVER FINCHES, shaped like a Chemist's retort ; suspended over water from trees ; entrance from beneath. Fig. 7. Nest of the WREN ; of hay, if against a hay-stack ; of moss, if against a mossy tree. Fig. 8. Nest of the TAILOR-BIRD, or TAILOR WARBLER, of Ceylon, curi ously formed by stitching with plant fibres or threads of cotton a dead leaf to a living one ; nest open at the top and filled with fine down. A species in Italy are said to sew their materials together with spiders' webs. Fig. 9. BAR-TAILED HUMMING BIRD, of Peru; the nest of soft delicate materials, is often warped or woven together with spiders' webs. Fig. 10. Nests of the BANK SWALLOWS or SAND MARTINS, numerous in sand banks or artificial excavations, such as gravel-pits. Audubon says, "the little creatures are so industrious he has known a hole dug to the depth of three feet four inches, the nest finished in four days, and the first egg deposited on the morning of the fifth." Fig. 11. GOURD-SHAPED nests of the REPUBLICAN or CLIFF SWALLOW, built of muddy sand under the eaves or cornices of buildings, or attached to rocks overhanging rivers, where they are found grouped by hundreds. NOTE. — The nests of RAPTORIAL birds are seldom met with, as they are usually built in lofty trees or inaccessible precipices. OWLS do not usually construct nests, but deposit their eggs in some hole, in a tree, an old build ing, or in the ground. INSECTIVOROUS birds are solitary builders ; among the Shrikes, Thrushes, Warblers, Tit-mice, and Fly-catchers, there is not one instance of a species either living or building in societies. Pensile lests are altogether peculiar to perching birds, and are more common in tropical than temperate latitudes. Hundreds of hang-nests may be seen in Brazil attached to a single tree; some of them are said to measure between four and five feet. Other nests are said to have a portico or ante-room where the male bird often sits during the time of the female's incubatioa. PI . INSESSORES. 337 genera, however, the conical form is less obvious, by the lateral and vertical swelling of its outline. The GROSBEAK, or HAW FINCH, Coccothraustes, (Gr. kokkos, grain; iliraud, I break,) has a beak enormously thick in proportion to its length, and in com parison with the size of the head. In this bird, and, indeed, in all the Finches, the great strength of the beak well adapts it for the uses to which it is destined, as the food of this bird consists of seeds often enclosed in woody capsules of great hardness, or the kernels of stone fruits, which must either be opened by a forcible wrench, or crushed by a strong pressure. The Finch es, besides seeds, also feed on grain, and occasionally on insects. These birds frequent fields, groves, and woodlands ; numbers of them are found in gardens, building their nests in bushes. Many of them, in a state of captivity, are rendered subservient to human improvement, and become favorite domestic pets. So numerous are the genera and species of this family, it is impos sible, within the limits of this volume, to give any more than the briefest notices of some of the more prominent ones. 1. We notice the WEAVERS, sub-family, PloceincB, (Gr. plo- keus, a weaver ) These birds build their nest upon branches extending over a river or' pool of water ; it is shaped exactly like a chemist's retort, (Plate XI. fig 6 ;) and is suspended from the head ; and the shank, of eight or nine inches length, at the bottom of which is the opening, almost touches the water. It is made of green grass, and curiously woven. The Weaver Birds also construct the celebrated hive-shaped nests. (See nests of the Social Weaver Birds, Plate XI. fig. 2.) The Textor, (Lat. Weaver,) erythrorhyncus, (Gr. eruthros, red ; rhuncfios, a beak.) The RED-BEAKED WEAVER, of South Africa, companies with Buffa loes, and obtains from their hides its supply of food. It serves these animals by ridding them of the insects with which their hides are infested, and by flying up on any alarm, it becomes to them as a sentinel, indicating the approach of danger, or of any thing unusual. This bird does not appear to attach itself to any quadruped but the Buffalo. THE WIDOW BIRDS, or Whidah Finches, ranged by Swainson under the sub-genus Vidua, (Lat. a widow,) — have long boat- shaped tails, with the two middle feathers excessively lengthened, and generally broad and convex. In Senegal and South Africa, is found the Widow Bird of the "English salesmen and fanciers," V.paradisea, about the size of a Canary bird, — but the two feathers next to the middle tail- feathers are a foot in length from the base, 333 1NSESSORES. and about three-fourths of an inch in width ; the two middle feathers have very broad webs on their basal half, (or extending about three inches midway,) but the remainder of the shaft becomes like a plumeless, hair-like process of the same length. The term, '" widowed," is applied to this group from the sombre hue which prevails in the plumage, "suggesting the idea of widow's weeds." Among the PIoceifKE, Swainson places the JAVA SPARROW, Amadina, represented by the Tiaris, or Creslrt, in South America, in which the thickness of the beak is enormous in proportion to its length, and the middle feathers of the tail are the longest. This bird is frequently kept as a pet in cages, living on seeds. II. THE BUNTINGS, sub-family, Emlerizida, are an interest ing group of Passerine birds, differing from the Finches proper, chiefly by having a knob on the "palate," or on the under man- (iible, — the sides of the under mandible bending inwards; their strong conical beak is well adapted for breaking the seeds which constitute their principal food. THE LARK BUNTINGS, Plectrophanes, (Gr. plectron;phaino, to display,) have moderately long tarsi; the side toes of equal length ; the hind toe strong, with a lengthened and nearly straight claw. There are several species of these birds, among which is the SNOW LARK BUNTING, P. nivafts, (Lat. snowy,) which appears in the Eastern part of the United States early in November, and in some parts, remaining until March. The summer plumage of the Snow Bunting, is pure white and black, but it is found in all varieties of plumage. In the Highlands of Scotland, it is called the Snow Flake ; in Labrador, New Found- L;nd, and elsewhere, the White Bird; and also the White Snow- Bird, to distinguish it from the COMMON SNOW BIRD, Slrutlms, (Gr. stroutlws, a sparrow:) hyemalis, (Lat. of winter.) The Arctic Bird, the Lapland Snow-B.rd, or Bunting, P. Lapponicus, breeds in moist meadows, on the shores of the Arctic seas; and in the State of New York, is seen during the extreme cold of winter. Audubon observed these birds in Kentucky and Missouri. They have been seen as far North as 74o Lat. THE BUNTINGS, E?nberiza, include a large number of species. The BLACK THROATED BUNTING, E. Americana, is abundant in the Middle and Atlantic districts of the Union, but exceedingly fo in the vast prairies of the West. Its simple and unmusical hotes, are said to resemble those of the CORN BUNTING, of Europe, F>. miliaria,) (Lat. of millet.) Its length is six inches. The YELLOW WINGED BUNTING, E. passerina, (Lat. sparrow. like,) is a small bird, only four and a half inches long, which "passes, un- INSESSORES. 339 observed, from Mexico to Connecticut. The individuals seem to move off in a sulky mood, and in so concealed a way, that their winter-quarters are yet unknown." The FIELD BUNTING, E. pusilla, (Lat. very small, or weak,) breeds from Maryland to Maine. It is social and peaceable, and trills its notes like a young Canary Bird. In length it is six inches. THR CHIPPING BUNTING, or CHIP-BIRD, E. socialis, (Lat. so cial,) is known to all. It is confined to the United States and the adjacent Eastern provinces; associating with the Song Sparrow, or Finch, Fringilla melodia, and other birds of the same genus. The Chip-Bird builds its nest on some low bush and lines it with cow-hair; lays from four to five bright greenish blue eggs, spotted with brown chiefly at ihe larger end. It seems determined to make up in quantity any defect in the quality of its notes, for it sings all the day long. It migrates to the Southern States in the winter, and is among the earliest of the Spring birds. This bird may be noticed, gleaning up crumbs from our yards, and. our very doors, — it will even ap proach the threshold to pick up the crumbs thrown to it, — in this social characteristic, it is singular ; it is distinguished by its black bill and frontlet. Its length is five and a half inches. This bird seems to represent, in America, the Common, or House Sparrow, of Europe, Pyrgita domestica ; but it is less bold and crafty than the latter bird, and probably less voracious also. Buffon estimated that a pair of Sparrows will destroy about 4,000 caterpillars weekly in feeding their young; this is some compensation for the birds' devastation in granaries and barns. THE TREE SPARROW, or CANADA BUNTING, E. Canadensis, breeds in the Fur countries. Audubon thinks it also breeds in Maine. This bird may be seen in the magnificent elms that ornament Boston and its adjacent villages. It is a sweet songster. The well known SNOW BIRD, Strutlms liyemalis, or Niphcea, (snowy,) liiemalis, Aud., migrates from the North, at night, as far as 30o N. L. It is common to the northern parts of the conti nent of Europe. This is a shy, timorous bird, and is rarely seen except in snow-storms, when it appears in flocks around dwellings. At night, it resorts to stacks of corn or hay, making there a hole for its resort in cold weather. Its nest is built on the ground; the eggs are usually four in number, of a spherical form, yellowish white, and sprinkled with reddish brown dots. Length six and a quarter inches. THE INDIGO BUNTING, or INDIGO BIRD, Spiza, (Gr. from spizd, to chirp ;) cyanea, (sky-blue,) is one of our beautiful birds coming from the South, and appearing in New York late in May, — it is 340 INSESSORES. seen throughout the United States. Its note nearly equals that of the Canary, but is not so sonorous. This bird seems gradu ally to lose its brilliant tints when caught and caged, as does the PAINTED BUNTING, S. ciris, (Gr. keiris, name of a bird,) of Caro lina, Louisiana, and South America. In certain lights, the plumage of the Indigo Bird appears of a rich sky-blue, and in others, of a vivid verdigris green ; so that "the same bird, in passing from one place to another, before your eyes, seems to undergo a total change of color." (Wilson.) Its length is five and a half inches. The Painted Bunting is found in the orange groves of the South. It is abundant in the vicinity of New Orleans, where it is caught in trap-cages. THE SHORE FINCHES, Ammodramus, (Gr. ammos, sand ; dra- mein, to run,) are found on the Atlantic coast from Texas to Massachusetts, — and in summer, in our salt marshes, where they breed. The Seaside Finch, A. maritimus, (of the sea,) feeds chiefly on marine Crustacea, and such insects as are found on the seashore. Its builds its nest on the ground ; and lays from four to six grayish white eggs, speckled with brown. Length from seven to eight inches. The SWAMP SPAKROW, A. palustris, forms the principal food of the Sparrow Hawks and Hen-Har riers. In New York, it is often called the Red Grass-bird. Swamp Sparrows have been found abundantly in the marshes of Cayuga Lake. Their note is a harder tone than that of other Sparrows. The length is about six inches. This bird ranges from Texas to Labrador. It is said to be abundant about Boston during the winter ; has a short, conical bill, higher than broad at the base, onri very acute at the tip. THE LINNETS, Linana, include several species. The BROWN LINNET, L. linota, is a song-bird common in every part of Eu rope. Of this Linnet, it has been said, "it is the cleanliest of birds, delighting to dabble in the water, and to dress its plumage in every little rill that runs by. The extent of voice in a single bird is not remarkable, being more pleasing than powerful, yet a large field of furze, in a mild sunny April morning, animated with the actions and cheering music of these harmless little creatures, united with the bright glow and odor of this early blossom, it not without its gratification." The Common Linnet frequents commons and neglected pas tures, and builds its nest in the center of a large and dense brush. THE LESSER RED-POLL, L. minor, in length about five inches, and the MEALY RED POLL, L. borealis, in length, five inches and a half, are found within the United States. The Pine Linnet, L. pinus, (Lat. pine,) sings while on the wing, like the Goldfinch. INSESSORES. 341 It feeds among the branches of the tallest Fir trees, as well as on the seeds of Thistles, much in the manner of the European SISKIN, on the Fringilla Syinus, (Lat. black-thorn.) Its length is a little less than five inches. THE AMERICAN GOLDFINCH, or YELLOW BIRD. Carduelis, (Lat. a thistle-finch,) tristis, (Lat. sad,) (see Chart,) is a well known and handsome bird, similar in its song and flight to the Goldfinch. Its plumage and notes make it universally agreea ble. The Yellow Bird is abundant in the middle districts of the Union, in summer, and so hardy is it, that it often remains there during the whole winter. It ranges from the tropics to the northern and southern regions. Its length is four and a half inches. This bird feeds principally on the seeds of hemp, the sun-flower, and various species of thistles. From its fondness for the thistle down, it has been called the THISTLEFINCH. It is sometimes kept in cages for song, and will live to a great age in a cage or room. Audubon says he has known instances in which birds of this species had been confined for ten years. They had been taken in trap-cages, as the writer has taken them, in the vicinity of New York city. This bird is not only beautiful, but seems to give evidence of unusual sagacity. It can be trained to draw water for its drink from a glass, — and when it alights on a twig covered with bird-lime, for the purpose of securing it, "it no sooner discovers the nature of the treacher ous substance, than it throws itself backwards, with closed wings, and hangs in this posture until the bird-lime has run out in the form of a slender thread considerably below the twig, when, feeling a certain degree of security, it beats its wings, and flies off," — and, says Audubon, from whom we now quote, "I have observed Goldfinches that had escaped from me in this manner, when about to alight on any twig, whether smeared with bird lime or not, flutter over it, as if to assure themselves of its being safe for them to perch upon it." Its length is four and a half inches. Several species of Goldfinch are found in the United States. THE FINCHES PROPER, Fringilla, include quite a number of species, among which are the SONG SPARROW, F. melodia, (Gr. song,) which presents two varieties; one having spots generally distributed over the breast; the other having fewer spots on the breast, but a large black one in the center, — appearing among us even before the Pewee and Blue Bird. The SONG SPARROW is the harbinger of spring; it is "the earliest, sweetest, and most lasting songster." The first named variety builds its nest in low shrubs a few feet from the ground ; the other builds it upon INSESSORES. the ground. It feeds chiefly upon insects. Its length is about six and a half inches. THE FOX-COLORED FINCH, or SPARROW, F. iliaca, (Lat. from ilia, flanks,) is one of the largest of the genus, being seven and a half inches long, and breeds in countries North of the United States. It has been seen as far North as 680 Lat., and ranges South to within 30o of the equator. THE BAY-WINGED SPARROW, or GRASS BIRD, GREY GRASS BIRD, F. graminea, is ranked by Audubon and Wilson with the Buntings. We follow Dr. DeKay in placing this familiar Spar row with the Finches proper. It feeds on grass seeds and insects. Length five and a half inches. THE WHITE-THROATED FINCH, F. Pennsylvanica, is an active Northern Sparrow, appearing in New York, more or less, during the whole year, and advancing as far as 660 North. THE GROUND FINCHES, Pipilo, (Lat. to peep, or chirp,) scoop out the earth and build their nests on the ground. They live on grubs and earth and wire-worms. THE TOWHEE GROUND-FINCH, P. erythrophtha7?nus, (Gr. eru- tliros. red ; ophlhalmos, eye,) is found in large numbers on the Pine Barrens of Kentucky, It breeds in New York State, and is known " under the name of CHE WINK from its peculiar note, and of GROUND ROBIN, from its seldom attempting to fly high." In Louisiana it is called GRASSET, and esteemed by epicures. There are several species of PURPLE FINCHES, Erythrospiza, (Gr. fruthroSi red; spiza^ a bird like a sparrow.) The CRESTED PURPLE FINCH. E, purpurea, (Lat. purple,) frequently associates with the Cross-bills, and feeds upon the same trees, — it ranges from Texas to Labrador. Length six inches. This bird is seen on the Atlantic coast of New York State as late as December and January. THE PINE BULL-FINCH, or Common Pine Finch, Corythus, (Gr. korus, a crest;) enucleator, (Lat. kernel, or seed-sheller,) is a most beautiful bird, and a charming songster; of a red color, (the female olive-green,) with the wings and tail brown, — ranging from Pennsylvania to Newfoundland, and breeding from Maine northward. The length is eight and a half inches. It has been seen in large flocks in the vicinity of New York city. Nuttall, Bonaparte, and others, name this bird Pyrrlmla, (Gr. purrhoulas, from puros, red,) enucleator. THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK, or CRESTED RED BIRD, Pitylus, (Gr. pitulos, frequent agitation and movement) cardinalis, — is a bird which no one can see without admiring. In richness of plumage, elegance of motion, and strength of song, this species INSESSORES. 343 surpasses all its kindred found within the United States. Length eight inches. It breeds abundantly from Texas to New York. In some parts, it is called the Virginia Nightingale. THE BLUE GROSBEAK, Coccoborus cceruleus, and the ROSE- BREASTED GROSBEAK, Coccoborus ludovicianus, are also very beautiful species. THE SUMMER RED BIRD, Pyranga cestiva, (Lat. of sum- mer,) coming from Mexico and farther South, is seen among us in the hottest part of summer, rarely moving eastward of New York. It feeds on insects, particularly the largest beetles. This bird cannot bear cold, or even temperate weath er, and its stay in the United States, (where it breeds,) scarcely exceeds four months. Length seven and a half inches. This bird is also called Tanagra, (Gr. a brazen- vessel,) in allusion to the color of the female bird. The BLACK-WINGED RED BIRD, or TANAGER, is seven inches in length ; reaches New York about the middle of May, and goes as far as 49o N. L. It migrates by night in September. LARKS. Sub-family Alaudince^ (Lat. atauda, a lark.) Of these singing birds there are many species, characterized by a long and straight hind claw, a strong straight bill, and by being able to raise the feathers on the back part of the head in the form of a crest. The greater part of them are migratory ; they build their nests on the ground and may be regarded as pe culiarly birds of the fields and meadows. The Larks are every where distinguished for their vigilance and their song. The con formation of their feet does not adapt them for perching, but rather for walking on the earth. They accordingly always build on the ground, making usually a rather slight, though neat nest, and laying about five eggs, for the most part of a grayish white, with specks of a brown color. They frequently rear two broods of young during the summer. These birds are famed for singing while in flight, and soaring to great heights in the air. From the situation of their nests, they are much exposed to the attacks of predaceous animals of the weasel kind, which destroy a great many of the eggs and young. During their migrations, immense numbers of these singing birds are, contrary to our sense of justice, taken in nets to increase the pleasures of the table, particularly on the conti nent of Europe. Svvainson considers the genus Alauda to be of 344 INSESSORES. the Fissirostral type, but they are more commonly ranked with the Cone-billed birds, where we have placed them. The SKY-LARK, A. avensis, the Alouelte of the French, the Feld Lerche of the Germans, and the Lodola of the Italians, is widely celebrated for its inexpressibly beautiful song, chanted far up in the air, when the bird is at liberty and in its natural state. It commences to sing early in the spring, and continues its song during the entire summer. " When this Lark first rises from the earth, its notes are feeble and interrupted ; as it ascends however, they gradually swell to their full tone, and long after the bird has reached a height where it is lost to the eye, it still continues to charm the ear with its melody." Its food consists of insects and their larvae, with many sorts of seeds and grain. The Sky-lark is about seven inches in length. It is found throughout Europe ; also in Asia and the northern parts of Africa. The WOOD-LARK, A. ar~borea, is smaller and can perch on trees, a power denied'to the Sky-lark. The HORNED LARK, A. cornuta, (Lat. horned,) is an Ameri can species of a dusky brown color, seven and a half inches in length. Its head has erectile feathers. This Lark ranges from 680" N. Lat. to Texas. It is seen during the coldest weather. Dr. Buckland figures a Lark, (alauda,) among the land mam mals and birds of the third period of the Tertiary series, in the first plate of his illustrations of his " Bridgewater Treatise." SUB-FAMILY. The COLIES. Coliada, (Gr. xohos, kotids, the name of a bird.) The Colies are ranked by Swainson among the Muscophagada, or Plantain-eaters. Others rank them among the Finches. Gosse, jn his work on Birds, raises them to the rank of a family, and places them between the Finches and Plantain-eaters. They are few in number and confined to Africa and India. The two mandibles of the short, conical beak, are, in these birds, arched, the point of the upper slightly overhanging the lower. The feath ers of the tail are exceedingly long and stiff; like the Humming v Birds, they deviate from the general rule of twelve tail-feathers, having but ten, agreeing in this respect with the Swifts, and also in having the hind toe capable of being turned forwards, so that all the four toes point in one direction. In their general form and habits, they do not, however, show any likeness to the Swifts. The Colies live mostly on trees, climbing about much in the manner of Parrots. They go in large flocks and even INSESSORES. 345 breed in communities, constructing numerous large and round nests in the same bushes ; in each nest five or six eggs are de posited. It is said these birds sleep suspended from a branch, with their heads downwards, many of them together ; and that when the weather is cold, -as it sometimes is in South Africa, they are found so benumbed in the morning that they may be readily taken, one after another, without their making an effort to escape. The plumage of the Coly, (Colius,) is short, thick, and smooth, with a silky appearance. The feathers of the head are lengthened, forming a long pointed crest, which can be erected at pleasure. The prevailing colors are gray or ashy, from which circumstance, and that of their crawling about trees, they are, at the Cape of Good Hope, called Muys-vb'gel, or Mouse- birds. The Colies live chiefly on fruits, the buds of trees, and the tender sprouts of vegetables. On account of the mischief which they do in gardens, they are much disliked. They are bad walkers, but expert climbers, clinging to the branches in all sorts of attitudes. Their cry is monotonous, (the wind-pipe, (trachea,) being furnished with but a single pair of vocal muscles.) and that of the largest species is said to resemble the bleating of a lamb. The flesh of the Colies is of a delicate flavor and highly esteemed. It forms the common food of several species of the Birds of Prey. The C. Senegalensis, as its name imports, is a native of West Africa. It has a pearly-gray plumage with greenish reflections ; the forehead is yellow ; the under part of the body ruddy ; and a naked reddish skin surrounds the eye. FOURTH FAMILY. CROSS-BILLS. Loxiadce, (Gr. Ao£6g, loxos, oblique.) The beak of the CROSS-BILLS, (Plate IX. fig. 8,) is of unique form, the mandibles curving to the right and left, and always in opposite directions to each other. In some of these birds the upper mandible is turned to the right, the lower mandible curved to the left ; in others the position of the mandibles is reversed as to their direction. The upper mandible has a limited degree of motion on the head or cranium, the upper jaw bones and the nasal ones being united to the frontal bone by flexible osseous laminse. The lower jaw is remarkably strong, and the muscles by which this and the upper mandible are moved, are large, par- ticularly in the lower jaw, and act with great power in asidewise direction. By this extraordinary bill, these birds are enabled to extract the seeds from pine cones with remarkable facility ; and 346 INSESSORES. they are confined to localities in which these cones can be ob tained, such as the Hartz, or great pine forests of Germany They first fix themselves across the cone, then bring the point: of the mandibles from their crossed position to be immediate!] over each other. In this reduced compass, they insert their beaks and then opening them, not in the usual manner, but by drawing the lower mandible sidewise, they force open the scales, if this process, they are aided by the beautiful and peculiar adap tation of the tongue, an additional portion, partly osseous, with i horny covering being articulated to the front end of the bone oi the tongue, (os liyoides.) Underneath this grooved appendage i; another small muscle which is attached at one end to the bone ol the tongue ; at the other, it is joined to the movable piece, anc by its erection bends the point downwards and backwards; whilst therefore, the points of the beak press the shell from the body of th( cone, the tongue, brought forward by its own muscle, is enabled by additional ones, to direct and insert its cutting scoop beneatr the seed, and the food thus dislodged is transferred to the mouth While these birds are at work on the fircones, they send fortt a gentle twitter, and may be seen climbing among the branches like parrots ; but they are also said to have a pleasant song poured forth only in the winter months, or at the season of incu bation. The Cross-bills are subject to considerable changes ol color. The male of the COMMON CROSS-BILL, Loxia curvirostra. (Lat curve-beaked.) varies from a beautiful red to an orange color or the head, neck, breast and back ; the female is generally of i dull olive green on those parts which are red in the male. It is sometimes called the German Parrot, and on account of its swee and well tasted flesh, is in special request in the bird-market of Vienna, (Austria.) for the purposes of the table. This bird i: five and three-fourths inches long. It is a regular inhabitant of all our pine forests (situated north of 40o N. Lat.,) from the be- ginning of September to the middle of April, building its nest or the highest part of the fir trees, and making use of the resinou: matter which exudes from them for fixing it to the trees. The AMERICAN CROSS-BILL, L. Americana, is of a red color with brownish tail and wings, from six and one-half to sever inches in length ; feeds on the cones of the hemlock, and or apples and other fruits, which the bird breaks open for its seeds Bonaparte and other naturalists consider this species as distinc from the European Cross-bill. It is a northern-bird, but breed: as far south as Pennsylvania. Another species is the WHITE WINGED CROSS-BILL, L. leucop INSESSORES. 347 tera, (Gr. white winged,) which is somewhat less than a Gold finch, (according to DeKay, six and one-half inches long.) It ranges from 40o to 68° N. Lat., and is common on the shores of Lake Ontario. (N. B. These Cross-billed birds are included by Audubon in the family of Finches. In the N. Y. State Nat. Hist, they have a like arrangement.) FIFTH FAMILY. The HORN BILLS. Bucerotidce, (Gr. ^ovxa^w?, boukeros, ox-horned.) The characteristics of the birds of this family which most ar- rest the attention, are the enormous extent, and singular protu berances of the beak, In many of the species this organ is con siderably larger than the head ; there is a large, uncouth look ing projection, various in form, on its summit. This projection sometimes resembles a horn, or the crest of a helmet which often encroaches upon the skull towards the crown of the head. The mandibles in adult birds are both notched on the edges. The protuberance on the upper mandible is small when the bird is young, and does not attain its great size until the bird is fully grown. (Plate IX. fig. 13.) By a beautiful provision of the Creator, for birds supporting so large an organ, the horny case of the beak is very thin, thus diminishing the weight ; and, at the same time, the bony core is hollowed into numerous cells of various sizes and forms, with very thin walls between them, so that the needed firmness is preserved in union with remarkable lightness. The bones of the body are also permeated with air more than those of any other bird. The tongue in the Horn- billed birds is fleshy, and like that of the Birds of Prey, short and deep in the throat; the tail is long, broad, and more or less rounded at the extremity, consisting of only ten feathers ; the feet are short, strong and formed for walking or perching ; the claws short and blunt. The Bucerotidoe are large sized birds ; they are gregarious and noisy, and live both on animal and vegetable food ; few are smaller than a Crow, and some are much larger than a Raven. The plumage is usually of a sombre cast, but frequently relieved with masses of white; the beak and naked skin often exhibit bright colorings during life. The abode of these birds is lim ited to Africa, India, and the large islands adjacent. The Horn-bills seem to be most nearly related to the Crows on the one hand, and to the Toucans on the other, thus connect ing the Perchers and the Climbers. That they form a link be tween these two orders was proved from anatomical examina- 348 INSESSORES. tions of the bird made by Professor Owen. More than twenty species of the genus Buceros have been named. The ITALIAN RAVEN, B. hydrocorax, (Gr. Water Raven,) found in the Moluccas and in Africa, has the walk of the Crow, but is unlike that bird in its food, rejecting carrion, and being particularly fond of nutmegs, devouring them so greedily as often to do serious damage. The flesh is very delicate, and when roasted, possesses an aromatic flavor derived from its food. The RHINOCEROS HORN-BILL, B. Rhinoceros, differs from the In- dian Raven in living upon carrion ; it " casts forth a strong smell, and hath a foul look, and much exceeds the European Raven in bigness." This bird is about the size, though rather more slender than a hen-turlfey ; its color is black, except the lower part of the belly and the tip of the tail, which are white ; the bill is usually about ten inches long and of a yellowish white ; the upper mandi ble red at the. base ; the lower, black ; the legs are short, strong, and of a pale yellow color. The cry consists of a short hoarse croak, but when the bird is excited, this is changed to a loud discord ant noise. It breeds in the hollows of lofty trees. The flight of the Horn-bills is sailing and resembles that of the crow; on the ground, they advance by a leaping kind of movement, assisted by the wings. When making their leaps on the highest branches oi' trees, and in their loud call note to their mates, the hollow protuberance of their beaks seems to be to them like a sounding board, increasing the reverberations of the air. The beak, it is thought, "constitutes a necessary defence against monkeys and other animals which may seek to assail its nest;" or it may be used in " drawing snakes and lizards from their lurking places, and young birds and eggs from the recesses of old and decaying trees." SIXTH FAMILY. PLANTAIN- EATERS. Musophagada, (Gr. /uovou, musa, gen. term for plantain ; qDJ Swainson considers their flesh, " both in whiteness and flavor, infinitely superior to that of the Partridge and the Pheas ant." The size of the Tinamous varies from that of a Pheasant down to that of a Quail. The GREAT TINAMOU, Tinamus Braziliensis, is eighteen inches long; it inhabits extensive forests. The general plumage is grayish brown, inclining to olive, with a mixture of white under neath and on the sides, and greenish on the neck. The female lays twelve or fifteen eggs, the size of those of a hen, and of a beautiful green color, in a nest formed of moss and dried leaves, and placed on the ground among the thick herbage near the root of some large tree. The RUFESCENT TINAMOU, T. rufescens, is the most beautiful of the genus. It is fifteen inches and a half in length. It re sides among thick herbage, and feeds on it night and morning, when it regularly utters its melancholy and feeble cry. The fe male deposits seven eggs of a fine bright violet color, in a hol low situated beneath tufts of grass. The ANDALUSIAW TURNIX, or HEMIPODE, Turnix tachydromus, {Gr. swift runner,) is found in Spain and the northern parts of Africa. It is scarcely larger than a lark, of a yellowish brown color above, spotted and barred with chestnut, black, and white ; the under parts yellowish white. It has three toes before, en tirely divided ; no hind toe ; hence its name HEMJPODE, (half- footed.) What is the fourth order of Birds? What useful group does it include? What characteristics are given to birds ot' this order? To what limits are the POULTRY Binns chiefly confined? State further particulars respecting the birds of this order. Name the families which it embraces. In what respects do Pigeons differ from Gallinaceous birds? Have they been treated as a separate order, and under what name ? What chief peculiarity is men- RASORES. 383 tioned ? What does this apparatus constitute them ? What is said of the beak and feet ? State the variations in the feet of the different groups. Where do they nestle ? What are their prevailing hues '? What sp. is the origin of the Common, or Dove-cote Pigeon ? Mention the fancy varieties. What fact illustrates the remarkable fecundity of the domestic P. ? What is said of the Turtle Dove ? What of the Carolina Turtle D. ? Relate the particulars given respecting the Passenger Pigeon ? What is said of the Bronze-winged P. ? What of the Crowned P. V What other sp. are men tioned ? Give the general character of the CURRASSOVTS, the 2nd FAMILY. Where are they found ? Name the different sp. and repeat what is said of them. What is said of the 3rd FAMILY ? Where are they found ? Give their characters. What is said of the flesh and eggs of these birds? Recite what is said of the BRUSH TURKEY. What of the Mound-M. Megapode ? What is the 4th FAMILY? What is said of the size, &c. ? Give the gen eral character. Where are the most gorgeous sp. found ? When were the PHEASANT TRIBE introduced into Europe ? What is said of the COMMON PEACOCK? What of the TURKEY? What of the COMMON PHEASANT? Of the GOLDEN P. ? Of the ARGUS P. ? Of the GUINEA FOWL ? Name the varieties of poultry birds. Give particulars respecting them. What is the 5th FAMILY? How is it distinguished from the Pheasants? Where are the GROUSE found ? What are their habits ? What genus in cludes the largest ? What is said of the Capercallie ? What of the COM MON PARTRIDGE, or RUFFLED GROUSE ? What of the Cock of the Plains ? What of the PINNATED Grouse, or PRAIRIE Hen ? By what name are Quails known in the S. and W. States? What is said of the American Quail? What of the California Q. or P. ? What of the Ptarmigan ? What is the 6th FAMILY ? Mention their habitat ? What suggested the name of the typical genus? On what do these birds feed? What sp. are mentioned ? What is the 7th FAMILY? Is it numerous? Where are these birds found ? To what birds are they intermediate ? What is said of the beak, wings, &c. ? What do they represent in S. A. ? What does Swainson re mark of their flesh ? How does their size vary ? What is said of the Great Tinamou ? Of the RUFESCENT T. ? Of the Audalusiau TURNIX, or HEMIPODE? 884 CURSORES. SJET' SECTION IX. FIFTH ORDER. RUNNERS. CURSORES, (Lat. cursor, a runner, from curso, to run hither and thither.) This order contains a small number of species arranged in one family, StrutJiionida. These species differ from each other con siderably, yet they all agree in having wings which are remark ably short, while the hind limbs are increased in size and strength of muscle, proportioned to the decrease of those in front. The pectoral muscles are small and slender, and the breast bone ex hibits a uniform convex surface, like that of a shield, but not keeled, as in the Swallows and Humming Birds. The Runners are all birds of large size, most of them equal ing, if not surpassing the average height and bulk of the Mam malia, to which class they approach nearer than any of the other feathered tribes. They are found in the immense plains of the Southern Hemisphere. Most of them are remarkable for the pe culiarity of their incubation. Many females occupy one nest in which a great number of eggs are laid, to be incubated chiefly by the male ; when disturbed, he feigns lameness, as is common with birds that nestle on the ground. The hind toe is wanting in all these, except that singular one, the Apteryx, or Kivi-Kivi, of New Zealand, where it is found in the form of a small rudi ment. The OSTRICH FAMILY. Struthionidce,(Gr. araovOog, strouthos, an ostrich.) Genus Strulhio. This family includes the true Ostrich, the American Ostrich, (Rhea,) the Cassowary, the Australian Cassowary, or Emu, and the Kivi-Kivi, or Apteryx, (for which see chart.) These birds are very large, and the neck and legs of great length. Their plumage is loose and flexible; the thighs short and muscular. The toes vary, the Ostrich having but two, (and only one of these furnished with a nail somewhat resembling a hoof;) the Cassowary and Emu, three ; the Apteryx, (including the rudimentary hind toe,) has four. (See Chart.) The Ostrich, Struthio ca?nelus, or Camel Bird, is so called from its resemblance to the Camel, which is very striking. Both " are furnished with callous protuberances on the chest and ab- CURSORES. 385 domen, on which they support themselves when at rest ; they both lie down in the same manner, and the feet and (in some respects) the stomachs of both are similarly constructed ; both are capable of subsisting on a scanty vegetation, of enduring thirst, and of traversing arid sands and desert regions." Anderson says, "their cry resembles that of a lion, so as even to deceive the natives; they are so swift and strong they will outstrip an English horse in speed, with two men mounted on their back, and it takes a long time to exhaust them. Their food, in the wild state, con sists of seeds, tops and buds of various shrubs and plants ; in confinement, they swallow, with avidity, stones, pieces of wood, iron spoons, knives, leather, hair, cordage, glass, minerals, and all sorts of indigestible matter, so that this bird has been called the Iron-eating Ostrich." Although capable of enduring thirst for a long time, yet "they flock daily, about noon, to the pools, where they swallow the water by a succession of gulps. This is one of the most favorable times to shoot them. The Ostrich, like the Capercaillie of Europe, has a plurality of wives, from two to six, each laying from four to six eggs in the same nest, which is a simple cavity scooped out in the sand ; both male and female assist in hatching them.* The bird sits astride over them with its legs pointed forward. Some eggs are always placed outside the nest to serve as food for the young ; when hatched, the chicks are about the size of pullets, and of a pepper and salt color, covered with neither down nor feathers, but a kind of prickly external. They are scarcely to be distinguished from the gravel or sand of the plains, or the stunted vegetation among which they dwell. The flesh of the young is not unpalatable, but that of the old bird is anything but agreeable, tasting much like the meat of the Zebra." Under the Mosaic law the Ostrich was an unclean animal, and the Jews were forbidden to eat it. The Arabs of the present day still adhere to this prohibition. Some of the less fastidious tribes of Southern Africa partake of it with a relish, more especially when fat. The brains of hund reds of these animals often made a dish at the luxurious suppers of the ancient Romans. They were considered great delicacies, and the Emperor Heliogabalus, it is said, was served with six hundred of them at a single feast. The eggs of the Ostrich are * There is no inconsistency in this statement with the passage Job, xxxix, 14, which refers to the Ostrich as found in the torrid zone, where the in tense heat renders incubation unnecessary, and the bird hence, "leaves her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust," showing little of mater nal care or solicitude. The remarks here given from Anderson apply to the bird as seen in the cooler regions of Southern Africa. 386 CURSORES. much prized by travelers as well as by natives. They weigh about three pounds, and contain as much as two dozen of the eggs of our common barn-door fowls. One might be considered a sufficient meal for any man, but the Damaras sometimes eat two at a meal. " The shells are valued as ornaments, as well as drinking vessels, or to hold liquids, for which purpose they are covered with a sort of net- work, and slung across the saddle; grass, wood, etc., serving as substitutes for corks. The Copts suspend them in their churches, passing the cords of their lamps through the shells to prevent the rats from coming down to drink the oil ; they look upon the shells as emblems of watchfulness. Dissolved in vinegar, or reduced to powder, they are used me dicinally." Stones as large as a bean or pea, are said to be sometimes found in the eggs. Barrows speaks of nine found in one egg and twelve in another, of a pale yellow color, about as large as a marrowfat pea, and exceedingly hard. A full grown Ostrich is seven or eight, sometimes nine or even eleven feet high, and weighs two or three hundred pounds, some sny thirty stone, (420 Ibs.) This bird is supposed to live between twenty and thirty years. The general color of the female is a grayish or ashy brown, slightly fringed with white. The lower part of the neck and body of a mature male is of a deep glossy black, mixed with whitish feathers. In both sexes, the large plumes of the wings and tail are perfectly white ; the thinner the quill, the longer, and more wavy the plume, the more highly it is prized. Seventy to ninety feathers go to the pound ; but though half this number may be obtained from a single bird, only a small portion are of any value. The best plumes are obtained soon after the moult ing season. The price varies, as the market is fluctuating at the Cape of Good Hope. From five to fifty dollars are paid for a pound of the finest feathers. Those obtained from living birds are less liable to be attacked and injured by insects or worms than such as are taken from dead ones. The Damaras and Be- chuanas manufacture handsome parasols from the black feathers, which serve as a sign of mourning, and to protect the complex ion ! These Ostrich parasols are used in hunting wild animals, as a Spanish bull-fighter uses a red cloth; just as a wounded beast charges a man, "he thrusts the support of the nodding plumes into the ground, and slips off, while the infuriated ani mal vents his wrath upon the feathers." The skin is also held in great request for manufacturing defensive armor. Ostriches usually dwell far from the haunts of men, but occasionally ap- CURSORES. 387 proach the settlements, trampling down grain and eating it. Do mesticated, they are quiet, dull and heavy looking; in their na tive haunts they are restless, wary and difficult of approach. The senses of touch, taste, smell, and hearing are in these, as also in the other birds of the family, strongly developed. The eye is well formed ; the sight is piercing, so that the Ostrich has a wide range of vision, and can discover danger at a considerable distance. THE AMERICAN OSTRICH, Rhea Americana, (the Nhandu Gua- cu of the Brazilians,)prominently differs from the Ostrich of the Old World, in having three toes, all furnished with claws, and in its smaller size, being only about half as large as the African bird ; it is also thinly covered with feathers. It has the same propensity for swallowing iron, stones, &c., as the Ostrich of the East. Haunting the banks of rivers, it runs so swiftly and cun ningly as not only to evade the pursuit of dogs, but the weapons of the natives. These birds, like other ostriches, lay their eggs in the sand. " The* males," it is said, " sedulously perform the office of incubation." The natives pursue them on horseback, and kill them by throwing the " bolas," or leathern thong, loaded at the end with a heavy stone or leaden ball. The Rhea frequently swims across rivers several hundred feet in width, thus exceed ing the powers of the Ostrich and Cassowary. It feeds upon flesh and fruits, and upon the small fishes which are washed upon the sand ; its flesh is said to equal that of geese and swans, and it is easily tamed. A second (smaller) species, R. Danvinii, has been discovered in Patagonia, but it is rare. The CASSOWARY, Casuarius Casoar, (or Emeu,) is a native of the Eastern part of Asia. Its wings are shorter than those of the Ostrich, and quite useless in aiding progression ; the head is surmounted with a bony prominence, covered with a horny sub stance; the skin of the head and upper part of the neck is naked, tinged with cerulean blue and flame color, and has wattles like those of a turkey; the feathers are composed of two long, thread like ones, proceeding from the same root and having the appear ance of hair; the wing feathers are round, black and strong, and resemble the quills of a porcupine. At the end of the last joint of the wing is a sort of spur. This bird, next in size to the Os trich, when erect and five feet in height, resembles the latter bird in its general form and aspect, (Plate X. fig. 7,) but differs from it in its digestive organs. The Cassowary lays a small number of green eggs, which it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the climate. Its food " consists of vegetable substances, and it will SS8 CURSORES. ' frequently swallow a large apple entire, trusting to the pebbles, &c., in its stomach to bruise it." The name Emu, formerly given to this bird, is now restricted to the following. The Emu, Dromaius, (Gr. Dromaios, running swiftly,) is a na tive of New Holland, and in size and other respects closely re sembles the Cassowary ; but its plumage is thicker as its feathers are more barbed ; the wings are small and hardly to be distin guished ; but as a runner, it outstrips the swiftest greyhound. The dogs are shy of this bird on account of its powerful kicks, so powerful that by means of them it can break a man's leg. The Kivi-Kivi, Apteryx, (Gr. a, priv. ; pterux, wing,) of New Zealand, is a remarkably odd bird, appearing to hold among the feathered tribes of Polynesia, a position parallel to the Ornithor hyncus, or New Holland Mole, among the quadrupeds. Its bones are not hollow like those of other birds, and it has no abdominal air cells. It has no wings and only the most simple rudiments, ending in a sharp hook, which seems to be an instrument of de fence ; it is also tailless. Upon its very long and slender beak it leans forward as an old man would upon a stick. It is a noc turnal bird, pursuing its prey on the ground by the smell rather than by the sight. The olfactory openings are near the point of the beak ; and thus it scents the worms on which it feeds, far be low the surface of the ground. In the Zoological gardens, Lon don, (Eng.,) is the only one ever seen out of New Zealand. The native name, Kivi-Kivi, is given to it on account of its peculiar cry. The apteryx is becoming quite rare in its native clime, and it is thought will, in a few years, become extinct. Dinornis. This word represents a genus of struthious or Os trich like birds formerly existing in New Zealand, and known there by the name of MOVIE, or MOA ; but now, However, extinct, having been exterminated by human agency within a recent period ; or if any of the species whose bones are found in a fos sil state are still living, they are probably of the smaller forms and related to the Apteryx, " the only living diminutive repre sentative of the stupendous Ostrich-like birds which once trod the soil of New Zealand." Mr. W. Mantel, son of Dr. Mantel, of Eng., while on a visit to New Zealand, collected between seven hundred and eight hundred bones belonging to birds of various sizes, which were submitted to the examination of Prof. Owen. The Professor referred these to the genera Dinornis, Palapteryx, Notornis, and Aptornis. A part of the bones were found on the banks of the river Waingougou, on the western shore of North Island. With these were mixed fragments of egg shells. The eggs to CTJRSORE5. £°9 which the fragments belonged were supposed to be about the siz? of a tea cup. In connection with this fact, interest attaches to a discovery recently made in Madagascar. "In a report to the French Academy of Science, M. St. Hillaire describes three fos sil eggs from Madagascar, and small bones belonging to the same bird. The Captain of a merchant vessel trading to Madagascar, one day observed a native using, for a domestic purpose, a vase which much resembled an egg, and upon an examination proved to be one. The native stated that many such were to be found in the interior of the island, and eventually procured the eggs and bones exhibited by M. St. Hillaire. The largest of these eggs is equal in bulk to 135 hen's eggs, and will hold two gal lons of water. M. St. Hillaire proposes the name of Epiornis, for the monster biped of which these marvelous eggs and bones are the first evidence brought under the notice of naturalists." Casts of these eggs have been made and are to be seen in vari ous museums. Gnatliodon, (Gr. gnathon, a jaw ; odous, a tooth.) is a genus of birds in the South Sea Islands, described by Sir William Jardine, from a specimen which was presented to him. The upper mandible of the beak is strongly hooked, as in the Dodo ; the under one is deeply notched ; hence the name. The only known species, G. strigiroslris, (owl-beaked,) is rather larger than a partridge, having the upper parts of a deep chest nut red, and the under of a glossy green black. Mr. Gould sup poses it to feed on fruit or grass. Didttnculus, is a name given to a genus of birds found by Com. Wilkes, in the South Sea Islands, and thought to be the same as the preceding. The DODO, Didus, about whose proper place much doubt has existed, should perhaps have a position in the present family. To this bird, as now extinct, reference has already been made, (see section on Birds,) but fossil remains of it have been discov ered, and there is abundant historical and other evidence of its former existence. Clusius, in a work published in 1605, gives a figure of a Dodo copied from a rough sketch taken by a Dutch navigator, who had seen the bird while on a voyage to the Mo luccas in 1598. Bontius, (1658,) translated by "Willoughby, describes it as " for bigness of mean size between an ostrich and a turkey, from which it partly differs in shape and partly agrees with them, especially the African ostriches, if you consider the rump, quill and feathers, so that it was like a pigmy among them, if you regard the shortness of its legs. It has a great, ill-favored £00 CURSORES. head, with a kind of membrane resembling a hood, .... great black eyes, an extraordinary long, strong, bluish-white bill." In the British Museum are the head and foot of one of these birds ; also a painting said to be a copy of a picture taken from a living bird brought from Mauritius or St. Maurice's island, East Indies. The SOLITARY, Le Solitaire, has sometimes been confounded with the Dodo, or represented as a species of that bird. Leguat, who (1631) resided in the island Rodriquez, gives a somewhat fanciful description of this bird as existing in his time on that island. His account of it makes it resemble a turkey, though taller and almost without either wings or tail. Subsequently it appears to have become extinct. Bonos were, in 1832, discov ered in the island, believed to be those of the Solitary. What is the 5th order of birds ? Does it contain many sp. ? In what family are they included? What is said of their differences and agree ment ? What of the muscles of the breast and the breast-bone ? What of their size ? To what class of animals do they approach ? Where are they found? For what are most of them remarkable? Have they any hind toe ? Name the birds included in the OSTRICH FAMILY. What is said of their plumage, &e. ? Why is the 0. called the CAMEL-BIRD ? Point out the resemblances between them. Relate the particulars given by Ander son. Were the ancient Jews allowed to eat it? How is it with the Arabs? How with the tribes of Southern Africa? What use was made of the brains of these birds by the ancient Eornans? What is said of their eggs? What of the egg-shells ? Give the height and weight of a full grown Os trich. What is the general color of its plumage ? What further is said of them? What is said of the A. Ostrich? Where has the second sp. been discovered? What is said of the CASSOWARY? Is this bird properly called the Emeu or Emu? Repeat what is said of the EMU. Where is the AP- TERYX found ? What is its native name ? Why was it given ? Describe this bird. Where is the only one ever seen out of N. Zealand ? Is this a numerous sp. ? What does DINORNIS represent ? What collection of fos sil bones is mentioned? To what genera did Prof. Owen refer them? What is said of the fossil eggs discovered in Madagascar ? What of the GNATHODON? With what other generals it supposed to be identical? Re peat what is said of the DODO and LE SOLITAIRE. Mention and trace the birds of this order named upon the chart. Let each pupil give an account of one of these birds. GRALLATORES. 391 SECTION X. AQUATIC BIRDS. (SECOND DIVISION.) TWO ORDERS. FIRST ORDER. GRALLATORES, (Lat. gralla, stilts.) WADERS or STILT BIRDS. Gralla, (N. H. S. N. Y.) The Waders or Shore-Birds appear to hold an intermediate rank between the Gallinaceous or Poultry Birds, and the Nata torial or Swimming groups, which are confined to the water. M. Vigors is of the opinion that they, of all birds, enjoy most equally the advantages of land and water. They are distin guished by the great length of the tarsi and legs, which raise up their bodies as upon stilts; (Plate IX. fig. 27;) thus elevated, they frequent the banks of rivers, lakes, marshes and the shores of estuaries. The tibia or lower portion of the leg (a) is bare, so that they can wade to a considerable depth without wetting their plumage, and thus seize fishes and other aquatic animals on which they feed. In this they are aided by the length of the beak and neck, (Plate IX. fig. 6.) Such as are more especially aquatic have webs to their toes. Their wings are long and pow erful, their flight strong and well sustained, enabling them to mi grate with the seasons, which most of them do ; thus becoming widely distributed. In flying, they stretch out their long legs behind, (Plate X. fig. 1,) as a counterbalance to their long necks; and the tail being very short, its office as a rudder is transferred to the legs. These birds have the power of maintaining a mo tionless position upon one leg for a considerable time. The most aquatic of them place their nests among the reeds and herbage of marshy places, or as the Herons, (Ardeida,} they build in company on trees; those that frequent dry and stony places, often lay their eggs upon the bare ground. The eggs are usually colored and spotted, of a lengthened form, with one end much pointed. The young run about as soon as hatched, except in those species which live in pairs. This order includes the following families, viz.: (1) Chara- driadcK, the Plovers ; (2) Ardeida, Herons ; (3) Rostrida, Spoon- bills; (4) Tantalida, Ibises; (5) jScolopaczrfa, Snipes ; (6) Otidce, Bustards; (7) Rallida, Rails, 393 GRALLATORES. FIRST FAMILY. PLOVERS. (French pluvier, from Lat. phi- vialis, rainy.) Charadriadce, (Gr. xaQadgibg, charadrios, a kind of bird, from %aQ&aowt to excavate.) The Plovers are distinguished by having long and slender feet, adapted for running ; the toes are rather short; the hind one is either entirely wanting, or so short as not to reach the ground. The wings are large and these birds are swift and strong in flight, moving in circles somewhat after the manner of pigeons, and wheeling round at no great height, uttering piping cries. The head is thick, with large dark eyes placed far back ; the beak short and often slightly notched ; the nostrils are pierced in a long groove. Resorting to the sea-shore, with their beaks they penetrate the ground for worms, to obtain which they are said to stamp with their feet, causing the worms to rise. Those with feebler bills resort to meadows and newly ploughed land, where they can more readily obtain their food ; such as have stronger bills also feed on grain, herbage, &c. The colors of the Plovers are chaste and beautiful, consisting of various shades of brown, mingled with yellow, white and black, and often dis posed in bands. Many of them are active during the night. The Plovers are dispersed over the entire globe. The LAPWING, or Pewit, Vanellm crislatus, is a beautiful spe cies ; in summer spread over Europe and particularly plentiful in Holland, but passing the winter in warm latitudes. The plumage of the upper parts is green, with brilliant reflections; of the under parts, pure white. In its winter dress, the male has the head feathers very long, loose, barbed and curved upwards, forming a sort of crest, which is glossy black. When flying, the black and white colors of this bird make it very conspicu ous. Sometimes thousands may be seen at once, gleaming in the setting sun, or appearing like a dense, black, moving mass, between its light and the spectator. The Lapwings are about as large as pigeons ; their eggs are laid upon the bare ground, and esteemed a luxury for the table. The Lapwing takes its name from the device by which it lures away intruders from its nest, dropping its wings in flight, and appearing as if wounded, to entice them away, and thus often inducing'them to follow to a considerable distance. This bird is sometimes kept in gardens, and is useful for the destruction of vermin. Another European species is The GREAT PLOVER, or Stone Curlew (of Europe,) (Edicne- GRALLATOEES. S93 mus, (Gr. oidos, a swelling; knemos, knee or shank bone;) ere- pilans, (Lat. making a rattling noise,) is about sixteen inches in length, and esteemed a delicate bird for the table. The generic name is given to this bird on account of the dilated or swollen form of the upper part of the tarsus, and the size of the knee- joint in the young birds. Their shrill evening cry pierces the ear, and may be heard, in the night, for nearly a mile. The GOLDEN PLOVER, Charadrius Virginianicus, C. marmo- ratus, (marble-colored,) Aud., differs slightly in size from the Eu ropean Golden Plover, C. pluvialis, and in having the long axil lary feathers dull brcwn instead of pure white. It ranges from 23oto 75o N. L., breeding in the arctic regions. From the gen eral greenish appearance of their plumage, these birds are called Greenbacks. They are highly prized by the epicures of the fur countries, and they figure largely in the bills of fare of the old English nobles. Ths Golden Plover is about ten inches in length, and found in every continent. The generic name denotes a bird found in cavities or hollows like those worn by a rapid stream or torrent. The OYSTER-CATCHER or SEA PIE, Hcematopus, (Gr. harma, blood ; dps, face,) palliatus, (mantled,) is named from the red ap pearance of the bill and feet, and from the black of the upper plumage, which, contrasting with the pure white under plumage, has the appearance of a mantle. It feeds on oysters and other sea bivalves. The bill in this genus is long and wedge-shaped, with the tip much compressed ; the feet have three toes, all di rected forward and bordered with a narrow membrane. The Oyster-catcher breeds from Texas to Labrador. Its flesh is tough and unsavory. The GRAY PLOVER, or GRAY LAPWING, Squatarola cinerea, (ash-colored,) has a rather strong cylindrical bill, swollen half way from the tip; the feet are four-toed, (the hind toe quito small.) In the warmer parts of the United States, this bird often has two breeds in a season ; it runs well ; its whistle is like that of the Golden Plover, but not so shrill. If killed in good season it is fine for the table. The TURNSTONE, Strepsilas, (Gr. strepko, to turn ;) interpres, (Lat. interpreter.) is widely distributed in both continents. It has four toes; the bill is compressed at the base, swollen in the middle, and blunt at the tip. The name Turnstone is given to it from its habit of turning over stones to obtain the small crustace ans and molluscous animals which constitute its food. It is known to sportsmen under the names of Brant-bird and Beach- bird. From its fondness for the eggs of the Horsefoot, (Limulus 394 GRALLATORES. polyphemus,) it is also called the Horsefoot Snipe. Length from nine to ten inches. The DOTTEREL, C. morindlus, has had credit for possessing great powers of mimicry. He has also been charged with so great stupidity that "Acting every thing, he doth never mark the net, Till he be within the snare which men for him have set. " For this, however, thera seems not sufficient reason. When first seen, it shows but little fear of man ; but this might be ascribed to its freedom from persecution in its native wilds; after a short experience of human annoyance, it becomes more cautious. Its " mimicking the action of the fowler by stretching out its leg, wing, or head," may be little more than the actions of other birds when aroused from their repose. The Dotterel feeds by night on insects, slugs, and worms; in common with others of the Plovers, it rests and sleeps during the day, and on this account, may allow of a close approach, as is true of the Golden PI over. These things considered, it can hardly be deemed proper to call it a stupid bird. The upper parts of its winter plumage are of a blackish-ash color with a tinge of green; a portion of the breast and under parts white ; the face is white, doited with blue, .fn their winter migrations, these birds visit Italy and Spain ; they are particularly abundant in the Eastern parts of Europe and Northern Asia, where the larger part of them breed. The SwiFT-FooT or COURSER, Cursorius, (from Lat. curro, to run.) is found in the hot regions of Asia and Africa. One spe cies, the BLACK-BELLIED COURIER, C. Temminckii, inhabits Abys sinia. The other species, C. IsabeUinus, or CREAM -COLORED COURSER, is a native of Africa, but has occasionally been seen in Europe. Glareola is a genus of Plovers confined to the Old World, and including three species, one of which, the PRATINCOLE, G. Pratincola, (meadow inhabitant,) is spread through the warm and temperate regions of Asia, Africa and Europe. It has very long wings and a greatly forked tail, and is remarkable for its rapidity and power of flight. Mr. Gould speaks of it as "an elegant and graceful bird." Its length is nine inches. Other species are the KILLDEER PLOVER, Charadrius vociferus, which has its name from an imagined resemblance of its two notes to the word Killdeer, and which breeds from Texas to Massachusetts. The WHISTLING PLOVER, S. Helvetica, called the Bull and GRALLATORES. 295 Beetle-Head Plover, common to Europe and America, and re sembling, in its autumnal dress, the Lapwing of Europe. SECOND FAMILY. HERONS. Ardeida, (Lat. ardea, a heron ;) Gruidce, (Lat. grus, a crane.) N. H. S. N. Y. These birds are decidedly carnivorous in their appetite, feed ing on fishes, aquatic reptiles, small mammalia, worms, and insects. The CRANES, in their terrestrial habits and in their food, approach some of the Gallinaceous or Cursorial birds, join ing with an animal diet, grains, seeds, and herbage. The legs and feet of the Cranes are' long and slender, as is also the neck, which is very flexible ; the toes are four in number, the hind toe usually long and resting on the ground ; the beak is long, straight, sharp .pointed, firm in texture and very powerful. The wings in this family are, in general, well developed, and some of the birds are capable of high and powerful flight. The HERONS are the type of the group. They rank as the most beautiful of all the Waders, not so much from the shades of their plumage, though these are chaste and agreeable, as on account of their tapering and graceful forms, the curves of their slender necks, their elegant hanging crests, and the long plumes that adorn various parts of their bodies. They may be seen watching on the margin of the water or within trie shallows; on the appearance of their fishy prey, it is transfixed by a sudden stroke of the pointed beak and swallowed entire. In their de cidedly carnivorous habits, they differ from the Cranes. They are distinguished by their larger and more pointed bill, and the greater length of their legs ; their stomach is a large undivided sac, only in a small degree muscular. All the Herons have comb-like divisions on the inner edge of the middle claw, (Plate IX. fig. 28,) probably designed to free the plumage from insect- parasites. They are generally solitary in their habits ; but they build in companies, usually in trees not far from the banks of rivers. We give some specimens in each division of the family. CRANES. The AMERICAN CRANE, Grus Americana, when mature, has white plumage with the quills and their shafts black ; when young, bluish gray, with the quills and theirshafts brownish white. This is called the Whooping Crane ; it migrates as far North as the 680 Lat. Its length is fifty-four inches. £93 GRALLATORES. The COMMON CRANE, G. cinereus, (ashy,) of the Eastern Continent, is three feet eight or ten inches in length ; in its gen- eral plumage ashy-gray ; migratory and gregarious in its habits ; in its contour and gait somewhat like the Ostrich ; 'in its strong and muscular stomach, it differs from the Herons. The flesh is well tasted, and was formerly highly prized. The DEMOISELLE, Anthropoides, (Gr. of human-like form ;) virgo, (Lat. a virgin,) or Ardea Virgo, of Linn, is an African bird, but occasionally seen in Europe; its general plumage is slaty-gray ; length about three feet. One of these birds hatched in the menagerie at Versailles, (France,) and lived there twenty- four years. Great numbers are seen in Egypt during the inun dations of the Nile. This bird exhibits much delicacy and ele gance of attitude, and a graceful playfulness in all its move ments. Its food consists, principally of grain and seeds, though it occasionally eats small fishes, mollusks, and insects. The STANLEY CRANE, A. StanJeyanus, (A. paradisceus,) is a beautiful East India species, named after Lord Stanley, late President of the Zool. Soc., Lond. ; it is three feet and a half in length, and in manners and gestures, like the Demoiselle ; its general plumage is bluish gray. The CROWNED CRANE, A. pavonicus, (Lat. of a peacock,) is supposed to be the Balearic Crane, (Balearica,) of the ancients. Its plumage is of a bluish slate color; when full grown it is about four feet in length. Under the throat is a wattle like that of a turkey. This stately bird is found in Northern and West ern Africa. (Plate X. fig. 8a.) HERONS PROPER. Of these there are quite a number of species. The use of these birds in hawking, has already been noticed. The destruc tion of their eggs was in Europe formerly visited by a heavy penalty ; they seem to have ranked as high at the tables of the great as they did for their exploits in the field ; now, however, their flesh is in low estimation. Audubon includes the EGRETS and BITTERNS with the Herons, under one genus, Ardea, and enumerates twelve species found in America. The COMMON HERON, A. cinerea, is remarkably light in pro portion to its bulk, weighing scarcely three pounds and a half, though its length is upwards of three feet, and its expanse of wings above five. This Heron is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. GKALLATORES. 897 The GREAT BLUE HERON, A. Herodias, is a species allied to the Common Heron of Europe, and met with in every part of the United States. It is over four feet in length, and six feet in the ex- panse of its wings. The bill is seven or eight inches long and very sharp pointed. This bird is partly nocturnal in its habits ; a portion of its breast is covered with a down which is said to be phosphorescent ; it is to be found from Texas to South Carolina ; feeds on crabs, eels, and various other fish. The GREENISH BLUE HERON, A. virescens, (Lat. verging to green,) is more generally known than most other American spe cies, being widely spread in spring, summer, and autumn. It has the popular names of Chalk-line, Polk, Fly-up-the- Creek, &c. The length is about seventeen inches. The BLACK CROWNED NIGHT HERON, A. discors, (Lat. dis cordant,) is from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches in length. In many respects it resembles the Common Heron in its habits, breeding like that bird, in company with others, on the topmost branches of trees. During the day it roosts in the recesses of woods in the vicinity of swamps and rivers, which it visits at night in quest of prey. It feeds on fish, aquatic reptiles, sea- lettuce, (ulva latissima.} grasshoppers, and other large insects. The popular name of Quawk, or Qua-Bird, is given to it on ac count of its deep guttural cry. It closely resembles the A. nyc- ticorax, (Gr. raven of the night.) the Night-Raven of Europe. The GREAT AMERICAN WHITE EGRET, A. leuce, (white ;) A. egrelta, (Wilson, Aud. and Bonaparte,) is forty inches in length ; of a snowy white plumage, sometimes tinged with yellow. Its food consists of frogs, salamanders, mice, moles, &c. This bird is found from the Equator to 43o N. L. It is closely allied to A. alba, or Herodias alba, the White Heron of Europe. BITTERNS. These are represented in the genus Botaurus, (Lat boo, to cry out ; taurus, a bull.) They are widely diffused and solitary birds, haunting woody swamps and marshes ; hid all day and feeding at night. As might be conjectured from their haunts, they feed mostly upon aquatic animals. They spread over both hemispheres, but are not found in Australia. Everywhere they are noted for their voracity. The names Mire-Drum and Bull of the Bog are sometimes given to these birds on account of the drumming or bellowing noise for which they are famous. The English name Bittern was formerly spelled Bittour, and like the S98 GRALLATORES. generic term, is supposed to refer to its deep-toned, bull-like voice. The COMMON BITTERN, B. stellaris, (Lat. starry,) was well known to the ancients. It is referred to by Aristotle under the name of Asterias ; in the palmy days of falconry it was much sought for. It is not daunted when wounded, and therefore it was the duty of the falconer to plunge the Bittern's bill into the ground to prevent injury to the hawk ; both the falcon and the falconer were sometimes endangered by the sharp beak of their victim. In the time of Henry VIII., of England, its flesh was in high esteem ; when the bird is well fed it resembles that of a hare, and is not rank or fishy like that of the associate birds. The long claw of this bird's hind toe is prized as a tooth-pick, and in the olden time it was thought to have the property of pre serving the teeth. The Common Bittern is crested and about two feet and a half in length, being smaller than the Common Heron. The general color of the plumage is dull pale yellow, varied with spots and bars of black. The AMERICAN BITTERN, B. lentiginosus, (Lat. freckled,) or Ardea minor, is not quite so large as the Common Bittern. It is familiarly known by the names Poke, Indian-Hen, Indian-Pul let, &c., and migrates over most parts of the U. S. The color is a rusty yellow, mottled and sprinkled with deep brown. The SMALL BITTERN, A. exilis, (Lat. small or slender,) is sub- crested and only eleven inches in length ; of a chestnut color above, but whitish beneath. It ranges from Mexico to 45o N. L. The COMMON BOAT BILL, Cancroma cochlearia, (Lat snail- shells or spoons,) approaches in form quite closely to the Heron, except in the bill, which is not unlike the bowls of two spoons placed one upon the other, with the rims in contact. It perches on trees by the side of rivers, where it lives on fish, and not on crabs, as the name Cancroma indicates, though Linnaeus sup posed it to feed on crabs and so named it. Latham says : "We are certain fish is its most common, if not only food." This bird is native to South America. STORKS. The Storks, Ciconia, are not so aquatic as the other birds of the family, but are among the largest. They build their nests on turrets, steeples, and chimneys, — each pair, after wintering in Africa, returning to the same place in the spring. Their bills are very long and straight, resembling a lengthened cone. They live in marshes, arid feed principally on reptiles, frogs, and their GRALLATORES. 399 spawn, as well as on fishes. Wherever found, the Storks are a privileged race, on account of the havoc which they make among noxious animals. They migrate in numerous flocks, and are easily tamed. All the species make a clattering noise with their bills. The COMMON WHITE STORK, C. alba, (see Chart,) is about three feet in length ; when well treated, it approaches, without fear, the habitations of men. In the towns of Continental Eu rope, domesticated Storks, taken when young, "may often be ,- seen paddling about the markets, where they are kept as scaven gers to clear the place of the entrails of fish and other offal, t which they do to the satisfaction of their employers." In Hol land, and especially in Germany, this bird is a welcome guest. Dr. Shaw witnessed the annual migration of flocks of these birds from Mount Carmel ; each flock that he saw, " was half a mile in breadth, and occupied three hours in passing over." Among the ancients, to kill a Stork, was regarded a crime, which, in some places, was punished with death; and, like the Ibis, this bird became an object of adoration. It is noted for its great affection for its young, but more particularly, for its care of its parents in old age. The BLACK STORK, C. nigra, or A. nigra, is, like the White Stork, a migratory bird, spending the winter in Southern Europe, and passing on to high northern latitudes in summer. The ADJUTANT, Leptoptilus, (Gr. leptos, thin ; ptilos, down, or plumage,) Arga/a, is a remarkable bird, native to the warmer parts of India, and highly useful there in devouring noxious ani mals and carrion, which it does with avidity. It stands from five to seven, feet in height, and measures from the tip of the bill to the claws, seven and a half, while the expanse of wings is not less than fourteen feet. The beak is extremely large, stout, and strong ; under it hangs a downy pouch, or bag, like a dew lap, which is capable of being inflated. The upper part of this bird is of an ashy-gray color ; the under part white. The vora city of the Adjutant is not more extraordinary than its capacity for swallowing; it makes but one mouthful of a rabbit, a fowl, or even a small leg of mutton, and when domesticated, its habit of purloining, makes it necessary to keep all kinds of provisions out of its reach. Dr. Latham says, "These birds, in their wild state, live in companies ; and when seen at a distance, near the mouths of rivers, coming towards an observer, which they often do with their wings outspread, — may well be taken for canoes upon the surface of a smooth sea ; when on the sand-banks, for 17 400 GRALLATORES. men and women picuing up shell-fish, or other things on the beach." The AFRICAN GIGANTIC STORK, or CRANE, C. marabou, (see Chart,) resembles the Argala, but is not so large, — seldom ex- ceeding five feet in length ; its pouch is also much shorter. Another similar species is found in Java. These species furnish the beautiful plumes, esteemed superior to those of the Ostrich, known by the name of marabou feathers. The JABIRU, C. mycteria, (Gr. mukter, a nostril, or proboscis,) is native to Senegal, in Africa. In the enormous size of the beak, as also in devouring carrion, the Jabiru resembles the Ad jutant; the greatest part of the head and body of this bird is en- tirely bare ; the plumage of the latter white ; its size is somewhat larger than that of the Swan. THIRD FAMILY. SPOONBILLS. Rostrida, (Lat. rostrum, a beak.) The Spoonbills have many characters in common with the Herons, and are often included with them. The peculiar form of the bill has gained for them the name which they bear. It is very long, strong, and much flattened ; the point is widened and rounded so as to present the form of a spoon. The face and head are partially, or entirely naked ; the neck and feet are long; the nostrils basal and linear; the toes are four; in some, the hind toe is very small, and articulated high up; the feet are partially webbed ; the wings are ample, moderate in length ; the first quill nearly as long as the second, which is the longest of all. The Spoonbills live in companies, in wooded-marshes, gen- erally not far from the mouths of rivers, and are rarely seen on the seashore. Their food consists of small fish, spawn, and minute fluviatile testaceous mollusks, reptiles, and aquatic insects. According to circumstances, they build their nests either in high trees, in bushes, or among rushes. The young bird does not take the confirmed plumage of the adult until the third year. The crest makes its appearance at the end of the second year. (Temminck.) I The COMMON WHITE SPOONBILL, Platalea, (Lat. Spoonbill,) leucorodia, (Gr. leukorodon, a white rose,) is generally distributed throughout Europe, but is most numerous in Holland. It has a very full, long crest of loose feathers on the back of the head. The length is two feet and a half. The old males have a fine white plumage, with a patch of reddish yellow on the breast. This bird winters in Africa, and is found as far South as the GRALLATORES. 40 { Cape of Good Hope. Its flesh, when well fed and fat, is said nearly to resemble in flavor that of a goose. The ROSEATE SPOONBILL, P. ajaja, is a beautiful, though sin gular bird, constantly found in Texas and South Florida; it is seen as far eastward as North Carolina. The beak and wings are of a delicate rose-color ; the lower parts of a deeper tint ; the head is yellowish green; the neck white. The length is about thirty-one inches. This Spoonbill is usually fond of being with the Herons, whose keen sight and vigilance apprise it of danger, and allow it to take flight in due time ; it breeds in flocks on trees, low bushes, or cactuses. The feathers of the wings and tail are manufactured into fans by the Indians and Negroes of Florida; and at St. Augustine, form an article of trade. (Aud.) The flesh is oily, and undesirable for eating. FOURTH FAMILY. IBISES. Tantalida, (Gr. ravTalog, Tantalos, a proper name.) These are birds which, in their general habits and conforma tion, closely resemble the Storks; they chiefly inhabit warm countries, but except in very cold regions, they are to be found in all parts of the world. The bill is very long, robust at the base, and curved at the tip ; the face is naked ; the throat dilatable ; the legs are long, and have four toes ; the front toes are webbed at their base as far as the first joint ; the hind toe is very long, and rests upon the ground. The Ibises frequent the borders of rivers and lakes, feeding on insects, worms, mollusks, and occasionally on vegetable matter. They perform powerful and elevated flights, extending their neck and legs, and uttering a hoarse croak. The family includes between twenty and thirty species, which are distributed over the globe. Four of these are found within the limits of the United States. The GLOSSY IBIS, Tantalus faldnettus, (Lat. from falx, a sickle,) is about two feet in length. In the matured bird, the neck, breast, top of the back, and all the lower parts of the body, are of a bright red chestnut; the wing coverts, quills, tail-feath ers, and the rest of the back, of a dusky green, glossed with bronze and purple; but the bird varies much in its plumage at different ages. This species nestles in Asia, and is found on the streams and lakes in flocks of thirty or forty. They migrate periodically to Egypt, and pass in considerable numbers into Europe. The G-lossy Ibis is also found, in the United States. Audubon saw flocks of it in Texas, but it is only a summer resi dent there, associating with the White Ibis. Vast numbers of 402 GRALLATORES. it are seen in Mexico. Cuvier says, this, to all appearance, is the species which the ancients called Black This. The WHITE or SACRED IBIS, Ibis religiosa, (see Chart.) is, per. haps, the most celebrated species. Arriving in Egypt about the time that the inundation of the Nile commences, its numbers increase or diminish with the increase or diminution of its wa ters. It migrates about the end of June, at which time, it is first noticed in Ethiopia. This species does not collect in large flocks, more than eight or ten seldom being seen together. They are about as large as a hen; the head and neck are bare; the body white ; the primaries of the wings tipped with shining, ashy black, among which the white forms oblique notches; the secondaries are bright black, glossed with green or violet; the quill-feathers of the tail, white. This, and the preceding species, were venerated by the ancient Egyptians, who used to rear them in their temples, and after death, to embalm them. Their mummies are found, to this day, in the vast catacombs of ancient Memphis. Herodotus supposed that the Egyptians wor shipped the Ibis for services which it rendered in freeing them from winged serpents. But this is contradicted by the bird's structure : its bill is not fitted either to divide or pierce serpents, but rather for dabbling in marshes an.d moist grounds. This species is found throughout the extent of Africa. The WHITE IBIS, of the American Continent, Ibis alia, is about two feet in length. It is a constant resident in South Florida, where it abounds, but also breeds along the coast to Texas, — sometimes inland as far as Natchez and Red river, and Eastward to New Jersey. Audubon says, Sandy Island, near Cape Sable, in Florida, is remarkable for the number of these birds found there. He counted forty-seven nests in a single palm-tree. "The nests are fifteen inches in their largest diameter, formed of long twigs, in termixed with fibrous roots and green branches of the trees growing on the island; the interior of them is flat, being ^fur. nished with leaves of the cane and some other plants." The bird lays but three eggs, once a year. Its flight is described as <' swift and long continued. Sometimes it rises to an immense height in the air, while it performs beautiful evolutions." feeds on small crabs, slugs, and snails ; showing great ingenuity in procuring cray-fish ; — breaking up the upper part of the mud which the latter throws up in forming its hole, and dropping the fragments into the cavity. The cray-fish, burdened by the load of earth^ makes its way to the entrance of the burrow, when the GRALLATORES. 4Q3 Ibis immediately seizes it with its bill. This bird is known in Louisiana by the name of "Spanish Curlew." The SCARLET IBIS, Ibis rubra, is a splendid bird, sometimes, though rarely, seen in Louisiana and the adjacent States, but in the hottest portions of this continent, is found in large flocks. This bird flies rapidly, but rarely, except at morning and evening, in search of food. The plumage is scarlet; beak naked; part of the cheeks, legs and feet, pale red. Its length is twenty -nine inches. The WOOD IBIS, Tantalus loculat.or, is an extremely large species, being forty-four inches, with a bill that is nine inches in length. It is found in deep woody swamps, (where it breeds on trees;) also in fresh water lakes. These birds, after gorging themselves with their fishy or reptile-food, taken in shallow, muddy streams, walk to the nearest margin and arrange them selves in long rows, with all their breasts turned towards the sun, in the manner of Pelicans and Vultures, and thus remain for an hour or more. In flying, their long necks and legs are stretched out to their full extent, the pure white of their plumage contrasting beautifully with the jet black of the tips of the wings. Although generally fat, they are unfit for food, their flesh being tough and oily. They are resident from Texas to North Carolina. Other species of the Ibis are found in India, Mada gascar, and the Cape of Good Hope. The OPEN-BEAKED BIRDS, Anastomus, (Gr. ana, through ; stoma, mouth,) are included by Svvainson in this family. The generic name was given to these birds by Illiger; that of Lace- pede, is Hians, (opening and gaping.) They have a straight h°ad and heavy bill, marked with wrinkles running lengthwise. The upper mandible is very straight ; the base thickened at the top, and as high as the crown ; the tip notched ; the margin dentated; the under mandible is greatly curved upwards, only touching the upper at the base, and at the tip, and thus leaving an opening through or between the two portions of the bill. Not much is known respecting the economy of these birds, and hence it is not easy to explain the purpose of the unique structure shown in the beak. Cuvier places the genus Tantalus between these birds and the Spoonbills, (Platalea.) FIFTH FAMILY. SNIPES. Scolopacidce, (Gr. crxokdnas, scolopax, a snipe.) The most prominent characteristic of this family, is the extreme length and slenderness of the beak. This is covered with a soft 404 GRALLATORES. skin, which is extremely sensitive ; and the organ is much used in probing the soft mud or earth for the capture of minute in sects. The hind toe is pointed on the tarsus above the level of the fore toes, and so short as to be unable to reach the ground ; in some of the family, it is wanting. The Snipes have mode rately long feet and necks ; the wings are long and pointed ; and their flight swift and well sustained ; the tail is short and even ; the front toes are frequently united by a membrane, more or less large. The plumage is of subdued and varied shades; black, white, and red being intermingled and contrasted ; sometimes, the prevalent hue is a grayish olive. The flesh of these birds is held in high esteem. They frequent marshes, the banks of lakes and rivers, or the sea-coast, on which they run with great swift ness. With considerable powers of flight, they have also the faculty, in part, both of swimming and diving. The females are usually larger than the males. They lay four eggs, with but little nest, on the ground, of inland moors or fens. The young, when they escape from the shell, are clothed with down, and immediately begin to run about. The Snipes are widely distrib uted, and more or less migratory in their habits. Mr. G. R. Gray divides them into six sub-families, viz : (1) Numenina, of which Numenius, (Curlew,) is the typical genus; (2) Totanina, typ. gen. Totanus, Tatler. Sand Lark, or Willet; (3) Recurvirostrince, typ. gen. Recurvirostra, Avoset;) (4) Tringiruf, typ. gen. Tringa, Sand-piper; (5) Scolopacirtce, Scolopax, Common Snipe; (6) St.repsilince, Strepsilas, (included by others in the Charadriada, or Plovers, which see ;) (7) Phal- aropodince, Phalaropus, Phalaropes. Of these, he enumerates thirty-four British species. De Kay (1843) says, this family contains, at present, upwards of one hundred species, distributed over the globe ; of these, about twenty-eight, (according to Au- dubon, thirty-two,) are in the United States. CURLEWS. The LONG-BILLED CURLEW, Numenius longirostris, is the largest of the genus found in North America. — known to sports men under the names of Big Curlew, and Sickle-bill. Its length is from twenty-five to twenty-seven inches; the color is blackish brown above, with spots of a red hue beneath. The great length of the bill, (Plate IX. fig. 6,) (seven to nine inches,) distinguishes it from every other species. The Curlew forms a small nest for its young on the ground. The day, the Curlew spends in the sea marshes, but resorts at night to the sandy beaches of the sea shore. The number collected at their nightly retreat, it is said, GRALLATORES. 453 sometimes amounts to several thousands. The food of theso birds consists chiefly of the small crabs, called "fiddlers;" they are also fond of small salt-water shell fish ; and thrust out the bill to its full length into the wet sand in search of sea-worms and insects. The Long-billed Curlew resides in Texas and on the Islands of South Carolina; but wanders North along the coast, and is occasionally seen in the interior. Dr. Kirtland observed it in Ohio ; others have seen it in Kentucky and Mis souri. Smaller species are the JACK CURLEW, or Short-billed Curlew, N. Hudsonicus, closely allied to the Whimbrel, of Europe ; it breeds in the Northern regions. This species, in addition to the food of the preceding species, makes use of berries. Its length is sixteen inches. The SMALL ESQUIMAUX CURLEW, IV. borealis, is known under the names of Little Curlew, and Dough-Bird, and much esteemed by epicures. Its length is fifteen inches. Nuttall says it ranges from Paraguay to the 70o N. L. TATTLERS. The TELL-TALE TATTLER, Totanus vociferus, receives its name from its frequent cries, uttered' quite as much for its own sake, as tc give warning to others. It ranges widely over the United States, and is found at all seasons. In Maine and New Bruns wick, it is called "Humility," — a name that does not seem to agree with its ''vociferous habits." These birds "congregate in great numbers in the inland marshes of Florida, and along its rivers, during the winter." Though found near both salt and fresh water, they seem to prefer the latter, selecting ponds of which the water is shallow, and the shores muddy, affording places where they can walk and wade with ease. In the West- ern country, it is called the "Great Yellow-Shank." The upper parts are generally black, glossed with green, each feather mar gined with white triangular spots; the throat, breast and abdo men, are pure white. Length about fourteen inches. The SPOTTED SAND-LARK, T. macularius, is a familiar bird, of a glossy olive brown color, with blackish waves, — found through out the Union in small families, along almost every stream, and the borders of ponds and lakes. In allusion to its notes, it has the common name of Peet-weet ; from its repeated grotesque, jerking motions, it is called Teeter, and Tiltup. It feeds on insects and worms; breeds in New York and' farther North. Occasionally it is found in Europe. The length is eight inches. The GRAVT PLOVER, T. Bartramius, is twelve inches in length, 408 GRALLATORES. and is much esteemed for game, but shy, and not easily obtained by sportsmen. It is described as Bartrcmi's Tattler and Sand Piper; among its common names, are GRASS-PLOVER and FIELD- PLOVER. This bird is not found on the coast, — its bill is very short, scarcely longer than the head. In July and August, it is seen in large flocks on its way South. It is fond of grass-hoppers. AVOSETS. The AVOSET, Recurvirostra, (Lat. up-turned bill,) Americana, (see Chart,) is, from its " perpetual clamor and flippancy of tongue, called by the inhabitants of Cape May, the Lawyer; the comparison, however, reaches no further; for our Lawyer is simple, timid, and perfectly inoffensive." Wilson. The back and under parts, are white ; the wings brownish black, with a broad band of white. The bill is more than twice the length of the head, very slender, tapering to a point, and somewhat re curved, or upturned, (Plate IX. fig. 4;) the legs are very long and slender. This bird builds its nest among the tallest grass. The eggs, like those of other Waders, are four in number, pear- shaped, of a dull olive color, with blotches of black. Like the Roseate Spoon-bill, it moves its head "to and fro sideways," while it is passing its bill through the soft mud in search of insects; in deeper water, it immerses the entire head and a part of the neck, after the manner of the Spoon-bill and Red-breasted Snipe. The notes of this bird resemble the syllable click. Length eighteen inches. The Avoset ranges from Texas north ward, and is abundant in the Rocky Mountains and the Fur countries. In New Jersey, where it breeds, it is, from the color of its legs, called Blue- Stocking. The food varies with its place of resort, consisting of insects, crabs, fishes, marine worms, and small mollusks. The BLACK-NECKED STILT, Himantopus, (Gr. himas, a thong ; pous, a foot,) nigricollis, (Lat. black-necked,) has white plum age with the head, neck, back, and wings, above, black. To this bird is assigned the name of LAWYER, (N. H. S., N. Y.,) it is also called 'Tilt and Longshanks. (See Chart.) It is a rare species; but ranges from the Equator to the 41o N. L. Its length is about fourteen inches. NOTE.— Dr. DeKay (see N. H. S. N. Y.) has arranged the species of the two preceding genera into a separate family, Rccurvirostrida. The KNOT, or RED-BREASTED SANDPIPER, Tringa cinerea, (Nutt.,) T. canul.us, (Linn.,) has a slender, straight bill, rather longer than the head ; the toes have a narrow membrane. This GRALLATORES. 407 bird varies much in its plumage, and has, therefore, received different names. It is common to Europe and America; rang ing in the latter, from the tropics to Labrador, and breeding in the Fur countries to a high latitude. The Knot is seen on the shores of New York in May, and is called by sportsmen, the Robin Snipe. From August to October, it migrates Southward in large flocks, when, in place of the red feathers, it has a white plumage, spotted with dusky, ash-colored above; it is then called White^Robin Snipe, and Gray-back. Its length is ten inches. WILSON'S SANDPIPER, T. pusilla, or the Little Sandpiper, (Plate X. fig. 8c,) is about four inches long, with a slender, dusky green tapering bill, and short neck ; the tail is doubly emarginate. In summer, it is blackish and rufous ; beneath white ; in winter, ash ; beneath, whitish, spotted with dusky. It is known as the Peep, so named from its usual note ; and as the Ox-eye, from the size and brilliancy of its eye. This species pervades North America from Mexico to 680 N. L., and is one of the most abundant of the group, being found in the interior as well as on the sea-coast. The SANDERLING, Calidris arenaria, or T. arenaria, has a straight bill, shorter than the head ; thin in the middle, and widened towards the tip ; the tail is short, the middle and outer feathers the longest; the toes have* a warty membrane on each side. They are three in number, while the preceding genus has four. The female is larger than the male, being about seven inches long. The plumage above is bluish in summer, but light ash in winter ; in both sexes, it varies quite as much as in the Turnstones, (Strepsilas.) In flying, these birds have fewer evo lutions than the Sandpipers. They afford good eating, especially when young. In autumn, they are very fat, and highly relished by epicures. They are said to occur all over the globe. The RUFF, of the Old World, (female REEVE,) machetes, (Gr. a fighter, )pugnax, (Lat. combative,) the Combattantofihe French, has a long and slender bill ; legs very long, slender, and naked high above the tarsal joint; three toes before, and one (short) behind; the tail is rounded. The hues of the plumage are so variable, that it is very difficult to find any two that perfectly resemble each other ; but the prevailing ground color is brown, inclining to ash, with lateral, and under covers, white ; in the autumn or winter, the plumage is more spotted, particularly in the under part, and a bunch of feathers or ruff appears on each side of the head in the male. The females, which are called Reeves, are smaller than the males, and have no ruff. The food of these birds consists of worms and insects, which they pick 403 GRALLATORES. up in marshy places ; in captivity, they are fed with bread and milk, or boiled wheat. They have sometimes been caught in nets, being decoyed by stuffed birds of their species. The Ruff is a very pugnacious bird ; it weighs seven ounces, and is a foot in length. \ PHALAROPES. The RED PHALAROPE, Phalaropus, (Gr. phalaros, bald or naked ; pous, foot,) fuhcarius, (Lat. from fulica, coot.) has a long, slender, weak, and strait bill, both mandibles furrowed to the point, and the end of the upper curved over the lower one ; the front toes are united up to the first joint; the others with fes tooned or iobated membranes, (Plate IX. fig. 25.) toothed on the edges; the hind toe without a membrane. The Red Phalarope is found in flocks in Kentucky, on the Ohio, and during autumn, is often seen at sea, as far as Newfoundland. It breeds in hi^h northern latitudes, as far as Melville Peninsula. The route of this species towards the warmer regions, is along the Pacific coast. The length is seven and a half inches. These birds are said to breed in great numbers far North; their flight is rapid, resembling that of the Red-backed Sandpiper ; sometimes they skim over the water, when they increase their, distance from each other. They feed chiefly on insects and crustaceans, which live on the surface of the water. The HYBERBOREAN PHALAROPE, or LOBEFOOT, Lolipes Jiyper- fioreus, procures its food principally upon the water, on which "they alight like Ducks, float as light as Gulls, and move about in search of food with much nimbleness." Length six inches. MARLINS or GODWITS. The MARLIN or GREAT MARBLED GODWIT, Limosa fedoa, has a recurved and tapering bill of great length, and long and slender legs; the tibia is bare for about one-third of its length; the toes are four in number; the hind one small, and touching the ground at the tip, — the plumage above is dark brown, varied with red and gray; below, pale reddish brown or buff, with small dusky spots on the neck. The length is from about sixteen to nine teen inches; the female is considerably the larger. This is a very shy and vigilant bird, moving in large flocks, with irregular and rather quick flight, though Jess rapid than the Curlews. The flesh is tender and much esteemed. It is some times called the Red Curlew, the Strait-billed Curlew, and Dough- bird. The Marlins move along the coast in immense flocks, as far as Massachusetts, (reaching New York in May,) and are GRALLATORES. 409 supposed to cross the land to Saskatchewan, where they breed. (Aud.) They return from the North in August, remaining in New York until their removal, in November, to their wintering places South of the United States. They feed on aquatic in- sects, leeches, small marine mollusks, crabs and worms. The RING-TAILED MARLIN, Limosa Hudsonica, called in Bos ton, the Goose-bird, is sixteen inches long, and breeds in high northern latitudes. The SNIPE, or WOODCOCK, Scolopax, — common species, S. Wilsonii, Wilson's Snipe, is about eleven inches long, and much sought by the younger gunners, and sometimes, by the keenest sportsmen. Its summer range is considerably beyond the north- era boundary of the United States. It resembles the Common Snipe, of Europe, S.gallinago, and is sometimes called the Eng lish Snipe, but is, in fact, a different species. It breeds from Virginia northward, — it does so abundantly in New York. It resides in Kentucky and the Southern States, during the winter. In flying early in the spring, it soars high in the air, making a remarkable booming sound ; its notes are said to differ from those of the Common Snipe, of Europe. It is fond of marshy, swampy places, and selects such for breeding. On the back, the brown ish black feathers are edged with cream color, and barred minutely with reddish brown ; the throat and breast are buff, spotted with brown and gray. The GREAT SNIPE, of Europe, S. major, has a tail composed of sixteen feathers, — (the normal number is fourteen.) Sir Humphrey Davy, in noticing the breeding of this species in the great royal decoy, near Hanover, says that they require solitude and perfect quiet, and their food being peculiar, they need a great extent of marshy meadow. They feed on the larvse of Tipula, (Father Longlegs.) or kindred flies, and, according to the same author, their stomach is the thinnest among the tribe of Snipes. The nest of the Great Snipe, like that of the Common Snipe, is usually placed on the borders of a swamp, and on a tuft of grass, or a bunch of rushes, — often it is found near wil low-bushes. The eggs are three or four, yellowish olive brown, with great spots of reddish brown. Two other Snipes, accord ing to Mr. Gould, exceed this in size,— one found in the hilly districts of India, the other in Mexico. The AMERICAN WOODCOCK, Rusticola minor, was separated by Nuttall from the genus Scolopax. It has a straight and knobbed bill, slightly drooping at the tip. 41U SIXTH FAMILY. BUSTARDS. Otida, (Gr. CUT}?, otis, a bustard.) The proper position of these birds has been a disputed point among Ornithologists. Temminck ranks them with the RUN NERS, (Cursores,) and includes them with the Ostrich family. M. Vigors also places them among the same birds ; but in loca ting them on the Chart, we have followed Cuvier and others, who have included them among the Stilt-birds. The Bustards are comprehended in one genus, Otis. The bill in these birds, is of the length of the head, or shorter, straight, conical, and slightly depressed at. the base; the point of the upper mandible is a little auched ; the feet are long, and naked above the knee, with three toes in front, short, united at their base, and bordered by membranes ; the wintis are of mod erate size, the third quill longest in each wing. The chin feath ers and moustaches, (seen in the male bird ) are composed of long wiry- feathers, and the barbs disunited and short ; the scapulars are of a buff orange color, barred, and spotted with black ; the back and tail coverts, reddish orange, barred, and variegated with black ; the greater coverts, and some of the secondaries, are bluish gray ; the sides of the neck white, tinged with gray ; the lower part of the neck is fine reddish orange ; the under parts white. This description of plumage applies to the Great Bustard, O. tarda. The male bird of this species, is about four feet long, and nine feet in the expansion of the wings, being (except the Lammergeyer,) the largest of the European birds. Its weight is, on an average, twenty-five pounds. The female is not more than half the size of the male. This bird is noted for its shyness, and its power of running ; the young birds have sometimes been run with greyhounds. And yet, in its wild state, unlike the Ostrich, the Great Bustard, upon being disturbed, rises easily upon the wing, and "flies with much strength and swiftness, usually to another haunt, sometimes to the distance of six or seven miles." It was formerly said, this bird "has a pouch in the fore part of the neck, capable of con taining nearly two quarts," — but Mr. Yarrell, in dissecting a male Bustard, " failed to detect this organ." This Bustard is common in some parts of Europe, but is becoming very rare in England. It feeds upon corn, seeds of herbs, colewort, dande. lion leaves, &c., and also upon insects and worms. Turnip-tops are said to be peculiarly agreeable. The eggs of the Bustard are two in number, generally, sometimes three, laid upon the OF THE UNIVERSIT GRALLATORES.\ bare ground, a little hollowed out for the purpose, either among clover, or, more frequently, in cornfields. The flesh is highly esteemed for food ; it is dark in color, and short in fibre, but sweet and well-flavored. The LITTLE BUSTARD, O. tetrax, is another smaller species, found in Europe and Africa. The BLACK-HEADED BUSTARD, O.nigriceps, is a native of Asia, verging towards five feet in length, and having a crested head. It is found in large flocks in the open country of the Mahrattas, as well as in the highlands of the Himalaya. Its flesh is con sidered a very great delicacy. The AFRICAN BUSTARD, O. Denhami, is a magnificent species, which was discovered by Mr.Denham in Africa, near the larger towns. It frequented moist places where the herbage was pure and fresh, and almost always appeared singly. This bird was ever found in company with the Gazelles; "whenever a Bus- tard was observed, it was certain that the Gazelles were not far distant." The eye is said to be large and brilliant; the Arabs "are accustomed to compare the eyes of their most beautiful women to those of the OUBARA," — the general name for the Bus tards in Africa. The KORI BUSTARD, O. Kori, is a species discovered by Mr. Burchell in South Africa, — the most gigantic of the family, — standing upwards of five feet high. Mr. B. says, "its body was so thickly protected by feathers, that our largest sized shot made no impression, and, taught by experience, the hunters never fire at it except with a bullet." The AGAMI, or GOLD-BREASTED TRUMPETER, PsopJiia^ (Gr. psopheo, to make a noise,) crepitans, is an interesting bird, de riving its name from the peculiar noise which it makes without opening its bill. It is about the size of a Pheasant or large Fowl, being twenty-two inches in length ; has long legs, and a long neck,, but a very short tail, consisting of twelve black feath ers, over which the rump-plumes hang droopingly. It inhabits the forests of South America, where it is found in numerous flocks; it is a swift runner, and when pursued, trusts more to its legs than its wings. When domesticated, it shows great fond ness and fidelity ; and is so regardful of its owner's interests, that it attacks the dogs and other animals that venture near him. Sometimes it is used to protect domestic poultry from the onsets of birds of prey. GRALLATORES. SEVENTH FAMILY. RAILS. Rallida, (Genus, rallus, a rail.) The RAILS are separated from the other families of this order by the shape of the body, (Plate X. fig. 8b,) which is compressed arid flattened at the sides, in consequence of the narrowness^of the sternum. The compressed and keel-like form assists their motion in the water, and as M. Vigors remarks, " is intended to counterbalance the deficiency in the formation of the foot, which separates them from the truer and more perfectly formed water- birds." It is certain that the greater portion of these birds are excellent swimmers ; and in such habits, as well as in the short ness of their tarsi, they are found to deviate from all the remain ing groups of the present order. The Rails have been designated by that name on account of their peculiarly harsh notes. They differ from the Sand-pipers and Plovers in the great size of the leg, and the length of the toes. Svvainson speaks of the structure of their bodies as spe cially adapted to the tangled recesses in which they live, consist ing of reeds and aquatic vegetables, which clothe the sides of rivers and morasses. Their flesh is delicate, and from living chiefly upon aquatic seeds and vegetable aliment, they may be regarded as aquatic Gallinacece. Many of them build nests of accumulated materials, and lay a great number of eggs. The length of the toes enables these birds to walk, without sinking, on aquatic herbage, or in the soft mud of morasses. Although their feet are not webbed, they swim and dive with a facility un surpassed by that of any of the ducks. The sternum is narrow ; wings short and sustained by feeble muscles ; hence, the flight is but for short distances, and is slow and heavy ; while on the ground, whether among the reeds or tall grass of the meadow, they thread their way with surprising ease and celerity. Among the well known species is the COMMON GALLINULE, or WATER-HEN, Gallinula chloropus, (Gr. chloros, green ; pous, a foot.) This bird swims in the open water of rivers and ponds, and with much grace and swiftness, constantly nodding its head ; it also dives with great skill and rapidity. It is shy and easily alarmed, in which case it dives under floating herbage, and re mains with its beak above water until the danger is over. On account of this habit, it is impossible to take it unless accompa nied by a dog. The nest of the Water-hen is built among sedges and reeds near the water, and contains from five to nine eggs, of a cream color spotted with brown. These birds show GRALLATORES. 413 great sagacity in protecting their young, as the latter do in obey ing the monitory signals' of their watchful parents. The young have their legs and feet of their full size even while the feathers are only beginning to appear, showing how the organs of flight are subordinate to those of walking and swimming. The female has, contrary to the usual rule, a richer plumage than the male. The pike is the chief enemy of the Water-hens, and destroys many by darting at them from under the cover of water-lilies or other plants. Other species are (1) the SALT WATER MEADOW HEN, RaUus crepitans, fourteen inches long, sometimes called the Clapper Rail, or Mud Hen, which is seen in New York the last of April, leaves for the South in October, and during the season is very abundant. It lays from eight to fifteen whitish eggs with reddish spots, which are highly valued and much sought for ; (2) the FRESH WATER MEADOW HEN, or Great Red-Breasted Rail, R. elegans, a rare species eighteen inches in length ; (3) the MUD HEN, or Vir ginia Rail, R. Virginianus, (Plate X. fig. 8b.) length ten inches; (4) the SORA RAIL, Ortygometra, (Gr. migrating with the quails,) Carolina, the same as the English Rail, or Coot, O. krex, (Gr. krex, a name derived from its cry,) and the species of the South ern States ; numerous in New Jersey, and ranging to the 62o N. L. ; length nine inches ; (5) the NEW YORK RAIL, O. Noveboracen- sis ; length five and one-half inches ; a shy bird, and not seen in flocks like the preceding species ; feeding on seeds and aquatic insects; breeding extensively throughout the United States; (6) the FLORIDA GALLINULE, Gallinula galeata, (Lat. helmeted,) four teen inches in length, closely allied to the European species, G. chloropus, (referred to above,) and ranging from Mexico to Mas sachusetts. SUB-FAMILY. FLAMINGOES. Phoenicoptin&i (Gr. (poivixdnTegog, phoinikopteros, red-winged.) These birds are included in one genus, P/wenicopterus. Their proper position has been a matter of considerable doubt. Swain- son places them with the Ducks, among the Swimmers, though he remarks : " The Flamingo, which has the longest legs in the Natatorial order, is so good a walker that it only swims occa sionally." We give them a place among the "Grallatores, to which order they have more commonly been assigned, but im mediately before the Swimmers. The genus Plwenicopterus has the bill strong, higher than it is large, toothed and conical to wards the point ; the upper mandible is suddenly bent, curved 414 GRALLATORES. at its point on the lower mandible, which is larger than the up- per ; the legs are of excessive length ; the feet also very long, three toes in front, hind one very short and articulated high up on the tarsus ; the wings moderate ; first and second quills longest. The EUROPEAN FLAMINGO, P. ruber, is found in the warmer parts of Europe, but is common in Asia, and the coasts of Af rica. The beak is evidently adapted to its long and flexible neck. When this bird wishes to feed, it merely stoops its head to the water ; the upper mandible is then lowest, and as is the case with the Duck, the edges of the beak filter what is received. Pestilent marshy places, which urge man to a distance, are boldly and safely frequented by this bird. Its plumage is a deep brilliant scarlet, except the quill feathers, which are black. Ar ranged in a line, these birds appear like a file of soldiers ; but the miasma of the regions in which they dwell, is more deadly than the rifle, and its breath more surely fatal than the ball of the cannon. The nest of the Flamingo is a conical structure of mud, with an opening on the summit, in which are placed two or three dusky white eggs, somewhat larger than those of a goose. The nest is so high as to permit the bird to sit, or rather stand, her long legs hanging down on each side at full length. The height of this bird is five or six feet, (see fig. on Chart.) The flesh is said to be pretty good meat ; the young are thought by some equal to a partridge. Juvenal, in his Satires, notes the Flamingo, (Phoenicopterus ingens.) as among the luxuries of the table; the brains and the tongue formed one of the favorite dishes of Heliogabalus. By some, however, the flesh is thrown away as fishy, while the feathers are used to ornament other birds served up at special entertainments. The American species, P. ruber, or P, cliilensis, scarcely dif fers from the European. It is remarked that "the development of the gizzard in this genus makes it very probable that vegeta ble substances form part of the diet of the Flamingo ; but it is not likely that large fish, or indeed water animals of any great size, are ordinarily devoured by these birds. The bill is a col ander, admirably contrived for separating the nutritious portions whether animal or vegetable, from the mud and other useless parts." The Red Flamingo is found in the warmer regions of North America. C. L. Bonaparte says it is very rare and acci. dental in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. In South America and the West India Islands it is also found. It is particularly abundant in the Bahamas, where it breeds. GRALLATORES. 415 What is the 1st order of AQUATIC BIRDS? To what birds are they inter mediate ? Mention their distinguishing characteristics. What is peculiar in their flying ? What power do they possess ? Where and how do they build their nests, &c. ? What FAMILY does the order include ? How are the PLOVERS distinguished ? What use do they make of their beaks ? What is said of their plumage and diffusion? Repeat what is said of the LAP WING or Pee-wit. What is the generic name of the Great P. and why given? Is it an American sp. ? What is said of the Golden P. of A.? How does it differ from the Golden P. of Europe ? What is it sometimes called? What is the generic name of the Oyster-catcher and why given? What is said of it ? What of the Gray P. ? Of the Turnstone ? Of the Dotterel ? Of the Swift-foot ? Of the* Pratincole ? What other sp. are mentioned ? What is the 2nd FAMILY ? What GROUPS of BIRDS does this include ? What is said of the CRAKES? Of the Spoon-bills? Of the Herons? Repeat what is said of the A. Crane. What of the Common C. of Europe? Where is the DEMOISELLE found? What is said of its plumage, size, &c. ? How long did one of these birds live in Versailles, (Fr. ?) What is said of the Crowned Crane ? Are the TRUE HERONS numerous? What use was for merly made of them, and how were they esteemed for food? In what ge nus does Aud. include the Egrets and Bitterns ? What is said of the Com mon Heron ? What of the Great Blue Heron ? Of the Greenish B. H. ? Of the Black-Crowned Night H. ? Of the Great American White Egret ? What is said of the diffusion, &c. of Bitterns? For what are they noted? What popular names have been given them and why ? To what does the English name Bittern refer? Was the Common B. formerly sought in fal conry? In what estimation has ita flesh been held? What use was made of its hind claw? How does it compare in size with the Common Heron? What is said of the American Bittern ? Of the Small B. ? Why is the Common Boat Bill so named? On what does it feed ? How do Storks com pare with the other birds of this family? Where do they build their nests? What is the shape of their bills? Why are they a privileged race? What is the length of the Common White S. ? What is said of its familiarity and of its appearance in European towns? What did Dr. Shaw witness? For what has the S. ever been noted? How regarded among the ancients? What is said of the Black Stork? Where is the Adjutant found? Describe this bird. What is said of its voracity? What does Dr. Latham say of these birds ? What is said of the Marabou Crane or Giant Stork of Af rica? Where is a similar species found? What name is given to the beau tiful plumes of these birds ? What is said of the Jabiru ? What is the 3d FAMILY ? With what family are these birds often in cluded ? Give their characters and habits. What is said of the Common White Spoonbill? What of the Roseate S. ? What is the generic name of the OPEN-BEAKED BIRDS? Describe the beak. Where does Cuvier place them? What is the 4th FAMILY? To what birds are those of this family allied? What countries do they chiefly inhabit? What characters are given? On what do they feed ? How many species does this family include ? How many in the U. S. ? Where is the Glossy Ibis found ? With what sp. known to the ancients is it identical? At what time does the sacred Ibis appear 416 NATATORES. in Egypt? What is said of its size and plumage? How was this and the preceding sp. regarded by the ancient Egyptians? What is the length of the American White Ibis ? What Island is noted as a resort for these birds ? How many of their nests did Aud. count in a single tree ? What else is said of the White I. ? Give an account of the Scarlet I. Of the Wood I. Where are other species found? What is the 5th FAMILY ? What is the most prominent character of this family? What use is made of this organ? What other characters are mentioned? What is the color of their plumage? To what places do they resort? What is said of their distribution? How does Mr. G. R. Gray divide them ? Which is the largest of the Curlews ? What is the generic name? What other sp. are mentioned? What is the generic name of the Tattler? Why is the Tell-Tale Tattler so called? What is said of it? What of the Spotted Sand L.? Of the Gray Plover ? Of the Avo- set ? Of the Blue-necked Stilt ? Of the Knot ? Of Wilson's Sand-Piper ? Of the Sanderling? Of the Ruff? Mention the 6th FAMILY. In what genus are they comprehended? What is said of the bills, &c. ? How large is the Great Bustard? Does any other European bird exceed it in size ? For what is it noted ? Has it a gular pouch? What else is said of it. What sp. of Bustards are mentioned? What is said of the Agama, or Gold-breasted Trumpeter? What is the 7th FAMILY ? How are they separated from the other fami lies of this order ? How are they aided by their keel-like form ? In what respects do they deviate from the other groups of wading birds? Why are they called Rails? What does Swainsgn say of their structure? What is said of their flesh, nests, toes, &c. ? What of their motion in the air and on the ground? Which are the different sp. and what is said of them? What SUB-FAMILY is mentioned ? What is said respecting their proper po sition? Give the characters of the gen. Phoenicopterus. Where is the European Flamingo found? What places does it frequent? What is said of it? Does the American sp. differ much from the E. ? Upon what does it feed? Do vegetable substances form any part of its diet? What may its bill be called, and why ? Where is the Red Flamingo found? SECTION XL SECOND ORDER. WEB-FOOTED BIRDS. NATATORES, (Lat. Swimmers.) ANSERES, (Lat. anser, a goose.) Linn. We come now to the last order of birds, viz. : those which are web-footed. These are numerous and widely distributed. Mov ing in an element which is everywhere essentially the same, we find, as we might naturally expect, that these birds are repre sented, not only by peculiar genera in every part of the world, but that particular species, as of the Ducks, the Terns, and the Petrels, encircle the globe. NATA TORES. 417 The foot of the Grebes is not webbed, but has each toe sepa rate and flattened, (Plate IX. fig. 26.) somewhat like that of the Coot in the last order, with this exception, the Swimmers are all marked by having the toes united by a membrane, giving to the foot the form of a powerful oar, as in the common Duck or Goose, (Plate IX. fig. 24.) In those species which are eminently aquatic, the feet are placed far back on the body, (see Auk on the Chart,) which renders their gait clumsy and shuffling on land, but gives to the backward stroke of the foot in the water an im petus that helps them in swimming ; the tarsus is also flattened sidewise, diminishing the resistance to progression in the water. The form of the body is flattened horizontally, (not laterally, as in the Waders,) the better to float on the surface. The plu mage is remarkably thick and close, particularly on the under parts of the most aquatic kinds ; besides which the skin is cov ered with a dense coat of soft down. The outer surface is usu ally polished and satin-like, probably from the oily secretion, which the bird frequently applies to it. The larger part of the Swimmers have a copious and peculiarly oily secretion of fat. As Cuvier remarks, these are the only birds in which the neck is longer than the legs, which is sometimes the case to a consid erable extent, for the purpose of enabling them to search for food in the depths below, while they swim on the surface. The tail is generally short, and so are the wings; hence, flight is in most feeble, and in some altogether denied : and yet it must be noted, that in the order Natatores are found examples of the long est wings, and the highest powers of flight of the entire class of Birds, as, for example, in the Frigate Pelican. The Petrels and Terns have also great length of wing. The web-footed fowl resort to fens, morasses, broad rivers, inland lakes, rocky coves, &c., and they are found also on the ocean's wide expanse. The marine kinds are more numerous in the colder seas of the North, than in those of tropical regions. This order includes the following families : (1) Anatid&i Ducks ; (2) Colymbida, Divers ; (3) Akida, Auks ; (4) Procel- larida, Petrels ; (5) Larida, Gulls j (6) Pelecanida, Pelicans. FIRST FAMILY. DUCKS. Anatida, (Lat. anas, a duck.) This numerous family have the beak thick and broad ; high at the base, and covered throughout almost its whole extent with a soft skin, the tip alone being horny ; the edges are cut into thin parallel ridges, or small teeth ; the tongue is large and fleshy, 418 NATATORES. with its edges toothed ; the wings are of moderate length. The males have, for the most part, the wind-pipe enlarged into a bony chamber, varying in form and size; sometimes this tube is much prolonged, and bent back in folds within the swollen keel of the breast bone, peculiarities of organization probably connected with the loudness of the voice. The gizzard, especially in the land species, is large and muscular. The Ducks mostly build their nests upon the ground, but some on trees, and lay numerous unspotted eggs. The young are at first covered with soft down, and can run and swim as soon as they leave the shell. The laminated structure at the edges of the mandibles, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) has often been referred to as showing special adaptation to the habit of feeding in birds of this family, enabling them to take with facility minute animals which swarm in rivers, and those equally numerous found on the sides of rivers and inland streams. By means of their broad beak, they capture at one effort, considerable numbers, and as they are drawn forth, covered with mud, this offensive part is thrown out between the interstices, or tooth edges of the mandibles, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) which, however, are not sufficiently wide to allow of the passage of the insect food at the same time, so that the beak operates as a sifter, expelling the refuse, but retaining the food. It is probable that the large and fleshy tongue is an assistant in this separating process. GEESE seem to form the connecting link between the Swim ming and Wading Birds, retaining as they do the manners of the Waders, but walking much more than they swim. Their food consists more of grains and insects than of fishes; their legs are long, and they have a considerable space above the tarsal joint. These birds, in common with the SWANS, have rather long necks. The TRUE DUCKS include a large variety of species and are found in almost every part of the world. TheSnovELER, or SPOON-BILL, A. clypeata, (Lat. furnished with a shield.) is in length from seventeen to twenty inches ; it is named from its broad, shovel-like bill. Usually it breeds far North, but to this there are exceptions. Some think its flesh ex ceeds that of the Wild Duck. The MALLARD, or WILD DUCK, A. boschas, (Gr. losTias^ a mal lard, from boske, a pasture,) is the parent of our domestic broods. The ordinary length is about two feet, but one variety is said to measure thirty inches. Its flesh is much esteemed. Richard son says " the Widgeon or Wild Duck is a strange eater of grass ; " to this the specific term refers. The SOFT-BILLED SHOVELER, Malacorliyncus, (Gr. malakos, NATATORES. 419 soft ; rhunkos, a bill,) found in Australia, has a very peculiar bill, the edge of the upper mandible having on it a thin mem- brane or skin, which hangs down like a wattle on each side. The TAME DUCK, (from A. boschas,) is nearly omnivorous in its indiscriminate appetite and its voracity. In the natural state the Duck is a little more particular in its diet. The GREEN WINGED TEAL, A. Carolinensis, is during the autumn and winter, common in all our fresh water lakes and ponds ; its flesh is very well tasted. Length fourteen inches. The PIN-TAIL DUCK, A. acuta, (Lat. sharp,) affords similar food to the preceding. It is about two feet long. This Duck is particularly abundant on the shores of Lake Ontario; ranging, however, during winter and spring, across this Continent; and breeding in high northern latitudes. The BLACK DUCK, A. obscura, (Lat. obscure or dark,) breeds from Texas to Labrador. Its length is about two feet. Few Ducks are more highly prized than this species. The AMERICAN WIDGEON or BALD-PATE, A. Americana, is very generally distributed. It feeds chiefly on aquatic vegeta bles, and is esteemed for its delicate flavor. Length from eighteen to twenty inches. The Widgeon of the Eastern Conti nent, A. Penelope, is also found in this hemisphere. SUB-FAMILY FuHgilina, (from Lat./wZ/go, soot.) SEA-DUCKS. The Sea-Ducks include four genera, with a variety of species. They principally frequent the sea ; but many of them are to be found in the fresh water lakes and rivers, where the water is deep. Their plumage is very close and thick, in comparison with that of the True Ducks, (Anas,) and the covering of the female differs much in hue from that of the male. The Sea- Ducks are not good walkers, though they can run or shuffle along rapidly. They swim remarkably well, but low in the water, and excel in diving, on which they rely when in danger, more than on their power of wing. Usually, they fly low, labori ously, and with a whistling sound. They are mostly found at the north ; but some species are spread over the entire globe. Large flocks migrate periodically, chiefly on the line of the sea- coast,flying and feeding generally by night. They often make their nests near fresh water; both parents, in several of the spe cies, strip off their down as a covering for their numerous eggs. The genus Somateria, (Gr. soma, body ; eria, wool, or teiro, to wear away,) includes Ducks which are peculiarly marine; according to Sir John Richardson, never found in fresh water. 420 NATATORES. Their food consists principally of mollusks found in the Arctic Sea. The EIDER DUCK, S. mollissima, (Lat. very soft,) is remarka ble for its exquisite and elastic down, so valuable in commerce, and so essential in preserving the proper balance of animal heat in the icy regions in which it dwells. The beak is prolonged on the forehead into two narrow flat plates, which are separated by an angular projection of the frontal plumage. This species is, in severe winters, seen as far South as the Capes of the Delaware. Northern explorers have repeatedly attested its value. Dr. Kane writes thus of its appearance. "The Eider Duck is an awkward animal on the wing, and hardly graceful in the water. The position of the legs, set very far back, throws the body, Penguin-like, nearly upright; and they move about erect, but easily, and with animation." His party gathered two hundred eggs from a gleaned field, one morning before break- fast. A whaler which they met, had four hundred and fifty dozen eggs on board : formerly, from a quarter to half a million of eggs were, during a single season, taken from Melville Island. The Duck and Drake build the nest in company, and line it with down. This is of two kinds, — the dead down and the live down ; the former is taken from a dead bird, and is of inferior quality; the latter is that which the Duck strips from herself to cherish her eggs ; its lightness and elasticity are such, that it is said, two or three pounds of it squeezed into a ball, will swell out to such an extent as to fill a case large enough for a foot covering of a bed. The skin of the Eider Duck, with the feathers on, forms an article of commerce, particularly among the Chinese. The length is twenty-five inches. The KING DUCKS, S. spectabilis, (Lat. deserving notice,) are also found in the Arctic regions, but in their migration do not pass so far South as the Eider Duck. According to Sir John Ross, they afford a valuable and salutary supply of fresh pro vision to the crews of vessels employed in the Northern Seas, and their down is equal to that of the Eider Duck. The SURF DUCK, Oidemia, (Gr. from oideo, to swell,) seek their food at sea chiefly, and have their name from frequenting its shores. The prevailing color is black in the male and brown in the female. The generic name was suggested by the swollen appearance of the beak. The species O. fusca, (Lat. tawny,) has a very thick and close plumage, and is called the VELVET DUCK. The down is similar to that of the Eider Duck. They are very numerous at Hudson's and Baffin's Bay, The length is twenty-four inches. NATATORES. 421 The CANVASS-BACK DUCKS, Futigula, (Lat.fullgula, a fen-duck,) valisneria.( botanical name of the tope-Grass, of which this species are vrry fond,) — breeds from 50o N. L. to the extreme northern limit of the Fur countries. About the middle of October it arrives on the sea-coasts of the United States. This Duck is shy, but much esteemed, as few birds grace the table better. It haunts the sea, its bays and estuaries. The length is twenty-four inches. In swimming, the tail is erected, and from the shortness of the neck, is nearly as high as the bird's head, so that, at a little distance^ the bird seems to have two heads. The SPIRIT DUCK, Clangufa, (Lat. clango, to clang;) atteola, (partly white ;) is abundant during the summer, on the rivers and fresh water lakes of the Fur countries; in autumn and winter, common in the United States. It is a most expert diver ; the artful way in which it conceals itself after it has vanished under water, has given it the name of Spirit Duck or Conjurer. Its flesh is not in high repute. In Pennsylvania and New Jersey, it becomes so fat, it is called "Butter-Box" or "Butter-Ball." Length fourteen inches. The LONG-TAILED DUCK, Heralda glacialis, (icy,) — the Old Wife and Swallow-tailed Duck, of Hudson Bay residents, — is noted for its very long tail of fourteen feathers. It swims and dives with all the expertness of the Spirit Ducks. The young Ducks are juicy and tender; the old ones not much valued for the table. This species is found in the Arctic regions of both Continents. Length twenty to twenty-one inches. GEESE. The SNOW GOOSE or WHITE BRANT, Anser Hyperloreus, breeds in high northern latitudes. It is from twenty-seven to thirty-one inches in length. Its feathers are valuable, and Richardson says, its flesh is far superior to that of the Canada Goose in juiciness and flavor. The BRANT, A. bernida, is deemed one of the most savory birds; its length is about two feet; it breeds near the Arctic Ocean ; is found on both Continents. The BERNICLE, or BARNACLE GOOSE, Bernida leucopsis, (Gr. white-faced;) is found in the northern regions of both hemispheres. The GRAY-LAG GOOSE, A.fcrus, (Lat. wild,) in length two feet and nine inches, is the origin of the COMMON DOMESTIC GOOSE. The latter is too familiar to require description. It has been known to live over eighty years. The WILD GOOSE or CRAVAT GOOSE, A. Canadensis, is from forty to forty-two inches in length. In its contour, especially 422 NATATORES. about the neck, it seems to approach the Swans ; the patch of white feathers on the neck contrasting with those of dark shade, has the appearance of a cravat. It breeds most abundantly in Labrador and high northern latitudes. In the Fur countries its arrival is anxiously looked for, and hailed with great joy. At Hudson's Bay, three thousand or more are sometimes killed and barreled up in a year. The EGYPTIAN GOOSE, Chenalopex, (Gr. a goose or duck, Pliny,) jEgyptiacus, is a beautiful species, which passes over occasionally from Africa into Europe ; it is particularly numer ous in the island of Sicily. The upper part of the plumage is reddish brown ; the under parts are buff, mingled with blackish lines. This Goose is figured on the monuments of the ancient Egyptians, and was regarded by them with veneration ! The GOOSANDERS or MERGANSERS, form a sub-family, — Mer- ganina, including, according to Prince Bonaparte, two genera, Mergus, (Lat. a diver, from mergo, to dip.) the Smew, and Mer ganser, (Lat. from mergo, to dip, and anser, a goose,) the Goos ander. The SMEW or WHITE NUN, Mergus alhellus, (Lat. from albus, white,) is found in the Arctic regions of both Continents; it is migratory in autumn, but especially in winter. Its food consists of small crustaceans, water insects, mollusks, and small fish. The nest is placed on the borders of rivers and lakes, and con tains twelve whitish eggs. The Smew (when old) has upon the head a tufted crest of pure white; the edges of both mandi bles of the beak, have saw-like teeth directed backwards; the point of the upper mandible is curved, and with the horny nail, forms a hook. (Plate IX. fig. 5.) The length of the Smew is fif teen or sixteen inches. The GOOSANDER or JACKDAW, Mergus merganser (or Castor,) having also a saw-like and hooked bill, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) builds its nest among rolled pebbles on the banks of waters, or in bushes and hollow trees, and lays twelve or fourteen whitish eggs. The flesh of this and the preceding species, is rank, and by no means in request for the table. Its native abode corresponds with that of the Smew ; it migrates southward on the approach of winter. The very old male has a large and thick tuft on the head; the plumage of the upper parts is deep black; the under parts, which in the Smew are white, are in the Goosander tinged with yellowish rose-color, (changing to white in stuffed speci mens.) The length is twenty-six or twenty-eight inches. NATATOBES. 423 SECOND FAMILY. DIVERS. (Short- winged.) ColymUda, (Gr. Mvuflos, kolumlos, a diver.) These birds are more entirely aquatic than the Ducks, and remarkable for their powers of diving, and the great length of time which they can remain immersed. They have narrow, straight, and sharp-pointed beaks; the head is small; the legs, placed near the extremity of the body, are flattened side wise, so as to present a thin edge before and behind ; the toes are armed with broad, flat nails. In one genus, Colymbus, including the Loons, — the toes are united by a membrane, and there is a short tail ; the two other genera, (including the Grebes.) have the toes divided midway to the base, and bordered with white oval membranes, and have no traces of a tail. Owing to the position of their feet, these birds are poor walkers, though ex tremely powerful and fleet swimmers and divers. They have short wings, and their ability to fly is consequently quite limited ; but under the surface of the water, the wings are expanded and employed as fins. The thread-like, or downy plumage, is re markably thick, and has a silvery gloss. The Divers' food varies with the situations which they frequent. It consists of fishes with their fry and spawn; crustaceans, water insects, &c., and occasionally vegetable substances. The Grebes are widely scattered over fresh waters ; the Loons are confined to the oceans and coasts of temperate and arctic regions. These birds dive so instantaneously, that it is difficult to shoot them, — disappear ing, as they do, at the first flash of the gun, and not returning to the surface within some two hundred yards, and then merely to raise the head ibr a moment and again disappear. The stomach of the Grebes, is generally found to contain a mass of their own feathers. These are probably conveyed thither in the bird's pro cess of oiling its plumage, or, as has been said, "making its toilet." The largest, and finest species of Loon, is the GREAT LOON or DIVER, Colymbus glacialis, (Plate X, fig. 9.) This bird is thirty -two inches long, — the neck and head are black, glossed with purple or green ; their upper parts black, marked with white spots, set in rows; the under parts pure white. The cry of the Great Diver is melancholy in its tone, resembling the howling of a wolf, and is said to portend rain. The flesh is dark, tough, and unpalatable. The eggs are two or three in number, of a deep olive color, spotted with brown, and about as large as those of a Goose. The RED-THROATED LOON or SCAPE-GRACE, Colymbus scpten- 13 NATATORES. trionalis, (Lat. northern,) is another species, breeding from New foundland northwardly. Length twenty-five inches. The GREBES, (Podiceps.) have been variously placed by dif ferent naturalists. De Kay includes them with the COOTS, in a separate order, Lobipedes, (Lobe-footed,) and ranks them imme diately before the Swimmers. We have followed Cuvier and others, in placing them with the Swimmers, and in the present family. Among the species are the HORNED GREBE, P. cornu- tus, (Lat. horned,) in length fifteen inches; common to Europe and America, and known by the names Dipper, Water-Witch, &c. ; the CRESTED GREBE, P. cristatus, in length nineteen inches; commonly found in secluded ponds and lakes in the interior, but also seen on the sea-coast. It ranges from Mexico to 680 N. L. ; — is found also in Europe ; the RED-NECKED GREBE, P. rubricoltis, (Lat. red-necked.) not quite so long as the preceding, and scarcely seen South of New York. THIRD FAMILY. AUKS. Alcida, (Lat. alca, alk or auk.) The birds of this family, have a structure which pre-emi nently adapts them to an aquatic life, and are, in their resorts and habits, exclusively maritime. The beak in these birds varies in length, and is more or less compressed ; both mandibles are much curved and notched ; the nostrils are almost entirely closed by a naked membrane ; the feet small and entirely webbed ; the legs short and placed far back, so that, in sitting, these birds assume an erect position ; the tail has sixteen small feathers. In moving under water, the Auks make no use of their feet, but hold them out behind, as the Waders do theirs in flying, and use their short wings in the manner of fins, so that they may be said to fly be neath the surface. "Their movements, under water, precisely resemble those of the Dyticida, or Common Water-Beetles; the principal motion being more or less vertical, instead of horizontal as in the Grebes and Loons ; they are, therefore, together with the distinct group of Penguins, the most characteristic divers of the class." Their food, obtained by diving, (an operation in. which they are assisted by their wings as well as their feet,) consists of small fishes, crustaceans, and other marine animals. The Auks are frequently seen in immense numbers on rocky islets, and precipitate cliffs that overhang the sea, on the shelves and edges of which they lay their eggs, one only being deposited by each bird. The female, while sitting in an erect, position, keeps the egg between her feet for the purpose of incub ition. Many NATATORES. 425 families gain their subsistence by procuring the eggs and young of these and similar birds. The storm-lashed and iron-bound coasts of Northern Europe and America, and the frozen islands of the Arctic Seas are the dreary homes of the Auks; some of them roam hundreds of miles out to sea. The Penguins occupy, in the Southern Hemisphere, the place filled by the Auks or Puffins in the Northern. Their wings are very small, — mere rudiments, covered with an integument, re sembling scales, and entirely powerless as organs of flight; but they not only aid the bird in its divings and evolutions under water, but also as a sort of front extremities when progressing on land. Being without the power of flight, and unable to run, this bird may be easily overtaken on land; but when it reaches the water, it has no difficulty in distancing it? pursuers, swimming like a fish, and springing several feet over any obstacles which it meets in its course. The Penguins are peculiarly remarka ble for having a kind of ball and socket union in the vertebrae, corresponding, in some degree, to what is seen in the reptiles. The GREAT AUK, Alca impennis, (Lat. wingless,) is almost wingless, i. e. its wings are very small, entirely incapable of raising it in the air, but serving admirably as paddles to the bird when diving under water. The Lump-fish is said to be a spe cial favorite of the Great Auk. Audubon says, " the egg is very large, measuring five inches in length and three in its great est breadth ; the shell is thick and rather rough to the touch ; color yellowish white, with irregular lines and blotches of brownish black," which have been supposed to bear some resemblance to Chinese characters. Newfoundland is one of the breeding places of these Swimmers, and the Esquimaux who frequent that island are said to make clothing of their skins. The Great Auks are widely diffused in the northern hemisphere, but in high northern latitudes they "swarm." They may be seen on floating ice, but do not wander beyond soundings. The winter plumage, which begins to appear in autumn, "leaves the cheeks, throat, fore part and sides of the neck, white. In spring, the summer change begins to take place, and confines the white on the head to a large patch which extends in front and around the eyes ; the rest of the head, the neck and upper plumage is deep black." The length of the Great Auk is about three feet. The RAZOR-BILL, or BLACK-BILLED AUK, A. torda, has wings so far developed as to answer for the purpose of flight, though the bird uses them with great effect as oars, when swimming under water. Its length is about seventeen inches. These Auks breed from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to along the coast of 426 NATATORES. Labrador. Thousands of them are killed on that coast for the sake of the breast feathers, which are very warm and elastic. The eggs are about as large as a turkey's, being great in proper- tion to the size of the bird. Of these, incredible numbers are collected at Labrador and in its vicinity. The Razor-Bill is seen on the coast of New York State every autumn and winter ; it is common in Europe. The COMMON PUFFIN, or COULTER-NEB, Fratercula Arctica, or Mormon f rater cula, (Mormon Arcticus, DeKay.) has a beak mon strously large, rivaling in its development those of the Toucans and Hornbills, and from its enormous size and the sharpness of the edge, rendering this bird a formidable antagonist. This or gan is shorter than the head, higher than its length, somewhat triangular in outline, and has its sides cutinto furrows, (Plate IX. fig. 11.) The generic names applied to the Common Puffin, re fer, in their signification, to its singularly grotesque appearance, with its short, thick-set form, its erect attitude, and above all, its extraordinary and brightly colored beak. It makes a burrow for itself on the lofty cliffs, but sometimes avoids this labor by occu pying that of a rabbit which stands in awe of the formidable bill, and readily gives up his habitation. From the lofty cliff, the Puffin plunges fearlessly into the sea, and returns with its beak full of fish, which are secured by their heads, and lie in a row along the Puffin's bill. The length of this bird is from twelve to thirteen inches. The LITTLE GUILLEMOT, Uria alle-, or Mergulus alle, is from six to ten inches in length, sometimes, but rarely, seen on the coast of New York, its range being from 39° N. L. to the north pole. It is also called Sea-Dove, Sea-Pigeon. Pigeon Diver, or Ice-Bird. During the breeding season, it collects in vast num bers along the north and east coast of Baffin's Bay. Dr. Kane says it was not uncommon to kill more than a hundred in the course of a couple of hours. The long-sought and lamented Sir John Franklin killed and salted down so many of these birds as to augment his resources by nearly a two years' supply of food. " No other bird migrates in such numbers, or contributes so largely to the pleasures of the table." (Grinn. A ret. Exped.) The size of this bird compares well with that of a partridge ; the feet are short, plunged into the feathers far back beyond the equilibrium of the body ; it has three toes, all front and entirely webbed. While taking their food, consisting of small fish, crus taceans and medusae, they can be approached so near as to be knocked down with poles and boat hooks. The whalers some times shoot them with dried peas. Upon the bare rock they NATATORES. 427 lay, in company, each a single egg of a pale green, blotched with dark brown spots. So close are they together, that the birds, when sitting nearly upright, almost touch each other, covering the ledges ot the rocks upon which their young are hatched, and from whence they take to the water in five or six weeks. The PENGUINS, Aptenodytes, (Gr. a, priv., ptenos, winged ; dutes, a diver,) seem to be among the Natatores what the Os triches are among the strictly terrestrial birds. Swainson re marks that "the hind toe in the Penguins and Cormorants is placed almost as far forward as in the Swifts. In the Penguin the tarsus is so short as almost to be confounded with the sole of the foot, and is probably rested on the ground when the bird walks, just as in the bear and other plantigrade quadrupeds. The whole foot is remarkably flattened, as if to enable the bird to cover a greater breadth of ground." (Classification of birds, Vol. I.) The bones are described as very hard, compact and heavy, having no aperture for the admission of air; but they contain, especially the bones of the extremities, a thin oily marrow. The sensations of these birds are by no means acute. One writer relates that he stumbled over a sleeping one and kicked it some yards without disturbing its rest. Another states that he left a number of these birds apparently lifeless, while he went in pur suit of others ; but they afterwards got up and marched off with their usual gravity. The habits of the Penguins are highly interesting, and have frequently been described. Their camps, towns, and rookeries, so called, are largely descanted upon by southern voyagers. Those at the Falkland Islands have attracted particular atten tion.* The rookeries are said to be designed with the utmost order and regularity, though they are the resort of different species. But in the midst of this apparent order, there seems to be a want of good government, the stronger species stealing the eggs of the weaker, if they be left unguarded. The King or Patagonian Penguin, A. Patachonica, (Plate X. fig. 9b,) is said to be the great- * The rookeries at the Falkland Islands above referred to, sink into insig nificance when compared with a settlement of the King Penguins recorded by Mr. Gr. Bennett, who saw at the north end of Macquarrie Island, in the South Pacific ocean, a colony of these birds which covered an extent of thirty or forty acres. He describes the number of Penguins collected to gether in this spot as immense, but observes that "it would be impossible to guess at it with any near approach to truth, as during the whole of the day and night, 30,000 or 40,000 are continually landing, and an equal num ber going to sea." NATATORES. est thief of all. Three species are found in the Falkland Is- lands. Two of these, the King Penguin and the MACARONI, A. chrysocome, (Golden-haired or feathered,) deposit their eggs in these rookeries. The Jackass Penguin, A. demersa, (Lat. from demerge, to plunge in,) which is the third species, has its English name from the horrible brayings which it sets up at night. This makes its nest in burrows on downs or sandy plains, and does not appear to take invasion so quietly as the other species. H. T. Cheever, in his "Island World of the Pacific," when referring to his landing on the Falkland Islands, says: " What was our surprise to find what we had thought a facing of white stones, to be innumerable Penguins, standing erect and in the rank and file of battle array, upon the declivity of the rocks, and occupying at least two acres, in dense columns, away, back to the moss and grass. On every out-jutting angle or hollow, there was a dusky nest with a bird sitting upon it, and so unac quainted with man that we could climb up and lay hands upon them before they would move." He continues: "To those who have never seen a picture of a Penguin, it would be impossible to convey an idea, by description, of this odd amphibious crea ture. It has the head, bill, and two web- feet of a bird, and stands erect on land, sometimes two and a half and three feet in height. They have no wings nor proper feathers, but two fins or flippers, like the seal. Their motion on land is by successive hops in the most awkward manner conceivable. When going down a declivity, the center of gravity is often thrown too far forward, and away they tumble, and scramble, and roll over, until they get to the sea, in which they dive and swim with great swiftness. They are often seen singly, or two and three together, far out at sea. Their cry or bark is like the inarticulate human voice ; and sounding, as it often does, from the surface of the ocean like the cry of a man in distress, it startles and appals one." The largest species of the Patagonian Penguins is said to be four feet and a quarter in length, and to weigh forty pounds. When sit ting or attempting to walk, they have been compared to a dog that has been taught to sit up and move in a minuet. Their short legs drive the body in progression from side to side, and were they not assisted by their flipper-like wings, they could scarcely move faster than a tortoise. This awkward make of the legs, which so disqualifies them for living on the land, ad mirably adapts them for life on the water, inasmuch as they serve for propellers, and being placed so far behind the moving body, and worked the more swiftly for being short, they push forward NATATORES. 429 with great velocity ; with their heads erect, and their fin-like wings hanging down as half arms, they "look like so many chil dren with white aprons on." Hence they are said to " unite in themselves the qualities of men, fowls, and fishes ! Like men, they are upright ; like fowls, they are feathered ; and like fish, they have fin-like instruments that beat the water before them and serve for all the purposes of swimming rather than flying." They are covered more warmly with feathers than any other bird, so that the sea seems entirely their element. FOURTH FAMILY. PETRELS or FULMARS. Procellarida, (Lat. from procella, a storm.) The form of the beak in the birds of this family is very re markable ; it appears to be constituted of several separate pieces soldered together. The .upper mandible has the basal part sep arated from the tip by a deep, oblique furrow, and has on its summit a tube, (or two tubes united into one,) containing the nos trils ; the point of this mandible takes the form of a curved and pointed claw or nail ; the lower mandible is likewise seamed in a similar manner, and its tip is hooked downwards. (Plate IX. fig 10.) The front toes are united by a membrane ; the hind toe is re duced to a mere claw, which is elevated upon the tarsus and sometimes wanting. The wings are usually long, and the flight powerful. The Petrels are eminently birds of the ocean, rarely approach ing the land, except in the breeding period. Some of them ap pear to be almost always on the wing, following the course of ships for days together without alighting. Their food consists of small mollusks and crustaceans, and the oily particles which float upon the surface of the sea. In high latitudes, some of them feed with much voracity on the fat of slaughtered whales. Hence their flesh becomes apparently saturated with oil ; and when alarmed, many of them occasionally eject fetid oil from their nostrils, as a defence. This family includes a number of species, about eight of which are found in America. The COMMON FULMAR, Procellaria glacialis, (Lat. icy,) or Fulmarus glacialis, is considered the type of the true Petrels, having a stout, thick bill, with the upper mandible considerably hooked at the tip. and sulcated or furrowed ; the lower mandi ble is straight and slightly truncated ; th£ nostrils are united in a single tube ; the legs of only moderate length. This bird is a, native of the Polar regions, but is found, though in less num- 430 NATATORES. bers, in the Northern Seas of Europe and America. It is not uncommon off the coast from New York to Nova Scotia. The rocky St. Kilda, one of the western islands of Scotland, is the only place of annual resort for this bird in the British dominions. (Shelby.) It is from sixteen to eighteen inches in length ; breeds in high latitudes, never coming to the coast except for the pur poses of nesting, or when driven thither by gales. The bill, iris and feet are yellow ; the head, neck, and lower parts pure white ; the back and wings, of a grayish blue. Scoresby says: " The Fulmar is the constant companion of the whale-fisher. It joins his ship immediately on passing the Shetland Islands, and accom panies it through the trackless ocean to the highest accessible latitudes, ever keeping an eager watch for any thing thrown overboard; the smallest particle of fatty substance can scarcely escape it. It never dives but when incited to it by the appear- ence of a morsel of fat under water." Though like Mother Carey's Chicken, it follows in the wake of ships, its food is of a somewhat higher grade, being restricted to the garbage of the vessel, blubber, &c. This bird is the Mollemoke of Dr. Kane. The SLENDER-BILLED FULMAR, P. tenuirostris, is a species named by Audubon. Its length is eighteen inches and a half. It is common near Columbia river; is easily taken with a hook baited with pork, and during a gale is so tame as almost to allow itself to be taken with the hand. The Southern Seas are visited by several species of Petrels. The largest, the NELLY or BREAK-BONES, P. gigantea, is a com mon bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. "In its habit and manner of flight," says Darwin in his Voyage of Adventure, "there is a very close resemblance to the Albatross, and, as with the latter bird, a person may watch it for hours to gether without seeing on what it feeds, so it is with this Petrel. The Break-Bone is, however, a rapacious bird, for it was ob served by some of the officers of fort San Antonio, chasing a diver. The bird tried to escape both by diving and flying, but it was continually struck down, and at last killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. Julian, also, these Great Petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls." These large Petrels are called by the sailors, Mother Carey's Geese. The SHEARWATER, Puffinus, differs from the true Petrels by having a longer bill, and the tubular nostrils open, not by a com mon aperture, but by two distinct orifices. The WANDERING or LARGE SHEARWATER, P. cinereus, (ashy- colored,) is twenty inches in length, and of a sooty brown color. It is frequently seen off the shore from the Gulf of St. Lawrence NATATORES. 43 } to that of Mexico. According to Mr. Darwin, it is common to Cape Horn and the coast of Peru, as well as Europe. The flight of these Wanderers of the ocean is very rapid and long protracted. In calm weather they are fond of alighting on the water, in com pany with the Fulmars, and when at play among themselves, swim with great buoyancy and have a graceful appearance. The PUFFIN, or SHEARWATER, P. anglorum, is a species that once largely inhabited a small islet near the southern part of the Isle of Man, but has of late deserted it. It is now abundant on the coast of South Wales. It has been found in the vicinity of Newfoundland. In the Orkney Islands it is called the LYRE, and is much valued, both on account of its serving as food, and for its feathers. This bird is described as standing nearly erect and flying with great rapidity. " It feeds on marine animal sub- stances of all kinds, and when taken squirts out an oily fluid from its nostrils, in the manner of the Petrels." It breeds in burrows, laying one egg, which is white and about as large as that of the domestic fowl. The upper parts of the body are of a lustrous black ; the under parts pure white ; the sides of the neck speck led with black and white ; length thirteen inches. The LITTLE SHEARWATER, P. obscurus, is of a brown color above ; beneath, white ; in length, ten or eleven inches. It is common to Europe and America; ranges northwardly from the coast of Mexico to that of New York. The genus Thalassidroma, (Gr. Thalassa, the sea ; dromos, a race,) including the smallest of the web- footed birds, has been separated from the rest of the Petrel group. They are of noc turnal or crepuscular habits, and seldom seen except in lowering or stormy weather, when they frequently follow in the track of ships. At other times and during clear weather, they are con- cealed in the holes of rocks and in burrows, and only come forth at night in search of food. Their flight equals in swiftness that of the Swallow tribe, which they resemble in size, color, and general appearance. They breed in the crevices of rocks or in burrows, like the rest of the family, laying but one egg, which is white and comparatively large. The STORMY or LEAST PETREL, T. pelagica, (belonging to the sea,) or P. pelagica, is known to sailors under the name of Mother Carey's Chicken, and by them regarded as the precursor of a storm. This is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds, being only about six inches long. In the length of its wings and its swift flight, it is like the Chimney Swallow ; in its plumage it is black with purple reflections, except the rump and a portion of the tail, which are white. It is met with on every part of 432 NATATORES. the ocean, diving or swimming over the surface of the heavy rolling waves of the most tempestuous sea, quite at ease and in security. Long before seamen can discover any appearance of a storm, these birds, as if foreseeing and fearing its approach, flock together in large numbers, making a clamorous, piercing cry, thus warning the mariner of his danger. So oily is the Stormy Petrel said to be in its texture, that the inhabitants of the Faroe islands draw a wick through its body and use it as a lamp. A most singular peculiarity of this bird is its faculty of standing and even running on the surface of the water, which it does with the greatest facility. According to BufFon, it is from this practice that these birds are called Petrels, the name being de rived from the Apostle Peter, who, as Sacred Scripture informs us, walked upon the water. This species is not observed to breed on the American coast, though it is not uncommon on the Banks of Newfoundland. WILSON'S PETREL, or MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN, T. Wilsonii, is a little over seven inches in length ; in the color of its plu mage of a dark grayish brown, with some portions of white. It is less lively than the common Stormy Petrel. The FORK-TAILED PETREL, T. Lcachii, is eight inches in length ; of similar plumage with Wilson's Petrel, but less active and does not breed so extensively on the American coast. The genus Diomedea, (a proper name.) comprises, among other species, the ALBATROSS OF CHINA, D. fidiginosa, (Lat. sooty ;) the YELLOW AND BLACK-BEAKKD ALBATROSS, D. chlo- rorhyncos, (Gr. yellow-beaked;) (this has been taken on the Pa cific not far from Columbia river;) and the COMMON ALBATROSS, D. exidans, (Lat. wandering.) The beak in these birds is very strong, hard, long, and straight nearly to the end, where it sud denly curves. The upper mandible appears to be composed of many articulated pieces, furrowed on the sides and crooked at the point ; the lower mandible is smooth and cut short ; the wings are very long and narrow with the primary quill short and the secondaries long; the feet short; the three toes long and completely webbed. Albatross is a word said to be corrupted " from the Portuguese • Alcatraz, which was applied by the early navigators of that na tion to cormorants and other large sea-birds." The COMMON ALBATROSS, D. exulans, (Lat. wandering,) is the largest sea-bird known. The top of the head is a muddy gray, but the rest of the plumage is white, except a few of the wing- feathers, and several transverse black bands on the back. The range of these birds is very extensive. They are not confined NATATORES. 433 to the Southern Ocean, as has been supposed, but are equally numerous in northern latitudes, (excepting, perhaps, the tropics.) From its often breeding with the Penguin, it has been supposed to have a peculiar affection for that amphibious creature, and a pleasure in its company. Their nests are seen together on unin habited islands, where the ground slants to the sea. As if for mutual protection, the Albatross raises its nest on a hillock of heath, sticks, and long grass, about two feet high, and lays one eg** ; around this, the Penguins, in a circle, make their lower settlement in burrowed holes in the ground, — commonly, it is said, eight Penguins to one Albatross. "The Albatross," says Cheever, "is the most beautiful and lovable object of the animate world which the adventurer meets with in all the South Pacific; when on the wing, it is the very ideal of beauty and grace. The capture of a whale a thousand miles from land, will bring them trooping from afar, as a carcass in Mexico or Louisiana, will the Turkey-Buzzards. I have watched them singly, keeping company with our ship, and have seen them gathered by hundreds when the cutting-in of a whale along side, allured them from a circuit of five hundred miles. They sit upon the water light and graceful as Swans, and feed on small marine animals, mucilaginous zoophytes, the spawn of fish, and blubber. Not unfrequently, they measure eleven feet from tip to tip of the outspread wings, and weigh from seventeen to eighteen pounds." Another voyager, (Ives,) mentions one shot off the Cape of Good Hope, "which measured seventeen feet and a half from wing to wing." In the Arctic Exploring Voyage, Dr. McCormick met with one weighing twenty pounds, and having twelve feet stretch of wings. The Albatross does not seem to be a quarrelsome bird, but when attacked by its enemy, the Skua Gull, it seeks safety in flight. Sometimes, however, it does so by dipping its body in the water, its formidable bill appearing to repel its assailants. When it wishes to rise on the wing, 4i it has to tread water a long way, like a running Ostrich, before it can attain its due momentum and soar aloft; and when captured, and set at liberty in the ship, it can never, of itself, rise from the even surface of the deck, but we must toss the noble bird overboard, or lift him quite clear of the ship's rail, before he can raise his glorious pinions, and mount aloft in the air." Billets of wood with inscriptions upon them, are often attached to these birds before setting them loose ; in repeated instances, such birds have been captured in different and distant latitudes by other ships, and curious information has thus been communi- 434 NATATORES. cated. "They are caught by baiting a hook with pork or blubber, and fastening a piece of wood near the bait, so that it may be kept floating, and letting it tow astern. Superstitious sailors sometimes ascribe the high winds and bad weather to their having killed an Albatross." FIFTH FAMILY. GULLS. Larida, (Gr. Ao^oj, laros, a mew or gull.) .. These web-footed and well known sea-birds, are numerously dispersed over every quarter of the world, and, in some parts, are met with at certain seasons, in prodigious multitudes. They assemble together in rather promiscuous arid straggling flocks, and greatly enliven the beach and rocky cliffs, by their irregular movements, while their shrill cries are often deadened by the noise of the waves, or nearly drowned in the roaring of the surge. Occasionally, taking a wide range over the ocean, they are seen by navigators many leagues distant from the land. They are all greedy and gluttonous, devouring, almost indiscriminately, what ever comes in their way, whether of fresh or putrid substances, until they are obliged to disgorge the contents of theMr overloaded stomachs; still, they can endure protracted .hunger. The large kind of Gulls are most common in the cold climates of the North, where they breed and raise their young, feeding chiefly upon the remains of dead whales, which they find floating on the sea, among the ice, or driven on shore by the winds and waves. The True or Typical Gulls, (Larus ) are much more decidedly land birds than any other of the order. Those of the sub-genus Xema or Laughing Gulls, in particular, roam much inland ; feed on insects and worms ; build among herbage in low nests near the sea; lay eggs of an olive color, marked with large brown spots; and undergo seasonable changes of plumage; all of which may be said of the Plovers. To the Wading Birds, the Plovers especially, the Gulls, (Larus,) approach in their general form, in attitude, in the long and slender tarsus, with the hind toe small and set high up, (as in the Lapwing, Vanellus,) in the naked space above the heel, and even in the form of the beak, straight, slender, and swelling towards the tip — and also in the internal structure. We quote from Swainson some remarks, pointing out clearly the differences in the three sections into which the Gulls have been arranged, viz: FORK-TAILED GULLS, ( Rynchops ;) the THREE-TOED GULLS, (Larus,) and the FOUR-TOED GULLS, (Leslris.) NATATORES. 435 " The TERNS, or Sea-Swallows, (Sterna,) constitute the fissiros- tral type ; they have remarkably long wings, and slender bills ; the tail is forked; and the plumage, generally, is of a delicate pearl-white, with more or less black upon the head ; the species are numerous, and occur in both hemispheres. The extraordi nary .genus, Rhynchops,, or Skimmer, although possessing much of the general habits of the Terns, is eminently distinguished by the singular form of its bill, the upper mandible of which is con siderably shorter than the under, and appears as if one-third of the length had been broken off; three species have been de scribed, to which we add a fourth ; they skirn over the surface of the ocean with great swiftness, and scoop up small marine insects and other animals. The True or Typical Gull, (Larus,) are a numerous race, dispersed over every clime, and so closely resembling each other in plumage, that many of the species are even now but imperfectly understood; they are much like the Terns in general appearance, but the bill is stronger, and the upper mandible is much more curved towards the end ; many are of larger size ; and all, rapacious devourers of fish, and of every marine animal, dead or alive, which is cast upon the shore ; they particularly abound in northern latitudes, but seem to range over the wide world of waters. The Parasitic Gulls, (Lestris,) are the raptorial representative in this family, and are almost confined to cold regions ; they are known by their stronger conformation, their different shaped bill, and the rough scales upon their feet ; these birds, like the frigate cormorants, derive their chief supply of food by robbing their more feeble congen ers ; they pursue the largest Gulls, and make them disgorge or relinquish their hard-earned prey. The Black-toed and the Arctic Gulls belong to this group, and both are occasionally seen on the northern shores of Britain." FORK-TAILED GULLS. The BLACK SKIMMER, Rhynchops, (Gr. rhunchos, beak ; ops, face;) nigra, (Lat. black.) This singularly endowed bird (re ferred to above) is dispersed in large flocks from Texas to New Jersey. It reaches the coast of New York State in May ; breeds on sand beaches or islands; at night, ascending streams, sometimes to the distance of one hundred miles. The length of the male bird is twenty inches. The bill, for half its length, is a rich carmine, inclining to vermilion ; and the feet are of the same color ; the claws, black. The upper parts are a deep brownish black ; the secondary quills, and four or five of the primaries, tipped with white ; the tail-feathers of the male, are black, broadly 430 NATATORES. margined with white, (in the female they are white ;) the under parts are white, with a roseate tinge. This bird is known under the names Shearwater, Razor-bill, Cutwater, Skimmer, Floodgull, and Shippang. Its eggs are three or four, white, blotched with shades of brown, laid in a slight hollow in the sand. Audubon says, " The flight of the Black Skimmer is perhaps more elegant than that of any water-bird with which I am acquainted. The great length of Jts narrow wings, its partially elongated forked tail, its thin body and extremely compressed bill, all appear con trived to assure it that buoyancy which one cannot but admire when he sees it on the wing. It is able to maintain itself in the heaviest gale ; and I believe no instance has been recorded of any bird of this species having been forced inland by the most violent storm." These birds show much sagacity in finding their place of rendezvous in the- morning, after having been scattered during the night in all directions in quest of food ; and evince great enmity to Crows and Turkey Buzzards, driving them as marauders from their breeding grounds. All possess great power and endurance in flight; their long forked tails and pointed wings, indicating both strength and swiftness. Of the TERNS, twelve or more species might be enumerated. But we can only refer in particular to — the COMMON TERN, Sterna Jiirundo, (Lat. swallow,) found in abundance on the southern shores of Europe, and in many parts of Asia and Africa. This species, from fourteen to sixteen inches in length ; is sometimes called the Big Tern, — in Massachusetts, the Mackerel Tern. It ranges on this Continent from the tropics to the Arctic circle. The CAYENNE TERN, S. Cayana, is larger than the Common Tern, in its size and its robust tarsi, resembling the smaller Gulls. It breeds from Florida southwardly, but is met with from the intertropical regions to 55 o N. L. Length from sixteen to nineteen inches. — The NODDY TERN, S. stolida, (Lat. dull,) receives its common name from the breeding places of this species, one of the Tor- tuff as Keys, called Noddy Key. The Sooty Terns, S.fuliginosa, breed on an island a few miles distant. The Noddy ranging from Florida southwardly, has been frequently celebrated by travelers who have crossed the equator. Its color is sooty brown ; the bill, black ; the crown, white ; the tail, wedge-shaped and long. The Noddies form regular nests of twigs and dry grass, which they place on the bushes or low trees, but never on the ground. The female lays three eggs, of a reddish yellow color, spotted with dull red and purple. "When seized in the hand, the Noddy utters a rough cry, not unlike that of a young Amer- NATATORES. 4JJ7 lean Crow taken from the nest. On such occasions, it does not disgorge its food, like the Cayenne Tern and other species, although it bites severely, with quickly repeated movements of the bill, which, on missing the object aimed at, snaps like that of our larger Fly-Catchers." Length about sixteen inches. — The SILVERY or LITTLE TERN, S. argentea, (Lat. silvery,) is closely allied to the S. minuta, (Lat. small or minute,) of Europe. The upper parts and tail, are a deep pearl gray; all beneath, silvery white. It is larger than the corresponding European species, and the entire upper parts, (with the tail,) are of a lighter shade. Length from nine to ten inches. The eggs are light yellowish white, with angular dark brown spots. The Silvery Tern breeds from Texas to Labrador. THREE-TOED GULLS. The GULLS, Larus, are represented by thirteen or more species on this continent. In these the hind toe is very small, and artic ulated high up on the tarsus ; in one species entirely wanting. The GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL, L. marinus, is the largest Gull that is seen on the American coast, and described as ex ceedingly bold, voracious, and predatory in its habits. Its length is from twenty-eight to thirty inches ; the expanse of wings about five feet and a half. It breeds on the coast, from Labrador northwardly ; ranging in the winter, to New York, and migra ting as far South as Florida. It is also common in many parts of the North of Europe, where it finds a home. Its nest is made of grass, rushes, and other materials, and contains three or four eggs, of an olive green, marked with very dark brown. Audu- bon remarks, "This bird must be of extraordinary longevity, as I have seen one that was kept in captivity more than thirty years." The back and wings are a deep bluish black ; the quills, with black shafts, tipped with white; in the summer, the head and neck are pure white ; in winter, the same parts are white, with brownish streaks. The COMMON AMERICAN GULL. L. zonorliyncus, (Gr. zone or ring-billed,) has a mantle of bluish gray ; the head, tail, and under parts, white ; the outer quills are black, tipped with white. In the quills, however, the plumage changes with the age and season. It is popularly called the BROWN WINTER GULL, — a name referring to the plumage of the young, rather than of the adult. The ring on the bill is not always found. The length of this spe cies is nineteen inches. It is allied to the L. canus, (Lat. gray,) or Gray Gull, of Europe, breeds from Maine northwardly, — and 438 NATATORES. during the winter, is seen as far South as Mexico; sometimes it appears on the Pacific coast. The FOUR-TOED PARASITIC GULLS. JAGERS, or SKUAS. These birds all breed in high northern latitudes, spreading themselves into the interior on lakes and rivers ; but in the winter are seen in temperate regions, and on this Continent as far South as Mexico. The bill is of moderate length, cylindrical, and hooked at the tip; the hook and tip, of separate pieces; the hind toe is small, and on a level with the others; the tail is even or rounded ; the central pair of feathers very much lengthened. Of the several species, we can refer particularly only to The ARCTIC JAGER, Lestris, (Gr. a pillager,) parasiticus, which is seen in great numbers in the northern regions. Like the other Skuas, it obtains the greater part of its subsistence by pursuing and buffeting the peaceable Gulls, and compelling them to give up the produce of their toils. But the Jagers also feed on fish, insects, and worms. Temminck particularly mentions the Janthina, or Oceanic Snail, as forming a portion of their sustenance. " In truth, no animal substances seem to come amiss to them." The nests of these birds are composed of dry grass and mosses, and placed on unfrequented heaths, at some distance from the shore; the eggs are two, of a dark olive green, with irregular blotches of dark brown. Captains Parry and Ross speak of this bird as abundant at Baffin's Bay and in the islands of the Polar Sea. It is said, that it "is frequently met with inland, seeking its food along the water courses which occupy the bottom of ravines ; differing in this respect from the Pomarine Jager, L. pomarinus, which is exclusively a Sea-bird." The length of the Arctic Jager is twenty-three inches. The plumage is "close, elastic, soft, and blended ; " on the upper parts blackish gray ; the neck and lower parts, white, the former tinged with yellow. SIXTH FAMILY. PELICANS. Pelecanida, (Gr. TW-taxd*', pelecan, a pelican.) The Pelican family are characterised by having the hind toe united with the others in a single membrane, so that the whole four toes are webbed. The bill is, generally, longer than the head, strong, and sometimes compressed ; the mandibles are dentate, (toothed ;) the nostrils mere slits, the aperture to which is scarcely perceivable. With the exception of the Phaeton or Tropic-bird, — which, in many respects, agrees with the Gulls, — there is more or less of naked skin about the face and throat ; NATATORES. 439 the skin of the throat is capable of being dilated ; the wings are long and powerful ; the feet short and robust ; the tail consists of twelve, fourteen, twenty or twenty-four feathers. Though their completely webbed feet seem to be perfect oars, peculiarly adapting these birds to an aquatic life, yet a very large part of them do not swim or dive at all, but perch on trees. They all fly well, and some, from the broad expanse of their wings, have uncommon powers of flight. Soaring far out over the ocean, when a fish first arrests their attention, they plunge down upon it, and instantly rise again into the air. The birds of this family nestle and roost either on rocks or lofty trees ; the eggs are encased with a soft, absorbent, chalky substance laid over the hard shell ; the young are, at first, cov ered with long and flossy blackish down. They remain a great while in the nest, and when they leave it, are generally equal or superior to the adults in weight. The species are not very numerous, but are found in the seas and around the coasts of most parts of the globe. The plumage is usually black, (often glossed with metallic reflections,) and white. This family may be arranged into the Pelicans proper, (Toti- palmes, of Cuvier,) the Cormorants, the Darters, the Frigate Birds, the Gannets, and the Phaetons. PELICANS PROPER. The True Pelicans, Pelecanus, are large and heavy birds, with very long, rather narrow, and rounded wings; the tail is short, broad, rounded, with twenty to twenty-four feathers, which are broad, and abruptly pointed. A pouch which hangs under the lower mandible, is capable of containing a large quantity of water. It has been said by some writers, that this pouch "ena bles these birds to dispose of a superabundance of fish, which they take, either for their own use, or the nourishment of their young," and this has been the generally received idea. Audu- bon, however, who often noticed flocks of these birds, says "the idea that the Pelicans keep fish or water in their pouches to con vey them to their young, is quite erroneous." He states, as the result of his observations, that the water is immediately forced out between the partially closed mandibles; and the fish, "unless larger than those on which they usually feed," are instantly swallowed, though afterwards disgorged for the benefit of the young. The Pelicans have long been celebrated as symbols of maternal love. Books of emblems have depicted this bird as tearing open the breast to nourish its young with its blood, but this representation is not well founded. The fact appears to be, 440 NATATORES. that the bird, in the process of feeding its young, crushes the fish between its mandibles, and thus stains its white breast with drops of blood. The Pelicans are rarely seen more than sixty miles from land. They are gregarious, and nUYnerous in Asia and Africa, as well as in Europe and America. The COMMON WHITE PELICAN, P. onocrotalus, (Gr. vnokrota- los, a pelican,) is an European species, with which that of P. Americanus, or the American White Pelican, very nearly agrees. The American, however, differs from the European bird in having a " long, thin, bony process in the upper mandi ble." " The male of the American species is sixty-one and three- fourths inches long; bill thirteen and three-fourths inches ; ex panse of wings one hundred and three inches." In this species, the feet and pouch are pale yellow, as are the long feathers on the breast, and the tuft on the back of the head. The BROWN PELICAN, P.fuscus, (Lat. brown.) is, when ma ture, fifty-two inches in length ; the expanse of wings is eighty inches. It is very abundant on the American coast as far north ward as North Carolina ; breeds on trees, and also on the ground ; the pouch is usually from six to ten inches in depth, and will hold a gallon of water. This membrane is sometimes dried, and used for keeping snuff, gun-powder, and shot. The quantity offish which the Brown Pelicans consume, is extremely large. They often times become so overburdened with food, that flight is diffi cult. Audubon examined one which had in the stomach up wards of a hundred small fishes; sometimes "he found in that organ a great number of live, blue colored worms, measuring about two and a half inches in length, and about the thickness of a Crow-quill." The bodies of these birds are greatly inflated by air-ceils ; their bones are very light ; and they are hard to kill. The Black-headed Gull, which is abundant along the coast of Florida in spring and summer, closely watches the motions of these Pelicans, in order to seize the small fishes which in letting off the water from the bill, they sometimes allow to escape ; for that purpose, the Gull alights on the Pelican's bill, or on his head, and seizes the prey when apparently just on the eve of deliverance, — the Pelican, meanwhile, exhibiting no symptoms of annoyance or anger. The CORMORANTS are included in the genus Plialacrocorax, (Gr. plialakros, bald ; korax, raven.) They are widely spread over many parts of the world, and every where remarkable for their voraciousness. The bill in these birds is about as long as the head, rather slender, nearly straight, and compressed towards the end, the upper mandible ending in a powerful hook ; the sac NATATORES. 441 under the throat is small, by no means comparing in size with that of the Pelicans proper; the nostrils are obliterated, but in youth open, (Aud. ;) the wings of moderate size and broad ; the tail of moderate length, very narrow and much rounded, having twelve or more strong shafted feathers. These birds differ from others of the family in being excellent divers. Their plumage is soft and generally blended, compact on the back and wings ; usually of dark, but often rich colors, varying with age and the season of the year. They are capable of domestication and are trained to catch and bring in fish. The Chinese who use them for this purpose, put a'ring around the neck as a hindrance to their devouring the fish. To increase the power of swallowing, it should be noted that the Cormorant has an additional bone pe culiar to itself, on the back part of the head, called the xyphoid (sword-like) bone, which, moving with facility in each direc tion, by the action of the muscles attached to it, enlarges the opening of the gullet for the more easy passage of any unusu ally large fish. The COMMON CORMORANT, P. carlo, (Lat. charcoal,) is spread over a considerable portion of Europe, especially the north. It is a common bird in England; in this country ranges in the win ter and is plentiful as far south as New York ; breeds in New foundland, Labrador and Baffin's Bay. It swims very low in the water ; even in the sea its body is deeply immersed, so that little more than the head and neck can be seen above the sur face ; and most expertly does it dive after its fishy prey. It perches on trees, where it is occasionally known to build its nest, but it mostly selects rocky shores and islands, preferring, accord ing to Selby, the summits, and not, like the Green Cormorant, the clefts or ledges. The nest is said to be composed entirely of a mass of sea-weed, frequently heaped up to the height of two feet, in which are deposited from three to five eggs, of a pale bluish-white, with a rough surface. Ravens and Peregrine Falcons have been observed to have nests on the same rocks with those of the Cormorant, and in some instances, close to them. This bird is sometimes three feet and four inches in length. The GREEN CORMORANT or SHAG, P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) does not perch on trees like the others. As illustrating the depth to which this bird dives, Mr. Yarrell says : " The Shag has been caught in a crab-pot fixed at twenty fathoms, or a hundred feet from the surface." The specific name is given to it from the crest or tuft of wide outspread feathers which appears in the spring on the back part of the head, and is capable of erection. The Shag is without the white feathers on the neck and thighs 442 NATATORES which are seen in the Common or Great Cormorant. The length is two feet, one or two inches. The VIOLET GREEN CORMORANT, P. resplendens, (Lat. glit tering,) is the most beautiful species which has been found within the limits of the United States. The gloss of its silky plumage suggested the specific name. This bird has been found in abund ance near the Columbia river. The length of the female is two feet three inches. THE DARTERS, OR SNAKE-BIRDS. These birds, which are included in the genus Plotus, have bills longer than the head, slender, pointed, and finely serrated at the extremity ; the tarsus is partly feathered above ; the neck is much lengthened; the tail long, spreading and much rounded. The necks of these birds, often rapidly moved and bent, sug gested the name of Darter, or Snake Bird. (Fig. on Chart.) The AMERICAN ANHINGA, or SNAKE BIRD, P. Anhinga, is a common and constant resident from Florida to Georgia, and it passes up the Mississippi as far as Natchez. In the southern parts of Florida it is called the " Grecian Lady." This bird is seen only occasionally in the immediate vicinity of the sea, de cidedly preferring rivers, small bays, or lagoons in the interior where the land is level and lies low. It is quite remarkable in its appearance and manners, often standing erect with the wings and tail spread out in the sunshine, and throwing its long slen der neck and head, in every direction, by sudden jerks and bendings. Though adapted for protracted and powerful flight, as is shown by its form, long wings and large fan-like tail, this bird spends more than half its time by day in the water. On the approach of any danger, it sinks its body and swims with its head and neck only above the surface, when these parts, " from their form and peculiar sinuous motion, somewhat resemble the head and part of the body of a snake." The nest of the Snake Bird is found in different situations, sometimes in low bushes not more than eight or ten feet above the water ; at others, on large and tall cypresses, overhanging the borders of rivers or other streams. The nest is of a circular form and two feet in diameter; the eggs of a sky-blue color. NATATORES. 443 FRIGATE BIRDS. These birds, though in some respects nearly resembling the Cormorants, yet at the same time, differ from them in the very broad expanse of the wing, by which they are rendered the most powerful of the Swimming Birds. They also differ from the Cormorants in their feet, the webs of which are deeply notched, and in the form of the tail and beak. The tail is very long, deeply forked, and of twelve feathers; the bill is longer than the head, strong, and broader than high, except towards its curved extremity. The Frigate or man-of-war birds, seem par ticularly fond of the Flying fish, darting at it themselves when near the surface of the water, or obtaining it from other birds which they force to drop their prey. Often they sadly persecute the Boobies. Indeed, these birds are eminently raptorial. Ray speaks of their eagle eyes, vulturine claws, and kite-like glid ings. Their immense extent of wing and dashing habits have obtained for them the name of the swiftest ships of war that sweep the seas. The Frigate or Man-of-War Birds, are included in one genus and species, Tachypetes, (Gr. tachus, swift; petdo, to fly,) or Fregata aquilus, (Lat. from aquila, an eagle.) Their length is three feet five inches; the expanse of wings is eight feet ; some accounts make it fourteen feet! Audubon says: "The Frigate Pelican is possessed of a power of flight which I con ceive superior to that of perhaps any other bird." This bird is very common on the intertropical American coasts, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but always within reach of land. It resides constantly on and about the Florida Keys, where it breeds in vast numbers, on trees. Sometimes the nest is built on elevated rocky cliffs. GANNETS, OR BOOBIES. These have bills differing somewhat from those of the Frig, ate Bird, being long and resembling a lengthened cone which is very large at the base and compressed towards the slightly curved point ; the edges of the mandibles are serrated ; the hind toe is articulated to the inner surface of the tarsus, and all the four toes are united by a membrane ; the wings are long ; the power of flight is however not equal to that of the Frigate Bird ; the tail is wedge-formed. The COMMON GANNET of Europe, Sulaalla, (Lat. white.) is sometimes called the SOLAN GOOSE. Its length is about thirty- 444 NATATORES. four inches. The head and neck are of a buff color, all the rest of the plumage white, except the wing primaries, which are black. This species is also included among the birds of Ma deira and South Africa. The AMERICAN GANNET, S. Americana, is thirty-seven inches in length. Near the base of the upper mandible is " a sharp pro cess and suture," which this bird can move in a small degree in swallowing a fish. This was formerly supposed to be identical with the European Gannet, but is now considered a distinct species. The Booby Gannet, S.fusca, (Lai. tawny,) has the head, neck, and all the upper parts dusky brown ; the under parts white ; the face, bill and feet yellow. Its length is thirty-one inches. The term Booby is more particularly applied to this species on account of the stupidity which it shows when assailed, calmly waiting to be knocked on the head, as these birds often do when sitting on shore, or when perching on the yard of a ship till the sailor climbs to their resting place, and takes them off with the hand. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written about the stupidity of this bird, its dullness may be questioned ; it may not, like other birds, associate danger, certainly not at first, with the appearance of man ; its wings are so long, and its legs so short, that when once at rest, it has difficulty in setting the for mer in motion, and when surprised has no resource but its beak, which is seldom feared by the aggressor. Audubon says : " I am unable to find a good reason for those who have chosen to call these birds boobies." It has been affirmed by many writers and eye-witnesses that this bird suffers greatly from the persecu tions of the Frigate-bird, and the Lestris or Skua Gull, which force it to disgorge its food. All the old voyagers abound in entertaining stories relating to this subject, and it is hardly credible that a/7 were mistaken. Audubon, however, says, "this / have never wit nessed." The nest of the Booby is placed on the top of a bush at a height of four to ten feet ; sometimes on ledges of rocks cov ered with herbage. It lays one egg, of a dull white color, about as large as that of a common hen. This bird ranges from Georgia southwardly, but is occasionally seen farther north. It is found in large numbers on Noddy island, one of the Tortugas, in company with the Noddies. TROPIC BIRDS, OR PHAETONS. These birds, (Phaeton.) are distinguished by two long slender tail feathers, and well known to navigators as the harbingers of NATA TORES. 44 J the tropics. They are characterized by extraordinary length of wing and feeble feet ; they are hence well formed for flight, and disport in the air far out at sea ; on land they are seen perch ing on rocks and trees. The COMMON TROPIC BIRD, P. athereus, is somewhat larger than a partridge. The bill is red, with an angle under the lower mandible, as in the Gulls. The eyes are surrounded with black, which ends in a point towards the back of the head ; three or four of the largest quill feathers, towards their ends, are black tipped with white ; all the rest of the plumage is white, except the back, which is variegated with curved lines of black ; the legs and feet are of a vermilion red. These birds are seldom seen but a few degrees north or south of either tropic. They glide along, most frequently without any motion of the wing, but at times, this smooth progression is interrupted by sudden jerks. When they perceive a ship, they never fail to sail around it as if to reconnoitre. They ordinarily return every evening to land to roost in the midst of the rocks where they place their nests. The long feathers of the tail are used by the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands as ornaments of dress. What is the 2nd order of AQUATIC BIRDS? What is said of their distri bution ? What of the Grebe's foot ? What is said of the feet of the other SWIMMERS ? What of their motion on land and in the water ? What is remarked of their plumage ? What peculiarity of these birds is noticed by Cuvier? Have any of them very high powers of flight? What is said of their flesh? What are their resorts? How many families does this or der include ? Give the leading characteristics of the 1st FAMILY. What is said of their nests and young ? Upon what do they feed ? How does their beak aid them in obtaining their food ? Are they assisted by any other organ ? What birds form the connecting link between the SWIMMERS and WADERS? Do the TRUE DUCKS include many species? What is said of the Shoveler or Spoon-bill ? What sp. are referred to and what is said of each ? What SUB-FAMILY is mentioned ? How many genera does it include ? Where are the Sea Ducks mostly found? What is said of their migration ? Where do they make their nests? How do they cover their eggs? Which gen. in cludes peculiarly Marine Ducks? For what is the Eider D. remarkable? What is peculiar in its beak? What does Dr. Kane say of its appearance, &c. ? What facts show the great numbers of these birds at the north? What is said of their nests ? How many kinds of down and how do they differ? Illustrate the elasticity of the live down. Where are the King- Ducks found ? What is said of their flesh and down? What is said of the Surf D. ? What sp. is mentioned? Why is it called the Velvet D. and what is said of its down ? Where is it very numerous ? Where are the breeding places of the Canvas-backs? When are they "seen on the coast of the U. S. ? What else is said of them ? What of the Spirit D. ? Of ike Long-tailed D. ? Mention the different sp. of GEESE. Which of these 446 NATATORES. is the origin of the Common Domestic Goose ? What is said of the Egyp tian Goose? What SUB-FAMILY is named? How many gen. has it? What is said of the Smew ? What of the Merganser ? What is the 2nd FAMILY? Are they more or less aquatic than the Ducks? What is said of the beak, &c. ? What of the Loons and Grebes ? What is said of their ability to walk and fly ? What of their power as swim mers and divers ? How do they use their wings under water ? What is said of their plumage and food? Which are Ocean birds ? Which Fresh water ? What of the diving of the Grebes ? Of their stomach ? Which is the largest of the Loons ? What is said of it ? Which are the other sp. ? What is said of them ? Which is the 3rd FAMILY? What is said of their structure and habits? What characteristics are given? In moving under water do they "use their feet? What insects do they resemble in such motion? Of what does their food consist, and how do they obtain it ? Where are they seen in immense numbers? What is said of their eggs? In which hemisphere are the AUKS found ? What birds fill their places in the Southern H. ? What is said of their wings? Of their movements in water? For what are the PENGUINS peculiarly remarkable ? What is said of the Great Auk ? Of the Razor or Black-billed A.? Of the Common PUFFIN? Of the Lit tle Guillemot ? What relation do the Penguins sustain to the Swimming Birds ? What does Swainson remark ? What is said of the bones of the Penguins? What of their sensations? What of their habits? Which of their rookeries have attracted particular attention ? Are they arranged with order? What is said of their extent? Describe the characteristics and habits of the Penguins, as given by Cheever. Which is the 4th FAMILY? Give its characters. What are its habits? How many sp. in America? Which is the type of the TRUE PETRELS? In what localities is it found ? To what class of persons is it a constant com panion ? What is this bird called by Dr. Kane ? What other sp. are men tioned ? Do they frequent the Southern Sea ? Which is the largest ? What docs Darwin say of it ? What names do sailors give these large P. ? How does the Shearwater differ from the True Petrel? ? What is said of the Large S. ? Of the Manx Puffin ? Of the Little S. ? What genus has been separated from the rest of this group ? What is their size ? Mention their habits? Which is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds? What do sailors call it ? What is said of its plumage ? What interesting particulars are given ? What is said of Wilson's Petrel ? Of the Forked-Tailed P. ? What sp. of the Albatross is mentioned? What is said of the origin of the name? What is the size of the Common Albatross ? Describe its plumage. What is its range ? For what bird has it been supposed to have peculiar affec tion ? What is said of its beauty and loveliness ? What more is said of it ? Which is the 5th FAMILY ? What is said of the distribution and habits of these birds ? Where are the larger Gulls most common ? Which of the Swimmers are most decidedly land-birds ? What Gulls roam inland ? What order of birds do the Gulls resemble ? Into what sections are they ar ranged ? What distinctions does Swainson make ? Which of the Forked- Tailed Gulls are mentioned? What is said of the Black Skimmer? How many sp. of the TERN? What is s.aid of the Common Tern? Of the Cay- NATATORES. 447 enne T. ? Whence does the Noody T. derive its name ? What is said of it ? What of the Silvery T. ? How many sp. of the Three-toed Gulls? What is said of the Great Black Backed G. ? Of the Common G. ? In what latitude do the Jagers breed ? What characters are given ? How does the Arctic Jager obtain its food ? Upon what mollusk do they feed ? What else is said of it ? What is the 6th FAMILY? How is it characterized? Do they 8"wim or dive ? What is said of their powers of flight ? In what places do they build their nests? What is said of the eggs? Are the sp. numerous? Into what groups are they arranged? What is the size of the TRUE PELI CANS? What use do they make of their pouch? What is Audubon's opin ion relative to this subject? For what have the Pelicans been celebrated? How have they been depicted? Has this been done with good reason ? What is said of the Common White P. ? Of the Brown P. ? What gen. includes the Cormorants? How do they differ from others of the family? What bone is peculiar to the C. ? What is said of the Common C. ? Of the Green C. or Shag? Which is the most beautiful sp. in the U. S. ? What gen. includes the DARTERS or SNAKE BIRDS ? What suggested the name ? What is said of the Anhinga or American Snake B. ? What group do the FRIG ATE BIRDS resemble? How differ from them? Of what fish are they par ticularly fond? What other fish do they persecute? What does Ray say of them? Which is the only gen. and sp. ? In what respects do the Gan- nets differ from the Frigate B. ? What name is sometimes given to the Common G. of Europe ? In what other regions is it found ? What is said of the A. Gannet? Of the Booby? How are the TROPIC BIRDS distin guished and characterised ? What is said of the Common Tropic B. ? GENERAL EXERCISE ON THE CHART. What is the first division of Birds on the Chart ? Into how many orders are the LAND BIRDS arranged? Name each, giving some peculiarity or characteristic. . Name the SUB-ORDERS, and the forms or peculiarities of the bills upon which the divisions of Perching birds are based. Name and trace the families in each order. Which order is most numerous ? Which the lease numerous ? Which contain the largest birds? Which the smallest ? Which are the most beautiful ? Which the most ordinary ? How are the WATER BIRDS divided? What kind of feet have they? Which wade? Which swim ? What is the form of each ? Which the most awkward ? Which most useful ? How do the bills varj in all the different orders ? How the toes, wings, legs and necks? 19 EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. Fig. 1st. Skeleton of a Tortoise, with the under part (sternum or plastron,) removed to show how the back-bone and ribs are expanded and uni ted together, forming the carapace, dorsal plate, or buckler. H. The three-branched shoulder. I. Humerus, between the shoul der-joint and the elbow. K. Ulna. L. Radius, both bones of the fore-arm. R. Femur, or the thigh bone. S. Tibia, the largest, and Fibula, the smallest bones of the leg. Fig. 2d. Skeleton of a Bird, consisting of A. Cranium or Skull. B. Cer vical vertebrae. C. The anchylosed or immovably fixed vertebrae of the back. D. The caudal vertebrae. E. Ribs. F. Breast-bone. G. Furcula, or merrythought. H. Clavicle, or collar-bone. H*. Scapula, or shoulder-bone. I. Humerus. K, L. Bones of the fore arm, ulna, and radius. M. Metacarpus of hand. N. Phalanges of fingers. R. Femur, or thigh-bone, o, o. Patella, or knee-pan. , S. Leg, tibia and fibula. T, T. Os calcis, or heel-bone. U, U. Metatarsal bones. V, V. Metacarpal bones. 0. Ilium. P. Pubis, and Q. Ischium, bones of the pelvis. Fig. 3d. Skeleton of a Fish, showing the five sorts of fins, some of which are often absent, a, b, first and second dorsal fins on the ridge of the back, varying in number and form ; c, the caudal or tail fin, as impor tant to a fish as the rudder to a ship ; d, anal fin, on the under part of the tail ; e, one of the ventral fins which correspond to tke hind feet of quadrupeds; f, one of the pectoral fins, which are analogous to the fore feet of quadrupeds, or the wings of birds. Fig. 4th. Skeleton of a Frog, showing the absence (or mere rudiments,) of ribs, and its long hind limbs adapting it for sudden springs and long Fig. 5th. Skeleton of a Boa-constrictor, consisting of skull, a ; vertebral col umn, b ; and ribs, c. The ribs, 304 in number, come forward in succes sion, like the feet of a caterpillar, and form 152 pairs of levers by which the animal moves from place to place. The jaws, d, have on each side, a double row of sharp, strong, close-set teeth, pointing backwards, thus giving a firm hold of its victims. Fig. 6th. Skeleton of a Chameleon, showing how the toes and tail are adapted for clinging to the branches of trees, and that the trunk is mounted high upon the legs, forming in this respect an exception to most reptiles. ZL.XIT. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THIRD BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. HERPETOLOGY, (Gr. egm?™?, herpetos, a reptile, from herpo, to creep.) II, GRAND DIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATES, (Cold-blooded Animals,) SECTION I. THE second grand division of the Vertebrates, or Cold-blooded Animals, includes REPTILES and FISHES. REPTILIA, (Lat. reptilis, a reptile, from repo, to creep.) REP TILES. The science which treats of Reptiles is called Herpe- tology, (or Erpetology.) They form one of the most remarkable of the vertebrate classes of the Animal Kingdom. They are highly characterised by the vertebral column, the articulations of which, in most recent adult forms, are spherically convex at one extremity and spherically concave at the other. The num ber of vertebrae varies exceedingly. As, for example, in the Surinam toad, (Pipa,) there are seven, and in the Python upwards of four hundred. The ribs also occur in various stages of de velopment. A general survey of these creatures brings to view wonderful varieties of form and structure by which they are adapted to different localities. Some dwell on the land ; others in the ocean. Many of them are found in rivers and morasses, and some are even arboreal in their habits, living amidst the foli age of the trees, intertwined with the branches, or flitting, with bird-like swiftness, from leaf to leaf or from branch to branch, in pursuit of their insect food. Though found in different lati tudes, the hotter regions of the globe are the great nursery of the Reptiles ; in tropical countries, they actually teem, swarming in sandy deserts, among dense and tangled brushwood, in humid 452 HERPETOLOGY. forests, and extended pestilential swamps. They are termed COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS, their natural temperature being not much, if at all, above that of the atmosphere or water in which they dwell. Their power of producing animal heat is very lim ited, so that the system is at once affected by the lowering of the temperature of the medium which they inhabit. In our climate, and indeed in climates considerably nearer the meridian, they all undergo a state of torpidity, in some sheltered retreat, to which, as a refuge, their instinct directs them, and where they remain during the season of winter. Their blood, though cold, is red. In these, and in fact in all cold-blooded animals, the vital principle is much stronger than in those whose blood is warm. A frog has been kept alive forty days after having been subjected to the total privation of its lungs. The brain, which in reptiles is considerably inferior to that of birds, though supe rior to that of fishes, is not so essentially requisite to the exer cise of their animal and vital functions as in the mammalia; for they continue to live and to execute voluntary movements for a considerable time after being deprived of it, and even after the loss of the head ; their muscles also are strong and preserve their irritability for some time after life would appear to be ex tinct ; their heart continues to pulsate for hours after it has been torn from the body. In the reptiles this organ is strikingly pecul iar. In warm-blooded vertebrates it consists of two auricles and two ventricles ; the left ventricle furnishing the system with blood, which, in the capillary vessels of the lungs has been acted on by the external atmosphere. In Reptiles the heart con sists of but one ventricle and two auricles ; and of these the right auricle receives the vitiated blood returned from the sys tem to the heart ; the left auricle receives the arterialized blood returned from the lungs ; and both auricles convey their con tents into the cavity of the ventricle. The vitiated and the arte rialized blood thus become more or less mixed together ; part of this mixed fluid is sent through the great arterial trunk, as a supply to the system, and part through the pulmonary arteries to be further oxygenated in the lungs, this ventricle having in it- Felf the branching arteries both of the body and the lungs. Such is the circulation in the tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The blood of Reptiles is characterized by the possession of the larg est globules to be found in the entire sub-kingdom of Vertebrates. Those in the tailed Batrnchians, as the Siren, &c., are visible to the naked eye. As in fishes and in birds, these globules are elliptical in their outline, whereas in the Mammals, excepting the CamehdcB, they are circular. HERPETOLOGY. 453 The Amphibia, at an early stage of their existence, are fur- nished with gills, and, like fishes, respire in water; the gills, indue time, become obliterated, and lungs developed, as in the frog, the newt, &c., (Plate XIII.) Others, however, of this group, though they acquire lungs, never lose their gills, and are at the same time both aquatic and aerial in their respiration, or capa ble of breathing both in air and water. Such are the Proteus, the Siren, and the Axolotl. The former are called Caduci- branchiate, (Lat. caducus, falling or perishable; branchia, gills ;) the latter are termed Perennibranchiate, (Lat. perennis, durable ; branchice, gills.) In the latter Amphibians, the ventricle receives blood from the auricles, and transmits it into an enlarged arte rial vessel or bulb, which soon divides into separate branches, one being destined for each leaf of the gills essentially like those of a fish ; here these arterial vessels sub-divide into five capil laries, and these at length, (as in fishes,) gradually pass into branchial veins which at last emerge into two vessels, and these unite to form the aorta, or great arterial trunk. Into this aorta, the blood purified in the gills, or branchiae, is conveyed without being first sent back to the heart; and from this aorta, it is dis tributed throughout the system. But besides the branchial, these Amphibians have also a pulmonic, (Lat. pulmo, a lung,) circula tion. By the pulmonary artery proceeding from the aorta, a portion of the blood which has already been partially oxygenated in the gills, is conveyed to the lungs, where it is still further purified. It is then sent through pulmonic veins to the left auri cle, and from that to the ventricle, whence, mixing with the vitia ted blood of the system, it is sent to the gills, and thence to the aorta, from which a portion again passes to the lungs, the rest to the system, and so on in a perpetual succession. The Caducibranchiates, at the commencement of their exist ence, have only gills truly developed, and the circulation is bran chial or fish-like. The lungs are, at this period, in a rudimen tary state, and the pulmonary arteries exceedingly minute. In process of time, however, a new impetus is given to the pulmo nary arteries and to the lungs, at the expense of the branchial arteries and the gills ; as the former develop, the latter decrease, until at the last, the branchial apparatus entirely perishes, no trace of it being left; while certain vessels, which formed a junctiotT between the branchial system of arteries and the pulmo nic arteries, enlarge, and now add only to the pulmonic circula tion. Thus the circulation in the frog and newt changes, by a wonderful transition, from that of a fish to that of a perfect rep tile ! while in the Proteus and its allies, it continues to be that 454 HERPETOLOGY. of the fish, with the addition of a modified state of pulmonary circulation. We advert thus particularly to these peculiarities, because they present proof so striking of divine contrivance. Reptiles have either four limbs, (Plate XII. figs. 1, 4, 6,) two, (see Chirotes or Bipes on the Chart,) or none, (Plate XII. fig. 5 ;) the ribs are sometimes very numerous, (Plate XII. fig. 5,) some times wanting or merely rudimentary, (Plate XII. fig. 4;) in the latter case, the ribs assist greatly in terrestrial locomotion. There is no true distinction between the chest and abdomen, no dia phragm or muscular expansion, dividing, as in quadrupeds, these two cavities. As the blood is of a low temperature, these ani mals need neither fur nor feathers for the retention of the vital heat. They are therefore covered either with horny plates, or with scales, or have the skin entirely naked. Their sight is in general extremely acute. On this sense they depend in their pursuit of food, and for their perception of the approach of ene mies. The senses of taste, smell, and touch, in reptiles are com paratively feeble. With regard to hearing, considerable varia tion appears in different groups. In serpents, the sense is very acute, and they evidently derive pleasure from musical notes, a fact well understood by the serpent-charmers of the East. In lizards, also, the sense of hearing appears to be quick ; in tor toises and in the Amphibians it is probably much more obtuse. In most cases the internal organs of hearing are entirely covered by the scaly investment of the head, or by the naked skin. In liz ards generally, the tympanic, or drum-like membrane, is stretched over the external orifice of the ear, and is on a level with the scaly covering of the rest of the head ; but in the crocodile, the external orifice, instead of being thus permanently closed, is pro vided with a firm, movable lid or operculum, by means of which the aperture may be either stopped or kept open. While bask ing on the margin of a river, or lying there in ambush for prey, the crocodile is able to raise the ear-lid, in order to listen atten tively to every noise ; but when he dives beneath the water, either for safety or to drown the victim he has seized, the en trance of water into the auditory cavities is prevented by the firm shutting of the lid, which accurately fits the orifice. Reptiles are ordinarily produced from eggs. Many of them exhibit extraordinary fecundity. None of them, unless the Pythons be an exception, ever perform the process of incubation. They bury their eggs in the sand, deposit them in warm places of concealment, or leave them floating in the water exposed to the rays of the sun. In due time the young are hatched. In some Reptiles which produce eggs, as the Viper, the young is HERPETOLOGY. 455 already formed and advanced within the egg at the time the pa rent deposits it. This reptile, in many northern and temperate regions, seems to represent the multitude of deadly snakes that infest the torrid regions ; while the harmless ringed snake takes the place of the huge Python of Bengal and Java. In the coun tries of the Polar circles, the snake, the lizard, the toad and the frog are never seen. The absence of the snails, insects and small animals upon which reptiles usually feed, excludes them from those dreary regions. The larger part of them are carni vorous ; the Tortoises, however, are vegetable feeders. A few feed both on small animals, as slugs, insects, &c., and on leaves and fruits. Reptiles probably number as many as two thousand species. They are either terrestrial, or aquatic, or both, and hibernate in temperate regions, passing nearly the whole winter in a state of lethargy. An extensive division of the Serpents have hollow fangs which they can erect at pleasure, when they open their mouths to bite, and these fangs have apertures, from which they eject into the wounds made by them, an active and deadly poi son. From the earliest times the forms and habits of Reptiles have attracted attention. They are found represented on the monu ments of the ancient Egyptians, and numerous allusions to them are contained in the scriptures of the Old Testament. Nor should it be unnoticed that among the organic remains which the industry and science of inquiring minds have lately brought to light, none present forms more wonderful, or proportions more gigantic, than some of the Fossil Reptiles. REPTILES are divided into four orders, viz. : (1) CHELONIA, Chelonians ; (2) SAURIA, Saurians ; (3) OPHIDIA, Ophidians ; (4) AMPHIBIA, Amphibians. These orders pass into each other by certain gradations of form, traceable in all, but most evidently so in the Saurians and Ophidians, all these gradations clearly pointing to the existence of one grand scheme, of which the parts respectively link together in admirable harmony. REPTILES. What is the 3d branch of ZOOLOGY ? Of what does it treat ? To what Grand Division of VERTEBRATES do they belong ? What is said of the ver tebral column ? Of their form, habitat, &c. ? Why are they called COLD BLOODED animals ? What is their condition during winter ? What is said of the strength of the vital principle in Reptiles ? How is this illustrated ? 456 CHELONIANS. State what is peculiar in the heart of Reptiles. Explain the circulation of the blood in Tortoises, Lizards, &c. What striking tacts are given respect ing the blood of Reptiles? What is at first the condition of the Amphibia? What change do they undergo ? Is this true oi all of them ? How do some of them dift'er? Explain the circulation in both divisions. How many limbs have Reptiles ? Does their internal structure differ from that of Quadru peds ? What is said of their covering ? What of their organs of sense ? How are they usually produced ? How do they dispose of their eggs ? How is it with the VIPER ? W^hat is said of the diffusion of Reptiles ? Upon what do they feed ? How many species do they include ? Name the OR DERS into which they are divided. Point out on the Chart some animals be longing to each of these orders. SECTION II. FIRST ORDER. CHELONIANS, or TORTOISES. CHELONIA. (Gr. XsMvii, chelone, a tortoise.) The Tortoises may be arranged into the following divisions, viz: (1) LAND TORTOISES; (2) MARSH and RIVER TORTOISES; (3) MARINE TORTOISES or TURTLES. They differ most widely from the general form of the class; for (1) They are clothed with a natural armor, not like that of the Armadillo, a simple, horny addition to the skin, but a part of the skeleton itself. The skeleton is, in fact, thrown to the out side of the body, so as to form an external bony envelope, covered with a horny or leathery sheathing, and enclosing, as in a box, the internal organs, and other parts of the bony frame-work which do not immediately enter into its composition. Tortoises may be likened to Frogs, so enveloped in horny armor as to be restrained by it from jumping. The upper piece, or dorsal buckler, is termed the carapace. This is usually more or less arched, and consists of an expansion of the ribs into wide flat bones, all united firmly together, and also to the edge of the flattened spinal processes, — the whole forming a consolidated plate. (Plate XII. fig. 1.) To the margin of the plate thus formed, is added a third set of bones, regarded as representing the sternal ribs of the Crocodiles arid other Lizards, and assisting to complete the circumference of the carapace. The lower plate, or abdominal buckler, is termed the plastron or sternon. This, instead of being prolonged forwards into a keel to afford attachment to large muscles, as in the Birds, is ex tended sidewise for the protection of the body. It consists of CHELONIANS. 457 nine bony portions, of which eight are in pairs; the ninth is single, and occupies the front part of the plastron. (2) The Chelonians are also distinguished from other Reptiles by the entire absence of teeth. As a compensation for this, however, the jaws are cased in horny coverings with cutting edges, resembling the hooked beak of a Parrot, and with which they crop and rnince the vegetable substances on which many of them feed. The armor in which the animals are encased, seems to be their most effectual defence. In the Land Tortoises the carapace is usually much arched and firmly united, so that, without injury, it can sustain a very great weight; the plastron in these also exhibits the highest degree of solidity, and is united to the carapace by an extended lateral surface. At the line of its union, it is sometimes slightly movable, but in most, it is fixed by an unyielding suture. Its front and hind margins are generally indented or notched, for the more easy egress of the neck and tail ; but sometimes they simply end in a cross line ; or, on the contrary, are prolonged into a point. In the Land Tortoises of the genus Pyxis, (Gr. puxis, a box,) — species Arach- noides, (Gr. spider-like,) — the Arachnoid Tortoises of India, the plastron is furnished with a transverse hinge, giving a power of motion to the front part, so that the animals can redraw their head and fore-limbs within the carapace, and close the plastron upon it. In another genus of the same group, Cynixis, of Guiana, the carapace, instead of being one solid whole, has the posterior portion distinct from the front portion, and movable, so as to close upon the hinder margin of the plastron, and shut in the hinder limbs and tail. In the aquatic species, the shell is generally more flattened, so as to present less resistance to the water. Some of them swim with considerable rapidity, and are much more active in their habits than others of the order. The shell of such has its parts less firmly united, and is, in some degree, flexible ; it also affords much less complete protection to the body. Notwithstanding the horny beak with which the jaws of Tor toises are in general furnished, the sense of taste is decidedly higher in these than in other Reptiles. The broad, thick, fleshy, and movable tongue, is provided with salivary glands, and nerves of taste, but is not capable of being protruded from the mouth. It is not an organ of taste merely, but filling out the entire cavity of the mouth, assists in the process of respiration ; for " Turtles swallow the air they breathe." The eyes are larger in proportion, and more movable in Tortoises than in other Reptiles. They have three eye-lids; two 458 CHELONIANS. external, continued from the common skin of the head, and vary, ing as to form in different genera ; one, internal, resembling the nictitating membrane of birds ; and moved by muscles appropri ate to that office. The form of the pupil is round, as in birds. The iris is always colored, usually dark, but in some, red, or even milk-white. Tortoises have no movable external ear, but in all are found the tympanic orifice and membrane which are wanting in Sauri- ans, and the sense of hearing is consequently well developed. The sense of smell appears to be at a low degree. The nostrils open on the most anterior part of the upper jaw or mandible, and are close to each other. In the River Tortoises, and in the MATAMATA, a Marsh Tortoise, of South America, the nostrils are prolonged into a sort of flexible proboscis, which the animals can raise for the purpose of respiration, between the large, floating leaves of water plants, while they lurk with their bodies con cealed below them, and immersed in the water, — lying in wait for their prey. The males of the Tortoises are, in general, smaller than the females, and commonly distinguished by the plastron, which is slightly concave. Tortoises have a voice, — that is, they have, more or less, the faculty of uttering distinct sounds. They vary in their food according to the localities which they are accus tomed to frequent. Some live on marine plants; others on small animals, in addition to vegetable food. They require but little nourishment, and can pass months, and even years, without eat ing. Turtles, in their growth, are exceedingly slow, coming to maturity the latest of all the Reptiles. But, at the same time,, they are very long-lived. Land Tortoises have been known to live one hundred and twenty years, and some have even reached more than two hundred years. According to Agassiz, their eggs, up to the seventh year, are of small size, — numerous, yet not distinguishable into sets; but with every succeeding year, there appears a larger and larger set of eggs; each set being made up of the usual number which the species lays, so that a Turtle of eleven years old, for the first time, contains mature eggs ready to be laid in the spring. The larger eggs always appear in regular sets, of a definite number, and these coincide with the number laid by that particular species at one time. Four sets can be readily distinguished ; one of them mature eggs; another about half the size; a third still smaller; and the fourth smaller still, (about the size of a large pin's head;) below these, it is difficult to distinguish the differ ence in size. "Turtles," says Agassiz, "lay once a year; CHELONIANS. 459 therefore, it follows that an egg requires four years from the time there exists a marked difference among the eggs of different sizes, to acquire its full maturity."* Fresh-water Tortoises lay their eggs in moist ground, or in dryer places near the water; Marine Turtles lay theirs in hot sand; the Land Tortoises lay theirs upon dry ground. The time of the extrusion of the ani mal varies from six weeks to three or four months. The divisions of the Chelonians vary, as made by different naturalists. Agassiz, who prefers names which have priority of dale, divides the order TESTUDINATA, or CHELONIA, into two sub orders. I. AMYDJE, with seven families. (1) Testudinina, Land Tortoises. (2) Emydoida, (3) Cinosternoida, ) R. (4) Chelydraid*, (5) Hydraspida, ( Rl™r an (6) Chelyoida, (7) Trianychidat, ) II. CHELONII, with two families. (1) Chelonioidtz, (2) Sphargida, Marine Turtles. FIRST SUB-ORDER. AMYDJE. DIGITATED. This sub-order includes, besides the Land Tortoises, the Marsh and River Tortoises, intermediate in form between the Marine and Land Tortoises. The Marsh Tortoises proper, are sometimes arranged into two divisions, viz: (1) the Pleurodera, (Gr. pleuron, a side ; deire, neck,) — so named because the head is concealed, not by being drawn back in a straight line, but by the neck folded to one side of the opening of the shell. ,. The arms are also incapable of being completely drawn within the cara pace and plastron. Seven is said to be the number of the genera included in this division. None of the species belong to North America, but many to South America. (2) The Cryptodera, (Gr. krupto, to conceal ; deire, neck,) in which the cylindrical shaped neck can be folded back upon itself under the center of the forepart of the carapace. The pelvis is articulated to the internal surface of the carapace, while in respect to the plas tron, it is free ; this gives to many of the Marsh or Pond Tor toises a power to jnove the under portions of the osseous box ; and this, accordingly, has a less degree of solidity ; whereas, in the Pleurodera, the pelvis is firmly fixed to the roof of the cara pace above, and to that of the plastron beneath. The species of this division are very numerous, and many are found both in North and South America. * Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Vol. I. 460 CHELONIANS. FIRST FAMILY. Testudinina, (Lat. Tesiudo, a tortoise.) LAND TORTOISES. First Sub-Order, Amydee. The Tortoises of this family exhibit the greatest symmetry of form, and are, on various accounts, entitled to the first rank in the order. They are distinguished by their highly arched cara pace, and still more, by their short, clubby feet, terminating in flat, spade-like nails. The outward armor is entirely ossified, and harder and thicker, in proportion to the animal's size, than in the Aquatic Tortoises. The shield is covered, externally, with epidermal scales, and the skin everywhere more or less protected with them ; on the most exposed parts, they are thick and stiff, and form a continuous hard covering. The neck and legs are short, and can be drawn entirely within the shell. (See Radiated Tortoise on Chart.) The Land Tortoises show nothing of the fierce dispositions exhibited by most of the other groups. — never attacking or making resistance, but resorting to the shield, and trusting to that alone for protection. Their feet, which, in shape, have some resemblance to those of the Elephant, are adapted to walking on solid ground only ; when placed in water, these animals endeavor to walk, as if upon land, having no swimming motion. Their movement on dry ground is firmer and more steady, the weight being almost equally supported by both pair of limbs; and they can travel for a distance at a pace less slow than any other Tor- toises. The fore feet have, usually, five toes, and the hind ones, four, which are furnished with short conical claws, well adapted for digging. The food of the Land Tortoises is entirely vegeta ble. They appear most fond of the succulent stems of plants and fleshy fruits. ''I have often," says Agassiz. "seen our Gopher gnawing the stumps of cabbage, and apples falling from the trees in my garden, as the Squirrels do, holding them between their feet," The lungs are very much larger in the Land Tor toises than in any other family of the first sub-order. Their size is also, on the whole, larger than that of any other family of that division. The Land Tortoises include four genera. (1) Cinixys, of which there are two or three species found in Guiana. In these, the hind part of the carapace is not united to the front part, and is movable, so that the animals can shut in their hind Hmbs and tail. (2) Pyxis. (Gr. puxis, a box.) This genera includes the Land Box Tortoises, having the front part of the plastron mova- CHELONIANS. 461 ble on a hinge, so that they can conceal the head and fore limbs within the carapace. (3) Homopus, (Gr. homos, like each other; pous, foot,) in cluding Land Tortoises which have the carapace and pastron immovable. They have but four nails on the fore feet, while the other genera have five. The VERMILION TORTOISE, H. are- olatus, (Lat. divided into areas, or spaces.) is a species of this genus, found in Eastern Africa and Madagascar, and one of the smallest known of Land Tortoises, being seldom more than five inches in length. (4) Testudo, having the carapace and plastron immovable. Of this genus, only one species is indigenous to North America, viz: T. Carolina or T. Polyphemus, — [Xerobates~\ (Gr. xeros from xera land ; baino, to go,) Carolina, Ag., — the GOPHER TORTOISE, ranging from Florida to Georgia. It is from fifteen to seventeen inches in length. Its strength is so great that it can move easily with a man standing on its back. In habits, it is noc turnal ; its flesh is excellent, and much sought after for the table. In sandy districts, it excavates holes in the ground, which much impede the movements of horsemen. The ELEPHANTINE TORTOISE, T. Indica, (T. Elephantinar) CyL indraspis, (Gr. rolling or cylindrical shield,) Indica, is from three to four feet in length ; and every way a huge animal. It sometimes has been known to weigh not far from three hundred pounds. The Elephant Tortoises are found in great numbers in the Galapagos islands, but, comparatively, not large, — averaging sixty pounds in weight. They are eagerly sought by crews of vessels. When captured, they serve for fresh meat, as they can be kept for a year in the hold of a ship without food or drink. The GREEK or EUROPEAN TORTOISE, T. Grceca, is a well known species, found in the South of Europe. The GEOMETRIC TORTOISE, T. geometrica, is a beautiful little creature, about six inches in length, found in South Africa and Madagascar. It has its specific name from the radiating lines of yellow, forming angular figures on the plates of the carapace. The Charcoal Tortoise, T. carbonaria, is common in Brazil and other parts of South America. The carapace is deep black, and eighteen inches long. This kind is sold as a great delicacy in the markets at Caraccas. The RADIATED TORTOISE, T. radiala, a handsome species, is a native of Madagascar, whence it is frequently taken to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the Mauritius and Bourbon isles. The carapace is hemispherical ; the plates are simple and black, with a yellow central spot, whence diverge lines of the same color; the plates of the plastron are ornamented with black and yellow. 402 CHELONLANS. SECOND FAMILY. Emydoidce, (Gr. e^s, emus, a fresh-water tortoise.) This is a most numerous family, including a large number of well known species, which present great varieties of habit, size, and structure. Durneril and Bibron unite the Emydoidas and Chelyoida into one family, under the name of ELODITES, refer- ring the Emydoida to the division Cryptodera, and the Chelyoida to the division Pleurodera. Our limits do not allow us to detail minutely the distinctive peculiarities of this family, or to assign at large the differences existing in the various sub-divisions un der which it is exhibited. In these Tortoises, the box in which the animal is enclosed, is less thick and strong than in the Land Tortoises, not becoming completely ossified until late in life; its figure is oval, for the most part, broader behind than before. All the bony plates show great constancy and regularity of arrangement. The outside of the whole shield is covered with scales, as is, more or less, the skin of the head, neck, limbs, and tail; the tympanum is visible, and the eyelids are of equal height. Nearly the whole of these are eminently MARSH TORTOISES. Almost all of them can withdraw and conceal their limbs within the carapace and plastron ; but in the Platysternvn, (Gr. broad- sternon,) the plastron or sternon from its width, suffices to con ceal the limbs when folded ; yet the head remains constantly exposed. The food of these Tortoises is both vegetable and animal. None of them catch active prey, or are in any way ferocious; when hard pressed, however, they defend themselves by biting. They lay their eggs on dry land, in holes which they dig with their hind legs; the land species, from two or three to five or seven ; the water species, from ten or fifteen to twenty, thirty, or even more. (Agassiz.) The shell of the eggs is never brittle, but rather flexible, and less calcareous than in some other families. The genera Emys and Cistudo, are prominent representatives of this family. In the Emys, the fore feet have five toes; the hind feet, four; the plastron is broad, immovable, solidly united to the carapace, and covered with twelve plates; the head is about the ordinary size; the tail long. Emys Mulilenbergii, or Muhlenburg's Tortoise, is the smallest known species, about four inches in length; found in New Jer sey and the eastern part of Pennsylvania. E. rugosa, (Lat. wrinkled,) or E. rulriventris, (Lat. red- CHELONIANS. 4G3 bellied,) — the Ptychemys, (Gr. ptuche, a fold; emys.) rugosa, of Agassiz, — is found as far South as Virginia, and North as far as the neighborhood of New York City. It is known by the name of the Red-bellied Terrapin, and as food is prized by epicures. Length from ten to seventeen inches. (Agassiz says fifteen inches.) Emys concmna, (Lat. polished, beautiful,) is a handsome spe cies, found in Georgia ; in length, according to Agassiz, fifteen inches. This, and the preceding species, are the rarest of the family. E. concentrica, is found both in North and South America. New York is said by DeKay to be its northern limit. It gives the preference to salt-water marshes, and is therefore called the SALT-WATER TERRAPIN. The flesh of this species is in particu lar request for the table. The plates of the carapace are olive- green, with concentric lines of brown, whence the specific name, concentrica. Sometimes it is called E. palustris. These Tortoises bury themselves in rnud during the winter ; they are then very fat, and taken in large numbers.^ The length is from seven to ten inches. E. picta, (Lat. painted,) or Clirysemys, (Gr. gold-colored Emys,) picta, Ag., — is probably the most essentially aquatic Tortoise of the entire family ; in fact, it soon perishes, if removed from the water. The PAINTED EMYS (see Chart) is very common in the United States, but on account of the ill flavor of its flesh, never used for food. The plates of the carapace, which is con siderably depressed, are of a deep brown color; the plastron is of a yellow or gold color. For the variety and beauty of its markings, this may be esteemed the handsomest of all the fresh water Tortoises. It seems to enjoy much the rays of the sun, and sometimes floats in the water with the head just emerging from the shell, luxuriating in the genial temperature. It inhab its stagnant ponds or lakes, and is never found in rivers or run ning streams. Its length is from five to nine inches. When young, its contour is circular rather than oval. It is remarkably slow in coming to maturity, not laying eggs before it is seven years old. E, guttata, (Lat. speckled,) the SPOTTED TORTOISE, is a small species found throughout the Union. Its length is about four inches. The carapace is black, or deep brownish black, with distant rounded yellow dots, occasionally with a few orange spots. It shows a preference for streams and ponds which have a muddy bottom. On a warm day, Speckled Tortoises may be seen basking in the sun, on a log or rock ; but on the approach 464 CHELONIANS. of any person, they slip suddenly into the water. This species is the Nanemys, (Gr. dwarf-emys,) gull.ata, of Agassiz. The genus Cistudo, (Lat. a box.) includes TERRAPINS, or Box TORTOISES. These, like the Emydes, have five toes on the fore feet and four on the hind ones. The head is very high ; the plastron, broad, oval, and divided by a transverse hinge into two movable portions or valves, by means of which the whole body may be shut in. The beak of the upper jaw projects downward in the middle ; the lower jaw is sharp pointed in front ; the hind foot plantigrade. These Tortoises never take to the water from choice, and would be drowned if detained there. Indeed, they are so much on dry land as to be sometimes called Land Tor toises. The CAROLINA TERRAPIN, or Box TORTOISE, C. Carolina, or C. Virginia, (Agassiz,) is found in New England, also westward as far as Michigan, and southward as far as the Carolinas. In its general habits, in the vaulted form of its carapace, and in the structure of its feet, which are but slightly palmated, it appears to be a link between the Marsh and Land Tortoises. This spe cies is not aquatic, preferring woods and dry places and living on vegetables and insects; occasionally, however, it is met with in swamps and moist places. Of all the Marsh Tortoises, it has the shortest and most convex carapace. The general color is dark brown with stars and blotches. The flesh is not much es teemed, but the eggs, which are about as large as a pigeon's, are thought to be excellent, and are much sought for. The length of this species is from five to seven inches. BLANDING'S Box TORTOISE, C. Blandingii, has a shell less raised than that of the Carolina Terrapin, and the lower jaw is hooked instead of the upper, as in the Carolina species. Its length is from seven to eight inches. This species was first ac curately described and figured by Dr. Holbrook, in his valuable work on North American Herpetology. According to Agassiz, who deems this a "true Emys," the oldest name is E. meleagris. The EUROPEAN Box TORTOISE, C. Europaa, is widely dif fused. It differs from the Carolina Terrapin in giving the pref erence to still waters, ponds and marshes, in the mud of which it delights to bury itself. This species is particularly fond of small fishes. These it kills previously to devouring them, but rejects the air sac, which rises and floats on the surface, so that the abundance or scarcity of these animals in any pool or sheet of water, is judged of by the numbers of these floating air sacs. The flesh of the European Box Tortoise, though not very deli cate, is nevertheless eaten. CHELONIANS. THIRD FAMILY. Cinosternoida, (Gr. xZ>«w, Jcineo, to move; , sternon.) MUD and MUSK TORTOISES. The Tortoises of this family have long and narrow bodies, covered by a shield which is entirely ossified. The marginal plates are twenty-four in number ; the plastron is divided into three sections, and, " at least in the adult species, is made up of eight plates, there being no odd one, as in all the other families of the sub-order." (Ag.) The shield or carapace is covered with large horny scales ; the head is large, elongated, and pyr- amydal in form ; the mandibles are hooked, and in the under jaw covered with fleshy excrescences. In the female, the tail is short ; in the males, thick and long. Their legs are slender, ill fitted for land travel, but easily carrying the body through the water over the bottom. As a family, they are dwarfish in their forms, the largest not being more than nine inches long, and the smallest not more than four inches. These Tortoises smell strongly of musk. Their disposition is a blending of shyness and ferocity. " They remind us," says Agassiz, "of the Insec- tivora among the Mammalia, the rapacious habits of which are in strange contrast with their size and feebleness." Their movements are abrupt and quick, but have little power ; their food is chiefly animal ; their habits aquatic, though sometimes they bask in the sun on the shore. They lay only from three to five eggs, having the shape of a lengthened ellipse with very blunt ends, and a glazed, shining surface, much smoother than that of the other turtles' eggs, and also quite thick and brittle. This family, entirely American, is represented by the genera Cinosternon and Sternoth&rus, (Gr. sternon; thairos, a hinge.) The former has both the front and hind parts of the plastron movable upon an intermediate fixed position ; the latter has the plastron solid, with the front part movable. Cinosternon represents the MUD TORTOISES, or Cinosteroids. Several species are described. C. Pennsylvanicum, or Thyrosternum, (Gr. thuron, porch ; sternon,) Pennsylvanicum, (Ag.) is very common in various parts of the United States. It inhabits ditches and muddy ponds, and often takes the hook. Its food consists of frogs and small fishes. The length is seven or eight inches. SternotJiarus, or Ozotheca, (Gr. ozo, to smell ; theke, repos itory,) Ag., of sub-family QzothecoidcK, includes the MUSK TOR TOISES. Of the species the Musk Tortoise, S. odoratus, or O. odorata, Ag., is the most common and the smallest one known, being 486 CHELONIANS. less than four inches in length. It is common in marshes and ditches from Maine to Florida. The carapace is gibbous or ob long, of a brownish color, with streaks of green. The color and marking are, however, not easily detected, as the animal is usu ally covered with mud, and an agglutination of water plants. It is sometimes called Mud Terrapin, and, on account of its dis agreeable odor, Stink-Pot, and other names equally savory. FOURTH FAMILY. Chelydroida, (Gr. jeAu^og, cheludros, a water-tortoise.) SNAPPING TURTLES. The body of these Tortoises is high in front and low behind, the upper surface is "like a shed-roof falling backwards, curved down on either side, lowest about the middle, less and less to wards the ends." The carapace projects beyond the attached surface of the body, except at the neck, where it is joined with the plastron ; the latter is not movable, of a cross-like shape, and covered with twelve plates. The head is very large and cov ered with small plates ; the upper mandible is hooked ; below the under mandible are two small wattle-like excrescences. The tail is extremely long, compressed and surmounted by a ridge of strong scales, as in the crocodile. The limbs are very robust, and the nails of the toes are strong, hooked and sharp. The head, though of great size, can be withdrawn within the cara pace ; but not so the tail and limbs. " The animal lives mostly in the water, but makes considerable passages over land. It does not, like the TrionychidcB, remain burrowed in the soft muddy bottom, but rather lies in wait for prey under shelving banks, or among the reeds and rushes." This family is represented by the ALLIGATOR TORTOISE, or SNAPPING TURTLE, to which naturalists have given various names, among which are Chelonura, (Gr. clielone, tortoise ; oura, a tail,) Serpentina, (Say ;) Gypochelys, (Gr. gups, a vulture ; clielus, a tortoise,) Serpentina, (Agassiz.) Both internally and externally, it exhibits an approach to the alligator, and perhaps may be viewed as an intermediate link. When adult, it exceeds three feet in its total length. So great is the strength of its jaws that a large one has been seen to bite off a piece of plank more than an inch thick. It eats frogs, other aquatic reptiles, and even fish ; it swims with celerity, and is prone to snap at every thing coming near it. Woe to the unwary duck or other animal that swims unguardedly within its reach. , The Alligator Tor toise is a native of Carolina and the warmer districts of North CHELONLANS. 407 America. This Tortoise, according to De Kay, lays from sixty to seventy eggs, about the size of a small walnut. FIFTH FAMILY. Hydraspidce, (Gr. vdoa, hudra, a water-snake ; aspis, a shield.) This family includes four genera, viz. : Platemys, (Gr. pla- tus, broad; emus, emys:) Rhinemys, (Gr. rkin, nose; emus, emys ;) Phrynops, (Gr. phrunos, a ruheta, or venomous toad ; dps, face;) Hydraspis. The whole are included by Wagler in one genus, Platemys. They have the head flattened and covered with a single delicate scale, or with a number of small irregular plates ; the jaws are simple ; two barbels appear under the chin ; the carapace is very much flattened ; the plastron is immov able ; there are five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind. One species is found on the banks of the Macquarie River, (Australia ;) other species are found in South America, living in marshes or else on the banks of rivers. So far as the head and neck are concerned, some of these animals, as the Chelodina of New Holland, appear more like a snake than a tortoise. SIXTH FAMILY. Chetyoidce, (Gr. x&vg, clielus, a tortoise.) The Tortoises of this family have a shield that is thick, .com pletely ossified, and regularly divided into plates ; the head is extraordinarily large, flat and triangular ; the jaws are weak, neither pointed nor sharp edged, unfit for catching large active prey, or for tearing any tough vegetable or animal matter ; the mouth is broad, but very close when its roof and floor are brought together, being well adapted for catching and swallow ing minute animals ; the legs are strong ; the feet broad and compact, with long and sharp claws, the fore feet having five, the hind feet four. This family includes but one genus, Chelys. The only recognized species is the MATAMATA, C. matamata, (an aboriginal name,) found in Cayenne and Guiana, having the neck furnished with long cutaneous appendages, and two barbels on the chin. The head looks as if it had been crushed, and this, together with its fringes and skinny enfoldings, gives it a singu larly grotesque appearance. Decidedly, it is the most remark able of the Pond or Marsh Tortoises. When full grown, the Matamata is about two and a half feet in length. 468 CHELONIANS. SEVENTH FAMILY. Trionychida, (Gr. T^, treis, three ; " onux, nail.) SOFT-SHELLED OR RIVER TORTOISES. These Tortoises are distinguished by the complete absence of scales from the body, the shell being covered with a soft skin. The feet are broad, webbed, and move horizontally ; of the toes, three on each foot are provided with nails or claws, whence the term Trionyx, (see derivation above.) The form is that of a flat orbicular disk, slightly elongated, with a long pointed head pro jecting upon a lengthened, slender neck. The structure of these animals is well adapted to life and motion in the water. They swim with great facility. In this process they are aided, not by their flattened and webbed feet alone, but by the loose and flex ible skin of the body, forming a narrow flap or border around the edges of the shell, and performing the office of a fin. The soft carapace is generally dark colored, variegated with brown ; but the plastron and all the under parts are pale, like the turbot. The plastron is not entirely ossified in the Trionyx proper, and is united to the carapace by cartilage. These Tortoises live mostly on the muddy bottom of shallow waters, burying them selves in the soft mud, leaving only the head, or a small part of it exposed. Sometimes they remain under water as long as half an hour, without coming to the surface to take breath. They are rarely seen on land, where, to them, locomotion is labored and unsteady. They lay from a dozen to twenty or more eggs, of a spherical form, having a thick but brittle shell, and about the size of a musket ball. They feed upon fish, reptiles, and mollusks, especially Ana- dontas and Paludinas, fragments of which have been found in their intestines. Two genera represent this family. (1) Gymnopus, (Gr. naked-footed,) or Platypeltes, (Gr. plains, broad ; pelte, shield ;) (2) Cryptopus, (Gr. krupto, to hide ; pous, foot,) or Aspidonectes, (Gr. aspis, shield ; nectes, a swimmer,) Agassiz. The type of the genus Gymnopus, or Platypeltes, is the Trionyx ferox, the species of this country earliest known to foreign naturalists. The Tryonyx ferox, or P. ferox, (Lat. fierce,) is found from Georgia to Western Louisiana. Though fierce, it is not very large. Agassiz says the largest tortoise which he ever saw or heard of belonging to this species, was one foot and a half in length. As the generic name, Platypeltes, in dicates, the carapace is broad. The great breadth of the carti laginous circumference of the carapace, and the narrowness of CHELONIANS. 469 the plastron, are distinctive marks of this tortoise. In its native regions it reigns as a tyrant, producing great havoc among the finny tribes ; it is very voracious, and eagerly seizes a hook baited with a fish. The females visit the shore in May to lay their eggs. These are globular in shape and brittle ; they are hatched in July. It is said that in its fierceness and voracity, this Tortoise will at- tack small quadrupeds, aquatic birds, and young alligators. The Trionyx of the Nile, G. Mgyptiacus, is much valued in Egypt,, on account of the services it renders in devouring the eggs and young of the crocodile. Tortoises of the genus Cryptopus, or Aspidonectes, have the plastron broad, and capable of closing up in front, so as to shut in the retracted head and limbs ; in the rear they have a cartila ginous valve on each side, for shutting in the -hind limbs. A. spinifer, (Lat. thorn -bearing or prickly,) is a species com- mon in Lake Champlain, and in most of our western rivers. Length fourteen inches. SECOND SUB-ORDER. CHELONIDJE, OR CHELONII. SEA TUSTLES. PINNATED. The entire structure of the Sea Turtles shows an express adaptation to aquatic habits. Not only is the carapace greatly flattened, but the limbs, in which the toes are not externally dis tinct, are likewise flattened and modified into large oars. On land, these animals shuffle along in the most awkward manner, and make, with toilsome efforts, only a slow progress ; but they plough the waves, dive and ascend with admirable address and dexterity. They swim almost entirely by means of their front limbs ; the other pair acting independently and being chiefly useful in aiding to balance the body, and guide the general course. They feed chiefly on marine plants. The gullet of these Turtles is lined with long cartilaginous processes, all tend ing towards the stomach. These appear designed to prevent the return of the food when the water which is swallowed in con nection with it is regurgitated. The Sea Turtles never resort to the shore, except to deposit their eggs. They lay them at night and in large companies. Those of most of the species are both nutritious, and agreeable to the taste. "American Sea Turtles," says Agassiz, " lay their eggs towards the end of May, or in the beginning of June. They lay a large number of them, about one hundred at a time, or even more, which they deposit on shore, in the dry sand. Their UNIVERSii \ 470 CHELONIANS. eggs are not large, in comparison to the size of the animal, and not perfectly spherical, their orbicular outline being more or less irregular." "I have no reason," he says, "'to trust the reports that they lay eggs more than once a year." Other writers, how ever, say "the process is repeated three times a year." The eggs are almost unprotected by a shell, and hence it is necessary that the sand in which they are laid to be hatched by the heat of the sun, should be soft and movable. To obtain a suitable local- ity for their eggs, they often travel many hundred leagues. As cension Island is to them a favorite place of resort. At the breeding season the Turtle-fishery is carried on. The flesh of the females is in the highest estimation, and at this sea son, it is supposed to possess its best quality. " The fish ers suddenly advance from their watching places, and despatch the Turtles with clubs, or turn them quickly over upon their backs, in doing which, it is often necessary to use levers, several men at the same t:me combining their strength. A few skillful men, in the course of three hours, may turn over, and thus secure forty or fifty turtles." On the coast of Guiana, haul nets are employed for the capture of these creatures. In the Chinese and Indian seas, and also on the shores of Mozambique, boatmen take them by availing themselves of the natural powers and instincts of certain fishes, named poissons pecheurs, or Fish- fishers. The Turtles are usually met with in the warm latitudes of the ocean, and especially towards the torrid zone. FIRST FAMILY. Chelonioida. This family are characterized by having the carapace very broad, more or less depressed, of a somewhat heart-shaped out line, covered with horny scales, and bordered by a distinct mar ginal rim ; also by having a flat nail on the thumb of each pad dle. Three well defined genera are found along the coast of the. United States; the greatest difference between them has relation to the structure of the mouth. Their food consists of aquatic plants, sea-weeds, and the like. In size, they much surpass the average size of the Amyda; yet they are shy and inoffensive, not biting when hard pressed, but striking with their powerful flappers, and endeavoring to escape by quickening their speed. They lay their eggs at the end of May or begin ning of June. The GREEN or ESCULENT TURTLE, Chelonia mydas. is consid ered the most important of the Turtles, its flesh being in great request as a luxury for the table, and as furnishing abundant and CHELONIANS. 471 wholesome food to voyagers in tropical climates. It has twelve pair of scales of a greenish color, but they do not overlay each other, and are of no use in the arts. Green Turtles are very common in shallow parts of the sea near the islands and the shores of continents, within the tropics, where they may be seen in great numbers among the sea-weeds, grazing like a herd of cattle ; occasionally coming to the surface to breathe, and some times remaining there, basking in the sunshine. They are often caught at sea in calm weather, a harpoon and line being used. The usual length is four or five feet, and the weight from four hundred to eight hundred pounds ; but this Turtle has been known to " reach the length of eight feet, and a weight of fif teen hundred pounds." The flesh of the smaller ones is, how ever, the more highly esteemed. The coast of Florida is one of the resorts for the females, which deposit each, every spring, between one hundred and two hundred eggs in the sand, where they hatch in about seven or eight weeks. But scarcely a thirtieth of this number gain the sea, or live a week after reaching it. Birds and beasts of prey thin the number of those hatched ; and crocodiles and rapacious fishes are ready to seize upon such as escape destruction on land and gain the water. The TORTOISE SHELL TURTLE, Chelonia imbricata, or Eret- mochelys, (Gr. eretmo^^ an oar; chelus, a tortoise,) imbricata, (Ag.,) has the horny muzzle somewhat lengthened into a sharp point, and the lower jaw is received into a groove of the upper, so that the food can be cut as well as bruised by it. The shield has twelve pair of scales. They overlap each other, at least one-third of each lying over the one behind it ; hence this spe cies is named imbricata, (imbricated.) The plates increase only in front. As they enlarge there, "the older parts move back wards, where they are worn off by external mechanical agencies. This process goes on so fast that in a specimen of two feet in length, no trace of those primary scales which covered the whole shield, during the first year, could be found. This mode of growing and moulting, if we may call it so, is very similar to that in the human nail." (Ag-) The flesh of this Turtle has a disagreeable flavor, probably arising from the nature of its food. The animal is chiefly sought for the plates of the cara pace, called " Tortoise Shell," and which are much thicker and stronger, as well as more clouded in color than those of any other species. The shell procured from the live Turtle is thought to be the finest. The epidermis, or outer shell, is said to change every year. The shell is removed from the bone of the cara- 472 CHELONIANS. pace by presenting its convex surface to a glowing fire. The ap plication of boiling water to the shell when removed, so mollifies it that it may be acted on like a soft mass, and by pressure in metallic moulds, made to assume a great variety of forms. A single Turtle yields about ten or twelve pounds of Tortoise Shell. When the stripped animal is set at liberty, the shell grows again ; and hence it sometimes happens that in after years, the stripped Turtle is recaptured, and subjected to a sec ond ordeal, but the shell in that case obtained is very thin. The Tortoise Shell Turtle never reaches so large a size as the Green or Esculent Turtle. Sometimes it is called the Hawk's-bill Tur tle. (See Chart.) It is found in the warmer latitudes of the seas and coasts of this continent, and also in the seas of Asia. Com. Wilkes, in his "Exploring Expedition," slates that the chiefs in the Fejee Islands, keep Tortoise Shell Turtles in pens. Tortoise Shell " sometimes sells in Manilla for from two to three thousand dollars the picul, (one hundred and thirty-three English pounds.") The LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, C. caretta, or Thalassoclielys, (Gr. Sea-Turtle,) Caouana, differs from the tortoise shell Turtle, in having thirteen pairs of scales, and these not imbricated. The flesh is not much valued, though wholesome. The Loggerhead Turtle feeds upon fish and mollusks. It yields abundance of oil, for which alone it is sought. This species is numerous in the Mediterranean. SECOND FAMILY. Sphargida, (from Gr. erqDa^a/eo), spharageo, to roar loudly.) These Sea-Turtles have the bony structure of the carapace covered with a thick layer of leathery skin, instead of plates or scales ; the form may be compared to a flattened cone, with an gular sides ; the skeleton is light, and the shield narrow and small, compared with the size of the animal ; in the full grown Turtle, the skin is quite smooth ; but in the young is tubercu lous. The paddles are without any distinct nails. These Tur tles are the largest in size and lay a great number of eggs. Only one species is as yet recognized. The LEATHERY TURTLE, Sphargis coriacea, (Lat. leathery.) This has jaws of immense strength, the lower one being sharp edged, and turning up at a point which when the jaws are closed is received into a central indentation or notch of the upper jaw. The carapace is heart-shaped and has seven longitudinal ridges at equal distances from each other. (See Chart.) The eyes CHELOiNIANS. 473 open almost vertically, which gives to the animal a strange as pect. This Turtle exceeds all others in size; the carapace is sometimes fifteen feet in circumference, and nearly seven feet in length. It sometimes weighs more than eighteen hundred pounds. Agassiz states he has seen those that weighed over a ton. The Leathery Turtle feeds upon marine animals, as well as plants. When aged, it is said " to carry on its carapace "a world of parasites." This gigantic species is found in the Med iterranean, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It breeds on the Tortugas or Turtle islands, on the Bahama islands and Keys, and on the coast of Brazil, laying, on an average, about three hundred and fifty eggs, in two sets. A large sized specimen of this species, taken off Sandy Hook in 1816, is now in the Ameri can Museum, New York city. The Leathery Turtle was known to the ancient Greeks, and of its carapace the first lyre is sup posed to have been formed ; the seven ridges on the back sug gesting the adoption of seven strings, which was the ancient number. Hence, it is sometimes called the LUTE TURTLE. CHELONIANS. Into what divisions may this Order be arranged ? In what respects do they widely differ from the general form of the class ? What is the shield of the back called? Of what does this consist? What in the TORTOISES represents the sternal or breast ribs of the lizards, &c. ? What is the name of the lower plate of the armor ? What is said of it ? What is the sec ond distinction between CHELONIANS and other reptiles? How are they compensated for the want of teeth ? What is said of the armor of the LAND TORTOISES? What is peculiar in that of the genus Pyxis ? In that of the genus Cinixys ? How is it in the aquatic species ? What is said of the organs of sense in Tortoises? What of their food? Of their pow ers of abstinence ? Of their growth ? Of their age ? What does Agassiz say of their eggs? Into how many SUB-ORDERS does he divide the order Chelonia? Name the families included in AMYD^E, or DIGITATED TORTOISES. Also those included in CHELONII or PINNATED, (finned,) T. What groups besides the Land Tortoises does the Sub-order Ainydae include ? Into what two divisions are the strictly Marsh Tortoises sometimes arranged ? Are the sp. of this Sub-order numerous ? What is said of the forms of the Land Tortoises ? What of their distinguishing characteristics ? Of their disposition, habits, &c. ? Name the sp. which are mentioned. Which of these are found in the U. S. ? What is said of it ? What can you say of the others? Which is the 2nd and most numerous FAMILY ? How does the box or armor of these T. differ from that of the Land T. ? Where are the largest part of them found ? How is it with the Cistudo ? What gen. are promi nent in this family ? Which is the smallest sp. of Emys ? Which is the largest ? What is said of the SALT WATER TERRAPIN ? Which is the most essentially aquatic ? What is said of it ? Which gen. includes the Box 20 474 CHELONIANS. TORTOISE ? What is said of the CAROLINA TERRAPIN ? Of the European Box T. ? Which is the 3rd FAMILY? Describe them. Of what does Agassiz say they remind us ? What is said of their movements, food, &c. ? On what continent are they all found ? What genera represent this family ? Which genus includes the MUD Tortoises? Which the MUSK T. ? What is the 4th FAMILY? Describe them. What turtle represents this family ? How does it resemble the ALLIGATOR ? What is said of its strength, food, &c. ? What is said of the 5th FAMILY? How many gen. does it include? Where are they found? What other reptiles do some or all of these resemble? What is the 6th FAMILY ? Name their characteristics. What gen. does it include ? What is the only recognized sp. ? What is said of it ? What is the 7th FAMILY ? In what respects are these distinguished ? For what element does the structure of these animals fit them? What helps them in swimming ? In what waters are they usually found ? Upon what do they feed? What gen. are mentioned? What is the type of the gen. Platypeltes ? What is said of it ? What of the Trionyx of the Nile ? What is said of the plastron of Aspidonectes ? What sp. of this gen. is mentioned? What is the 2nd SUB-ORDER? How does the structure of the SEA TUR TLES fit them for aquatic habits ? What is said of their motion ? Which limbs do they use in swimming ? What is the chief use of the hind limb ? On what do they feed ? Are they ever found on shore? When do they lay their eggs and what is said of them ? What is to them a favorite breed ing place? At what time is the T. Fishery carried on? How are the Tur tles secured? How do the Chinese boatmen take them? In what lati tudes are the Sea T. found? What is the 1st FAMILY? How is it charac terized? How many Avell defined gen. on the coast of the U. S. ? What is said of their food, &c.? Which is the most important of the SEA TUR TLE? Why? Where is it very common? How often caught at sea? What is said of the size and weight ? What resort for the female is men tioned? What is said of their eggs? Do their young, when hatched, all reach the sea? How many pair of scales has the Tortoise-shell T. ? Why are they said to be imbricated? At what part do the plates increase? What effect has this upon the older part ? What does this mode of growing and moulting resemble ? For what is this animal chiefly sought ? Which shells are the best? How is the shell removed from the carapace? How is it made to assume various forms? Is the shell renewed upon the stripped animal ? Where is this T. found ? How does the Loggerhead T. differ from the Hawks-bill or Tortoise shell T. ? For what is it sought? What is the 2nd FAMILY ? From what is the family name derived ? What Sea T. does it include? What is said of the jaw, carapace, &c. of the LEATHERY T. ? What of its size, weight, &c. ? Where is it found ? What breeding places are spoken of? Why is it sometimes called the LUTE T. ? How are the Ohelonidae or Testudinata usually divided, as given on the Chart ? What is Prof. Agassiz' first division of them as there shown ? SAURIANS. 475 SECTION III. SECOND ORDER. SAURIANS. Sauria, (Gr. cravyog, sauros, a lizard.) This order contains a numerous assemblage of animals re markable for the differences in their size, which varies from a few inches to thirty feet ; and not less so for differences in re- spect to strength, form and habit. All, however, agree in cer tain essential characters. Many species, generally of great dimensions, are known only in a fossil state. The general contour of the body is lengthened ; the skin is protected either by horny plates, by scales of various sizes and figures, or by granulations. The limbs are usually four in num. ber; the toes armed with claws. The body always terminates in a tail, which is frequently of considerable length. The eyes are protected by eye-lids, except in certain instances ; and in most species a tympanic membrane covers the orifice leading to the internal organs of hearing. The ribs, unlike those of the Tortoises, are distinct and movable; and there is a sternum or breast-bone, which is not found in serpents. The jaws are armed with teeth, as in snakes ; but the bones of the jaws are firmly united together, and not separable into distinct parts, as in the latter animals. The eggs of the Saurians have a hard calcareous shell ; the young undergo no metamorphoses or changes like those of the newt and frog. The tongue, in these animals, differs greatly in its form, and in the degree of freedom which it enjoys. In the Crocodile it is undeveloped and scarcely distinguishable from the general floor of the mouth, between the branches of the lower jaw. In other groups, it is broad, fleshy, and free only at its point ; in the Chameleons, it is fleshy, cylindrical, and capable of being projected to a great distance, and then completely redrawn. In some genera, it is slender and deeply forked, like that of a snake, and when at rest drawn into a sheath ; while in others, it is flat, very movable, and notched or forked at the tip. It is, in all, lu bricated with a glutinous saliva, but does not appear to be en dowed with a high sense of taste. In most of the Saurians, the body is so remarkable for its length and cylindrical figure that, as Aristotle has observed, they resemble snakes with the addition of limbs. "Among all the reptiles," says M. Bibron, "these undoubtedly approach nearest 476 SAURIANS. to the Mammalia, both in the variety and rapidity of their differ ent movements, especially if we compare their progression with that of Tortoises. There are, indeed, among the Saurians, spe cies which enjoy many modes of progression ; for they can creep, walk, run, climb, swim, dive, and even fly. Nevertheless, the elongated and heavy trunk of these Reptiles is not supported by the limbs without effort; they walk in general, with constraint and slowly, forthe arms and thighs are short, slender, but slightly muscular, and directed outwardly ; while the elbows and knees are too angular to support with ease the superincumbent weight. Still, however, notwithstanding this conformation, so faulty in ap pearance, (though not in reality,) they are capable of executing a great variety of movements, all bearing on progression." The form of the tail, the length of the body, the structure of the toes, and the shape of the claws determine the character of the movements, and correspond with the general habits of the animal. The hotter climates of the globe are the great nurseries of the Saurians. Persons who live in northern latitudes are ordinarily not likely to form any adequate idea of the variety of these crea tures, which tenant their favorite abodes. 44 In the intertropical latitudes, they obtrude themselves upon notice ; they are in the common pathway, and even haunt the abodes of men ; they swarm among the trees; they lie motion less upon the surface of the water, enjoying the hot rays of the sun ; they cover banks and walls or crumbling ruins, and min gle their sparkling hues with those of the blooming vegetation amidst which they nestle," Like the snake tribe, the Saurians moult their skin during the spring or summer, appearing afterwards in bright colors. None of the Saurians are poisonous; none have poison fangs, though the ancients regarded many as venomous in the extreme. Of these an imaginary animal termed the Basilisk, (Basilicas,) was especially celebrated; a name which modern naturalists apply to a genus peculiar to South America. Though the Lizard race do not possess the medical properties which have been ascribed to them, many of them, as the Igua nas, hold a high rank as articles of luxury for the table ; and the flesh and eggs of the Teguixin or Monitor, a large species found in Brazil and other parts of South America, are esteemed for food. The Saurians are divided into the following families, viz.: (1) Crocodilida, Crocodiles; (2) Chamaeleonidce, Chameleons; SAURIANS. 477 (3) Geckotida, Geckos ; (4) Iguanida, Iguanas ; (5) Varanida, Varans; (6) Teidce, Teguixins; (7) Lacertida, Lizards; (8) Chalcida, Chalcides ; (9) Scincidce, Scinks. FIRST FAMILY. CROCODILES. CrocodiHda, (Gr. xQoxodsdog, krokodeitos, a crocodile.) This family includes three genera, closely related to each other, and agreeing in the general details of their structure. They are the largest of the Lizards found in America. They are called Alligators in the southern parts of the United States, and Caimans in the Antilles and South America. In Africa and Asia they are called Gavials. Those of America are distin guished by a broad and rounded snout; those of Africa by an elongated flat snout, and those of Asia by a pointed one like the beak of a bird. They differ from other reptiles in the tongue, which is thick, flat, and attached so much to the mouth that the ancients believed this member was altogether wanting. "To it, of all animals," wrote Herodotus, "nature has not given a tongue." The power of swimming is shown by the palmated feet, and by the lateral compression of the tail, which thus acts as a large and powerful fin ; the tail is no doubt used as a wea pon of defence, being armed with a serrated ridge of strong square scales. The lower jaw is rather longer than the upper, and both are armed with a single row of pointed teeth, the num ber of which does not vary with age, as in other animals. The Crocodiles are all inhabitants of the rivers and fresh waters of warm countries ; but are most abundant in those latitudes which approach nearest to the equinoctial line. Their mode of feed ing is very peculiar. They do not swallow their prey upon seizing it, nor is it ever eaten while fresh ; but the victim is first drowned, and then conveyed to some hole at the edge of the wa ter, where it is suffered to putrify before it is devoured. Their food consists principally of fish, crabs, and such other animals as they can catch. They seem to manifest an affinity to the Tor toises in the coverings of their bodies, being defended, like them, by plates or shields; with this difference, however, that in the Tortoises the plates are compactly united at the edges, while in Crocodiles they are sufficiently far apart to admit the free mo- tion of all parts of the body and limbs. Owing to a peculiarity in the vertebras of the neck, which bear upon each other by means of small false ribs, that render motion sidewise somewhat difficult, these creatures can not turn about with much facility, 478 SAURJANS and may be avoided without difficulty, when on land they at tempt the pursuit of man. The Crocodiles of the Nile were regarded as sacred by the ancient Egyptians, and sometimes, when caught young, they were so tamed as to follow in the train of their religious proces sions. In some localities they have been killed of the length of thirty feet, (Swain.) Those of Egypt and Senegal, (Africa,) are less numerous, but more dangerous than those of this conti nent. No living species of this family is found in Europe, nor has any yet been detected in Australia, but remains have been discovered which indicate the former existence of this animal in territory now included in the British dominions. Alligator (Lat. a binder) Champsa, (Gr. Crocodile, Hesiod.) ALLIGATORS. (See fig. on Chart.) These have the head broad ; the muzzle wide and rounded ; the teeth of unequal length; the fourth or canine tooth of the lower jaw, (counting from the fore part of the jaw,) is the longest and is received into a corresponding cavity or pit in the upper jaw, when the mouth is closed, so that it is concealed. The hinder limbs are rounded and destitute of rigid scales; the webs between the toes are short. The Alligators pursue fish with much dexterity, driving a shoal of them into a creek, and then getting into the midst of their prey and devouring them at pleasure. They also seize and feed upon dogs, frogs, pigs or other animals incautiously ap proaching too near to their lurking places. The usual method of capturing the Alligator is by baiting a large four-pointed hook and suffering it to float in the river. When the creature has swallowed the hook, he is hauled on shore and killed. Audubon gives an interesting account of the chase of a wounded Ibis by one of these animals. It had almost reached the terrified bird, " when," says he, "by pulling three triggers at once, we lodged the contents of our guns in the throat of the monster. Thresh ing furiously with his tail, and rolling his body in agony, the Alligator at last sunk to the mud ; and the ibis, as if in grati tude, walked to our very feet, and then lying down, surrendered to us." The principal species are the Caiman with bony eye-lids, A. palpelrosus, (Lat. from palpelra, an eye-lid.) found in Cayenne and Brazil, also in the Mississippi, as high as the Red River, in Carolina and Florida, and sometimes twenty feet in length. The PIKE-NOSED ALLIGATOR, (see Chart.) A. Indus, (Lat. a pike,) found in the southern rivers of North America. In Louisiana, the Alligators of this species bury themselves in SAURIANS. 479 mud, where they become stiff, without being frozen. So intense is their lethargy, when the cold is severe, that they may be cut deeply without being roused. Their eggs are less in size than those of the Crocodile, being not much larger than a hen's. A peck of them are sometimes taken out of the place of deposit in the sand. The SPECTACLED CAIMAN, A. sclerops, (Gr. skleros, hard ; ops, face,) is a native of Cayenne, Brazil, and Paraguay. It has its English name from a ridge across the forehead, and another before each eye, showing some resemblance to a pair of specta cles. The eggs are as large as those of a goose ; usually about sixty are deposited. The Indians esteem them as food, and even relish the flesh of the Yacare, as the animal is called in Para guay. Crocodilus. The CROCODILE. (See Chart.) This genus is distinguished from the preceding by the sudden narrowness of the muzzle behind the nostrils, which produces a large notch for the lodgment of the fourth tooth of the upper jaw, when the mouth is closed. The hinder margin of the leg is orna mented with a series of ridged scales, and the hind toes, espe cially the three outermost, are joined by webs to their point. The sublime description of the Leviathan in the book of Job, (chap, xii..) evidently relates to the Crocodile. The most favor- a.ble season for catching the animal, is the winter, when it usually sleeps in sand banks, enjoying the warmth of the sun ; or else, in the spring, while the female is " watching the sand islands, where she has buried her eggs." Sometimes it is harpooned, the coat of mail which protects the animal, being pierced by the weapon. The eggs of this formidable creature are but little larger than those of a goose. Many of them are destroyed yearly by birds of prey and quadrupeds, particularly the Ich neumon. Herodotus speaks of a bird called Trocliilus, (sup posed by some to be one of the Plovers,) which entered the jaws of this animal unmolested, and picked out, and devoured the bdella, suckers or gnats. These insects also infest the mouths of the Ciiimans, of South America. Two species of this genus are found in this hemisphere, viz : the C. rhomfrifer, (Lat. rhombus, a rhomb; fero, to bear.) found in Cuba; and the SHARP-NOSED CROCODILE, C. acutus, (Lat. sharp,) found in St. Domingo and Martinique. The other species all belong to the Eastern Con tinent. The COMMON CROCODILE, C. vulgaris, is found in the Nile, the Senegal, and the Ganges, and along the coast of Malabar. 480 SAURIANS. The HELMETED CROCODILE, C. galeatus, (Lat. helmeted,) is found in Siam. The Two-RiDGED CROCODILE, C. biporcatus, (Lat. Ms, twice ; porcatus, ridged.) occurs in the Ganges, in the rivers of Pondi- cherry, and in those of Java. The CUIRASSED CROCODILE, C. cataphractus, (Gr. kataphracios, mailed,) is found in the river Galba, near Sierra Leone, (Africa.) The GAVIALS. Gavialis. This genus is at once distinguished by the length and narrowness of the jaws, which are prolonged in a straight beak-like snout, armed with ranges of formidable teeth. Of this genus there is but one known species. The GAVIAL OF THE GANGES, Gavialis Gangeticus, (see Chart,) one of the scourges of that celebrated river. The dying Hindoo, exposed upon its bank, and the dead body committed to its waters, become, not rarely, the food of this ferocious animal. "In the living sub-genera of the Crocodilean family," observes Dr. Buckland, ('Bridgewater Treatise,' pp. 20,) "we see the elongated and slender beak of the Gavial of the Ganges, con- structed to feed on fishes; while the shorter and stronger snout of the broad-nosed Alligators, gives them the power of seizing and devouring quadrupeds that come to the banks of rivers in hot countries. As there were scarcely any mammalia during the secondary periods, whilst the waters were abundantly stored with fishes, we might, a priori, expect that if any crocodilean forms had then existed, they would have most nearly resembled the Common Gavial ; and we have hitherto only found those genera which have elongated beaks in formations anterior to, and including the chalk, while True Crocodiles, with a short and broad snout, like that of the Caiman and the Alligator, appear for the first time in strata of the tertiary periods, in which remains of the Mammalia abound." FOSSIL CROCODILES. These have been found in the Eocene or early tertiary depos its of England. About seventy fossil members of the Crocodile family are known; but not many belong to the United States. In their structure, they conform most nearly to the Gavial of the Ganges. The genus Steneosaurus, (Gr. stenos, narrow or straight; sauros, a lizard), affords the nearest link to the living species of the crocodile family. The genus Teleosaurus, (Gr. teleios, perfect ; sauros, a lizard,) SAURIANS. 481 resembles the living Saurians in the general contour of the head and jaws, but differs from them widely in the conformation of the muzzle, and the opening of the nose. Many species of the fossil Crocodiles were of enormous size, much larger than the living ones of the present day. SUB-FAMILY. MARINE FOSSIL LIZARDS. Enaliosauria, (Gr. zvdhos, enalios, marine ; crai^oj, sauros, a lizard.) This group includes some very extraordinary fossil Saurians. Little else than the bones have been preserved, and from these alone the structure and habits are inferred. It is hence impos sible to speak with certainty in regard to many parts of the living organization ; while yet it is made quite clear, that in these ex tinct and gigantic reptiles, the extremities were flattened into fin-like flippers, connecting them with the CHELONIA, and, to gether with other peculiarities of their structure, pointing out the animals as exclusively aquatic. The Enaliosaurians " inhabited the seas of Europe during the Trias and Jura formations." We are not aware that any species have as yet been discovered in North America. The two genera, are, 1st, Ichthyosaurus, (Gr. ickihus, a fish; sauros, a lizard.) (See Chart.) This reptile is, according to Prof. Owen, a singu lar compound, in which the characters of the fish, the cetacea, and the bird are engrafted upon an essentially Saurine type of structure. Dr. Buckland, in his "Bridgewater Treatise," says of it, "It presents combinations of form and mechanical con- trivances, which are now dispersed through various classes and orders of existing animals, but are no longer united in the same genus. Thus, in the same individual, the snout of a Porpoise is combined with the teeth of a Crocodile ; the head of a Lizard with the vertebrae of a Fish ; and the sternum of the Orni thorhyncus with the paddles of a Whale." The general outline of an Ichthyosaurus "must have most nearly resembled the modern Porpoise or Grampus. It had four broad feet or paddles, and terminated behind in a long and powerful tail." The struct ure of the skeleton is like that of a Saurian ; but the vertebral column consists of more than a hundred vertebrae, each of which is hollow, and fashioned like those of fishes. The form of the sternal arch and the broad surfaces of the clavicles are adapted to give great strength to the chest, and enable the animal to breast the most disturbed waters. Dr. Buckland remarks, that " the bones composing the arch are combined nearly in the same 482 SAURIANS. manner as the Ornithorhyncus, of Australia, which seeks its food at the bottom of lakes and rivers, and is obliged, like the Ichthy osaurus, to be continually rising to the surface to breathe air." To this sternal arch the front paddles are articulated; they are nearly one-half larger than the posterior paddles, and in this part of the structure the cetaceous type appears to have been flattened. The bones of the head, the length of the muzzle, and the teeth, sometimes amounting to one hundred and eighty in number, pre sent analogies to those of the Crocodile. The eyes, however, were extremely large, much larger than those of the latter ani mal, and we can easily imagine, glared ferociously as the mon ster darted towards its prey. Six different species have been enumerated. The commonest species, /. tenuirostres, (Lat. thin- beaked,) reaches the length of fourteen feet. The species I. platyodon, (Gr. platus, broad or large, and odous, tooth,) has been seen in specimens thirty feet long. The teeth are some times two and a half inches in length ; and the orbit (of the eye) one foot in diameter. The vertebrae are one hundred and twenty in number. There is no evidence whatever that one species has succeeded, or been the result of the transmutation of a former species. It should be added, that the first remains of the Ichthyosaurus were collected by a lady, — Miss Anning, — from the cliffs of Lyme Regis, Eng. The Ichthyosaurians are abundant through out the Lias and Oolitic formations. Plesiosaurus, (Gr. plesios, next; sauros, a lizard.) This genus was first described by Conybeare, in 1821. Its most remarkable character pertains to the vertebrae of the neck, which are from twenty to forty in number, (see Chart;) — more than in any other known animal. Conybeare conjectures, that as this creature breathed air, and had frequent need of respira tion, it usually swam upon or near the surface of the water, arching back its long neck like the Swan, and plunging down wards at the fishes coming within its reach. Cuvier asserts, — " To the head of a Lizard, the Plesiosaurus united the tail of a Crocodile ; a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a Serpent ; a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped ; the ribs of a Chameleon, and the paddles of a Whale." The greater length of its extremities would seem to indicate that movement on land was probably less difficult for this creature than for the Ichthyosaurus. It was, probably, in general, about ten feet long; though some species of this genus and the preceding one, must have exceeded twenty feet in length. SAURIANS. 483 Prof. Owen enumerates no less than sixteen species of this extinct and most anomalous animal. Pterodactylus, (Gr. pteron, wing ; daktutos, a finger or toe,) The PTERODACTYLE, (see Chart,) The researches of geology have brought to light this Flying ( fossil ) Lizard, which received its name from Cuvier. The construction of the skeleton fully proves that it was capable of flying, or of skimming from one spot to another. The wings were, probably, much like those found in the Bat. The neck was very long and bird-like ; the head large ; the jaws armed with pointed teeth ; and the tail very short. Six or seven species of this genus have been distinguished; one is almost the size of a Thrush ; one of a Common Bat ; arid another consider ably larger than the first. To these extinct reptiles, the little Dragons, (Draco,) have but a distant resemblance. The food of the smaller species consisted of insects, the larger preying upon the fishes, or the marsupials of their day. These very singular animals have only, within a comparatively short period, been admitted to a place among the Repiiles. Iguanodon, (Iguana, and odous, a tooth.) This name has been given to the fossil remains of an extinct animal related to the Iguana; but which attained a far more enormous bulk. The bones were discovered by Dr. Mantell in the strata of Tilgate forest, Eng. The teeth are so much like those of the Iguana, as to show beyond question, its relation to this gigantic Saurian, which could not have been less than seventy feet in length. The teeth of the Iguanodon disclose some peculiar me chanical contrivances, fitting them for cropping tough vegetable food, such as that furnished by the plants found imbedded with it. SAURIANS. What is the SECOND ORDER OF REPTILES ? Give the general characteris tics of this order. What did Aristotle observe respecting the SAURIANS? In what respects do they come nearer the Mammalia than other reptiles ? In what climates are they most numerous ? At what season do they moult their skin? Are medicinal properties justly ascribed to them? Into how many families are they divided? What is the First Family? How many genera does this family include ? How do they compare in size with the rest of the LIZARDS? Where are they called ALLIGATORS? Where CAI MANS? Where GAVIALS? How are these severally distinguished? In what particulars do they differ from other reptiles? What evinces their power of swimming? How are the jaws armed? Where are Crocodiles most abundant ? What is peculiar in their mode of feeding? How are they related to the Tortoises? How did the ancient Egyptians regard them ? Is any species found in Europe or Australia ? What characters of the ALLIGATOR are given ? What is said of its pursuit of fishes ? How is it captured? What incident is related by Audubon ? Mention the princi pal species. How does the gen. Crocodilus differ from the gen. Alligat&r ? 484 SAURIANS. Mention the species found in this Hemisphere. Also the other species and their localities. How is the gen. Gavialis at once distinguished? "NY hat is said of the Gavial of the Ganges? What is the remark of Dr. Buckland? What is said of Fossil Crocodiles? From what is the name Enaliosauria derived ? Upon what is this group of marine Fossil Lizards founded ? What two genera does it include? What does Prof. Owen say of the Ichthyosau rus? What does Dr. Buckland say respecting it? What further is said of it? How many species have been enumerated? Who first described the gen. Plesiosaurus? What is its most remarkable character? What was the conjecture of Conybeare? What else is said of this gen.? How many species have been enumerated? What is said of the Pterodactylc ? What of the Iguanodon? Of the Chameleon? Illustrate this order from the Chart, tracing the gen. and families as there given. SECTION IV. SECOND FAMILY. CHAMELEONS. Chamaleonidcz, (Gr. ja//cataW, chamaileon, a Chameleon, Chameleon-kind.) These are a group of singular reptiles, not immediately rela ted to any other family, but perhaps succeeding the Crocodiles as fitly as it would any other reptiles. It contains but a single genus, Chamcekon; the first peculiarity whereof consists in the absence of scales, — instead of which, the surface of the skin is covered with horny granulations of unequal size, but of sym metrical distribution ; (2) the body is of a deep, compressed form, surmounted on the back by a sharp ridge; (3) the Parrot- like structure of the feet, (Plate XII. fig. 6,) longer in proportion than those of any other Saurian, having each five toes, divided into two opposing sets, one including two, and the other three, armed with five sharp claws, and connected together as far as the claws by the skin. The internal organ of hearing is entirely hidden; the head is very large, and seems to be set upon the shoulders; the upper part usually showing an elevated crest or casque; and a ridged arch is over each of the large orbits to the muzzle. The mouth is very wide ; the teeth are sharp, small, and three lobed. The eyes, though in themselves small, appear extremely minute ; the whole of the ball, except the pupil, being covered with skin, forming a single circular eye-lid with a central dilatable aperture, The furrow between the ball of the eye and the edge of the orbit is very deep ; and the eye-lid closely attached to the ball, moves with it. Each eye has the power of motion independent of its fellow ! — so that we may see the axis of one directed up- SATJRIANS. 485 wards or backwards, while that of the other is in a contrary direction, giving a strange and most ludicrous aspect to the ani mal, in unison with its general contour and slow movements. In consequence of this independent motion of the eyes the animal when agitated, appears, in its movements, as if it were joined to another, with which it has no unity of purpose or action. For this reason, the Chameleon never goes into the water. He can not swim ; when in the water his power of concentration is lost; and he tumbles about as if in a state of intoxication. Moreover, he may be asleep on one side, and awake on the other ! As Cuvier observes, the only part of the Chameleon which moves with quickness, is its tongue. This organ is cylindrical and worm-like in shape, capable of being greatly elongated ; it terminates in a fleshy tubercle, and is lubricated with a viscous saliva. When not in use, it can be withdrawn into the mouth, but is thrust forth with noiseless and arrow-like rapidity after in sects, slugs, and the like, which come within its reach. On these the animal lives, and not "on air," as many of the ancients sup posed. The gummy secretion at the tip of the tongue enables it to secure its food readily. When fully protruded, the tongue reaches to a distance equal to the length of the animal's body. "An insect on a leaf at an apparently hopeless distance, or a drop of water on a twig, disappear as if by enchantment, before the Chameleon," so marvelously rapid is the movement of its tongue; and here, doubtless, is the origin of the old idea relating to the airiness of its food. The structure of the grasping power of the tail in these animals can hardly fail to remind the beholder of the Spider Monkeys, and distinctly points to their arboreal habits; when they descend to the ground, their actions there appear strange and awkward. The females of this group dig a hole in the ground for the reception of their eggs, which they cover with earth and dry leaves. In captivity, the Chameleons have little in their habits or manners that is pleasing or attractive. Like all the Lizard tribe, they are capable of enduring long-continued abstinence from food, and apparently without injury. Fifteen species, mostly African, are described as belonging to the genus Chaiimleon. The COMMON CHAMELEON, C. vuJgaris, is found in the south of Europe, as well as in Africa. This species, the emblem of hypocrisy and inconstancy, is the one so well known to the an cients, and respecting which so much has been said relative to its power of changing its form, and taking the color of near ob jects, and which was believed " to live on air." 456 SAURIANS. The FORKED-NOSED CHAMELEON, C. lifidus, (Lat. divided into two parts,) is a very singular species, found in the Moluccas, India and Australia, having the top of the head flat, and the snout prolonged into two distinct branches. The WARTY CHAMELEON, C. verrucosus, (Lat. warty,) is one of the largest species, averaging twenty inches in its total length. It is a native of Madagascar. THIRD FAMILY. Geckolidcz. The GECKOS. The Geckos are a numerous family, divided by Cuvier into seven sections, according to the structure of the toes, but bear ing a strong resemblance to each other in their general charac ters, and are distinguished for their nocturnal habits. Their flattened form and broad head give them a peculiarly disagree able appearance, which is increased by their sombre and rather toad-like hue : whence they have been subjected to the unfounded imputation of being venomous creatures, producing, by their touch, malignant disorders of the skin. Their limbs are short and the toes, which are nearly of equal size, are flattened and expanded on their under surface, either throughout the whole or a greater part of their length ; the dilated parts, or the disks, are often marked with regular but minute plates, so ranged as to pro duce a striated surface, and acting as suckers. The nails are sharp, hooked, and retractile, like those of a cat, so that their points may not become worn or blunted. The tongue is fleshy and broad, but short and capable of little protrusion, and notched at the tip, which alone is free. The eyes are large and full, with extremely small eye-lids, which, as in the Chameleon, form only a single membrane, leaving, however, a large aperture, and exposing the nictitating membrane. The pupil, as in the cat and other nocturnal animals, is linear when undilated, and con tracts under the influence of light. The orifices of the ears are placed on the sides of the head, the tympanum being considerably below the surface. The mouth is extremely wide ; the teeth are small, uniform, and im planted along the inner margin of the jaws ; the nostrils are placed laterally. The skin is more or less covered with granulations or horny tubercles ; and in some species, it is extended along the sides and limbs into a kind of marginal fringe. The voice of these reptiles is a sort of clucking cry, of which the term GECKO, uttered in a shrill tone, is an imitation. Their food consists of insects and caterpillars, which they SAURIANS. 437 often obtain by waiting in ambush for them, or by pursuing them into the holes and crevices to which they retreat for refuge. The imbricated suckers of the feet permit these reptiles to traverse ceilings, and suspend themselves on the under side of a leaf, whilo> watching the movements of their prey. Their sharp, hooked-like claws enable them to climb the bark of trees with perfect facility; to penetrate the cavities and clefts of rocks, and to ascend walls for the purpose of finding chinks or hollows in which they conceal themselves during the day, rest ing motionless, and affixed by the feet, with the back downwards. We must not fail to notice the singular power which the Geckos have of reproducing the tail when it is lost by accident. Indeed, the tail appears to be brittle ; and when broken off, it is soon replaced ; but a swelling at the base of the reproduced member, marks its line of union. These reptiles, though persecuted, seem partial to the habita tions of men ; attracted thither by the flies which swarm in the regions of their abode. It is useless to try to seize them. Their power of adhesion is instantly overcome in the case of danger; in their quick escape, not the slightest noise or rustle is heard, so that they vanish as if by magic. Mrs. Mason, of the Baptist mission in Burmah, says: "The first reptile that attracts the attention of new comers, is the Gecko, or House Lizard. They are every where ; under the sides of tables and chairs ; in the closets and book-cases, and among the food and clothing. They sometimes tumble from the roof upon the tables, but they usually come struggling with a centipede, or some other Vermin in their mouths." So far from having any wish to destroy them, Mrs. Mason says their services were invaluable, the best " help " sho had. " This harmless little creature," she continues, "is repre sented by English, French, and German authorities, as ' a species of poisonous lizard ; ' yet I have had them rest on the back of my hand, and hang suspended from my fingers, without the slightest disagreeable effect being produced." This is the ani mal mentioned in Prov. xxx., 28, correctly rendered by Jerome, " The Gecko taketh hold with her hands, And dwelleth in kings' palaces." The Geckos are arranged, by some naturalists into seven ge nera, based upon the distinctive form of the toes and including about sixty species. They are found in Asia, Africa, America and Australia. The COMMON GECKO, G. verus, (Lat. true,) was noticed by 483 SATJRIANS. Pliny and others of the ancients, under the name of Stellio, (Lat. a newt, or an animal having star-like spots upon its back.) The BANDED GECKO, Diplodactylus, (Gr. dipldos, double ; dactulos, finger,) vittatus, (Lat. banded or filleted,) is a singu lar species, found in Australia. The LEAF-TAILED GECKO, Phyllurus (Gr. phuJlon, a teaf; oura, tail,) platurus, (Gr. plains, broad ; oura, tail,) is a curious New Holland species, first described by Dr. Shaw, having a tail which is flattened horizontally in the shape of a leaf. The WALL GECKO, Platydactylus, (Gr. broad-fingered,) mura- lis, (Lat. of a wall,) is a species common in southern Europe, where it attracts attention by its power of ascending smooth per pendicular walls. * It is this species which is called by the Ital ians, Tarantola, or Tarantula. The LEAF-FINGERED GECKO, Phyllodactyla (Gr. leaf-fingered,) tuberculosus, (Lat. pimpled or tuberculated,) is found in Cali fornia. The SMOOTH GECKO, G. lavis, (Lat. smooth.) or PlatydactuJus theconyx, (Gr. theke, a bag or sheath ; onux, a nail,) is a native of South America and the Caribbee Islands. Specimens of this spe cies, in which the tail has been broken off and replaced by another of imperfect growth, are seen in cabinets. FOURTH FAMILY. Iguanida. The IGUANAS, or Thick-tongued Lizards. These form a very numerous group of reptiles, of which the genus Iguana, (aboriginal name,) may be considered the type. The whole have been comprised, (see Chart.) in forty-six genera and one hundred and fifty species. Further discoveries, together with modifications of former classifications, have increased the number of genera to over fifty. Of the entire number of spe cies belonging to this family, about one hundred are natives of America. North America possesses a considerable number, but not more than three species are found within the limits of the United States. In all the genera of the Iguanas, the body is covered with horny plates or scales, often keeled, spinous or tuberculated, but never investing bony centres'or rings. Nearly all have a horny ridge or crest along the middle of the back and tail. The teeth vary in their mode of attachment, but are never rooted or fixed in sockets. The tongue is of moderate size and free at the ex tremity only; it is thick, fleshy and spongy or velvety on its sur- SAURIANS. 489 face, never cylindrical, nor playing in a sheath. The eyes are protected with movable eyelids. The fingers are free, distinct, and all furnished with claws. The auditory orifice is usually visible, and often surrounded with pointed scales. The senses of sight and hearing in the Iguanas, appear to be well developed ; taste they seem to have in a fair degree, but not smell ; the touch is moderate. MM. Dumeril and Bibron divide these reptiles into two sub- families; (1) the Pleurodonta, (Gr. pleuron, side; odous, tooth,) having the teeth palatine, or in a sort of furrow running along the jaw bones and to which they adhere simply by their inner surface. All the genera are American, with the exception of one genus, BracJiylophus, (Gr. brachus, short; lophos, crest,) found in India. (2) The Acrodonta, (Gr. akros, the highest part or summit ; odous, tooth,) having the teeth soldered to the ridge or upper edge of the jaws, of which they appear to be a continuation, and from which they rise. Our space allows us to notice but a few of the genera and species. I. Iguana, distinguished by having a long flap or fold of skin under the throat, on the part nearest the chin, somewhat like a dewlap, and by having two series of palatine teeth, a long com pressed tail, and a dentated crest along the back. The animals of this genus are arboreal in their habits, but often, however, visit the ground, and occasionally take to the wa ter, in which they swim with ease and rapidity. They are easily tamed, though they retain a degree of fierceness, and will often attempt to bite. The female visits the sea shore, or the borders of rivers, in order to deposit her eggs in the sand. The incessant destruction of these creatures for the sake of their flesh, has rendered them exceedingly scarce in localities where they were once abundant. Their eggs are much es teemed. When attacked, they seldom attempt to escape, but gaze at their assailants, inflating their throats prodigiously, and assuming as formidable an air as possible, They show them selves to be very tenacious of life, and are generally killed by plunging a sharp instrument into the brain. A well known spe cies inhabiting South America and the West India Islands, is the Iguana tuberculata, (Lat. having tubercles,) often reaching five feet in length, and sometimes measuring even six; the sides of the neck are covered with tubercles, whence the specific name. The general color of this species is green, more or less tinged with olive ; or yellowish, marbled with a brighter tint ; the tail is ringed with dusky black. It is fierce in its aspect and dispo sition. On account of the excellence of its flesh, the animal 4C9 SAURIANS. has also the specific name sapidissima, (Lat. most savory ;) it does not, however, suit " some constitutions," II. Anolius, or Anolis. This gen us is distinguished by an ex pansion of the skin on the last joint but one, (or the penultimate joint,) of the toes ; by the possession of two rows of palatine teeth ; by the absence of pores from the thighs. In some species, both the back and tail are without a ridge or crest ; in others, a crest consisting of minute scales runs along the middle line of the back, and sometimes along the tail. Like the Chameleons, the animals of this genus have the power of changing their color. They are smaller in size, the largest being not more than a foot in length ; climb the branches of trees with great facility ; and even rest upon the leaves, secured by the disks with which their toes are provided. The males are said to make a barking noise like that of a small dog, and to curl the tail over the back while running. In these ani mals, as well as those of the preceding genus, the middle parts of the body and the tail are more slender and fragile than the other portions, so that they often suffer a break, followed, however, by a reproduction and consequent deformity. One species is found in the United States, viz. : the CAROLINA ANOLIS, A. Carolinen- sis. It is very abundant in the southern sections of the Union, where it is known as the Green Lizard or Chameleon. This is a very beautiful animal, of alight golden green above and green ish white beneath ; the throat pouch, when inflated with air, is of a vermilion color. It keeps about gardens, and often, in search of flies, enters the windows of houses, and can even walk upon glass by means of the disks of the toes. The GREAT CRESTED ANOLIS, A. velifer, (Lat. sail-bearing,) is one of the species which have upon the back a sail-like crest. III. Basilicus, (Gr. basilikos, a kinglet.) This genus varies from the Iguana, in the absence of femoral pores, and in having a more contracted dewlap. A triangular fold of thin skin, sus tained by a cartilage, and rising vertically from the middle lon gitudinal line of the back of the head, gives a singular aspect to the animals of this genus, which appear as if crowned with a raised hood or pointed cap. An elevated, serrated ridge or crest of scales passes along the middle of the back and tail, in the males of one or two of the species, supported by bony appenda ges, and presenting the appearance of a continuous fin. The MITRED BASILISK, B. mitratus, (Lat. mitred,) found in Mexico and regions further south, receives its name from the conspicuous pointed hood or crest on the occiput or hind part of the head. It should be noted that the Basilisk of modern natu- SAUBLANS. 491 ralists, is not to be confounded with the Malignant Basilisk, or serpent of the African deserts, pictured by the fancy of poets, whose very glance the ancients believed to be fatal to all who came within its influence. The true Basilisk or Cockatrice is, notwithstanding its formidable appearance, a perfectly harmless reptile, possessing great activity and seeking its insect food among the trees. IV. Amllyrhyncus, (Gr. amblus, blunt ; rhunchos, a beak or muzzle,) is an anomalous genus found in the volcanic Galapa gos islands, so noted for their peculiar forms. The head is short and has a blunt muzzle ; the scales of the body are not tuberculated ; the skin of the throat is dilatable, but not formed into a dewlap ; a high crest appears upon the back and tail. Two species are found in the Galapagos islands, one terrestrial and burrowing under ground, A. subcristatus, (Lat. somewhat crested ;) the other marine, A. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) living exclusively on the rock-bound sea, feeding on sea-weed, and sel dom found at much distance from the shore. "It is of a dirty black color ; stupid and sluggish in its movements. The limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava which every where form the coast ; on the black rocks, six or seven of these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen basking in the sun." (Darwin's " Voy ages of the Adventure and the Beagle.") V. Tropidolepis, (Gr. tropis, a keel ; lepis, a scale.) is a ge nus confined to North America, and embracing ten species. The Lizards which it includes have rough carinated (keel-like) scales on the back and sides, while those of the other parts are imbri cated. The body is depressed and oblong in shape ; the head short, depressed and rounded in front ; the neck contracted and smooth beneath ; the thighs have a series of distinct pores, but there is no crest either on the back or tail. The Brown Swift, T. undulatus, (Lat. varied with waves,) is found within the Atlantic states as far north as New York, and also in the Western States. It is often seen running along fences or among trees, particularly in hilly or sandy districts, abounding in pine trees, among which it seeks its insect food ; and hence is called the Pine or Fence Lizard. This little creature, from five to eight inches lontj, is venomous in its aspect, but really harmless. Like the Chameleon, it changes its color. It is very active, and therefore called Swift. VI. Phrynosoma, (Gr. phrunos, a toad ; soma, body.) (Hoi- brook.) The genus Agama formerly included both Tropidolepis and 492 SAURIAN S. Phrynosoma, but as now restricted, it contains no American spe cies. The genus Phrynosoma is closely allied to the preceding. It includes several species inhabiting Texas, Mexico and Califor nia. The short, squat, nearly orbicular body, the feeble limbs, the long spines fringing the hind part of the head, and the shorter ones scattered along the back, give the animal quite a singular appearance. The species which are most numerous are P. cornuta, (Lat. horned,) or spinosa, (Lat. spiny ;) P. or- biculare, (Lat. orbicular.) They are named Tnpayaxan, or Horned Frog, from their fancied resemblance to the latter animal. These species feed upon insects, which they take by stealing upon them imperceptibly : they have the strange habit of feigning death when handled or even approached. SECOND SUB-FAMILY, Acrodonta, without palatine teeth, and the greater part without any external auditory orifice. All the species are found in the old world. We barely notice some of the more prominent genera. I. Draco, (a dragon.) including eight or nine species found in India, Java, Sumatra, etc. These Lizards are of small aize, and at once distinguished from all other Saurians, by the possession of a pair of parachute appendages, formed by the horizontal extension of the 'wings of the sides, and resembling those of a butterfly. They are the only living representatives of the fabulous dragons of olden lime, celebrated in romance and fable. The "wings" can be folded up or expanded at will, but they can not be made to strike the air, and raise the animal after the manner of a bird or bat ; they, however assist this little dragon, only a few inches in length, in fluttering from branch to branch in search of insects, or when, like the Pteromys, or Flying Squirrel, it shoots from tree to tree. One of the most common species is the D. Daudini, of Bibron, or D. volans, (Lat. flying.) of Gmelin, found in Java. II. Stettio, (Lat. a newt or stellion.) is a genus characterized chiefly by having the tail encircled with rings of large scales that are often spinous. It furnishes the only European repre sentative of the present family, viz. : S. vulgaris, the COMMON STELLION. III. Grammatophora. (Gr. Grammata, letters ; phoreo, I carry,) so called from a fancied resemblance of the tubercles of the neck to letters. The back is without a crest, but has cross-rows of large scales. Some have a fold across the throat. One spe cies is the G. muricata, the MURICATED LIZARD. SAURIANS. 493 FIFTH FAMILY. VARANID^E. VARANS. The Varans are worthy of particular attention on account of the light which they shed upon the organization of certain fossil Saurians. They are also interesting on account of the size of some of the species, which is inferior only to that of Crocodiles. These reptiles are covered with non-irnbricated tubercles; i.e., they do not overlay each other, like tiles on a roof. These are set in the skin, rounded (except on the under part of the body, where they are angular in shape,) and arranged in circular bands or rings. The body is elongated, rounded, and without dorsal crests ; the toes are distinct, very long, and armed with strong claws. The tail is more or less compressed, and at least twice as long as the body ; the tongue is fleshy and very extensi ble, being, when fully protruded, twice as long as the head ; it is of a slender figure, and deeply forked at the tip, like the tongue of a snake. The Varans are divided into two distinct groups, viz : (1) the eminently Terrestrial group, which have the tail nearly conical in shape, and which dwell far from the water, in desert and sandy places ; (2) the Aquatic group, consisting of those which inhabit the banks of rivers and lakes. In this latter group, the tail is compressed laterally, and surmounted by a ridge, formed by two series of flattened scales. In these the tail is an important organ of progression in the water; they lash it rapidly and powerfully from side to side, and thus propel themselves along with great celerity, cleaving the water like an arrow. The body, in con- sequence of the air with which the lungs are filled, floats on the surface, and is directed by this powerful organ, at once a rudder and an oar. The motions of these animals on land, are quick and active. It is not certain that any of them are arboreal, or able to climb trees, but they can scramble up rocks and craggy precipices. They run with facility ; but owing to the length of the tail and manner in which they work it from side to side, pressing, at the same time, against the ground, their movements are sinuous, like those of a serpent; and they can spring upon their prey. The pupil of the eye is circular, and yet many are said to be nocturnal in their habits; others, however, are undoubtedly diurnal. The food of the Varans consists of the larger kinds of insects, such as locusts, crickets, and beetles, — of birds, eggs, and small mammalia. It is said, "they unite themselves in packs on the 494 SAURIANS. borders of lakes and rivers, to attack quadrupeds which unsus pectingly approach to quench their thirst." M. Dumeril quotes Latour as saying that he had "seen them hunt down a young deer which was crossing a river, and succeed in drowning him;" and, on one occasion, had "found a bone of the thigh of a sheep in the stomach of one of these animals which he dissected." No evidence exists that they ever attempt to injure man unless previously molested by him. Such are the animals which, in certain parts of their organ ization, bear the closest resemblance to the extinct Saurians. If the habits attributed to these Varans bear any relation to those of the Saurians now swept from the earth, then "we might have in those annihilated giants, no bad representatives of the dragons of our wildest legends." The species of this family are not numerous, though widely distributed. But one belongs to the North America, viz : the Mexican HeJoderma, Heloderma horrida, one of the Aquatic Varans. In Mexico, the belief is general, but erroneous, that the bite of this species is fatal. Others are found in Asia, Africa, and Oceanica. Only two species of Terrestrial Varans are known ; one is peculiar to the island of Timor, (F. Timor iensis ;) the other is The DESERT VARAN OF EGYPT, V. arenarius, the Ouaran-el- hard of the Arabs, — about three feet in its total length. It is less active than the aquatic species, and especially than that in habiting the Nile. The VARAN OF THE NILE, V.Niloticus or Monitor Niloticus, Nilotic monitor, is a noted aquatic species, attaining the length of five or six feet, and common in the Nile. It \* as held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, probably, says Cuvier, because it destroyed the eggs of the Crocodile, of the approach of which it is said to warn persons by a hissing noise, and hence was called monitor. There are several conspicuous fossil Sau rians, some of which seem to be allied to the Varans, and which are represented in the Cretaceous (Lat. creta, chalk) system of the United States, (1) The Geosaurus, (Gr. ge, the earth, sauros, a saurian.) This name was given to this fossil by Cuvier, not in reference to its habits as a living animal, as it was no doubt aquatic, but in "allusion to the earth, — the Ge (rrf) of the Greeks, as the fabled mother of the Giants." Remains of this animal were first ob tained from the white lias, at Manheim. Franconia. According to DeKay, remains have also been found in the marl of the green sand in New Jersey, and named G. Mitchelli, after the late Dr. SAURIANS. 495 Samuel L. Mitchell, (Ann. of the Lye. of New York, Vol. III.) Cuvier judged from the remains, that the animal was inter mediate between the extinct Enaliosauria, or Sea-Lizards, and the living ones. The length of this fossil species is estimated at from fifteen to twenty-five feet. (2) The animal of Maestritcht, Mosasaurus, (Lat. mosa, the Latin name of Maestricht, and Gr. sauros, a lizard,) named by Conybeare from a fine specimen ob tained from Maestricht, at the time of its, capture by the French army. Specimens of this fossil, M. maximiliani or M. major have been obtained from New Jersey and the banks of the Yellow Stone River. DeKay gives the length, from four teen to fifteen feet ; but Dr. Buckland judges the animal to have been twenty-five or twenty-eight long, (see his " Bridgewater Trea tise,") and so constructed as to "possess the power of moving in the sea with sufficient velocity to overtake and capture such large and powerful fishes as, from the enormous size of its teeth and jaws, we may conclude it was intended to devour." SIXTH FAMILY. Teidce. TEGUIXINS. The Lacertida have been arranged, by M. Dumeril, into two divisions, viz: (1) Pleodonta, (Gr. pleos, full, not hollow; odous, odontos, a tooth,) distinguished by having solid and rooted teeth ; (2) Coelodonta, (Gr. koilos, hollow,) which have the teeth hol lowed by a sort of canal, and but slightly adherent to the bones of the jaws. The latter are peculiar to the Old World ; the Pleodonta are confined to this continent, and none are included in the family Teidce, which have the head-plate horny, and the scales small and granular, and sometimes with large plates. This division is clearly separable from the Helioderms, of Mex ico, which have the head shields and scales of the body tubercu lar and the teeth groved within the ridge of the jaw. The present family of Lizards includes twelve genera, which may be divided into two groups, the one with the tail compressed or flattened vertically; the other with rounded tail; or they may be divided into those in which the front has the cross-folds, with Six-sided scales between ; (2) those in which the throat has a collar of large shields. Those which have compressed tails, show a marked resem blance to the Crocodiles, which is increased by their great size. The tail is flattened somewhat like an oar, and the surface being increased by caudal crests, these animals are able to move in the water, which they inhabit, with nearly or quite as much facility as the Crocodiles. - 493 SAURIANS. The species Crocodilurus, (Gr. Crocodile-tailed,) lacertinus, is nearly six feet in length ; inhabiting the waters of Guiana and Brazil. This is sometimes called the Tupinambis. The Teius Teguixin, or Teguixin Monitor, of Gray, Tupinam- bis Monitor, (Daudin,) is the true Tupinambis, the Sauvegarde, (the Safeguard.) of Cuvier. This is one of the most noted species. In their habits, the SAFEGUARDS are highly aquatic. They are, indeed, able to run with, great swiftness along the ground, and they dig for themselves burrows or hiding places in the earth, but when hard pressed, are sure to take to the water. They are found in South America, and reach from four to six feet in length. Sometimes they are seen as long as eight feet. D'Ayara states, that " they feed on fruits and insects," and that "they also eat serpents, toads, young chicks and eggs." He also relates that "they are fond of honey; and in order to obtain it without injury from the bees, they come forward at in tervals, and as they run away, each time, give the hive a blow with their tail, until, by repeated attacks, they weary out the in dustrious insects, and drive them from their home." The Thorictes, (Gr. from thorax, coat of mail,) dracozna, is a very large species found in Guiana, and, in some instances, being almost seven feet in length, of which the tail occupied five feet. This, and the species Crocodilvrus lacertinus, were for merly included in the genus Ada, divided into the two genera by M. Bibron. The genus Ameiva includes six species, some of which have the tail more rounded or conical, and two plates on the throat. These are more terrestrial or arboreal in their habits. The genus Cnemidopliorus. (Gr. kncmis, a greave or Irggin ; phoreo, I carry.) is interesting as including the only representa tive of the family in North America. This is the C. sex-lineaius, (Lat. six-lined,) which is abundant in the Southern States, and as far North as North-eastern Maryland. It is easily known from the other Lizards by the six yellow lines along the back, and the long tail. When pursued, it runs with almost incredible swift ness; climbing trees with great facility, but not leaping from branch to branch, like the Green Lizard, Anolis Carol htensis. Acrantus, (Gr. akrantos, imperfect,) is a large South Ameri can genus, which has but four toes visible on the hind feet. SAUEIANS. 497 SEVENTH FAMILY. Lacertida, (Lat. lacerta, lizard.) SLENDER-TONGUED LIZARDS. This family includes the Coelodonta, already defined ; and which are found in the Old World. No true Lizard has yet been discovered either in Australia or the Polynesian islands. In many respects, these and the American Teidse agree. The body is rounded and elongated ; the tail generally exceeds the body in length, and is always well developed ; the head is pyra midal, flattened above, and covered with plates; the tympanum is distinct, and sometimes externally apparent; the feet have each four or five separate toes, armed with hooked claws ; the eyes have the nictitating membrane in addition to the ordinary eye lids; the mouth is very wide, and its edges are covered with large (labial) plates; the teeth hollowed and placed in a groove within the ridge of the jaw. The True Lizards inhabit all the warm countries of the Old World, and some of those which are considered temperate ; but in the latter, they pass the winter in a torpid state. When ex cited by the heat of the sun, they are extremely active and vivacious, — the most so indeed of all the Saurians. It is, how ever, only by sudden darts, and for short distances, that they perform their movements. If these animals do not soon gain their burrows, or hiding places, they become fatigued, and fall an easy prey to their enemies. Hence, they never undertake long excursions from their native spot, or from the retreat which they have chosen. In their course over the ground, or when making their way among tangled herbage, the movement of their bodies is serpentine. They help themselves onward not simply by their limbs, but also by the body, and especially the tail. The latter is so brittle, that it breaks off easily, but it is soon renewed ; the renewed part being clearly distinguishable by a difference of coloring from the rest, and the vertebras, instead of being hard and bony, are cartilaginous. Although quite inoffensive, Lizards defend themselves with much energy when attacked, and bite more sharply than might be supposed. The larger part of them feed upon insects; though some of them prey upon small animals, such as mice or frogs. The typical genus, Lacerta, contains species which are widely spread over Europe and Africa, and remarkable for their brilliant colors, as well as their quick movements. The Lizards of this genus are easily distinguish ?d by the throat collar of broad 21 493 SAURIANS scales ; the tongue is long and forked ; the scales of the tail are disposed in rings ; a minute plate of bone above protects the orbits of the eyes ; a long row of pores runs down each thigh ; the palate is toothed. The EYED LIZARD, L. ocellata, of Southern Europe, attains to about sixteen inches in length. Its ground color is a bright glossy green, ornamented with round eye-shaped spots of gold and blue, and with rings and irregular markings of black. It is very bold and resolute ; when attacked by a dog, it fastens itself on the muzzle of its enemy, and will suffer itself to be killed be fore it will let go its hold. The female lays seven or eight oblong eggs. The GREEN LIZARD. L. viridis, is an elegant species, but in size is much less than the preceding. It is readily tamed, and taught to come to the hand for food; will lie coiled in the hand without attempting to escape ; on account of its beauty and grace- fulness, it is often kept in cages furnished with an inner com partment filled with dried moss or bran; amidst which it buries itself in order to pass the winter. It seldom bites ; and, indeed, its bite is said to be "a pinch scarcely to be felt." The SAND LIZARD, L. agilis, is considerably larger than the Green Lizard ; is a native of England and most parts of the Continent of Europe. Its general color is a sandy brown, spot ted with black on the sides, each spot having a white or yellowish dot in the center. Unlike the Green Lizard, it is impatient of confinement, and soon pines to death, never growing familiar. It is sometimes a foot long, measuring from the nose to the ex tremity of the tail. The female buries her eggs in the sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The VIVIPAROUS or SCALY LIZARD, Zootoca, (Gr. zoos, living ; tikto, to bring forth,) vivipara. This species of the sub-genus Zootoca is characterised by the palate being toothless. This is also found in Great Britain and in the Continent of Europe, and is "a pretty, active little creature, frequenting dry, sunny banks, thickets and copses." It seldom exceeds five or six inches in length, and is very gentle and harmless. It differs from the preceding species in producing living young. The eggs are hatched before exclusion, and not deposited in the sand ; hence, the term applied to it, "viviparous." This Lizard ordinarily produces four or five young, often seen in company with the mother, and for sometime, probably, guided by her, but lively and alert, and capable of procuring their own food. This species presents various markings, but in most, the upper parts are of a greenish or olive brown, with lines of dark brown on the back SAUEIANS. 499 and side ; the under parts orange, spotted with black, or, in the female, pale gray, with a tinge of green. The genus Ophiops, (Gr. ophis, serpent ; dps, eye,) is princi pally distinguished by having no eye-lids, or merely rudimentary ones', like the Serpents. The species Ophiops &Ugans, is of an olive color above, with two lines of yellow on each side of the body, having two rows of black spots between them. EIGHTH FAMILY, ClialcidcB. CHALCIDES. This and the succeeding family of Skinks, each conduct to the Ophidia, or Snakes. These two families have, therefore, some times been regarded as constituting an intermediate order be tween the Saurians and Ophidia, and termed Saurophidia, or Lizard-Snakes. Some of the genera of the present family are, by Cuvier, classed with the Snakes, as they are without limbs, and resemble the latter in other respects in their structure. The animals of this family are readily distinguishable by the arrangement of the scales or markings of the skin, and by the lateral furrow found in many species. Some of them are fur nished with four legs ; others with but two ; while another por tion of the family are entirely serpent-like in their appearance, in consequence of the absence of these members outside of the skin. The trunk of the body blends with the head and tail, without any distinct lines of division, and is covered with scales which, instead of being imbricated like those of fishes, are ar ranged in whorls or rings enclosing the body. Where the scales are absent, furrows in the hardened skin exhibit similar mark ings. The teeth are not implanted in the jaws, but appended along the margin or internal edge, — thus showing the true pleurodont character; the tongue is free, but not very extensi ble ; it is broad, and covered with papillse, and is notched at the front ; the ears are apparent externally in some species, while others present no such indications. The eyes are generally small and slightly developed. Some species have movable eye lids ; in others, these organs are not movable ; while a few have the entire ball of the eye covered by the skin. The Reptiles are confined chiefly to Africa and America. Mexico, California, and the Southern parts of the Union have quite a number of species, some fifty of which have been de scribed and arranged in sixteen or more genera. They have been divided into two sub-families, according as the skin is cov ered with scales, or destitute of them. (1) Ptychopleura, (Gr. 500 SAURIANS. ptuclie, a fold ; pleura, side,) distinguished by a fold of the skin upon the side ; (2) Glyptoderma, (Gr. gluptos, graved or carved ; derma, skin,) distinguished by square or curd-like divisions, sometimes colored, and then, like mosaic work, extending in reg ular order over the skin. The first sub-family have scales ar ranged in the manner described above. All have a fold or furrow on each side, and are in possession of eye-lids. Of these may be mentioned the Ophisauros, (Gr. serpent- lizard,) found in North America, having, with the head of a lizard, the body of a snake, and the snake-like manners which such a form involves. It is called the Glass-snake, from the fact that the body is very brittle, and may be broken by a slight blow. Two species exist in the United States, viz: (1) O. ventralis, which is limited to the Southern or South-Eastern States; (2) O. lineatus, which is met with in the South- West, and as far North as Michigan. II. Genus Pseudopus, (Gr. pseudos, false; pous, foot.) includ ing reptiles which, in their form and movements, resemble snakes, — having no front limbs, and hind limbs which are mere scaly, undivided appendages. The SCHELTOPUSIK, (P. Pallasii, Cuv.,) is so named by the natives of the desert of Naryn, near the Volga, (Russia.) It is a native, not of Europe only, but of Africa and Asia. This rep tile is eighteen inches long; of a reddish yellow or chestnut color, clouded with black. It frequents wooded valleys and gives chase to small Lizards, which, together with insects, con stitute its food. Being of a quiet and inoffensive disposition, it is, when captured, sometimes kept alive in rooms. It is re corded, however, that on one occasion, one of these reptiles so kept, got access to a nest of young birds, which it soon demol ished, and, no doubt, fully enjoyed. III. Genus Chalcides, 'includes species chiefly found in South America, having both fore and hind limbs, but in a rudimentary condition. The front pair terminate in three or four scaly tubercles; the posterior pair are represented by two. slender spines ; the tongue is arrow-like in figure, with a sharp, two- cleft point ; the surface is covered with large, flat, imbricated papilla resembling in form and arrangement, the scales of a fish. Four species are described. One, (C. Schlegii,} a native of Java; the others are found in Guiana, Columbia, and Chili. These reptiles have no external ear, by which they are distin guished from the following genus. IV. Genus Chamaesaura, (Gr. chamai, on the ground ; sau- ra, a lizard,) which has an outward auditory cavity, and the SAURIANS. 501 rudimentary limbs without any sub-division, or but one toe on each foot. The only species is the C. anguina, of the Cape of Good Hope, having the head covered with many side shields or scales, and the cylindrical and elongated body covered with elongate, keeled scales. V. Genus Sauropliis, (Gr. Lizard-Serpent,) — includes reptiles with more highly developed extremities, each foot having four toes. The only species known, is the S. telradactylus, which inhabits the southern part of Africa. The other genera of this sub-family have four- toes on each foot, of these we can only refer to the genus. VI. Gerrtionot.us, (Gr. shield-back,) of which there are eight species, seven inhabiting Mexico, and one California. In these reptiles, the thighs are destitute of the pores. They produce their young alive; and in their habits, closely resemble the Lizards. VII. Zonurus, (Gr. zojie, belt; oura, tail,) is a genus in which the limbs are four and robust; the feet each furnished with five toes ; the tail is short, and the head triangular and flattened ; the scales of the back and sides are square, in a close cross series. The CORUYLE LIZARD, Z. griseus, (Bibron,) or Cordylus (Gr. a knotty club.) griseus, (Cuvier,) is an example of this genus. It is a native of South Africa, where it is common. VIII. Tachydromus, (Gr. swift runner,) is a genus found in Cochin China, China, Borneo, and Java, distinguished by having keeled ventral shields ; and the throat with keeled scales. It has, like the preceding, four limbs, but they are less robust ; five toes, but three not fully developed, and a greatly elongated form. The TACHYDROME, T. sexlineatus, (Lat. six-lined,) receives its specific name from having three lines extending longitudi nally on each side. Second sub-class. Glyptoderma, (Gr. carved -skin.) This division nearly corresponds with the family Amphisbaenidce, of some authors. The lateral furrow peculiar to these reptiles, is faintly seen in the more typical Chalcides referred to above. Most of the species have been classed by some with the Opliidia, which they greatly resemble. From the latter, however, they are dis tinguished by their Saurian head and tongue ; and by having the vertebrae united by fibrous or thread-like cartilage. I. Genus Amphisbaena, DOUBLE WALKERS, so called from the strong resemblance between the front and hind extremities of the membranous body, the head, tail, and intermediate part being of the same circumference. Appearing to have a tail at each end, they are supposed to be capable of progression in either direction. 502 SAURIANS. M. Bibron enumerates ten species, of which two are natives of Africa, the rest of America. The DUSKY AMPHISBAENA, A. fuliginosa, and the WHITE AM- PHISBAENA, A. alba, are species measuring nearly two feet in length ; found in Brazil and Cayenne. They bore the ground like worms, and, it is said, move either way with equal facility. They are often found in the earthy habitations of the Termite- Ants, which they follow through their winding galleries, for the purpose of feeding on them. The flesh of these creatures, dried and reduced to a fine powder, is sometimes administered as an infallible remedy in cases of broken bones, or dislocated joints; on the inference, that as it has the power of uniting its own body, if cut in two, and of healing, in so marvelous a manner, amputa tion in itself, it has at least the power of curing a simple fracture in another ! II. Genus Chirotes, (Gr. from cheir, hand,) has no hind limbs, but has a pair of short front limbs placed near the head, and what is remarkable among Saurians, each having five fingers, or at least four fingers or toes, armed with claws, and a tubercle rep resenting the fifth. The possession of a sternum distinguishes these reptiles from the Amphisbaena. The body is snake-like ; the head, neck and trunk, are of equal circumference. Only one species is known ; The CHANNELED CHIROTES or BIPED, C. canal iculatus, (Lat. channeled,) — eight or ten inches in length, a native of Mexico, and extending to the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The eyes are almost imperceptible, covered with transparent skin, but destitute of eye-lids. Its upper surface is yellow ; the under, white, and the whole body covered with little square compart ments, disposed circularly. In the absence of hind feet, while the front ones are present, this creature presents a strong resem blance to the Siren, a genus of the Batrachians. NINTH FAMILY. SCINKS, (or SKINKS,) or LEPIDOSAURIANS. Scincidce, (Gr. erxfyxo?, skinkos, a kind of lizard.) We come now to the last family of the Saurians, which, to the general characters of the order, join many distinguishing pecu liarities. They have the head covered with large plates, which have angular and regular shapes. These render them distin guishable from all the other families of the order, except the True Lizards and the Chalcidians, which, as we have seen, pos sess them also. The rest of the body is invested with scales, of greater or less magnitude, and of variable forms; but always SAURIANS. 503 arranged in a quincunx or five -fold order, and overlaying each other like the tiles of a house, as we see in large scaled fishes, as, for instance, the Carp. The scales of the under parts and sides, are nearly of the same size and shape as those of the back. This distinguishes them from the True Lizards, in which the ventral scales are much larger than those of the back, with the outlines angular. There are no lateral furrows or folds of skin extending along the flanks; this again separates them from the Chalcidians. The tongue is free, fleshy, notched at its point, without a sheath, and covered either altogether, or in part, with papillae. The whole surface of the scales being generally smooth and polished, many of these reptiles, glide easily into small crevices ; and they creep by giving a tortuous and snake- like motion to the trunk and tail. The limbs vary in different groups, being four, two, or none; when present, they are short. The Skinks include about a hundred species, variously dis tributed over the globe. The largest number of species is found in Australia, which has nearly forty peculiar to itself. Asia claims the next largest number; then comes Africa, and after wards America. Europe numbers scarcely more than six or eight species. Five species are found within the limits of the United States. The Skinks have been arranged into three sub-families, dis tinguished from each other by peculiarities relating to the eyes. I. Saurophthalmia, (Gr. sauros, a saurian ; ophthalmos, an eye.) The members of this sub-family have movable eye-lids, which can be brought together so as to entirely cover the eye. Most of them have four feet, but some have two, while others appear to have none. All are without femoral pores. The lowest form of this group is the Acontias, (Gr. a serpent that darts from a tree on its prey.) Of this, only one species is known, the Acontius meleagris, found at the Cape of Good Hope. Though much like a serpent in the absence of feet, and of a tympanic orifice, it possesses most of the characters of the Skinks. The tongue, as in the Blind or Slow Worm, is flat, and like an arrow-head, with scarcely any notch at the tip. The eyes are very minute, and there is only a single eye-lid, which proceeds from the lower part of the orbit. The scales are smooth and imbricated. II. Genus Anguis, (Lat. a snake,) is probably the best repre sentative of the Serpentine or Footless Skinks. This is charac terised by a cylindrical aad snake-like body and tail, as well as by the absence of limbs. The eyes, as in the preceding species, are very minute. Only one species is known, viz : the SLOW 504 SAURIANS. WORM or BLIND WORM, A.fragUis, (Lat. brittle.) When irri tated or alarmed, the Slow Worm, by a forcible contraction of all the muscles of the body, becomes perfectly stiff, and then breaks in two, with the slightest blow, or upon an attempt to bend it. Hence, Linnaeus applied to it the ierin fragilis. This beau- tiful and harmless reptile, is found in various parts of Europe, appearing early in the spring, and going into winter quarters in October. It feeds on insects, earth-worms and slugs; being particularly partial to the latter. The Slow Worm is said to shed its skin like the true snakes. The female produces her young alive, in July or August, or at least lays from ten to six teen eggs, from which the young soon escape; development having considerably advanced previous to the deposit. The general color is yellowish brown or yellowish gray, with lines and spots of black ; the under parts are white, with whitish retic ulations or net-work. III. Tropidophorus, (Gr. tropis, carina or keel ; phoreo, to carry.) In this genus there are four strong limbs, each with five compressed toes. The body is fusiform or spindle-shaped. The scales upon the body are thick and striated, but rounded on the muzzle; the tail has four spinose keels above, but is smooth on the sides. The species T. Cocincinensis, is a native'of Cochin China. It is, on the upper parts of the body, of a color inclining to olive, or a yellow brown. The neck is banded, the color being brown ; with marks of a much deeper shade, representing a succession of figures like the letter X; spots of deep brown also appear on the tail ; and a row of whitish points along the lower parts of the sides. IV. Genus Seps, (Gr. a small serpent.) exhibits a form some what snake-like, it being much elongated, but still provided with four limbs. These, however, are very small and weak, and have toes of unequal length. This is represented by a single species, S. chalcides. This curious reptile is a native of South ern Europe, and, except in the possession of limbs, resembles the Slow Worm. Like that reptile, it brings forth its young alive, and feeds on insects, earth worms and slugs. It is said to be perfectly harmless, though some suppose it to be a poisonous animal. It spends the winter in its ground -bur row, but emerges again in the spring, and lives during summer in sunny spots covered with herbage and underwood. V. Tetradactylus, (Gr. four toed.) This genus has four to