LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

GIFT OF

8

6

TL.I.

Hartford, Com.

JEntered, according to Act of Congress, in th« year J857,

IjrE.B,anaB.C.KEiL06G, '
Clerk'5 0-ffice of tiieDistrtctCcmit of-die"Di»h-ict of CoimecSCnt

ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE

NATURE U LIYING FORMS,

ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS PLATES.

ADAPTED TO ELUCIDATE THE

CHART OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM,
BY A. M. KEDFIELD,

AND

DESIGNED FOR THE HIGHER SEMINARIES, COMMON SCHOOLS, LIBRARIES,
AND THE FAMILY CIRCLE.

44 Ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee ; and the fowls of the air, and they ohall

tell thee ; or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee ; and the fishes of the

sea shall declare unto thee. Who knoweth not in all these that

the baud of the Lord hath wrought this ? " (Job xii. 7.)

E. B. & E. 0.

87 FULTON ST., NEW YORK.

FREDERICK COHOON, COLUMBUS, OHIO.

1858,

i>

DEDICATION.

Tsra following work has with my aid been prepared by an esteemed and
highly competent friend, to whom I am also much indebted for valuable
assistance rendered in connection with the publication of the Chart which
it is adapted to elucidate.

Prepared, as it has been, with the utmost care and exactness ; with mr
usual regard to order, and fullness of explanation as to the terms employed,
I am sanguine in the belief it will every where meet with a cordial welcome
as a suitable accompaniment of the Chart. Though both are capable of
being used separately, each will be found to shed light upon the other.

To Teachers, to Parents and Heads of Families, to all who are lovers of
Natural History and desire its advancement, I humbly but respectfully ded-
icate this volume and the Chart it is intended to explain and illustrate.

ANN M. KEDFIELD.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by

E. B. <fc K. C. KELLOGG,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut.

PREFACE.

THE following work has been prepared as an accompaniment to the " GEN-
ERAL VIEW OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM " — a CHART which, in the beautiful and
harmonious arrangement of its several parts ; its lucid and orderly classifica-
tion ; its brief but comprehensive statements and explanations, — presents the
subject in an outline so full and consistent as to make it valuable even to the
most scientific naturalist, both for convenient private reference, and as a
help or guide in public lectures ; while the more uninitiated, and such as are
just setting out in the study of Natural History, becoming familiar with the
details of the Chart, will, it is believed, desire and be prepared the better
to appreciate additional information in relation to the subject; such infor-
mation it is the aim of this work to impart.

The possessor of the Chart might have recourse to works of two
kinds — one purely scientific, like those of Cuvier and others, or the works
on Natural History published by State authority ; the other, of a strictly
popular character, in which not a single scientific or technical term is em-
ployed. The array of unexplained technical language in the former class
of works, he would, perhaps, deem repulsive and discouraging ; the descrip-
tions of the latter class, he might, as related to the Chart, be often at a loss
to apply correctly, though presenting to him the appearance of more inter-
esting details than those which are found in works strictly scientific. The
present volume, being a sort of medium between these two kinds of works,
is adapted to meet the exigencies of such a case. It does not give the
" characters " and " descriptions " with the technicality and minuteness of
the purely scientific treatise; to do this was found to be incompatible
with the desired limits, as well as the general design of this publication ;
at the same time, it is far from ignoring these things, after the manner of
some popular treatises. The "characters" of the Classes, Orders, and
Families will here be found given with considerable fullness ; the main or
prominent ones of the genera and species are also usually given : not in all
cases in a separate and formal manner, but occasionally are blended with
other particulars relating to the general habits of animals, or interspersed

111911

iv PREFACE.

with illustrative anecdote. In most, if not all cases, the reader will, from
the statements made, be able to form some correct and consistent ideas as
to the genera and species noticed. When more full discriminations are de-
sired, reference can be had to other and larger works.

The medium character of this volume, and its relation to the extremely
wide range of topics presented on the Chart, have increased the difficulty
of preparing it within limits so restricted. To have furnished an amusing
work composed chiefly or entirely of anecdotes or kindred material, would
have been, comparatively, an easy task. In its present form, this work will
perhaps not be unacceptable to such as are already somewhat acquainted
with Natural History in its scientific aspects and relations ; while others,
the young especially, may, from the use of this volume, pass, by an easy
transition, to the study of larger works and those more purely scientific.
To TEACHERS in particular, is this volume respectfully commended. Ques-
tions are added to each section with special reference to its use hi Acade-
mies and Common Schools.

It is proper to remark that this work is not published as containing the
results of original observation, excepting to a limited extent : mainly it em-
bodies materials newly moulded and arranged, but derived from approved
standards, and some of the latest issues relating to the subjects of which
it treats. The range of reference and comparison has been extensive ;
the results of protracted investigation are sometimes condensed into a
single brief paragraph or sentence. This work will be found orderly and
harmonious in several respects in which some other publications betray
confusion and inconsistency ; in the explanation of scientific terms, also, it
is unusually full. Neither on the Chart, nor in this volume has the aim
been to give all the different names which may have been applied by nat-
uralists to a particular object ; for this there was not room ; and besides,
in the case of some, such a course might have tended to confuse rather
than really enlighten. Many of the pictorial illustrations are original, and
with the accompanying explanations, will be found to add much to the in-
terest and intrinsic value of the work.

It is confidently trusted that the CHART, with this explanatory vol-
ume, will be welcomed in Seminaries generally ; and be accepted as valu-
able auxiliaries by all lovers of physical science. May they tend to
create and foster widely a taste for the study of nature; and by the
developments which they make, and the researches and meditations to
which they lead, awaken loftier and more worthy thoughts of the Infi-
nite Creator. M.

SYRACUSE, March 1, 1868.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

SUB-KINGDOMS, four: VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOL-
LUSKS, RADIATES.

VERTEBRATES : Grand Divisions : WARM and COLD BLOODED :
The WARM BLOODED Division includes MAMMALS and BIRDS.

1. MAMMALS, three sub-classes, nine orders.

FIRST SUB-CLASS, UNGUICULATA, (with nails" or claws.)

(1.) BIMANA, (Two-handed) Man.

(2.) QUADRUMANA (Four-handed). Three families.

Simiadce, Apes, Baboons, Monkeys of the Old World.
Cebidce, Monkeys (American).
Lemuridce, Lemurs.

(3.) CARNIVORA (Flesh-eating Quadrupeds).

Sub-order, CHEIROPTERA (Hand-winged) Bats.

DIGITIGRADA (walking on the toes). Three families.

Felidce, Cats, Lions, Tigers, &c.

Canidce, Dogs, Wolves, &c.

Mustelidce, Weasels, &c.
PLANTIGRADA (walking on the soles of the feet). Two families.

Ursida, Bears, Racoons.

Phocida, Seals, Walruses, &c.
TRUE INSECTIVORA (Insect-eaters). Four families.

Talpida, Moles.

Sorecida, Shrews.

Erinaceada, Hedge-hogs.

Tupaiada, Banxrings (of the Indian Archipelago).

(4.) MARSUPIALIA (Pouched Quadrupeds). Four sections.
Sarcophaga (Flesh-eaters). Dasyuri.

Ovo vivinarous F.ntomophaga (Insect-eaters). Opossums.
S> Carpophaga (Fruit-eaters). Phalangers.

Poephac/a (Grass-eaters). Kangaroos.
( Sub-order RJdzophaga (Root-eaters). Wombats.
( MONOTREMATA (Monotremes). Echidna and Ornithorhyncus or

Water-Mole.

VI CLASSIFICATION.

(5.) EDENTATA (Toothless or without front teeth). Four families.
Bradypodida (Slow-footed) or Tardigrada, Sloths.
MegatheriadcK (Great-beasts). Fossil Sloths.
Myrmecophagada (Ant-eaters).
Armadillidce (Armadillos).

(6.) RODENTIA (Gnawing Quadrupeds). Seven families.
Sciuridce (Squirrels).
Muridce (Mice & Rats).
CastoridcB (Beavers).
Hystricida (Porcupines).
Cavidce(Ceiviea or Guinea Pigs).
Chinchlllida (Chinchillas).
Leporida (Hares).

SECOND SUB-CLASS, FNGULATA (with hoofs).

(7.) PACHYDERMATA (Thick-skinned Quadrupeds). Three families.
JElephantidcB (or Proboscideans,) Elephants, &c.
Suida, Swine, Rhinoceros, &c.

£p*fa, Hopses, Zebras, &, {

(8.) RUMINANTIA (Cud-chewing Quadrupeds). Eight Families.
Camelid<%, Camels, Llamas.
Camelopardce, Camelopards or Giraffes.
Mosckidce, Musk-Deer.
Cervida, Deer or Stags.
Bovidcs, Oxen, Bison, (Buffalo,) &c.
Ovidce, Sheep.
Capridte, Goats.
Antilopidce, Antelopes.

THIRD SUB-CLASS, MARINE MAMMALS.
(9.) CETACEA (Whale-tribe). Four families.

Balcenida, Baleen or Whale-bone Whales.

rSffSi, °r \ B1°«rs

Delphinida, Dolphins, Porpoises, &c.

II. DIVISION of WARM BLOODED VERTEBRATES.

BIRDS : Land Birds, five orders ; Water Birds, two orders.
(1.) RAPTORES (Raveners or Birds of Prey). Three families.
Falconidce, Falcon tribe. Three families.
Sub-families, Aquilince, Eagles.
Milvince, Kites.
Buteonince, Buzzards.
Falconince, Falcons.
Accipitrince, Hawks.
Vulturidce, Vultures.
Strigidce, Owls.

(2.) INSESSORES (Perchers). Four sub-orders. FISSIROSTRES, DEN-

TIROSTRES, CONIROSTRES, TfiNUIROSTRES.

CLASSIFICATION.

1. FISSIROSTRES (Cleft-bills). Seven families.

Caprimulgida, Night-jara.
Hirundinida, Swallows.
Meropidce, Bee-eaters.
Todida, Todies.
Trogonida, Trogons.
Halcyonid*Qr\^ ng-fishers.
Alcedimdce, )
Trogonida, Trogons.

2. DENTIROSTRES (Toothed-bills).

Silviadce, Warblers.

w Thrushes.

Turdimda, )

Muscicapidce, Fly-catchers.

Ampelida>, Chatterers.

Laniada, Shrikes or Butcher Birds.
8. CONIROSTRKS (Cone-billed). Seven families.

C'orvida, Crows, sub-fam. : Paradiseada, Birds of Paradise.

Sturnidce, Starlings.

Fringillida, Finches.

Loxiadce, Cross-bills.

Bucerotida, Hornbills.

Musophagida, Plaintain-eaters.
4. TENUIROSTRES (Thin-billed). Five families.

Promeropida or Upupadce, Hoopoes.

Sun-birds> Honey-suckers or Nectar Birdi.

Trochilidce, Humming-birds.

MeliphagidcE, Honey-eaters.

Certhiada:, Creepers.
(3.) SCANSORES, Climbers. Four families.

Rhamphastida, Toucans.

Psittacidce, Parrots.

Picida, Wood-peckers.

CuculidcR, Cuckoos.
(4.) RASORES or GALLING, (Scratchers, Poultry Birds.) Seven families.

Colwnbidas, Pigeons.

Cracidce, Curassows.

Megapodida, Megapodes or Great-foots.

Phasianidce, Pheasants, &c.

Tetraonida, Grouse.

Chionida:, Sheath-biUs.

TinamidcB, Tinamous.

(5.) CCJRSORES (Runners). One family. Struthionida, Ostriches, &c.
(6.) GRALLATORES, (Waders.) Six families. Aquatic Birds.

Charadriadce, Plovers.

Ardeida, Herons.

Rostrida, Spoon-bills.

Tantalida, Ibises.

Scolopacida, Snipes.
!, Rails.

Vlll

CLASSIFICATION.

(7.) NATATORES, (Swimmers). Six families.
Anatidce, Ducks.
Colymbidce, Divers.
Alcidoe, Auks.
Procellarida, Petrels.
Larida, Gulls.
Pelecanidce, Pelicans.

The COLD BLOODED Division includes REPTILES and FISHES.
I. REPTILES, four orders, viz. CHELONIANS (Turtles).

SAURIANS (Lizards, Crocodiles).
OPHIDIANS (Snakes).
AMPHIBIANS (Frogs, Toads, &c.)

1st. CHELONIANS, (CHELONIA,) arranged by Agassiz in his late work, as
follows :

Sub-orders.

ORDER, TESTUDINATA.

2d. SAURIANS.

ORDER, SAURIA.

1. Amydte,

2. Chelonii, •

Marsh and

River Tor-

toises.

Families.

' Testudinina, Land Tortoises.
EmydoidcR, "j

Cinostcrnoidee,
Chelydroidte,
Hydraspidce,
Chelyoidee,
Trionychidce, J

•Chelonidx, Uea Turtles.

Sphargidce, )

C Alligators or Caimans of America.

Fan, CrocoXKte. \ g^of3 tl".

[ Enaliosauria, (Fossil Fish-Lizards).
" Chameeleonida:, Chamaeleons.
" Geckotida:, Geckos.
" Iguanida, Iguanas.

Varanidfe, Varans.

Teidte, Teguixans.

Lcuertida, True Lizards.

ChalcidcR, Snakelike do.

Scincida, Scinks.

(Family Colubrida, (mostly) harmless Snakes. ^ Sub-order
" Boida, Boas and Pythons. V COLU-

" Hydridte, Water (Venomous) Snakes. ) BRINA.
" Viperida, Vipers, do. 5 Sub-order

" Crotalidce, Rattle Snakes (all kinds.) ] VIPERINA
4th. AMPHIBIANS, sub-order. Caducibranchiata, (Gills perishable in the

tadpole state.)

'Family Ccedliida, (Caecilia.) Apodous or without feet.
Ranid^ (Frogs.) ) A ^

Bufoidce, (Toads.) )

Salamanders
Salamandridce,

ORDER AMPHIBIA.

Land-Newts [-
Tritons, Water-Newts. ) ta

Amphiuma }
Amphiumida, Menopoma or [•

Mud-devil. ) [gills.)
Sub-order PERENNIBRANCHIATA, (with enduring
Proteidce, (Proteus, Axolotl, Siren.)

CLASSIFICATION.

IX

*H. FISHES. THREE GROUPS or DIVISIONS based upon the distinctive

character of the fins, viz.
ACANTHOPTERTGII, (Spine-rayed fins.)
MALACOPTERYGII, (Soft-rayed fins.)
CHONDROPTERYGII, (Cartilage-fins. )
bases the orders upon the scales and makes them four.
Ctenoids, (Comb-like.)
Cycloids, (Circle-like.)
Ganoids, (Splendor-like.)
Placoids, (Plate-like.)

1st ORDER.

ACANTHOPTERYGJI,

(Spine-rayed,)

or
CTENOIDS.

Family Percidce, (Perch.)

Triglidce, (Gurnards.)

Scienidce, (Maigres, Sheep's-heads, Drum-fish, &c.)

Sparidce, (Sea-Breams.)

Chcetontidce, (Chaetodons, Moon-fish, Razor-fish.)

Scombridce, (Mackerel.)

Anabassidce. (Climbing-Perches.)

2d ORDER.
MALACOPTERYGII,
(Soft-rayed)
or
CYCLOIDS.

Abdominales,
(Ventral fins
behind the
pectoral.)

Sub-brach-
ials. (Ventral
fins under the
pectoral.)

TeuthidfK, (Surgeon-fish.)

Atherinidce, (Silver-sides.)

Mugilidce, (Mullets.)

Gobida, (Gobias.)

Lophida, (Crested or Toad-fish.) ,

Labridce, (Wrasses or Rock-fish.)

Siluridce, (Cat-fish.)
Cyprinidce, (Carps.)
Esocida, (Pikes.)
Fistularidee, (Pipe-fis
Salmonidce, (Salmon.)
Clupeida, (Herring.)
Gadidce, (Codfish.)
Pleuronectidce,

or Planidce,

(Flat-fish.)

Echeneidee, (Sucking-fish.)
Cydopteridce, (Lump-fish.)
j Apodes, without ) Murcenida or ) /-weig \
\ ventral fins. j" Anguillidce, f ^ '•'
( Lophobranchia or }
•j Lophobranchii, [• Syngnathida, (Sea-horse, &C.)

)

Gvmnodontidce, Balloon-fish.)
Balistid(g) (Fiie.fish.)

Ostracionida, (Trunk-fish.^)

((Tufted-gills.)

C Plectognathi,
( (Plaited jaws)

See Page 660.

CLASSIFICATION.

CHONDROPTJSRI GII .

ARTICULATES.
I. INSECTS,

Twelve ORDERS
Of TRUE INSECTS.

GANOIDS. Saurida, (Gar-fish, &c.)

" Eleutheropomi, (gills free.)

Chimceridte, (Sea Monsters.)
Sturionidce, (Sturgeons.)
Plagiostomi, (transverse mouths.)

j Squalida, (Sharks.)

PLACOIDS-^ ( Raiidce, (Rays.)

Cyclostomi, (Round fleshy mouth or lip.)
[Petromyzonida, (Lampreys.)

IBranchiostoma, (Gill-mouth, i. e., having
cirri, or curled filaments in the mouth.)
[Amphioxidce, (Lancelots.)
Very anomalous, and sometimes included
with the Cyclostomi.
Three classes. INSECTS.

CRUSTACEANS.

WORMS or ANNELIDANS.

1. COLEOPTERA (Sheath-wings), Beetles, Hornbugs.

2. STREPSIPTERA (Twisted-wings), Wasp-flies.

3. DERMAPTERA (Skin-wings), Ear-wigs.

4. ORTHOPTERA (Strait-wings).

Sub-orders, CURSORIA (Runners), Cockroaches.

RAPTORIA (Graspers), Mantises.

With biting I AMBULATORIA (Walkers), Walking

mouths. Sticks.

SALTATORIA (Leapers), Grasshoppers,
Crickets, &c.

5. TRICHOPTERA (Hair-wings), Caddice-flies, &c.

6. NEUROPTERA (Nerve-winga), White Ants, Dragon-

flies, &c. [&c.

7. HYMENOPTERA (Membranous-wings), Bees, Wasps,

8. LEPIDOPTERA (Scale-wings), Moths, Butterflies, &c.

9. HEMIPTERA (Half-wings), Fruit-bugs, Bed-bugs, &c.
With sucking 10. DIPTERA (Two-wings), Flies, Musquitoes, &c.

mouths. 11. APHANIPTERA (Invisible or rudimental wings),

Fleas, Jiggers.

12. APTERA (No wings), Lice, Lepismas.

Sometimes railed 13' MYRIAPODA (with innumerable feet), Thousand-leg-
Sub-classes &ed Worms, Centipedes.

14. ARACHNIDA, Spiders, Scorpions, Ticks, Mites.

2d. CRUSTACEANS. Five orders (or sub-classes,) (Dana).

1. Decapoda (Ten-footed), Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps.

2. Tetradecapoda (Fourteen-footed), Sow-bugs, Sand-fleas, &c.

3. Entomostraca (Shell insects), Cyclops, Daphnia, Cypris,

Limulus, (Sea-Spiders), and possibly also the TRILOBITES.

4. Cirripedes (curled jointed-feet), Barnacles.

5. Rotatoria or Rotifera — Wheel Animalcules.

8<L WORMS or ANNELIDANS. Four orders.

1. Tubulibranchiata (Gills in tubes), Serpula, Vermilia, &c.

2. Dorsibranchiata (Gills on the back), Sea-Centipedes.
8. Abranchiata (without gills), Leeches & Earth-worms.
4. Entozoa, (Internal worms,) or White blooded Worms.

CLASSIFICATION. xi

These sometimes resemble worms found in the other

classes or orders, while differing from them as to their

locality. They have been arranged into the following

sub-orders :

(1). Nematoidea or Nematoids, Round Worms, Thread Worms,

Pin Worms, Guinea Worms.

(2). Acanthocephala, (Spine-headed,) Hooked Worms.
(3). Trematoda, (from Gr. trema, hole, having Sucker-like

openings,) Fluke Worms, &c.
(4). Cestoidea, (Gr. Kestos, girdle,) Tape Worms.
(5). Cystica, (Gr. Kustis, a bladder,) Hytatids or Bladder-
like Worms.

MOLLUSKS. Two GRAND DIVISIONS:

CepHALATA (with heads) or UNIVALVES.
ACEPHALA (without heads) or BIVALVES.
I. CEPHALATA : Three classes or Sub-divisions, viz.

(1). C™PODS,J SSh'ehead. f^wo sections.

Dibranchiata, (Two branchiae,) Cuttle-fish.
Tetrabranchiata, (Four branchiae,) Nautilus, Ammonites, &c.

( Wing-footed, i. e., )
(2). PTEROPODS, -j wing-like arms >• Three families,

( for swimming. )
Hyalaida, Hyalaea, Cleodora.
Limacinidce, Limacina, Spiralis.
Clionidce, Clio.

(3).

(1). Pulmobranchia (Lung-like Gills). (Four families.)

Limacidce, (from Limaxt) Slugs.

HelicidcE, (from Helix,) Snails.

Auriculida, (from Auricula*} Ear-shaped Shells.

Limnaeida, ( " Limncea, Aquatic-Snails.
(2). Pectinibranchia, (Comb-like gills.) (Nine families.)

Trochidce, (from Trochus,) Trochi.

Turbinidee, (from Turbo,) Turbines, Periwinkles.

MuricidcB, ( " Murex,) Murices.

Strombidce, ( " Strombus>) Conch-Shells.

Succinida, ( " Buccinum,} Harp-Shells, Whelkfl.

Cyprceidce, ( " Cyprcea,) Cowries.

Conida, (from Genus,) Cones.

Volutidee, (from Valuta,) Volutes, Olives, Mitres.

Capuloidea, (from Capula,) Cup-shaped Shells.

Tubulibranchia, (Tubular-gills,) Yermetus, Siliquaria.
Scutibranchia or j Gills shielded, by ) „ ,. ..
Mpidobranchia,( the Shell. ' f UaUotls-

T GiUs circular, i. e., ) G,.
Cyclobranchia, •< around the body of XT- *

( the animal. ) ***&*•

xu

CLASSIFICATION.

Tectlbranchia,

Infer obranchia,
JNudibranchia ,

CoVered-gillg, ) Bulla or
i. e., by the mantle, j Bubble.
Under-gills, i. e., }
under the edge v
of the mantle. )
Naked-gills, i. e., ) Glaucus,
without Shells. } Doris.

1, i. e., feet ) Carinaria,
the others, f Firola.

II. ACEPHALA. HEADLESS MOLLUSKS. Four orders. [like gills.)

(1). CONCHIFERA (Shell bearing) or LAMELLIBKANCHIA, (Plate or leaf-

(Oyster Family) Ostracece-

sub-families-^nomuWa?, Anomia. ^ ,,

P//»/-,*«i»///p Pi™,,™ I Monomy-

PlacunidcB, Placuna. I
Ostreida, Ostrea. }• aria or
Peetinida , Pecten. j £™g °ne
Amculida, Avicula. J muscle'

(Fresh Water Mussels) 4 Naiades or Unionidce, Unio, Anodon, -i

Alasmodon.
(Salt-water do. ) 4 Mytilaceee, Mytilus, Modiola, Pinna,

Crenella.
4 CAamacc<E-sub-families,

Tridacnidce, Tridacna.

^ ' ChamidfB, Chama.

4 Cardiace(z,.{ do. Carditidee, Cardita.

Mantle closed behind.

Siphons united ) Lucinida, Lucina.

or distinct. I Veneridce, Venus. Dimyaria

(_ Crassitcllidce, Crassitella, (or having

Sub-order INCLUSA (inclosed, i. e., within the two

mantle, which has but one opening for the muscles.)

passage of the foot.)

Families Mactridce, Mactra.

Myidce, Mya.

Solemyida, Solemya.

Saxicavidte, Saxicava.

Pandoridce, Pandora.

Solenida, Solen (Razor Shell).

Pholadidce, Pholas.

Teredinidce, Teredo (Wood or Ship Worm.
Enclosed in a tube j Tubicolidte, Aspergillum ) or Watering-
but not attached. ( Gastrochaena. ) pot.

C Arm-footed, i. e., having two long spiral ^ Terebratula,
(2). BRACHIOPODA, ^ arms each side of the mouth capable > Lingula,
( of protrusion. } Orbicula.

( Coated, i. e., body enveloped in an elastic ) including

{ tunic or coa-t, )

the Ascidians (or Mollusks of a Leathern bottle-shape).
Gr. Moss-animals, i. e., largely aggregated like )
corallagineous Zoophytes. )

(3). TUNICATA,

'

Brvozoa.
"v0*03*

CLASSIFICATION. Xlil

(Agassiz proposes the following classification, Contributions to Nat.
Hist., Vol. 1, page 185.)

1st Class. Acephala, (orders as already given. )

2d do. Gasteropoda, with three orders, Pteropoda, Heteropoda,

and Gasteropoda proper.
3d do. Cephalopoda, with two orders, Tetrabranchiata and

Dibranchiata.
RADIATES. Four Classes.

I. ECHINODERMS, (Gr. JEchinos, the Sea-urchin ; derma skin.) Four orders.
(1). HOLOTHURIDEA, (Gr. Holothourion,) Sea-slugs or Sea-cucumbers.
(2). ECHINIDEA, (Gr. echinos). Sea-urchins.
(3). ASTERIDEA, (Gr. aster, a Star.) Star-fish.
(4). CRINOIDEA. (Gr. krinon, a lily, lily-like). Encrmites.

II. ACALEPHS., (Gr. akalephe, a nettle). Three orders.

(1). PCLMONIGRADES, (pulmo, lungs ; gradior, to advance, t. e., con-
tracting or expanding their umbrella-shaped disk, thus showing
a resemblance to the motion of the lungs in breathing.
(2.) PHYSOGRADA, (Gr. phusao, to inflate ; gradior, i. e., supported and
moving in the water by means of one or more bladders, capable
of being filled with air at the will of the animal). Hydrostatic
Acalephs of Cuvier.

(3). CILIOGRADA, (cilia, vibratile hairs ; gradior, i. e., moving by

means of vibratile cilia disposed on the surface of the body.)
The orders are otherwise named thus :

DISCOPHORA, (Disk-bearing) Medusae or Jelly-fish.
SIPHONOPHORA, (Siphon or Sucker-bearing, i. e.,

having aerial vesicles.)

CTENOPHORA, (Comb-bearing, i. e., moving by vibrating
hairs resembling the teeth of a comb.)

III. PHYTOZOA or ( (phut on, a plant ; zoon, animal, ^ Plant-like animals.
ZOOPHYTA, ( Two orders.

Pol s \ ACTINOIDS, (aktin, a ray,) Ray-like animals. [animals.

yp ' ( Hydroids, (hudra, a hydra or water-snake,) Hydra-like

IV. PROTOZOA, (proton, first ; zoon, animal : i. e., the lowest form of or-

ganized bodies.)

[The last is a very numerous, but a very uncertain class. Linnaeus placed
them all at the end of Worms, and called them Chaos. So great is the
number of the INFUSORIES that they have sometimes been arranged into
Legions. Some have been transferred to the Articulates ; others have
been removed to the Vegetable Kingdom. Prof. Agassiz is of the opinion
that the entire class will soon be dispensed with.

NOTE.

An interesting and instructive use of the " Chart of the Animal King'
dom " will be to employ the method of CLASSIFICATION, which it embodies,
in tracing an individual of any species, through the successive gradations,
to the Sub-Kingdom to which it belongs.

1. In the VERTEBRATES, take, for example, the Common Dog, Canisfamil-

iaris; and it may be traced as follows: The generic term (which is
always placed before the specific, or stands alone when the specific
term is omitted) is Canis; familiaris is the specific term. ."Genera
are formed into families ; the family name is Canidce ; families are
formed into sub-orders or orders (the orders are in larger or capital
letters) ; Canidce belongs to the sub-order DIGITIGRADA ; to the order
Carnivora. Orders are formed into classes. CARNIVORA belongs to
the sub-class UNGUICULATA ; to the class MAMMALS. Classes (denoted
by larger letters) are formed into SUB-KINGDOMS. The MAMMALS
belong to the Sub-Kingdom VERTEBRATES, denoted by letters next in
size to those of the "ANIMAL KINGDOM."

2. In the ARTICULATES, take the Lobster, Astacus marinus. Marinus de-

notes the species; Astacus, the genus — of the order (or sub-class)
MALACOSTRACA, of the class CRUSTACEA, of the Sub-Kingdom ARTICU-
LATES.

3. In the MOLLUSKS, take the Shell, Mitra episcopates. Episcopalis is the

name of the species : Mitra, of the genus. This genus belongs to the fam-
ily Volutidce. The family Volutidae belongs to the order PECTINIBRAN-
CHIA ; this order to the class GASTEROPODS ; this class to the UNI-
VALVES, the first grand division of the Sub-Kingdom MOLLUSKS.

4. In the RADIATES, take the Portugese Man of War, Physalis pelagica.

The generic term is Physalis ; the specific term, pelagica; Physalis
belongs to the order SIPHONOPHORI, to the class ACALEPHS, to the Sub-
Kingdom RADIATES.

The above are given as specimens in the several sub-kingdoms, showing
the manner in which the species named in the Chart, may in conformity
with the system of Classification, be followed up to their respective places.

NATURAL HISTORY.

SECTION I.

THE science of Natural History is truly vast in its extent,
including all bodies found on the earth, or of which its mass is
composed. Its most general divisions are MINERALOGY, BOTANY
and ZOOLOGY. These divisions are founded upon the different
and distinguishing characters and states of the various objects
which they respectively include. Minerals are inorganic bodies ;
they are without life, and incapable of increase or diminution
except by means of some force outwardly applied. These are
earth, rock, metals, &c. ORGANIC bodies are divided into ANI-
MATE and INANIMATE. The former comprehend substances en-
dowed with sense and motion and belong to the department of
ZOOLOGY ; the latter are without the faculties of sense and mo-
tion, and included in BOTANY. Organized beings, whether ani-
mate or inanimate, differ from inorganic ones in having the power
of reproduction, or continuing the existence of beings like them-
selves. Animals derive their nourishment either directly or in-
directly from vegetables, of which hydrogen and carbon are
the principal ingredients. The latter derive their nourishment
from the soils of the earth and from the atmosphere.

In the survey of objects so numerous and possessing such varied
characteristics as those of Natural History, classification is obvi-
ously of high importance. A Union of several traits is almost
always required to distinguish a single being from others
around it which have some, but not all of the same traits, or
have them in combination with others of which that single
being is destitute. In the work of classification a number of
neighboring beings are compared with each other; and their
differences, which are supposed to be the least part of their for-
mation, are made indexes of their character. The union formed
by the comparison of objects which agree, but with certain
differences, is called a genus ; a union with fewer differences

10 NATURAL HISTORY.

is called a species. Genera are formed into orders, and orders
into classes. '

The CHART of which this volume is explanatory, exhibits the
"Animal Kingdom " by means of a Tree having four branches,
each representing one of the four sub-kingdoms into which it is
divided, viz., VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOLLUSKS and RADI-
ATES. Each branch puts forth other branches bearing subdivis-
ions—classes, orders, families, genera, &c., illustrated by nu-
merous and appropriate figures, and so variously lettered and
marked as to be easily distinguished. It was prepared with
great labor, and in the use of much research, in order to facil-
itate acquisitions in the department of physical science which it de-
lineates and with the hope of thus encouraging a more general in-
troduction of the Study of Natural History into our Seminaries ol
learning, from the Common School to the College and University.
" Man," said Lord Bacon, " is the minister and interpreter of NA-
TURE."

More attention should be given in the domestic circle, and in the
various schools of instruction to the business of training the young
to be observers of nature. A fondness for the lessons and resear-
ches of natural history, implanted in the mind during the period
of youth, will, in all probability, last through life, affecting fa-
vorably the entire mental development.

None should neglect the investigations to which by the " View
of the Animal Kingdom," they are invited. Such investigations,
it should be remembered, pertain neither to fiction nor hypothe-
sis — but to realities. They seem specially adapted to man's
endowments in his present state of existence ; but the facts and
impressions which he derived from an earnest contemplation of
the works of God, memory will embalm and render immortal.
" And as now the memory of home is pleasurable in proportion
to the vividness and distinctness of its image ; as we now attach
importance to the most insignificant object around the place of
our birth ; as we regard with intense interest the old elm, the
green lawn, the hawthorn bush, the rivulet because they are in-
separably connected with our developments of mind, even so
perhaps may we then, after millions of ages shall have elapsed,
recall with increasing pleasure the physical scenery of this
birth-place of our existence."

QUESTIONS ON SECTION I.

ence of Natural History include

,t are minerals? How are org

Which belong to Zoology ? Which to Botany ? How do organic bodies

What does the science of Natural History include? What are its gen-
eral divisions ? What are minerals ? How are organic bodies divided ?

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 11

differ from inorganic ? From what do animals derive their nourishment ?
Of what do vegetables principally consist ? From what do they derive their
nourishment ? What is necessary to distinguish one being from another ?
How do you proceed in classifying objects? What is a genus? What
is a species ? Of what are orders and classes formed ? What is the defi-
nition of genus and species at the bottom of the chart on the left hand ?
What are minuter differences called ? Answer. Varieties. What does a
generic name signify or comprehend ? Ans. It comprehends all the species ;
C'anis, for example, is the generic name of animals of the Dog kind, includ-
ing the Fox (Canis Vulpes,) the Wolf (C. Lupus,} the Jackal (C. aureus,)
and the domestic Dog (C. familiaris.} How are generic terms printed on
the chart ? Ans. Always larger than the common name by which the ani-
mal is known, and commencing with a capital letter. How do you distin-
guish the specific from the generic name ? Ans. It follows the generic
term in letters of the same size, and should not commence with a capital,
unless it is derived from some person or place, or is sometimes used in a
generic sense. Why is the name of the species often omitted on the chart ?
Ans. For want of room, and fear of confusing the student by crowding too
much in a small space. How are the families distinguished on the chart ?
Ans. By their terminating in idae, as mustelidae for the Weasel Tribe, or
Family. How can you distinguish the orders ? Ans. They are printed in
CAPITALS, and the number of orders is mentioned on the branch, as in
the Ungidata, or hoofed Mammals. Are there any other divisions or dis-
tinctions on the chart? Ans. Several, as among the cud chewing some
have solid horns, some are hollow, and some are entirely without horns ;
some shed them annually as in the deer, in others they are permanent, as
in the ox or sheep. Some birds are terrestrial, others aquatic ; some
insects and reptiles are venomous (poisonous ;) others are non-venomous, or
harmless. Wherever there is room, you will find these things noticed
on the branches, or as near the classes, orders or figures as practicable.
Dots are often added to make the connection or relation still plainer ; and
where there is but small space allotted to explanation or figures, the defi-
ciency will be remedied as we proceed. How many ranks, or grades of
groups does Swainson enumerate ? Ans. Nine, commencing with the high-
est, and terminating with the lowest assemblages. 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub-
kingdom; 3. Class; 4. Order; 5. Tribe; 6. Family; 7. Sub-family; 8.
Genus; 9. Sub-genus. Name the four great Classes, or Sub-Kingdoms
from the chart.

SECTION II.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

THE system of Zoology places MAN at the head of this King,
dom. As he is endowed with intellectual and moral faculties,
and fitted for responsible action, there is room for doubt whether,
in his pre-eminence, he should have a place among the tribes of
animals. But as his being is compound, he becomes the con-
necting link between them and beings purely spiritual. To the
former he is allied by his bodily frame with its appetites and
passions ; to the latter by his reason and mental susceptibilities.
INSTINCT distinguishes the lower animals — truly wonderful in

1'2 ANIMAL KINGDOM.

some of its actings as will be shown hereafter ; but yet only a
mere internal impulse, and incapable of improvement. The
bird shows it in building its nest ; the bee in constructing its cells ;
but both the nest and comb are made as skillfully at the first as
in any subsequent trial.

There seems no occasion to mistake by referring to mineralogy
or botany what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom ; and
yet in such animals as the oyster we discern but little of the sen-
sibility and capacity for voluntary motion which are usually ad-
duced as characteristics of the animal tribes.

Chemistry has ascertained that the substances found both in ani-
mals and vegetables are chiefly formed of four elements, viz., car-
bon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These have, therefore,
been called organic elements. The opposite and distinctive
natures of plants and animals may be seen in the functions
which they perform dependently one on another. In animal
respiration, the oxygen of the atmosphere is combined with the
blood, forming carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off from the
entire surface of the body in some animals ; from the gills of
those that live in water, and the lungs of those that live in air.
Animals thus consume oxygen — to them it is pabulum vitae —
the food of life. Plants, on the contrary, consume carbonic acid
and give off oxygen. They thus become able to furnish animals
with carbon. Animals, in their turn furnish food to plants. The
excretions which they throw off, yield ammonia (consisting of
hydrogen and nitrogen,) from which substance vegetables princi-
pally derive their nitrogen. The animal derives the constitu-
ents of its body from the vegetable kingdom ; the plant obtains
its elements from the mineral kingdom. The tissues of the plant
change mineral into organic substances; those of the animal
change organic substances into mineral.

A further contrast between plants and animals is presented in
the effects produced upon them, respectively, by light and heat.
Both of these are indispensable to the proper growth of plants.
The productions found in their tissues are but the expression of
the light and heat they have, as it were, appropriated. Many of
the substances in this way formed, are taken as food into the
systems of animals ; but in them are again set free in the form
of "vital animal forces."

Differences of structure also constitute an important ground of
distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; yet,
sometimes, as in the sponge, it is only by considering to which
there is the greatest general resemblance, it can be decided

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 13

whether a particular being should be classed as an animal or
vegetable.

The different methods by which they receive food, and assim-
ilate it or convert it into their own substance, form another dis-
tinction between animals and plants. Vegetables imbibe their
nourishment through their outward surface, or through their
roots and leaves ; but animals, for the most part, have a stomach,
or internal cavity, into which the food is received, where it is
digested, and by appropriate vessels, absorbed into the body.

The food of animals is generally in a solid state, and must be
rendered fluid before it can be formed into the tissues. Taken
at intervals, and stored in the stomach, it does not hinder their
movements from place to place. During the intervals of its re-
ception, it is kept in contact with the absorbent vessels. Hence,
animals are said to "bear their soil about with them." The
earth is called "the stomach of plants."

The habits and instincts of animals must also be considered
by the zoologist in making up the account of the differences be-
tween them and plants. This is a field which affords a wide
scope for comparison and research in tracing analogies between
objects in many respects diverse, and one which teaches many
lessons concerning the Divine wisdom and benevolence.

The chart of "the Animal Kingdom" presents a view of that
branch of Natural History which is called ZOOLOGY, a term de-
rived from the Greek Zoon, an animal, and logos, a discourse.
This includes nine divisions, viz. ; I. Mammalogy, which treats
of the Mammalia, or animals that nurse their young ; II. Orni-
thology, which relates to Birds ; III. Erpetology, which includes
the Natural History of Reptiles ; IV. Ichthyology, which gives
the Natural History of Fishes ; V. Entomology, which gives
the Natural History of Insects ; VI. Crustaceology, which treats
of Crabs, Lobsters, &c. ; VII. Helminthology, which treats of
Worms ; VIII. Malacology, which includes Conchology, and
describes soft-bodied animals, with and without shells; IX.* Ac-
tinology, which treats of radiate animals, as the Star-fish, Sea-
Anemone, &c. The Animal Kingdom is divided, as on the
chart, into four sub-kingdoms, viz. : Vertebrates, Articulates,
Mollusks, and Radiates.

* We have ventured to introduce this new term, formed from the Greek
word aktin, a ray, (corresponding with the Latin radius,) and logos, a dis-
course, in order to have the names of the several branches alike as to their
termination and Greek derivation, though the terms actinia and actiniadae,
(generic and family,) refer distinctively to the Sea- Anemones.

14 ANIMAL KINGDOM.

The VERTEBRATES, (from tne Latin vertebra, a joint, which
comes from'verteret to turn,) have a jointed backbone, or inter-
nal bony skeleton. They are divided into WARM and COLD
BLOODED ; the former, including Mammals, (Mammalia.} and
Birds, (Aves ;) the latter, Reptiles, (Reptitia.) and Fishes, Pisces.)
The Whale tribe. (Cetacea,) inhabiting the sea, form one order of
the Mammalia.

ARTICULATES, (from the Latin articulus, a ring or joint,) are
animals in which the body and legs are jointed, and the hardest
parts are outside. These are arranged into three classes, viz. :
Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms.

MOLLUSKS, (from the Latin mollis, soft,) are shell-fish whose
nervous system is composed of several scattered masses, or gan-
glions, united by means of nervous threads, and whose soft bod-
ies are generally protected by a shell.

RADIATES, (from the Latin radius, a ray,) are animals whose
parts are disposed in the form of rays, tending to a common cen-
ter, where the mouth is placed, as in the Star- fish.

QUESTIONS ON SECTION 2.

Who is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom ? With what is he
endowed ? For what is he fitted ? What does his compound being consti-
tute him? How is he allied to animals ? How to spiritual beings? What
guides the lower animals instead of reason ? Does the bird or bee con-
struct its last nest or comb with more skill than the first ? Is there any
need of mistake in referring to Mineralogy or Botany, what properly belongs
to the Animal Kingdom ? How is it with the Oyster ? What are the four
elements both in vegetables and animals ? What name is given to these
elements? What shows the opposite natures of plants and animals?
When animals breathe, what is combined with the blood? What gas is
thus formed ? How is this thrown off in some animals ? How in others ?
What is oxygen called ? On what do plants live ? What do they give off?
What do they furnish to animals? What do animals furnish plants?
What is obtained from animal excretions? What do vegetables derive
from it ? Whence does an animal derive the constituents of its body, and
whence the plant its elementary ingredients ? What is a further source of
contrast between plants and animals ? -What additional ground of distinc-
tion is there between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ? In some cases,
how is it determined to which of the two a particular being belongs?
What further distinction between plants and animals is referred to ? How
do vegetables take in their nourishment? How animals? What is said
about the food of animals ? What are animals said to do ? What has the
earth been called ? What is said of the habits and instincts of animals as
relates to the differences between them and plants ? What benefits flow
from tracing the analogies between animals and plants ? Is this a wide field
and what does it teach ?

What does the Chart present ? From what is the term ZOOLOGY derived ?
Of which of the three kingdoms of nature is this Chart a general view ?

PL.1I.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

VEBTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MOLLUSKS AND RADIATES.

VERTEBRATES.

1. Homo sapiens, Man.

2. Cebtis, Monkey.

8. Camelus Dromedarius, Dromedary.

4. Ai'ix, Bird.

5. Ciconia Alba, White Stork.

6. Pisces, Fishes.

7. Ophis, Snake.

8. Rana pipiens, Bull-frog.

9. Alligator Lucius, Alligator.

ARTICULATES.

1. Astacus mar inns, Lobster.

2. Papilio, Butterfly.

3. Cu' ex pipiens, Mosquitoe.

4. Musca, domestica, Common House Fly.

5. Larva, or Caterpillar of a Moth or Butterfly.

6. Tettigonia verrucivora, Spotted Grasshopper of Europe.

7. Clerus apiarius, Hive Beetle.

8. Lucanus cervus, Stag Beetle.

MOLLUSKS.

1. Buccinum, Whelk.

2. Mitra Episcopalis, Bishop's Mitre.

3. Tridacna gig as, Giant Tridacna.

4. Planorbis, Coil-shell.

5. Siliquaria.

6. Nautilus umbiculatus, Umbilicated Nautilus.

7. Loligo vulgarise, Common Calamary.

8. Triton variegatus, Variegated Triton.

9. Physa fontinalis, Bubble-shell.

Fig. 1. Corallum rubrum, Red Coral.

2. Apiocrinites rotundus.

3. Edwardsia vestita.

4. Diancea, a Jelly-fish, or Medusa.

5. Tima flavilabris, Jolly-fish.

6. Asterias, Star-fish.

7. Zoanthus Sol'anderi, Animal Flower, or Zoophyte.

8. Astrcea ananas, Pine-apple Coral.

13 ANIMAL KINGDOM.

How many divisions does it include ? Of what does Mammalogy treat ?
To what does Ornithology relate? What does Erpetology include?
What does Ichthyology give? What science treats of Insects? What
of Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles? Of what does Helminthology
treat? What does Malacology include and describe? Of what does
Actinology treat ?

QUESTIONS ON THE CHAET.

How is the Animal Kingdom divided on the Chart ? To which of these
four great Classes, or Sub-kingdoms, do the first four of the above nine
divisions belong? Point out each division of this right hand branch.
Give the name of the science pertaining to or describing each. In what
particular do they all agree? Ans. In having a backbone, or spinal
column. Define vertebra and give its derivation. Which are warm blooded ?
Which are cold blooded? How cold or warm are they ? How many orders
of Reptiles? How many of Fishes? How many of Mammals? Which
order ranks first, and is far above all others ? What is said of man, near
the bottom on the right hand of the chart ? What is said of his brain ?
What of his birth? What of his wants? How does he compare with
others in regard to strength, speed, &c. ? Is his reason an improvable gift ?
Does it supply the place of strength ? What order comes next to man ?
How do the Quadrupeds differ from QUADRUMANA? What marine animals
belong to the class MAMMALIA? In what element do they live ? With what
organs do they move ? Is the largest living animal found in this class ?
What is its name and what are its uses? Which of the VERTEBRATES live
in the water? Which on land? Which in the trees? Which fly?
Which swim ? Which crawl ? Which are covered with feathers ? Which
with hair? Which with scales? Which are born alive, (viviparous?)
Which hatched from eggs, (oviparous ?) Which are entirely without limbs ?
Which have but two ?

In which Sub-kingdom, or on what branch do you find Insects, Crusta-
ceans, and Worms or Annelidans ? From what is the name Crustaceans
derived ? In what do they resemble one another ? Have they any internal
skeleton? Where are the hardest parts? Which is the largest of all
articulated animals? Ans. Lobsters. Name some of the worms on the
chart. Of what use is the leech ? Of what use is the earth or angle worm,
(Lumbricus terrestris?) Ans. This despised creature is of great use in
loosening the earth, so that air and water can pass through it freely, and in
covering barren tracts of land with their worm casts, thus rendering them
productive. Mention some of the Insects and Crustaceans. Name the
sciences describing them. Are Insects a numerous class ? Ans. They out-
number all other classes together. There are 80,000 species of the beetles
alone, (order Coleoptera.) Here you find the Curculio, or weevil, death-
watch, lightning-bug, horn-bugs, &c., &c.

From what is the name of the third branch, (Mollusks,) derived? How
are these soft bodies protected ? How are Mollusks divided ? Which have
heads ? Which none ? To which division do snails and slugs belong ? On
which branch do you find Oysters and Clams? Which move about, (are
free ?) Which are fixed, (stationary ?) Is the Oyster always attached to
other substances ? Ans. No. Which branch of the Mollusks are entirely
aquatic, or never leave the water? Are the TUNICATA, or ASCIDIANS pro-*

VERTEBRATES. 19

tected by shells ? Name from the chart the largest genus of known shells.
Is it a bivalve, (of two pieces,) or a univalve, (of one piece?)

Which is the fourth, last and lowest branch of the Animal Kingdom ?
Define Radiate. How are the parts disposed ? Where is the mouth,? From
what is the term derived ? Are they aquatic ? What is said of these ani-
mals near the bottom of the chart, on the left hand ? Are they less per-
fect of their kind than those on the right branch ? Why, then, are they
said to be the lowest in the scale of animal life? Which animals are
always lowest in organization in the class, division, or order to which they
belong ? Which rank next in the ascending scale ? Which rank highest
of all ? Which is the lowest order of land animals which nurse their young ?
Ans. The. MONOTREMATA and MARSUPIALS. Why are the branches of the
orders Marsupialia and Rodentia, (gnawers,) bent and carried around next
the marine mammals ? Aus. To show that though having nails, they come
next the order Cetacea, (Whales, Dolphins, &c.,) in organization. Which
is the lowest or most simply organized class of animals? Mow many
orders does it contain? What does proto signify? Is it a well
established class ? What is said of it ? What animals are found on the
chart among the RADIATES? Which are microscopic? Which fossil?
Which used as food ? What is said of Sponge ? Where does Agassiz class
it? Are Animalcules, Infusories, and Microscopic or very minute animals
common ? Ans. They are dispersed like seed through all nature. Are
Animalcules tenacious of life? Ans. It is so difficult to kill them that
they can be repeatedly dried and kept for a long time, and will revive
or come again to life, as soon as put into water.

FIRST BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

MAMMALOGY, (Gr. /ua^a, mamma, a breast; Myos, logos,
a discourse.)

L GRAND DIVISION OF VERTEBRATES, (Warm-Blooded Animals,)

SECTION III.

VERTEBRATES.

(Lat. Vertebrata, possessing Vertebra, or joints in the backbone.)

The first class of the Vertebrates consists of the Mammals, or
Mammalia, (Gr. Mamma, a breast.) a term first used by Linnseus
and designating all animals which nurse their young. The
highest position in the Animal Kingdom is given to this class,
composed as it is of beings whose faculties are the most numer-
ous, which are most perfect in tbeir structure and capable of the
most varied movements, and whose intelligence is most largely
developed. A large part of the Mammals are formed for walk-
irj£ ; some can fly in the air, and water is the element in
which others live and move. Their skeletons are all constructed

20 VERTEBRATES.

after the same general plan, changed, however, and modified in
certain parts or organs, to fit them for the stations which they are
designed to occupy. (See Plates III. and XII.) All of them are
viviparous, (born alive.) The young, as the name of the class
denotes, are, for a longer or shorter time, nourished by the milk
of the mother. Sometimes they are born with their eyes open,
and able immediately to move about and seek their own food ;
hut not a few of them are born with their eyes closed, and
in a state of extreme helplessness.

The leading characters of the Mammalia are founded on the
number and kind of their teeth, (see Plate IV.) and the construc-
tion of their hands and feet. (See Plates III. and VI.) The
expertness of these animals is closely connected with the per-
fection of the organs of touch. The nature of their food and
their digestive functions may, in great part, be inferred from the
number and structure of their teeth. (See Plates III. and VI.)

They are divided into three sub-classes, viz. : UNGULATA, (lat.
ungula, a hoof,) animals with hoofs ; and UNGUICULATA, (lat.
Uiiguiculus, a soft, small nail.) animals with nails or claws ; and
CETACEA, with fins, (Gr. Ketos,) a whale, or sea monster.

The Mammals are, (on the Chart.) arranged into nine orders,
after the plan of Cuvier, that arrangement being deemed, on the
whole, the most satisfactory The number of well established
species, according to Dr. Hitchcock, is somewhat more than
2000.

The names of the nine orders are, I. BIMANA ; II. QUAD-
RUM ANA ; III. CARNIVORA; IV. MARSUPIALIA; V. EDENTATA;
VI. RODENTIA; VII. PACHYDERMATA ; VIII. RUMINANTIA ; IX.
CETACEA.

Some naturalists have elevated the CHEIROPTERA, the INSEC-
TIVORA, and the MONOTREMATA to the rank of orders, making the
number XII ; but the first two of these are flesh-eaters, and
therefore properly included among the Carnivora, (or the Carnas-
siers of Cuvier;) and the MONOTREMES, including but two gen-
era, have such points of resemblance to the MARSUPIALIA, as
justify referring them to that order.

QUESTIONS ON THE VERTEBRATES.

What is the first class of Vertebrates? Who first used the term ? Who
was Linnaeus ? Ans. An eminent Swedish naturalist. He was the author
of the Linnaean, or artificial system of Botany. What does the term
Mammals, or Mammalia designate? What position in the ANIMAL
KINGDOM does this class occupy? Of what beings is it composed?
For what are a large part of the Mammals formed? How do others
of this class live and move? What is said of their skeletons? Are

BIMANA. 21

all able at first to move about, use their eyes, and eeek their own food ?
Upon what are the prominent characters of the MAMMALIA founded ? "What
distinguishes the three sub-classes into which all Mammals are divided?
Spell, define and give the derivation of these words. Which have nails ?
Which hoofs? Which fins? Which have hair? Which live on land?
Which in the water ? Under how many orders are the Mammals on the chart
arranged? Whose arrangement is this, and why adopted? Who was
Cuvier? Ans. An eminent French naturalist who could, like Prof. Owen,
of England, describe an animal by seeing a single bone, and the na-
ture of its food, by looking at its teeth, or examining its intestines.
Name the nine* orders from the chart, giving examples of each. Read
the explanations along the sides of the branches and limbs, as you trace
them up from the root or foundation of the tree. To what rank have some
naturalists elevated the CHEIROPTERA, INSECTIVORA, and MONOTREMATA?
What animals on the chart belong to these sub-orders ? What reason is
assigned for giving them this rank ?

SECTION IV.
FIRST SUB-CLASS. UNGUICULATA.

FIRST ORDER. BIMANA, (Lat. bis, twice ; manus, hand ; two-handed.)

MAN fills the first place in the animal series. In reality, he
stands alone, sole order, genus and species. His full zoological
relations are : class, VERTEBRATA ; order, MAMMALIA ; genus
HOMO ; species, SAPIENS. The position at the head of the Ani-
mal Kingdom, given to man by the great body of zoologists, is,
however, objected to by some eminent naturalists, "who are not
disposed to admit that because he possesses certain zoological
characters which are entirely secondary and subordinate, he
should be classed with brutes, when his noblest attribute, reason,
destroys every vestige of affinity, and places him immeasurably
above them all."*

The most prominent of the characters by which man is
distinguished from the lower animals, are as follows :

Rational ; endowed with speech ; able to walk erect, two
handed ; having a prominent chin ; four incisor (cutting) teeth
above and below ; and all the teeth side by side ; the canine (eye)
teeth of the same length as the others ; the lower cutting teeth
erect; a peculiar relative proportion of the thighs and arms, and
wide soles to the feet.

Considering him in his higher or spiritual nature, we may
name his sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal consciousness
and purposes ; and the courses of action thence resulting as
among his proper and essential characteristics. Even physically,
he is first of all the living creatures on earth ; not, however, in
size, or in animal strength, in which respects many of the Ver-

* Zoology of New York, by Dr. De Kay.
2

22

BIMANA.

tebrates excel him, — but in the plan or model after which he is
constructed

The eagle, for example, has a more powerful vision ; the
hare is more keenly sensible to sound ; the dog and vulture are
more ready to catch the scent which is borne upon the breeze ;
but in man is found a nice adjustment, a "peculiar and felicitous
accuracy " of the senses, which, while ministering to his enjoy-
ment, enables him to cultivate a more thorough and pleasing
acquaintance with the objects by which he is surrounded. In
the power of speech, and the various exercises of this power by
which he makes known his wants, his desires, and his most ab-
stract mental conceptions ; in his processes of reasoning and in
his susceptibility of endlessly progressive improvement, he rises
high above every other animal existence.

The several parts of the living human frame are suited to the
erect attitude for which it is distinguished. (See Plate III.) Man's
structure fits him for moving in an erect posture, and unfits him
for moving with ease in any other. He has, however, the ability
to imitate almost every motion but that of flight. As aids to such
imitation, he possesses, when in maturity and health, sixty bones
in his head, sixty in his thighs and legs, sixty -two in his arms and
hands, and sixty-seven in his trunk, and he has also four hun-
dred and thirty-four muscles. His foot is, in proportion to his
whole body, larger, broader, and stronger than that of any other
animal. The muscle called "flexor longus policis pedis" (the
muscle of the great toe,) terminates in a single tendon, and its
force is centered in the great toe, the chief point of resistance in
raising the body upon the heel. In the Orang-outang, the cor-
responding muscle terminates in three tendons, separately and
exclusively inserted in the three middle toes, to enable him to
grasp an object more forcibly in climbing, and thus more fully
meeting the wants of an animal that makes its home in the trees.
"Surely," says Professor Owen, "it is asking too much to be-
lieve that in the course of time, these three muscles should, un-
der any circumstances, become consolidated into owe, and that
one implanted in a toe to which none of the three tendons were
before attached." The teeth, bones and muscles of the monkey
decisively forbid the conclusion that he could by any ordinary
natural process, ever be expanded into a MAN. Man alone is
two handed ; in him the faculty of opposing the thumb to the
other fingers is carried to the highest perfection. In his " Bridge-
water Treatise," Sir Charles Bell says: "The structure of
the human hand is so much more complicated, and suited to so
many different offices, we ought to define the hand as belonging

PL/Ill

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1. The HUMAN SKELETON divided into three principal parts ; the Head
(1,) the Trunk (2,) and the extremities (3 and 4.) Physiologists enu-
merate as many as 260 bones ; but some of these bones, which are
separated in early life, are afterwards united, so as to admit of the fol-
lowing enumeration : Cranium, 8 ; Face, 14 ; Internal ears, 8 ; Verte-
bral column, 24 ; Chest,-26; Pelvis, 11; Upper extremities, 68; Lower
extremities, 64 ; in the whole, 223.

1. The bones of the Skull, divided into two sets, viz., those of the Cranium,

or case for the brain, and those of the Face.

2. The Trunk, composed of the Spine, or Vertebral column, extending from

a to dj the Chest, including the Ribs, and Sternum or Breast-bone, (e;)
the Pelvis ; the circle of bones on which the Spine rests.

The Spine, extending from a to c?, in the erect man, supports the head upon
its summit, (a,) while its base rests upon the sacrum (d.) It consists
of 24 bones, called Vertebrae, (Lat. verto, to turn,) because the trunk
is turned by their motion upon each other. It is the center about
which the limbs move, and the chief support of the skeleton.

The Cervical vertebrae, (the 7 bones of the neck,) extend from a to 6; the
middle, dorsal or back vertebrae, from b to c, and the 5 lowest or lum-
bar vertebrae, from c to d.

3. and 4. Are the last main divisions, consisting of the upper and lower

extremities.

3. The upper extremities (the arms) consist of the scapula, A, or shoulder-

blade, the Clavicle or collar-bone, B, the Humerus, or bone of the upper
arm, (c,) the Ulna, (D,) situated on the inner side, and the Radius, (E,)
on the outer side of the fore-arm, the Carpus, (Car;) the 8 small bones
of the wrist, the 5 bones of the metacarpus between the wrist, and the
bones of the fingers, (Met.,) and the bones of the fingers, called Pha-
langes, (Pha ,) of which the thumb has two, and the fingers three each.

4. The lower extremities, or legs, consist of the Femur or thigh bone, (F,)

which is the largest bone of the body, the Tibia or shin-bone, (G,) on
the front and inner part, and the Fibula, (H,) at the outer part of the
leg, the Patella or knee-pan, (i,) the Tarsus, the 7 bones forming the
heel and instep, (Tar.,) the metatarsus (Met.,) between the instep and the
toes, and Phalanges of the toes similar in number and arrangement to
those of the fingers.

Fig. 2. SKELETON OF A CHIMPANZEE. The ape that comes nearest to man.
3 and 4 show how the extremities terminating with long fingers, and a
small feeble thumb set far back, adapt it for climbing rather than walk-
ing, thus differing from those organs in man.

1. The Cranium, — showing none of the fine sweep of the forehead seen in

man, and indicating a small cerebral development as compared with
him.

2. The Vertebral column, without the pyramidal form seen in man, and not

adapted to an erect posture.

Pelvis, narrow as compared with that of man. (See description in the
text.)

26 BIMANA.

exclusively to man. The whole frame conforms to the hand, and
acts with reference to it." The human hand is not only power-
ful, but exquisitely susceptible of impressions, and possesses the
most delicate touch. Every finger, except the one called the
ring finger, is capable of independent movements, — a power
possessed by no other mammal. The thumb is lengthened so as
to meet readily the tips of any of the fingers ; the fingers them-
selves, and especially the pulpy tip at their ends, are supplied
with a nervous tissue endowed with a discriminating sensibility
that is peculiar to man.

" The difference in the length of the fingers serves a thousand
purposes, adapting the hand and fingers, as in holding a rod, a
switch, a sword, a hammer, a pen or pencil, engraving tool, etc.,
in all which a secure hold and freedom of motion are admirably
combined. Nothing is more remarkable, as forming a part of
the prospective design to prepare an instrument fitted for the
various uses of the human hand, than the manner in which the
delicate and moving apparatus of the palm and fingers is
guarded. The power with which the hand grasps, as when a
sailor lays hold to raise his body to the rigging, would be too
great for the texture of mere tendons, nerves and vessels ; they
would be crusked were not every part that bears the pressure
defended with a cushion of fat as elastic as that we have des-
cribed in the foot of the horse and camel. To add to this purely
passive defence, there is a muscle which runs across the palm,
and more especially supports the cushion on its inner edge. It
is this muscle which, raising the edge of the palm, adapts it to
lave water, forming the cup of Diogenes."*

The brain of man, in proportion to the residue of the human
system, surpasses in volume or extent that of every other mam-
mal, as is shown by the proportion which the cavities con-
taining the brain and face bear to each other. The size of the
brain is sometimes estimated by the facial angle,f which, in the
average of Europeans and their descendants on this continent,
is 80o ; but in the adult Chimpanzee is only 35o, and in the
Orang or Satyr is, .according to Professor Owen, 30o.

The blood necessary for an organ so developed as the human
brain, is carried to it by arteries which do not subdivide as in

* Sir C. Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on the Hand.

" \ The facial angle is found by drawing a line from the most prominent
part of the forehead to that of the upper jaw bone, and observing the
angle which it "forms with another line through the external auditory canal
to the base of the nose, or, (the head being in a vertical position,) with a
horizontal line."

BIMANA. 27

most quadrupeds, but allow of the full and free circulation which
its energies require.

The fine sweep of cranium and the smooth spherical surface
of the human skull, showing the volume of the interior brain, are
also noticeable, as contrasting strikingly with the heavy ridges,
the irregular prominences and the small capacity of the Mon-
key's skull. The face of the Monkey is an aid to him in pro-
curing food, and a weapon for attack and defence ; Man's face
bespeaks the workings of the inner MIND. He uses his hands
to procure his food, and naturally unarmed, protects himself
with weapons which he has manufactured. His jaws and teeth
are both as small as could consist with the preservation of life.
Though at first weak and defenceless, he becomes able not only
to assert his dominion over animated nature, but to make the
very elements subserve his designs. No monkey or ape has
ever been able to make weapons of either attack or defence ;
nor can he procure fire or renew it, which the lowest of the hu-
man species readily does. The most benighted Hottentot can
form weapons with which he is able to destroy the ferocious
lion, the swift antelope, and the wary ostrich ; " he constructs for
himself a hut by the side of his prey, strikes fire, fetches fuel,
and dresses his meat." There seems, as BufFon has intimated,
no anatomical reason why an ape should not speak ; but it has
no language, and cannot by the most patient labor, be taught to
speak. Articulate language, of itself, tnakes a difference, vast
in extent, between man and every other tribe of the Mammalia.

His physical system is peculiar in the readiness with which
it accommodates itself to the variations of climate, and in modes
of living. The Arctic explorations of Captains Ross and Parry,
of Sir John Franklin, and of our own lamented Dr. Kane, have
signally evinced the capacity of the human constitution for en-
during with safety, the intensest cold. On the other hand, men
long accustomed to the air of the temperate zones, have pene-
trated far into the interior of Africa, and traversed other equato-
rial regions, without experiencing any serious evils from the heat.

QUESTIONS ON THE ORDER BIMANA.

What is the first order ? How is it spelled, defined, and from what
derived ? Who is at the head, or fills the first place in the animal series ?
What is said of him, and to what class, order, genus, and species does he be-
long ? Are all Zoologists agreed as to the propriety of placing man with ani-
mals ? What places him immeasurably above them all ? What are his most
prominent distinctions, or what is said of his speech, walk, chin, teeth, &c. ?
Contrast these with those of the inferior animals. What is said of man,
physically ? In what respect does he surpass all other created beings ?

28 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

In what senses is he inferior, or in what way does the eagle, hare, dog, or
vulture surpass him ? What is found in man ? What does this enable him
to cultivate ? What elevates him so highly above other animal existences ?
To what are the several parts of the human frame suited ? For what does
a man's structure fit him ? For what does it unfit him ? Has he the power
of imitation ? What aids this power or faculty ? How many bones and
muscles has he ? What is said of his foot ? What is said of the muscle of
the great toe in man? Give its technical name. What of the correspond-
ing muscle in the Orang Outang ? What does Prof. Owen say in relation
to this, and how does this bear upon the development theory ? What do
the teeth, bones, and muscles of the monkey forbid ? What is said of the
hands, thumbs, and fingers of man ? What does Sir Charles Bell say in his
"Bridgewater Treatise?" What is further said of the human hand?
What of the ring finger ? What of the thump and other fingers ? Of
what use is the different length of the fingers ? Does it evince design, or
did it occur by chance ? What is chance ? What is the cup of Diogenes,
and how is it formed ? Who was Diogenes ? Ans. A celebrated Cynic phi-
losopher, of Greece, who died in great misery and indigence, B. C. 324, at the
age of 96. What is said of the human brain ? How is this shown ? How is the
size of the brain sometimes estimated ? How is this angle found ? What
is said of the arteries supplying blood to the human brain? How does the
cranium, or human skull, contrast with that of the monkey ? What is said
of the monkey's face ? What of man's ? Which bespeaks the most intel-
ligence ? For what does he use his hands ? How does he protect himself?
What is said of his jaws and teeth ? What are monkeys unable to do ?
By whom are they surpassed ? Is there any anatomical reason why an ape
should not speak ? Have they ever been taught to speak ? What makes a
vast difference between man and all other mammals? In what is man's
physical system peculiar? What have Arctic and African explorations
shown ?

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

The variations of mankind, in respect to climate and modes of
life, are connected with changes in complexion and feature, with
differences in the skull, in the color and nature of the hair, etc.
The divisions of the race to which these differences have given
rise, are stated diversely by naturalists, some numbering more,
and others fewer varieties. The Caucasian, Mongolian, and
Nigritian tribes, are by some regarded as the three distinctly
marked types; and the other varieties as but a blending of
these and their peculiarities, and hence merely sub-typical.

The "Chart of the Animal Kingdom " exhibits the" division of
Blumenbach, the one which has commonly been made, which,
separating the Malay and American varieties from the Mongolian,
one of the distinctly marked types, makes the number FIVE, viz. :
1. THE EUROPEAN or CAUCASIAN; 2. THE ASIATIC, MONGO-
LIAN, or TURANIAN, of Dr. Pritchard ; 3. THE MALAY or AUS-
TRALIAN ; 4. THE AMERICAN ; 5. THE ETHIOPIAN or AFRICAN.

1. THE CAUCASIAN VARIETY was so called because it origi-

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 29

nated among the tribes of men found in the region of the Cauca-
sus. It is distinguished for general symmetry and regularity of
outline. The head is, in the Caucasian, almost round, the face
oval, the forehead much expanded, the features not very promi-
nent. The skin is white, the hair soft, long and brown, more or
less dark, and curled. The facial angle is from 80o to 90o.
The entire conformation of the head shows a superior intellectual
organization. In respect both to mental power, and attainments
in art and science, the Caucasians have ever stood in the fore-
most rank.

2. THE ASIATIC OR MONGOLIAN VARIETY. — This variety is
remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes; the color is, for
the most part, pale yellow or olive; the head almost square; the
facial angle 80o ; the cheek bones are prominent ; the face broad
and flattened, and without a beard ; and the hair straight and
black.

3. In the MALAY or AUSTRALIAN, the color varies from a clear
mahogany to dark chestnut brown; the hair is black and bushy;
the beard thin j the nose broad, and the mouth wide ; the fore-
head slightly arched ; the upper jaw projecting; the eye is more
sunken and piercing, and the lips less uniformly thick than in
the negro. \

4. THE AMERICAN VARIETY is allied to the Malay and Mon-
golian varieties. It includes Indians, or native Americans, Tol-
tecans, &c. In these, the cheek bones are prominent ; the face
broad ; the forehead low ; the eyes deeply seated ; the hair black
and straight.

5. THE ETHIOPIAN OR BLACK VARIETY includes Negroes,
Africans, Hottentots, Bushmen, (Bosjesmans,) Bochmen, (Bech-
uanas.) The color is black, with greater or less intensity ; the
lips extremely thick ; the nose flat and thick ; the nostrils wide ;
the hair black and frizzly like wool ; the head narrow ; the fore-
head convex ; the face projecting ; the facial ajigle 70o. Be-
tween this and the European or Caucasian variety, the differen-
ces are marked; but there is no character in which the contrast
between the lowest negro and highest ape is not many times
greater than between the same negro and the highest European.
The differences in respect to structure between the Ethiopian
and the other varieties, would not be deemed sufficient to consti-
tute a specific character among the lowest animals.

In regard to the varieties above described, it will be seen that
one of the enumerated distinctions relates to the color and nature
of the hair. At a trial held in South Carolina, in which the

30 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

point in dispute, property in a mulatto girl, rested on a question
of race, Dr. Gibbs stated, as a curious fact resulting from micro-
scopic observation, that in the mulatto cross the hair of one or
the other parent was present, and sometimes hairs of both, but
never a mongrel hair ; that no amalgamated hair existed ; that
the mulatto as often had straight hair as kinky. He stated that
the microscope revealed that the hair of the white race is, when
transversely divided, oval; that of the Indian, circular; and
that of the Negro, eccentrically elliptical with flattened edges ;
that of the Negro is not hair, but wool, and capable of being
felted ; that the coloring matter of true hair is in an internal tube,
while in the negro it is in the epidermis, or scales covering the
shaft of hair. In corroboration of the statement that both white
and negro hair were sometimes found in the same head, a singu-
lar case was mentioned by Dr. Gibbs. He remarked that he once
attended a half-breed Indian and Negro, who had straight Indian
hair. He was ill and had his head shaved and blistered. On
his recovery, when his hair grew out, it was negro hair, crisped
and wiry.

The late Dr. Morton, of our own country, in a disquisition rela-
tive to the "Size of the Brain" in the different varieties, presents
the following results :

" The ancient Egyptians, whose civilization antedates that of
all other people, and whose country has been justly called 'the
cradle of the arts and sciences,' have the least sized brain of any
Caucasian nation, excepting the Hindoos.

The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teutonic,
and three cubic inches larger than that of the ancient Egyptians.

The brain of the Australian and Hottentot falls far below that
of the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the ancient
Peruvian." (See Silliman's Journal.)

QUESTION.S ON THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

With what are the variations of the HUMAN RACE connected ? Are nat-
uralists agreed as to the number of these varieties ? What three are by
some regarded as distinctly marked types? What do they consider the
other varieties ? How many distinct types or races are named on the chart ?
Whose arrangement has been followed ? From what did the Caucasians
derive their name ? What nations belong to this variety? [See the chart.]
For what are they distinguished ? What are their characteristics ? What
does the entire conformation of the head show ? What is said of their mental
attainments ? For what is the MONGOLIAN variety remarkable ? What na-
tions does it include ? How do you describe the MALAY or AUSTRALIAN
variety ? Name the people or nations belonging to this variety. To which
variety is the AMERICAN allied ? Name the tribes or people which it in-
cludes. [See on the chart.] What are their distinguishing peculiarities ?

QTJADRUMANA.

SI

What does the Ethiopian or black variety include ? Describe their features,
color, hair, &c. Is there a greater contrast between the highest European
and the negro, than between the same negro and the ape ? What is said
as to the difference in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the
other varieties ? In what respect does the hair of the Caucasian, Indian,
and Ne°ro varieties differ? What cases corroborate this curious fact?
What were the results arrived at by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia?

ORS. Here is a good opportunity for a general exercise about the people
of the different varieties, the countries they inhabit, their customs, religion,
degrees of civilization, &c., showing the pupil how to apply his geographi-
cal or historical knowledge.

SECTION V.
SECOND ORDER. QUADRUM ANA.— FOUR HANDED.

(Lat. quatuor, four, and manus, hand.)

This order includes the Shniadae, (Lat. Simia, an ape, — ape-
kind;) CeMdae, (Gr. ^3o;, kebos, a monkey, — monkey tribe;)
pronounced kebidae ; Leinuridae, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts, — ghost-
like.)

The SIMIADAE are spread over the tropical regions of Asia
and Africa, including the larger islands of the Indian Ocean ;
the CEBIDAE are found in South America ; the LEMURIDAE, in
Madagascar and the smaller adjacent islands.

The name "QUADRUMANA" is given to these animals because,
while having two hands, resembling those of man, they have
feet which are also formed like hands, and can grasp branches
of trees. Like man, they have no natural means of defence ;
but they are endowed with a cunning, a quickness and agility
not often equaled and never surpassed by any other quadrupeds.
The peculiarities of their structure do not adapt them either to
an erect or a horizontal position, but to one that is diagonal or
sloping. Their great muscular strength, combined with the fac-
ulty of climbing, enables them to escape from the carnivorous
quadrupeds which are found in the same forests with themselves.
" Leaping from bough to bough, they pass through the most en-
tangled forests with greater swiftness than an ordinary horse
would travel on a turnpike road. The apes upon the rocks of
Gibraltar, (Barbary apes, which are the only ones found in Eu-
rope,) can never be approached by the most cautious sportsmen.
They climb, with the greatest facility, among frightful preci-
pices, where neither dogs nor men can follow."*

The hand of the highest Quadrumana is greatly inferior to'
that of man, both in respect to its structure, and the uses for

* " Swainson's Habits and Instincts of Animals."

32 . QUADRUMANA.

which it is fitted. The thumb is a mere rudiment, and in some
species, entirely wanting. The fingers are very long, and fitted
for hooking an object, but have but little power of separate
motion among themselves ; the palm, instead of being hollow, is
narrow and flat, and tapers from the wrist. All of them have-
three sorts of teeth, like man, but the canine, (eye) teeth, are
more developed in the Quadrumana than in him, and there are
spaces between them and the other teeth.

The principal food of these animals is fruit, which Providence
furnishes them most plentifully in tropical countries, though occa-
sionally they prey upon the young and eggs of birds, also upon
lizards and insects. When captured and domesticated, they be-
come almost omnivorous, (Lat. omnis, all, and voro, to devour.)
They are peculiar to tropical regions, and are useful there as
tending to diminish the annoyances which might otherwise arise
from the insects which they consume for food. In some coun-
tries these animals are themselves used for food, and their skins
converted into leather.

The SIMIADAE include three divisions : I. The APES, without
1aiU ; II. the BABOONS, with short tails and sometimes none ;
III. the MONKEYS, with tails, which as connected with this fam-
ily are adroit, agile, and restless, but usually live only two or
three years. In this family, the tail has no prehensile, or grasp-
ing power. Their teeth, of which there are ten molar in each jaw,
are thirty-two in number ; their nostrils separated by a very
narrow division. The larger portion have cheek pouches and
callosities, (hard parts,) on the hind parts of the body. Of the
Apes we name first the Troglodytes, (Gr. tQuylrj, trogle, a hole ;
dvvw, duno, to creep, a creeper into holes.)

This is the CHIMPANZEE, (not to be confounded with the Orang-
Outang,) found ratlier commonly on the banks of the Gambia
and Congo. It is more man-like than any other animal, espe-
cially when young. When full grown, its height is at least
five feet, and according to some naturalists, six or seven. The
hair is black, long and coarse, falling down on each side of the
head, forming large whiskers on the cheeks; the eyes are hazel,
deep set and lively; the ears h rge and spreading; the lips
covered with a thin white beard, and large and wrinkled;
the face and hands, of a dark brown color. An officer in
the English navy, who saw the animal in 1838, says that in
its natural state, "it mounts trees only for food or observa-
tion, has enormous' strength, easily snapping boughs from trees
which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend."
These animals reach their full growth when between eight and
nine years old. They travel in large bands, armed with sticks,

QUADRUMANA. gg

which they handle with great dexterity ; and sometimes are so
full of courage and fury that they drive the elephant and lion
from their haunts. As their name imports, they spend much of
their time in holes, or rocky caves. They are very watchful,
even when united in a herd ; and the first one who notices the
approach of a stranger, utters a long drawn cry, which resem-
bles that of a human being in distress. This is done to notify
the herd of the stranger's coming. They then immediately
leave any place which would expose them to danger, and betake
themselves to the bushes. It is said to be very difficult to obtain
them alive, owing to a superstitious notion of the natives that they
have the " power of witching."

Several young Chimpanzees have, at different times, been im-
ported into England and the United States. These appeared to
be mild and docile, but were short lived, being unable to endure
the changes to which they were subjected in respect to climate
and mode of living. Had they lived to full age, they would
probably have manifested the ape's naturally fierce and obstinate
disposition. One of them, which lived about a year in the me-
nagerie of the British Zoological Society, is described as appear-
ing like " an old, bent, and diminutive negro." The appearance
of age was increased by its short white beard and wrinkled face,
though at the time not more than two and a half years old. All
its actions seemed child-like. It would " examine every object
within its reach with an air so considerate and thoughtful as to
create a smile on the face of the gravest spectator. When per-
fectly free and unconstrained, Tommy's usual mode of progression
was on all fours. His feet, and particularly his heels, were broader
and better adapted for the biped race than those of the Orang-
Outang, and this he adopted when occasion required. He fre-
quently indulged in a kind of rude, stamping dance ; would seat
himself in his swing with great good humor, when ordered to do
so, stretching out his foot to some of the company to set him in
motion ; and interpreting your wishes and intentions from your
looks, tones, and gestures, exhibited the most wonderful quick-
ness of apprehension."

PitJiecus Satyms.
(Gr. niOijxog, pithecos, ape ; acnvQbg, saturos, satyr. )

The ORANG-OUTANG, or wild man, (from Orang, the Malay
term for man, and Outang, wild.)

The Orang-Outang is found in the islands of Borneo and Sum-
atra. Though called by this name, it is less man-like than the

34 QUADRUMANA.

Chimpanzee. In the young animal, the forehead and skull ap-
pear well developed and somewhat human ; in the adult, the
bones of the face are so increased in size that they throw the
skull backwards, which, combined in its effect with other differ-
ences, takes away the resemblance, which is seen in the younu;,
to the human face. The arms are so long that they reach the
ground, or nearly so, when the animal stands erect ; and the
palms of the hands show lines and papillae, like those of ma-n.
The ears are small ; the eyes dark and round ; the throat is
swollen, the skin about it being loose and folded, and enveloping
a double membranous sac, which connects with the larynx or
wind-pipe, and becomes inflated when the animal expresses pleas-
ure or anger. The body is stoutly built and very muscular ;
the belly round and protuberant ; the hair is of a reddish brown
hue, long and coarse. The Ornng has no tail or cheek
pouches. A very marked characteristic is the disproportion be-
tween the size and length of the arms, as compared with the
legs, which, viewed in connexion with the long and hooked hands,
indicates that the animal is, more than the Chimpanzee, formed
to live on trees. Among the branches, he moves with surprising
facility. By weaving these together, he constructs a sort of
rude hut, which he seldom leaves, except when forced by the
calls of appetite. In Borneo, the natives call the two species
found there, mias-kassar and mias-pappan. Of these the latter
is much the larger and more powerful, and justly named Satyrus,
from his ugly face and disgusting callosities. Some naturalists
consider the Orang of Sumatra to be a distinct species.

The Orang may be ranked as the largest of the apes. A
specimen from Borneo was in height five feet ten inches, and one
from Sumatra reached the enormous stature of seven feet six
inches. Those animals are described by persons who have seen
them in their native climes, as "leading a solitary life, more than
two or three never being found together;" and as "roused from
their habitual dullness by nothing but hunger or the approach
of danger." Their strength is so great they can not be safely
encountered except with fire-arms. A female Orang snapped a
strong spear asunder, after receiving many wounds. Hence,
the natives of Borneo hold these animals in especial dread, and
carefully avoid them.

Hy7obaf.es, (Gr. "vfy, liule, a wood ; flalvat, baino, to traverse,)
LONG AHMED APE, or GIBBON. H. Syndactuhis, (Gr. 2w, Sun,
connected, together; daxivkos, daktulos, a finger.)
This species of Gibbons receives the name Syndactylus, from hav-

QUADRUMANA. 35

ing the second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow
membrane the whole length of .the first joint. As the generic
name, Hylobates, imports, this animal lives in the recesses of
dense woods, (in the East Indian islands and the Malay penin-
sula.) The hands are extremely powerful, and so long that
they reach to the heel, and their span extends from four to six
feet. These greatly assist him in making his rapid movements
among the trees. The fur is longer and more abundant than
that of the Orangs. The animal is like the Orang in temper .
and manners, but much smaller, when standing upright, being
but two feet four inches. It is a better walker than the Orang,
but its gait is unsteady, and it frequently places its hands on the
ground to assist its position. An adult male of this species was
taken in 1830, but died while on ijs way to England. It fed on
vegetables, yet eagerly accepted animal food ; fowls it especially
preferred. It appeared to be good tempered and affectionate;
"when pleased, uttering a chirping note; when frightened or
angry, uttering the loud guttural sounds of ra, ra, ra." It was
fond of play and became quite attached to a Papuan girl who
was on board the vessel — "would sit on the capstan with its long
paw around her neck, and lovingly eat biscuit with her." This
Gibbon is sometimes called the SIAMANG, and is said to be cele-
brated for the pains which it takes to wash the face of its young,
which it does with maternal faithfulness, in spite of its screams
and struggles.

H. agilis. The AGILE, or SILVERY GIBBON, also called the
Uiiglta, or Oungka.

This species is a native of Sumatra, deriving its name, agilis,
(active,) from its remarkable activity in leaning among the
branches. One of these animals, which was exhibited in Lon-
don some years since, " sprang with the greatest ease through
distances of twelve and eighteen feet ; and when apples or nuts
were thrown to her while in the air, she would catch them with-
out discontinuing her course. Sh'e kept up a succession of
springs, hardly touching the branches in her progress, continually
uttering a musical but almost deafening cry. She was very
tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be touched or ca-
ressed." This Gibbon is distinguished by its low forehead, as
well as its activity. The color varies a good deal, according to
the sex or age, but is usually brown. In the male, a white band t
over the eyes unites with the whitish whiskers. The hair is fine
except about the neck, where it is rather woolly and curled.

36 QUADRUMANA.

BABOONS.

The most striking peculiarity of these animals is the resem-
blance of their head and face to those of a large dog. Their
muzzles are long and truncated. They have cheek pouches,
short tails and sharp claws. The malignant expression of their
countenances, their gigantic strength and the brutal ferocity of
their manners, render them decidedly the most frightful and dis-
gusting of all the Qtiadrumana. Their home is Africa, where
they frequent rocky ridges more than the forests. They live
mostly on scorpions, which they find under stones and deprive
of their stings by a skillful application of the thumb and finger.
In the Baboon, the facial angle is reduced to 30°. The name is
from the Italian Babbaino, from which comes the Latin word
Papio, applied to these animals especially in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. In brilliancy of color, they vie with the
gorgeous plumage of the tropical birds.

" They are distinguished from the Apes, by the equality of
their members, their cheek pouches and ischial callosities; from
the Monkeys, by the short robust make of their bodies and extrem-
ities, their tubercular tails, too short to execute the functions usu-
ally assigned to that organ, and the mountain rather than silvan
habitat which this conformation necessarily induces."

Cynoceplialus, (Gr. Kfav, Kuon, a dog; Keyah^ Kephale, a
head ;) Dog-headed. C. Mormon, (Gr. 3fooawj>, Mormon, a bogie.)
This is the MANDRIL, or GREAT VARIEGATED BABOON.

The Mormon resembles the dog and bear. It is a native of
Guinea and West Africa, has a short, erect and stumpy tail, by
which, and the enormous protuberances of its cheeks, it is read-
ily distinguished from the other species. This is not only the
largest of all the Baboons, but the most brilliant in its colors.
When upright, its height reaches five feet. The muzzle is of a
bright scarlet color ; a stripe, of vermilion runs along the center
of the nose, and spreads over the lip ; the cheeks are also of a rich
violet hue, and elevated on each side by a singular development
of the bone, which forms a socket for the roots of the immense
canine teeth. The hair is of a greenish brown color, caused by
alternate layers of yellow and black present in each hair. On
the temples it is directed upwards, so as to meet in a point on the
crown of the head. The brilliancy of the colors is connected
with the skin, and disappears when the animal dies or is sick.
The Mandril frequents forests filled with brushwood, whence it
sallies forth to plunder the nearest villages. Its bulk is great in

QUADRUMANA 37

proportion to its height and strength, and its ferocity great, so that
it is a terror to the natives. Cuvier says he has seen it expire
from the violence of its fury.

Semnopitliecus, (Gr. o-e/uvos, Semnos, to be reverenced ; nlOyxog,
pithccos, Ape.)

This genus includes animals resembling, in many points, the
Gibbons. As in the latter, their extremities are of great length as
compared with the size of the body, which in its form is long
and slender. But they differ from the Gibbons in having the j
hinder extremities longer than the front ones, which is the reverse
of what occurs in the Gibbons. They are distinguished by hav-
ing a very long, slender and muscular tail, terminated by a close
tuft of long hairs. The color of the adult animal is intensely
black, except the breast, the abdomen, and the root of the tail,
which are gray. The black hairs on the top of the head are
tipped with gray, and as age advances, the latter color is extended
to the upper parts of the body. The hair is long, soft, and silky.
The eye-brows consist of long stiff hairs, pointing forward.
The stomach is three fold, one of the divisions being puckered
into a number of distinct sacs; and its teeth resemble, in some
degree, those of a ruminating animal. It evinces less restless-
ness, petulance and curiosity, but has more of real intelligence
than the common monkeys. The animals of this genus are
found in Cochin China, the East Indies and the neighboring
islands.

•S. Maurus. (Gr. fiavgog, mauros, a fool ?) The BUDENG.

This species abounds in the extensive forests of Java, and
forms its dwelling on trees. Troops of more than fifty individ-
uals are found together. When approached, they scream loudly,
and by their movements branches of decaying trees are often
thrown down upon the spectators. The natives chase them on '
account of their fur ; attended by their chiefs, attacking them
with stones and cudgels, and often destroying them in great num-
bers. The furs of these animals are used both by the natives
and Europeans, in preparing riding equipages and military
ornaments.

S. Entellus. (Lat. the proper name of a Roman athlete.)
THE ENTELLUS, OR COCHIN CHINA MONKEY. The HOONUMAN
of the Hindoos.

This species is one of the most common in Hindoostan and the
Indian Archipelago, and in India is the object of a blind adora-
tion. According to the popular superstition, he who puts to
death an Entellus Monkey, will surely die within the year. Its
form is slight, the limbs long and slender, the length of the body

38 QUADRUMANA.

from the muzzle to the tail is, in the full grown animal, four and
a half feet, and the tail is even longer than the body. When
young, they seem gentle and free from malice ; but their charac-
ters do not improve by age. This animal is very active in the
capture of serpents, stealing upon the poisonous reptile when
asleep, and grinding down the reptile's head until the poisonous
fangs are destroyed.

QUESTIONS ON THE QUADRUMANA.

What is the second order of animals ? What three families does this
order include? Give the derivation of the order and the families. Where
is their location or habitat? Why was the name Quadrumana given to
these animals ? Have they any weapons for defence ? With what are they
endowed ? For what does their peculiar structure adapt them ? Of what
benefit is their muscular strength ? What is said of their leaping powers ?
What of the Barbary apes ? Where are these found ? Are any other of
the Quadrumana found in Europe? How does the hand of the most perfect
Quadrumana compare with man's ? What is said of the thumb ? Of the
fingers and of the palm? What of the teeth and the hair? What is their
principal food ? What change occurs from domestication ?

Spell and define the following words, giA7ing examples of each as you
proceed: Carnivorous, flesh-eating; (Lat. caro, flesh, and voro, to devour.)
2<rugivorous, eating fruits, seeds or corn ; (Lat. fruges, corn.) Omnivorous,
eating grain, or feeding on seeds ; (Lat. pranum, grain.) Herbivorous, eat-
ing herbs, feeding on vegetables ; (Lat. herba, herb.) Insectivorous, .eating
insects ; Lat. insecta, insect, and voro, to devour.) Apivorous, bee eating ;
(Lat. apis, a bee.) Apiary, a place where bees are kept. Piscivorous, fish
eating, living on fish ; (Lat. piscis, a fish. ) Reptilivorous, eating snakes,
toads, and other reptiles ; (Lat. rcptilis, from repo, to creep.) Omnivorous,
eating everything, devouring all kinds of food; (Lat. omnis, all.)

To what regions are quadrumanous animals peculiar ? In what respects
are they useful? What divisions do the SIMIADAE include? How are these
divisions readily distinguished from one another? What is said of the
monkeys of this family ? Which is the genus first named, and from what
is the name derived ? Where is it found, and what is said of its resem-
blance to man ? Describe its appearance, habits, &c. Why is it difficult
to obtain it alive ? Have attempts been made to import these animals, and
with what success ? What is said of Tommy ? Describe him particularly.
What is the difference between a biped and a quadruped ? Ans. One is two-
footed, (Lat. bis, two, pes, afoot;) the other four-footed, (Lat. quatnor, four,
pe.s, foot.) What between a bimanous and a quadrumanous animal ? From
what language is the Orang-Outang derived ? From what are the generic and
specific names derived ? Where is it found ? What is said of it ? Where
does it live ? For what kind of a residence is it fitted by its long arms and
hooked hands? What does it construct among the branches of trees?
Does it often leave them, and for what? How many species are found in
Borneo? Which is the largest and most powerful? What is it justly
named ? Is the Orang of Sumatra of the same species ? What is said of
their size, and what account do persons give who have seen them in their
native woods ? Why do the Borneans dread them ? What is the generic
term for the long armed ape, or Gibbon ? From what derived ? What

QUADRUMANA. 39

does this name import ? Give the derivation of syndactulus. Why was
it given to this species ? Where does it live and in what country is it found :
Describe its habits, size, gait, food, sounds, &c. For what is it most cele-
brated ? What is said of the silvery or agile Gibbon, H. agilis ?

What is the most striking peculiarity of BABOONS ? What do they resem-
ble ? Where are they found ? On what do they live ? From what is the
name derived? What is said of their colors ? How are they distinguished
from the apes ? Describe the Variegated Baboon, or Mandril. Give the
derivation of the generic and specific terms. What is said of its size,
color, habitat, &c. How do the natives regard it? From what is Semno-
pithecus derived ? In what respect does this genus resemble the Gibbons ?
How do they differ from the Gibbons? By what are they distinguished?
What is said of their hair, eye-brows, stomach, disposition, intelligence,
&c. ? What is said of the Budeng ? What of the Cochin China monkey ?

SECTION VI.

AMERICAN MONKEYS.

These are a very numerous division found in South America,
and arranged into two leading groups, viz. : the SAPAJOUS and
SAGOINS; the former having muscular, grasping tails; the latter
feeble ones, unfit for grasping. They are sometimes called the
four-fingered monkeys, as the thumb is reduced to a mere rudi-
ment, and in some species is entirely wanting. They are with-
out cheek-pouches and callosities.

I. SAPAJOUS.

These may be regarded as representing the GUENONS, (Cerco-
pithecus, Gr. kerkos, a tail,) of the Eastern Continent. The whole
of them are very active, climb well, and are well formed for living
and moving among the trees. The fore-hands show a less per-
fect organization than is seen in the monkeys of the Eastern
Continent. The -palms of both extremities are endowed with
exquisite sensibility. These monkeys are of small size and play-
ful disposition. Gathered in herds, they lead a merry life, feed-
ing mostly on insects and fruits. The facial angle is about 60o.
Amonfr them we include the HOWLERS, (Mycetes.) as has been
done by other naturalists. The Howlers differ, however, from
the other Sapajous in some respects, particularly in having a
facial angle of but 30°, but agree with them in having prehen-
sile tails. Of the numerous species of these and other South
American monkeys, we can notice only the most interesting and
prominent.

Mycetes, (Gr. fivx^Tr^, muketes, a Howler.)

These are the largest monkeys of America, and remarkable
for the development of the vocal organs. The bone at the root of

40 QtJADRUMANA.

the tongue, (the hyoid bone,) is, in these animals, very large, swell-
ing into a capacious drum which communicates with the larynx,
and gives a tremendous power and volume to the voice. They
howl in concert, especially at the rising and setting of the sun ;
but the night is often made dismal with their frightful yells. One
monkey begins the cry, and is immediately followed by the oth-
ers ; and their distressing, unearthly sounds have been heard at
two miles distance. The canine teeth are, according to Swain-
son, six times as large as the incisors or cutting teeth. The part
of the prehensile tail with which these animals lay hold of the
branch of a tree, is naked below, and of course has a higher sen-
sibility of touch. Their size is rather larger than that of the fox.
In their dispositions they are ferocious and intractable ; in habits
social, and most of them have a thick beard. Their deep sono-
rous yells are supposed to be a call to their mates ; in other
words, a hideous love-song.

M. ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear.) The URSINE HOWLER,
or ARGUATO.

This animal is, exclusive of the tail, nearly three feet long.
The hair is of a golden color, and the thick beard is of a deeper
color than the rest. Humboldt counted above forty of these ani-
mals in a single tree, and says, "their eye, voice, and gait denote
melancholy." They feed upon fruit and the leaves of plants,
and in traveling follow an old monkey as their file leader.
This Howler has a membranous sack in the throat, connected
with the wind-pipe and capable of being inflated, giving the
power to utter terrific sounds.

AteUs, (Gr. are^?, ateles, imperfect.)

This and the preceding genus are " ORDINARY SAPAJOUS ; " (the
term Sapajous also including the genus Cebus, or the SAJOUS.)
This genus includes what are called the SPIDER MONKEYS, so
called from their long slender tails, and sprawling movements,
which give them a spider4ike appearance. It is termed ateles,
or imperfect, because in most of the species the thumbs on the
fore-arms are rudimental, or else entirely wanting; (they are,
however, found on the hinder extremities, and large and opposa-
ble to the fingers.) They have four molar teeth more than man,
making the number of teeth thirty-six, and are distinguished for
their round heads and thick or corpulent bodies. The eyes are
far apart; the nostrils open laterally, (or sidewise;) the hair is
generally long, coarse, and of a glossy appearance. Trees are
their home ; on the ground they drag themselves along with their
fore-arms, using them as crutches, and resting upon their half
closed fists. Sometimes they crouch along on their hind legs.

QUADRUMANA. 41

Troops of them are found together, and they are said to " exer-
cise a perfect tyranny over* all the other arboreal mammals in
their neighborhood." Though living chiefly upon leaves and
fruit, they also hunt after insects and the eggs and young of birds,
and are even said to fish for crabs with their long tails. They
are uncommonly intelligent, easily domesticated, and evince a
strong attachment for those who treat them kindly ; and they have
less of curiosity, mischief, and violent passion than the common
monkeys. They use their prehensile tails as a fifth hand, even i
crossing streams by mounting to the topmost branches of some
over-hanging tree, and forming themselves into a long chain.
The last monkey keeps a good hold on the tree, while the living
chain swings to and fro, until by the impetus thus gained, the
foremost can reach a branch upon the opposite side, when the
rear animal lets go his hold, and the whole are rapidly drawn up.
The Indians esteem their flesh as an article of food, and it is said to
be "white, juicy, and agreeable." It is related that the Spider
Monkey, when shot, fastens its tail so closely to the branches
that it remains suspended even after death. Among the most
noted species are A. Paniscus, (IJavlaxo;, Paniscos, dim. of Tlav,
Pan, a little Pan.) This is the QUATA, or as the French write it,
the COAITA, found in large companies in Guiana and Brazil.

A. Behebub. The MARIMONDA.

The monkeys of this, like those of the preceding species,
unite in large companies and form the most grotesque groups.
All their attitudes evince the extreme of sloth. They will
bend their long arms over their backs, and remain motionless
in this position for hours together, under the heat of a tropical
sun.

CEBIDAE.

(From Celus, Gr. xr\8og, icelos, monkey. The SAGOU, or SAJOU.)

The animals of this genus are grouped among the SAPAJOUS,
but denominated more distinctively the SAJOUS. They are also
called CAPUCHIN MONKEYS, from the hood-like formation of the
hair of the head. tf-ir!

C. Appella. The WEEPEB.

Why this very common species received so dolorous a name
is not apparent, as in confinement it is "good tempered, playful j
and hardy." It .has a rather rich fur of a color inclining to
olive, with a golden tinge on the lighter parts, and is distin-
guished by its yellow, flesh-colored face.

42 QUADRUMANA.

C. allifrons. (Lat. albus, white,, and frons, forehead.) The
OUAVAPAVI, or WHITE-FACED CAPUCHIN.

This animal has a grayish blue face, except the pure white
orbits and forehead. The color of the body is grayish olive.
Troops of these monkeys are found in the forests of Oronoco.
The Indians often keep them as playthings, and derive from
them much entertainment. Humboldt saw a domesticated one
that caught a pig every morning, and rode him about the whole
day, while he was feeding in the savanna. Another, in the
house of a missionary, bestrode a cat which had been brought
up with it, and patiently submitted to its rider.

C.fatuellus. (Lat., the same as Faunus, or Pan, a Roman divin-
ity.) The Sagou Cornu, or HORNED MONKEY.

This species takes its name from the bushes of hair which ele-
vate themselves on the base of the forehead, producing a resem-
blance to horns. The color in some of these animals is a deep
brown, or purplish black ; in others, reddish brown. It is a na-
tive of French Guiana.

II. SAGOINS.

These include several groups, which, though differing from
each other in some particulars, agree in having tails that are
feeble andwoJ prehensile, but which they use for protecting them-
selves against the cold, of which they are very sensible. They
are light and graceful in their movements ; of a lively, timid,
and irritable disposition. Their food consists of fruit, birds' eggs,
and insects. Of the genera belonging to this division we name
the

Callitlirix sciureus. (Gr. xaA6<?, kalos, beautiful, Ogtis, thrix,
hair.) Sciureus, the specific term, is from the Gr. axiofyeog,
(skiureus,') squirrel-like.

This is the SAIMIRI of Buffon, otherwise called the SQUIRREL
MONKEY, and is a very beautiful little animal not quite a foot
long, and with a tail three or four inches longer than the body.

It is native to Brazil and Guiana. The head is rounded in
form'; the muzzle is short and dark colored ; the ears very large,
and it has a large bushy tail. Around the eyes are two circles
of flesh. The general color is olive gray ; but the fore-arms
and legs are of a fine orange red. Its cry is a hissing sort of
whistle repeated three or four times, and expressive of impatience
or anger. The tail, though not properly prehensile, it sometimes
winds around objects as a sort of feeler or support, so that this
animal may be regarded as a link between this division and the
Ordinary SAPAJOUS.

QUADRUMANA. 43

The SAKIS,

(Or those SAKIS which have long bushy tails, and hence have
been denominated Fox TAILED MONKEYS ; the term Saki, in its
more general application, denoting any American Monkey which
has not a prehensile tail.)

Pilhecia. These are the largest of the SAGOINS. Of this
genus, which has a facial angle of 60o, the most remarkable is
the Pithecia lugens, (Gr. ntOrjxelu, pithekeia, ape-like ; lugens, .
Lat. mourning,) — the WIDOW MONKEY, so named from the con-
trast of black and white displayed in its natural dress. The
general color is black, but the face and hands are white. The
Creoles of South America say, " it wears the veil, kerchief and
gloves of widowhood," according to the custom in South America.

Pithecia clieirofaotes. (Gr. xei9, cheir, hand ; noTi^g, poles, drinker.)

THE HAND-DRINKER, so named because with its hands it con-
veys water to its mouth, from a vessel or running stream. This
animal is the Capuchin of the Oronoko. It is distinguished by
two distinct bushy tufts formed by the parting of the hair above
the large, sunken eyes, and by its long crisped black beard. The
fur is of a reddish chestnut color. It lives in pairs only, and is
very shy.

But a more interesting species of these animals is the lacchus
vulgaris, (Gr. "lax/os, lakchos, Bacchus.) The MARMOSET,
OUISTITIS, or STRIATED MONKEY. This small species has a body
about eight inches long, and a tail eleven or twelve inches. Upon
its head are two tufts of white standing hair ; the facial angle is
50o ; the fur very soft. Some are black with yellow feet ; others
brown, striped with yellow, hence called striated. When re-
moved from its native region to a colder climate, the Marmoset
nestles itself among the materials of its bed, out of which it sel-
dom emerges. It is very fond of insects : in captivity it will eat
scores of the largest cockroaches, with many smaller ones, (re-
jecting the wing-cases and legs,) three or four times a day. Its
chief and favorite food in the wild state, is the banana, though in
that state it is almost omnivorous.

/. argentalus, (Latin, silvered.) This is the least and most
beautiful of the SAGOINS, having silvery colored hair, which
pleasantly contrasts with a tail of deep brown, inclining to black-
ness. In general habits, it is like the preceding.

What are the two leading groups of the numerous monkeys found in
South America ? What is a marked distinction of the SAPAJOUS ? What

44 QUADRUMANA.

of the SAGOINS? Why are they sometimes called four -fingered monkeys?
What monkeys of the Eastern continent do the SAPAJOUS represent ? What
is said of their habits, manner of climbing, living, &c. ? What is said of
their fore hands ? What of 'the palms of both extremities ? What sort of
a life are they said to lead ? In what respect do the Howlers differ from
the SAPAJOTJS ? In what particulars do they agree with them ? Which are
the largest American Monkeys ? For what are they remarkable ? Describe
their howling, size, disposition, &c. ? What is said of the URSINE HOWLER,
or ARGUATO ? How many did Humboldt count in a single tree ? From
what is Ateles the generic term for spider monkey derived, and what does
it mean ? Why are they called Spider Monkeys ? For what are they dis-
tinguished? How do they move on the ground? Where and upon what
do they live ? How do they use theip toils ? How cross streams ? What
is said of their flesh ? What is said of the Marimonda (Ateles Belzebub ?)
What is said of the SAJOUS, or CAPUCHIN MONKEYS ? To what genus do
they belong ? With what are they grouped ? What is said of the Weeper ?
What of the White-faced Capuchin ? What does Humboldt relate of this
monkey ? From what does the horned monkey derive its name ? Where
is it found ? What do the SAGOINS include, and in what do they all agree ?
For what do they use their tails ? What is said of their movements, food,
&c. ? What is said of the Squirrel Monkey, and from what is the term
derived? What does the term SAKI generally denote? Which of them
are called Fox-Tailed Monkeys? Which genus of SAGOINS is the largest?
Of this genus Pithecia which is the most remarkable? What do the Cre-
oles of S. A. say of it ? How is the Hand-Drinker distinguished ? Why is
it so named? Where found? What is said of the Marmoset, Ouistitis or
Striated Monkey? What is said of its food in its wild state? What in
captivity ? Among what class of animals on the chart would you look for
cockroaches ? Which is the least and most beautiful of the SAGOINS ?

SECTION VII,

LEMURIDJE, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts.)

The Lemurs were so named by Linnaeus, on account of their
nocturnal habits and noiseless movements. The larger part of
this family are natives of Madagascar; but some inhabit the
African continent, and a few of them the East Indies. They
resemble the monkeys in having opposable thumbs on both pairs
of extremities ; those of the hinder limbs are large, and much
expanded at the tips ; the nails are flat, except those of the first
finger of each hinder limb, which are long, raised and pointed.
They do not show either the mischievousness and petulance, or
the sprightliness and curiosity of the monkey tribe. From them
they also differ in size and form, and in respect to their teeth.
The chief difference among the Lemurs themselves relates to
color; the habits, manner and general figure being the same in
all. The muzzle is very pointed, the tail very long ; the fur
woolly and soft. They are generally not larger than a fox, and
some are smaller. The Lemurs of Madagascar and two or three
adjacent islands appear to take the place of the Monkeys, none of

QUADRUMANA. 45

which are found in those islands. Their habits, in a state of na-
ture, have not been much observed. When in captivity, they
are quite tame, and good natured; fond of attention, and leap
about with surprising agility. They are evidently nocturnal.
When undisturbed, they spend the greatest part of the day in.
sleep. If alone, they roll themselves up in the form of a ball,
and wind their long tails in a very curious manner about their
bodies, seemingly for the purpose of keeping themselves warm,
for they are naturally quite sensitive to cold, and delight in bask-
ing in the rays of the sun, or in keeping themselves as close as
possible to the fire.

At twilight they show more alertness, springing from perch to
perch, and uttering a peculiar grunt of pleasure and satisfaction.
At this time, they seem most desirous of food, which in confine,
ment is usually bread and fruits. They are naturally climbing
animals and exceedingly active, twisting their tails about objects,
but not using it as a fifth hand.

They endure changes of air and climate better than the Mon-
keys; but "dust and wet not only annoy them, but produce dis-
ease and death." It is said that "one of their favorite situations
is the edge of the fender, on \vhich they will rest, spreading out
their hands before the fire, half closing their eyes, and luxuria-
ting in the genial glow."

The noise which the Lemur makes when alarmed, or suddenly
startled, is a singular "braying, or roar of interrupted hoarse
sounds, ending with abruptness." Their native food is not cer-
tainly known, but it is believed to be fruits and eggs, birds and
insects. When in captivity, they refuse cooked meat. They
live together in troops, clinging to the branches of trees, or when
confined, to the bars of their cages, like the sloth, which in many
respects they resemble. The eyes are full and of hazel color ; in
confinement, blindness is a common occurrence.

The whole are sometimes called MADAGASCAR CATS.

Cuvier arranges the Lemurs into five groups, viz.
I. The Makis, or Macacos, the TRUE LEMURS.
II. -The Indris, Lichanotus, (Gr. lichanos, index-finger ; ous,
an ear.)

III. The Lori group, Slow Lemurs, Stenops, (Gr. Stenos, nar-
row ; dps, face or muzzle.)

IV. The Galagos, Otilicnus, (Gr. ous, an ear ; liknon, a fan.)
V. The Tarsiers, Tarsius.

Among the most beautiful species of the first group, is the RED
LEMUR, L. ruler, (Lat. red.) This is also one of the largest, and
apparently suffers less than others by a removal from its native

46 QUADRUMANA.

abode. Its fur is of a deep rich chestnut ; but the face and fore-
hands, as also the under parts and tail, are black. It is easily
tamed, and very gentle.

A still more beautiful species is the L. Macaco. The RUFFLED
LEMUR, the largest of the family. Its fur is varied with pure
white and black, in nearly equal proportions ; the hands, how-
ever, are black, and a white ruff surrounds the face. In habits
and disposition, it is like the rest. All the species of the Lemurs
are handsome, and worthy of attention ; but it is sufficient for our
purpose to name the above.

The Indris, (Lichanolus, Illiger.) These are found in Mada-
gascar, and present two species, the long and the short tailed.

The BLACK OR TAILLESS INDRI, 7. brevicaudatus, (Lat. with
short or rudimentary tail,) is described as "a large animal three
and a half feet high, entirely black except on the face and abdo-
men, which are of a grayish cast, and the rump which is white."
The face is dog-like ; the ears are short and much tufted ; the
hair is silky and thick, but in some places, curly ; the nails are
flat, but pointed. When young it is trained to the chase like a
dog. Its note is spoken of as like a young child's crying; hence
it probably derived its name INDRI, man of the wood.

The FLOCKY INDRI, /. laniger, (Lat. wool -bearing,) has a black
face, and large and greenish gray eyes ; five-fingered feet with
long claws, except the thumbs which have rounded nails. It is
said to be one foot nine inches long from the nose to the end of the
tail, the tail being nine inches. The color above is a pale yellow
ferruginous, or iron color, and white beneath. The fur is very
soft and curly.

The LORIS. Stenops, (Illiger.) The animals of this genus
have narrow, pointed muzzles, and are without tails. Their eyes
are close together, and they have a grasp that is quite tenacious.
Their movements are sometimes very slow ; their habits noctur-
nal. "The base of the arteries of the limbs has the division into
small branches which is found in the true Slotlis." The number
of their teeth is thirty-six. The thumbs are widely separated
from the fingers on both extremities. Two species are found in
India and Ceylon, viz.

L.gracilis. (Lat. slender.) The SLENDER LORIS. This is a
very small animal, being only eight inches in length. It has a
long, dog-like visage, a thin and weak body, and long slender
limbs. On each foot, the thumb is very distinct and separate
from the toes. The color above is tawny; beneath whitish.
According to Pennant, it is very active, and many of its actions
are like those of an ape.

QUADRUMANA. 47

L. tardigradus. (Lat. slow-paced.) The SLOW-PACED LEMUR
is "an animal of small size, scarcely equal to that of a cat." Tha
largest yet noticed is but sixteen inches long. The apparent clum-
siness of its form is much increased by the manner in which it
usually contracts itself into a kind of ball. The large eyes have
transverse pupils capable of being closed during the day, and very
largely dilated at night. The hair is long, close and woolly, and
of a deep ashy gray with a brownish tinge. A brown or chestnut
band runs along the middle of the back. Urider the true tongue
is a second tongue, narrow and sharp pointed, which the animal
projects in connection with the other when he drinks, and also
when he eats, especially when eating flies, of which he is very
fond ; but he is able to retain the second within his mouth at
pleasure. One of this species was a pet of Sir William Jones,
during I, is residence in India.

Galago. The GALAGOS, found in Africa and India. These
animals have round heads, short muzzles, and very large eyes
and ears. The feet are five-fingered, with the exception of the
first finger of the hind feet, which has a sharp awl-shaped claw.
The tail is very long and hairy. Their large ears close when
they sleep, but open upon their hearing any noise. They make
their nests, squirrel-like, in the branches of trees, and cover it
with a bed of leaves or grass for their young. Their food con-
sists of soft fruits and insects. They are found in great numbers
among the gum-trees of the desert of Sahara, and are particularly
fond of the gum yielded by these trees. Thence they are taken
by the Moors, and carried to the coast for sale, where they are
named "animals of the Gum." These animals are gentle and
pretty, but small, the length of the body being only seven inches,
and that of the tail, nine.

Of the several species, the one most worthy of notice is the G.
Mohoh. The MOHOLI. This singular but beautiful animal,
peculiar to Africa, has a long glossy tail, very long hinder legs,
large, bare and spreading ears. The color of the tail is a medi-
um between a yellowish brown and cochineal red ; the fur is
throughout of the same color; that of the other parts is a dark
slate color, except at and near the surface ; the eyes are a deep
topaz yellow. In its grimaces and active movements, it resem-
bles the monkey. It is rarely seen during the day, which it
spends in the nest it forms in the forks of branches, or in the
cavities of decayed trees. Its length from the nose to the tip of
the tail is sixteen inches.

The TARSIERS are found in the Molucca islands. These have
tarsi, which are very long, and this gives to their hinder limbs a

3

43 Q.UADRUMANA.

disproportionate extent. They have a rounded head, large eyes
and a long tufted tail. The hands are small and delicate ; ex-
ternally covered with a soft down, but within they are naked.
The nails of all the fingers of the hand as well as of the third and
fourth finger of the feet are triangular in shape ; on the index
and middle finger of the feet they resemble the thorns of a rose
bush. The fur is woolly and soft, the general color brown, in-
clining to gray. Two species are known. Tarsius Bancanus.
The BANCA TARSIER, and T.fuscomanus. (Lat. fuscus, dark or
swarthy ; manus, hand.) These animals feed chiefly on lizards.
Averse to light, they retire by day under the roots of trees. Dr.
Horsefield obtained the BANCA TARSIER in Banca, near laboos,
one of the mining districts, where, he says, it inhabits the exten-
sive forests in the vicinity.

Cheiromys, (G. cheir, hand; mus, mouse.) The AYE- AYE.
This quadruped, whose name signifies hand-mouse, resembles the
di, or sloth in its habits, but should not be confounded with that
animal. Cuvier places it with the Rodent.ia, but it may properly
be classed, as it has been by some naturalists, among the monkeys.
Its specific name Madagascariensis, points it out as a native of
Madagascar. It burrows under ground, and is slothful and noc-
turnal in its habits ; has large flat ears, like those of a bat, and a
tail like a squirrel's ; but its most distinguishing peculiarity is the
middle finger of the fore foot, the last two joints of which are very
long, slender and without hair. This peculiarity aids the animal
in drawing worms out of the holes in the trees, and in holding
on to branches. Its length is eighteen inches, exclusive of the
tail, and its general color ferruginous (iron) brown, mixed with

Galeopithecus, (Gr. galeos, a weasel ; pithecos, an ape.) FLY-
ING LEMUR.

This genus of animals is the connecting link between the
Lemurs and the Bats. There are two species; some enumer-
ate three. G. volans, the Flying Lemur, — is found in the most
eastern islands of the Indian Archipelago. The chief peculiarity
of this animal is the extension of its skin between the front
and hind limbs, including also the tail, by which it receives a
i parachute-like support in the air, and is able to take long sweep-
ing leaps from tree to tree, somewhat like flying ; but it has not,
like the bats, the power of continued flight. The general struc-
ture is like that of the Lemurs. During the day it sleeps sus-
pended on the branches, with the head downward. At night it
goes forth in quest of its food, which in addition to insects, consists
of fruits, eggs and birds.

CARNIVORA. 49

By whom were the Lemurs so named, and why ? Where are they found,
and of what do they there take the place ? In what do they resemble
Monkeys, and how differ from them? In what do Lemurs chiefly differ
among themselves ? What is said of their size, and is much known of their
habits in a wild state ? What are their habits in a state of captivity ? In
what do they delight ? What food do they prefer, and what refuse ? How
do changes of climate affect them ? What influences have wet and dust
upon them ? What is to them a favorite position ? Do they live alone, or
in troops ? What animal do they strongly resemble ? What general name
is sometimes given them ? Name the groups into which Cuvier arranged
them ? What is said of the Red Lemur ? Which of the Lemurs is the
largest and most beautiful ? Give some account of the other groups, the
Indris, the Slow Lemurs, the Galagos, and the Tarsiers. Describe the Aye-
Aye, and the Flying Lemurs. Why is the name Aye-Aye given to the
Cheiromys ? Ans. Because this name, as pronounced, is supposed to resem-
ble the cry of the animal.

SECTION VIII.

ORDER 3. CARNIVORA.

(Lat. earo, flesh; voro, to devour.)

The two preceding orders, we have found specially character,
ized by the number and properties of their hands. In the animals
we are now about to consider, the hands are modified into feet.
At the head of the four-footed animals are the Carnivora, or flesh
eating anim ils, which have the strongest thirst for blood, and with
it the power and instruments for its gratification. These, in the
structure of their teeth, their digestive organs, and general con-
formation, are adapted for preying upon other animals. In com-
mon with the first two orders, they have three kinds of teeth, and
nails or claws on their feet ; but unlike them, never have the
front toe opposable to the other fingers. Their molar teeth, or
grinders, are adapted for cutting and tearing rather than bruising
or grinding. The greater or less development of the molar teeth
as cutting or tearing instruments, indicates the kind of animal
food suited for their support. Those Carnivora which have their
molars, in whole or part, tuberculated, (covered with small
knobs.) use vegetables, to a greater or less extent; those which
have them serrated, or notched with points, live chiefly on insects.
Other modifications of the molar teeth, fit them for crushing
bones, or dividing flesh, as occasion may require. As a general
rule, the jaws open and shut like a pair of shears, upwards and
downwards, but do not admit of a side-wise movement. The
Carnivora have no third lobe in the brain. The senses of sight,
hearing and smell are exceedingly acute. Their feet are of a
peculiarly soft structure, to enable them to steal silently upon
their prey ; and their supply being uncertain, they can endure

50 CARNIVORA.

long abstinence from food. The intestines of this order are suited
to their flesh-eating habits, being shorter, and less voluminous
than those of herbivorous animals. A kind providence has so
arranged things that the larger and more formidable of the car-
nivorous tribes are but thinly scattered and more or less remote
from the abodes of civilization.

The CARNIVORA may be divided into I. the CHEIROPTERA,
Bats; II. the DIGITIGRADA, including the Cat, Dog and Weasel
families ; III. the PLANTIGRADA, the Bear family or tribe ; IV.
the AMPHIBIA, the PHOCIDJE, or Seal family; V. the TRUE IN-
SECTIVORA, including Shrews, Moles, &c.

By what were the first two orders characterized ? How are the hands
modified or changed in the CARNIVORA, and other orders of MAMMALS?
What order stands at the head of four footed animals ? What are their
propensities, and have they the power to gratify them ? For what are
their teeth and digestive organs adapted ? How many kinds of teeth have
they ? Describe them, and spell their names. Ans. Incisors. The fore teeth
with sharp cutting edges for cutting or separating the food. Canine teeth
are on each side of the incisors. These are very long and prominent in the
Carnivora. (See plate IV. fig. 3.) Those in the upper jaw are called eye
teeth in the human family. Molars, or grinders are of three kinds ; false
molars are more or less pointed, and stand next the canine teeth ; next come
the carnivorous teeth, especially adapted for dividing and lacerating muscle,
and last the Tuberculated teeth, full of rounded knobs or pimples. Serrated
teeth are notched with points like a saw, and show that the animal lives on
insects. Trenchant teeth are very sharp and cutting. Granulated teeth are
covered with small elevations, or grains. What have Carnivorous animals in
common with the first two orders ? In what are they unlike them ? For
what are their molar teeth adapted, and what is indicated by their varia-
tions ? How can you distinguish by the teeth what food an animal lives
upon? How do carnivorous animals generally open and shut their jaws?
Have their jaws any side-wise movement ? How many lobes has the brain
in animals of this order? What is said of their senses? For what are
their feet peculiarly adapted ? Can they sustain long fasts ? Are the intes-
tines shorter in Carnivorous than in Herbiverous animals? How are the
wisdom and goodness of God shown in the distribution of carnivorous and
blood-thirsty animals ? How are the CARNIVORA divided ?

SECTION IX.
I. DIVISION OF THE CARNIVORA.

SUB-ORDER CHEIROPTERA, (Gr. %SIQ, cheir, hand; itrsgov, pteron,
wing.)

These singular animals combine so much of the character of
birds with that of quadrupeds, that it was long thought difficult to
assign them a separate arrangement in the system of nature. It
is now, however, settled that the structure of their bodies, their
viviparous nature, their hair, etc., entitle them to a place among

EL.IV.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

DENTITION.

1. Skull of man, showing the omnivorous teeth of the order Bimana.

2. Tiger's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Cat family, (Felidae.)

3. Dog's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Dog family, (Canidae.)

4. Skull of a porcupine, showing the teeth of a gnawing animal, order
Rodentia.

5. Horse's head, showing the vacancy for the bit between the front and
back teeth, which space corresponds with the angle of the lips.

6. Hippopotamus' head, showing the canine teeth, (eye teeth,) developed
into enormous tusks, with a chisel like edge.

7. Elephant's skull, showing the long, round, arched, pointed tusks or
incisors projecting from the upper jaw.

8. A molar, grinding or back tooth of the elephant, of which there are
never more than two on each side of the upper and lower jaws of the
African elephant, and only one in a similar position in the Asiatic ele-
phant.

9. Mastodon's tooth, showing the conical points whence the animal derives
its name. For the tusks of the mammoth, see the Chart.

10. Skull of a cow, showing the dentition of a cud chewing animal, order

Ruminantia.

11. Porpoise skull, showing how the numerous teeth interlock with one
another when the jaws are closed.

54 CARNIVORA.

the quadrupeds. Some of them are fruit eaters ; but as a whole,
we arrange them as Cuvier has done, with carnivorous animals.
They are found both in the Eastern and Western Continents, and
also in Australia. A climate tolerably temperate seems best,
suited to these animals ; but they are largest in warm countries.
Their most distinguishing character consists of a fold of the skin,
which rising at the neck, extends over the lengthened limbs, as,
the silk over the whalebone of a parasol or umbrella, and gives
them a winged appearance. Those genera which have the
bones of the hand so developed as to spread a sufficient extent
of this membranous skin, have power to perform all the evolu-
tions which are required for flight. The hand-wings present
a much greater extent of surface than those of birds, and the
strong muscles attached as in the birds, to the sternum or breast
bone, assist them to fly with great rapidity, and turn with aston-
ishing swiftness. A lengthened bone proceeding from the heel,
assists the tail in expanding that part of the membranous skin
which is between the thighs, and where the tail is absent, per-
forms that office alone ; and thus gives the power of governing
the direction of the flight, like the spread tail of a bird. By the
extension of the upward curving of the tail and the hind feet, the
interfemoral (between the thighs) part forms a hollow cradle into
which the new born young is received. The thumb is free, short
and armed with a strong hooked claw, by which they crawl along
on the ground. The feeble hind feet have five toes, armed with
sharp edged, curved and pointed claws, by which these animals
suspend themselves, head downwards, in hollow trees, caves, or
deserted buildings, where they are found during the day, going
forth only at night. Their eyes are extremely small, but the ex-
ternal ears are often large, and with the wings, form an extensive
surface endued with the most singular and exquisite sensibility, and
enabling them, even when their eyes are sealed up, or removed, to
pursue their rapid and wheeling flight, avoiding every obstacle,
not even hitting threads stretched in various directions across
their way, and passing through the narrowest passages without
touching the sides. All are exquisitely susceptible of cold, and
pass the winter in a state of lethargy, retiring to old ruins, cav-
erns, or hollow trees, where they continue suspended by their
claws until the genial spring warms them into activity. They
are most active in the calm evenings of summer. Some of them
are supposed lo be migratory in their habits. In the Cheiroptera
the teats are pectoral ; in all the rest of the Carnivora, they are
ventral. They perform a very useful part in the economy of
nature in the destruction of insects.

CARNIVORA. 55

The CHEIROPTERA, or VESPERTILIONIDJE, are divided into five
sub-families, each including many genera, viz. 1. Phyllostoma-
tina^. 2. Rhinolophina. 3. Vespertilionina. 4. Noctilionina.
5. Pteropina. They may also be arranged into 1st. the Frugiv-
erous group, and 2d. the true or Insectivorous Bats. Omnivorous
is, however, a term that more accurately describes the former
group. Their teeth are, some of them, more trenchant than fruit
eating habits would alone require. Cuvier says of these animals,
"they know how to pursue birds and small quadrupeds,*' and it is
quite probable they sometimes prey on the large insects found in
the regions of their abode. Beside the variations in the teeth of
the Fruit Eating or Omnivorous, and the Insectivorous Bats, there
are other differences which relate to the stomach and intestines.
The stomach of the former is very complicated, and the intestines
very long, (in the Pteropus, seven times as long as the body,)
whereas in the latter, the stomach is very simple, having but two
divisions or portions, and the intestines are not more than twice
the length of the body. Another difference respects the tail,
which in the insectivorous bats is generally powerful ; in the
fruit eaters wanting, rudimental or comparatively inefficient.

From what is the name of the sub-order CHEIROPTERA derived ? What do
these singular animals combine ? To what difficulty did this give rise ? Is
it now a settled question ? What particularly entitles them to a place among
quadrupeds ? Are any of them fruit-eaters ? How did Cuvier arrange them
as a whole ? Where are they found, and what climate suits them best ?
Where are the largest found ? What is their most distinguishing charac-
teristic ? How do their wings compare with those of birds ? How are the
muscles attached? How is the cradle for the young formed? What is
said of the thumb, and of what use is the hooked claw ? By what do they
suspend themselves, in what position, and in what places ? What is said of
their eyes, ears, wings, &c. ? What of their exquisite sensibility, and what
does it enable them to avoid ? Are they affected by cold, and how do they
pass the winter ? At what season do they leave their retreats ? When are
they most active ? Are any of them migratory ? In what do they differ
from all other CARNIVORA? Are bats useful? In what way? Into how
many sub-families are they divided? How may they also be arranged?
What does Cuvier say of them ? What is said of their teeth, intestines,
&c. ? Name any further differences between the Insectivorous and Frugiv-
erous Bats.

Spell, give the derivations and examples of each of these five sub-families.

1. PHYLLOSTOMATINA, (Gr. Phidlon, a leaf, Stoma, a mouth,) named from
the leaf-like crest upon the nose. The Vampire, (Vawnpirus Spectrum,} of
South America, is one of this blood-sucking family, acquaintance with which
would divest it of half its terrors.

2. RHINOLOPHINA, (Gr. Rhin, a nose, Lophos, a crest.) These are the
Horse Shoe Bats, of Java, which derive their name from the shape of the
leafy membrane upon the nose. The genus Nycteris, (Gr. jVweferw, a bat,)
inflate their bodies, and appear like small balloons.

56 CARNIVORA.

3. YESPERTILIONINA, (Lat. Vespertilio, a bat.) These are found in all
parts of the world, including Australia. The Flitter mouse of England, V.
murinus, has the ears inclining backwards. The New York Bat, V. Novebo-
racensis, the Little Brown Bat, V. subulatus, (Lat. awl-shaped,) the Silver
Haired Bat, V. noctivagans, (Lat. nox, night; vagans, wandering,) the Car-
olina Bat, V. Carolinensis, are all found in the United States and Canadas.

4. NOCTILIONINA, (Lat. Noctttio, from nox, night, and eo, to go.) These
South American bats have side pouches for receiving their young.

5. PTEROPINA, (Gr. Pteron, a wing; pous, a foot.) These are the Rous-
SETTES of the French, and the fruit-eating bats of Java. The Kalong, or
Fox Bat, Pteropus Javanicus, is the largest, measuring five feet in the
spread of its wings. They are found in large companies, suspended from
trees.

SECTION X.
THE CARNIVOHA PROPER.

The CARNIVORA proper are sometimes arranged into three di-
visions— the DIGITIGRADA, the PLANTIGRADA, and the PHOCIDAE
or AMPHIBIA.

II. DIVISION OF THE CARNIVORA.

I. DIGITIGRADA, (Lat. digitus, a finger or toe ; gradior, I walk ;)
walking on the toes.

This division of the CARNIVORA derive their name from their ap-
plication of the toes to the ground in walking. It includes the
Cat, Dog, and Weasel families. They are distinguished by their
free, light and active step, their elasticity of motion, beauty of
fur, and elegance of form. Many of them are nocturnal, slum-
bering by day in some dark den or deep recess, but prowling steal-
thily and noiselessly about during the night. Having satisfied
their blood-thirsty dispositions and voracious appetites, when
"the sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them
down in their dens." Some animals of this division, as the wolf,
are, however, mere open in their movements, and in bands hunt
their prey during the day.

1. FELIDAE, (Lat./eJw, a cat.) The Cat family.

These include Cats, Lions, Tigers, Leopards, and Lynxes.
Among them are the most eminently carnivorous and formidable
of the mammalia, and they include a large number of animals
that closely resemble each other in structure and appearance.
They are among quadrupeds what birds of prey are among the
feathered tribes. The size and strength of the Lion, Tiger and
Leopard, combined with their thirst for blood, render them most
fearfully dangerous.

The jaws and teeth of the FELIDAE are quite different from

CARNIVORA. 57

those of the preceding orders; the jaws are much more powerful,
the teeth longer and sharper. On their fore feet are five toes,
and on the hind ones four, all armed with strong hooked and
sharp claws. To prevent the claws from injury by coming in
contact with the ground, they are, when not in use, drawn back.
They are also elevated above the ground by the soft pad underneath,
into sheathes, so that the point only just peeps out beneath the fur,
and thus are not liable to be worn or blunted. (See Plate VI, fig. 7.)
The tongue is very rough, as may be known by feeling that of the
domestic cat. This roughness is occasioned by the innumerable
papilla which are turned backwards, and are like so many little
hooks to assist the animal in tearing off any remnants of flesh
that may adhere to the bones of their prey. Their sight is acute,
and suited for vision both by night and by day. The expansive
power of the pupil of the eye is so great that it takes in every
ray of light. In the larger cats the pupil is circular ; in those
that roam at night and also see well by day, as our domestic
cat, it is oval. Their long whiskers are delicate organs for the
sense of smelling. These whiskers are each connected with a
large nerve, and they are useful in indicating objects when the
animal is prowling at night.

Fells Leo, the LTON. This is the strongest and most coura-
geous of the feline tribes, called the " King of Beasts," and " Mon-
arch of the forest." He is regarded as the emblem of majesty
and strength combined with generosity. His form supports the
royal arms of England, and surmounts them as a crest. Many
allusions are made in the Sacred Scriptures to his energy,
power and majesty, (Rev. v., 5,) and his ferocious and sanguinary
disposition. There are two kinds of Lions, Leo Africus and L.
Asiaticus. The brown Lions of the Cape of Good Hope are
more ferocious than the yellow variety found in that vicinity,
and will carry off a heifer as easily as a cat would a rat. The
Lion of Senegal has a thinner mane, and is of a deeper yellow
than the Lion of Barbary. The Bengal Lion, the Persian Lion,
and the Maneless Lion, are only varieties of the Asiatic Lion,
Leo Asiaticus.

The Lioness is smaller than her mate, has two and sometimes
three blind whelps at a litter, which she guards with great care.
They are easily tamed when young, and live from twenty-five to
thirty years, sometimes much longer. The great lion Pompey,
which was in the Tower of London in 1760, had been there
seventy years. One from the river Gambia died in the Tower
at the age of sixty-three. Anderson, the African traveler, does
not represent lions as so ferocious and formidable as we have

58 CARNIVORA.

been accustomed to consider them. They have a small horny
prickle, or hook, fastened to the skin and concealed in the
tassel at the end of the tail. It is easily detached, and its use is
still unknown. Lions belong exclusively to the Eastern Conti-
nent, but the Puma is sometimes called the American Lion, and
as it is the largest of the Cat family on the Western Continent,
we shall give it a more particular notice.

Felis Concolor. The PUMA, COUGAR, PANTHER, PAINTER, CATA-
MOUNT.

This formidable animal is known under all these names in North
and South America. Washington Irving, (see his "Astoria,") men-
tions it as seen at the mouth of the Columbia river. Dr. Good-
man gives an account of a sportsman killed by one of these ani-
mals in the Catskill mountains. One of them, within the recol-
lection of Dr. Dekay, was even seen a few miles from the city of
New York. This animal was, no doubt, formerly found in all
the Northern and Eastern States, west of the Rocky Mountains,
and along the borders of the Pacific. A few yet remain in the
less cultivated portions of the Atlantic States. In Florida and
Texas it is quite abundant. It is also found within the tropics
in Mexico and Yucatan, and has made its way through Panama
into Guiana and South America, where it is called the Puma,
and reaches its greatest size. From its likeness in other respects,
to the lion of the old world, it is, though maneless, sometimes
named the American lion. The courage of the Cougar is, how.
ever, not great, and unless very hungry or wounded and at bay,
he seldom attacks man. The body is long and slender, (five
feet in length and including the tail, eight ;) the legs are short
and stout. The general color of the Puma, when the animal is
mature, is silvery grey, and hence it is sometimes called the sil-
very lion. In the United States the general color is tawny or
fulvous ; the under part is reddish white. The name " cemcoZor,"
it obtains from its uniformity of color. The tail of the male is
longer than that of the female, and without a tuft. The Puma
lives much on trees, which it climbs with great ease ; and its
uniform dusky fur makes it so like the bark that it is not readily
distinguished from the branches on which it rests. From trees,
it falls suddenly upon monkeys, deer, and cattle as they pass by ;
or it lurks among reeds and thickets by the side of rivers and
marshes, where it seizes the alligator as he raises his head above
water, or crawls out upon the bank. In Florida, the animal in-
habits the miry swamps and the watery everglades ; in Texas

CARNIVORA. 59

he is sometimes seen in the open prairies, and his tracks are found
in every crossing place of creeks and bayous where perhaps he
may find some calf, cow or bullock that has been sunk and suf-
focated in the mire. The Cougar sometimes attacks young cat-
tle, but is generally compelled to subsist on small animals, such
as young deer, skunks, racoons, &c., or birds, and even will eat
carrion when hard pressed by hunger. (Audubon.)

The Panther is nocturnal in its habits ; not, however, from ne-
cessity, as it can see well in day light. It makes its way through
tangled forests in searching for prey at night — perhaps arousing
and affrighting some benighted traveler or wearied hunter, who
has bivouacked at the foot of a large tree; and fortunate indeed
is he if his rifle fail him not, or if by a burning fire-brand he
can frighten away the hungry animal. At the sight of a Pan-
ther, horses are thrown into such fright that they " break all fast-
enings and fly in every direction." Audubon says, " a respecta-
ble gentleman of the state of Mississippi gave us the following
account. A friend of his, a cotton planter, one evening while at
tea, was startled by a tremendous out-cry among his dogs, and
ran out to quiet them, thinking some person, perhaps a neighbor
had called to see him. The dogs could not be driven back, but
rushed into the house. He seized his horsewhip which hung in-
side the hall door, and whipped them all out, as he thought, ex-
cept one, which ran under the table. He then took a candle,
and looking down, to his surprise and alarm, discovered the sup-
posed refractory dog to be a Cougar. He retreated instanter ;
the females and children of the family fled, frightened half out
of their senses. The Cougar sprang at him — he parried the
blow with the candle-stick, but the animal flew at him again,
leaping forward perpendicularly, striking at his face with the
fore feet, and at his body with the hind feet. These attacks he
repelled by dealing the Cougar straight-forward blows on its
belly with his fists, lightly turning aside and evading its claws
as best he could. The Cougar had nearly over-powered him,
when luckily, he backed towards the fire-place, and as the ani-
mal sprang again at him, dodged him, and the panther almost
fell into the fire, at which he was so terrified that he endeavored
to escape, and darting out of the door, was immediately attacked
again by the dogs, and with their help and a club, was killed."

The female has three, four, and even five at a litter, but the
usual number is two. She shows great affection for her young,
never leaving them except to obtain food to support her strength.

Felis Tigris, (regalis.) The ROYAL TIGER. (PI. IV. fig. 2.)

This animal infests Hindostan, and the parts of Asia between

63 CARNIVORA.

Bengal and China. It is nearly equal to the lion in size, and
though inferior to him in strength, surpasses him in activity and
rapidity. Whole villages are sometimes depopulated by this
most dangerous animal. The tigress has five cubs at a time,
which are easily tamed but not to be trusted. Among American
Tiger Cats may be enumerated the Ocelot, F. pardalis, of Tropical
America ; the Chati, F. mitis, (mild,) of South America, about one
third larger than a cat, and the Pampas, or Jungle Cat, F. Pajeros,
which lives on Guinea pigs. The Nepaul Tiger Cat, F. nepa-
lensis, is two and a half feet long, including the tail. The Ser-
val, jP. Serval, an African Tiger Cat, plays like a kitten, and
looks very cat-like.

The LEOPARDS, or SPOTTED Cats, are numerous, and found on
both continents. They are distinguished for beauty and ele-
gance. Their color, in the East, is a pale yellow, covered with
rosettes of black, which contract into spots about the head, neck
and limbs. The general length is about four feet and the height
about two. The Leopard preys upon antelopes, deer and mon-
keys. So great is the flexibility of its body that it can make
surprising leaps, swim, climb trees or crawl like a snake, with
nearly equal facility. These animals are fierce and rapacious,
and it is remarked that "though they are ever devouring, they
always appear lean and emaciated."

The JAGUAR, F. onca, is the Leopard of this Continent. This
formidable animal inhabits Mexico, and is met with in almost
every part of Central America. In common with many of this
family, he is often called the Panther. The Cheetah, F. jubata,
is the Hunting Leopard of the Cape of Good Hope, and combines
in some degree, the habits of both the cat and the dog. Its spe-
cific name jubata, (Lat. crested,) is derived from the thin
mane running down the neck.

The LYNXES are distinguished by their tufted ortasseled ears,
and shorter bodies and tails. Eight species are described. The
Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx, Lynx rufus, looks most ferocious, but
flies from its pursuers, moving by bounds or leaps, and raising
all the feet at the same time from the ground. The Canada
Lynx, (L. Canadensis ) is more retired in its habits, and its fur
furnishes the most beautiful materials for muffs, collars, &c.
The Caracal, F. Caracal, takes its specific name from the black
tips of its ears, the word in Turkish meaning black. Its
body is longer and more slender than in the true LYNXES. It
is called the "Lion's provider." The domestic and the wild cat
are supposed by many to be of distinct species. A ma.rked dif.
ference is shown in the tails of the two ; that of the wild cat is

CARNIVORA. 61

bushy and short, while that of our tame cats .is long and slender.
The varieties are numerous ; among the most noted are the
Tabby, or Brindled ; the Maltese, of a bluish hue ; the Tortoise.
shelled or spotted ; the Angora ; the Egyptian ; and the Manx
Cats, of the Chartreuse, a species that have no tails. Another
variety are said to have the fore paws divided into two parts.
The cat is more attached to places than persons ; is sly and sus-
picious ; loves her ease and seeks the softest places for her bed ;
is fond of catnip and valerian ; and is a great favorite, particu-
larly with children. She is fond of rats, mice, squirrels and
birds, and notorious for thievish propensities ; dislikes cold wa-
ter and bad smells. Her hair is electric, and always dry and

glossy ; average age, 14 years.

** _______

What three divisions compose the CARNIVORA PROPER ? From what is dig-
itigrada derived ? What does it include ? By what are they distinguished ?
What are their usual habits? At what time do they seek their prey?
Which hunt in bands ? At what time ?

What doesfelis signify ? What does this family include ? What is their
character, and how do they resemble each other ? To what are they com-
pared ? What renders them particularly dangerous ? In what way do the
teeth and jaws of the FELIDAE differ from those of the preceding orders ?
What is said of their feet and claws ? How are the claws protected ? By
what are they elevated above the ground ? What is said of the tongue ?
What causes the roughness? What do these hooks assist them to do?
What is said of their sight and of the shape of their eyes ? Of what use
are their whiskers, and with what is each connected ?

Which is the strongest and most courageous of the feline tribe ? What is
he called ? How regarded ? Where referred to ? What species are here
mentioned ? What is said of the lioness and her young ? Are they long
lived? How does Anderson, the African traveler who was recently trod-
den to death in that country by elephants, speak of them ? What is con-
cealed in the tuft of hair at the end of the tail ?

Where do lions belong ? Which is the largest of the American Cats ?
Under what names are they known? Where have they been found?
Where is it still found ? Why is it called the American Lion ? Why the
Silvery ? What is said of its courage ? What of its general color in the
United States ? How do the male and female differ ? On what does the
Puma live ? What is said of the appearance of its fur ? Of what advan-
tage is this ? How does it secure its prey ? Where are its haunts in
Florida? Where in Texas? What does the Cougar attack? On what
does it usually subsist ? What are the habits of the Panther ? Define and
spell, Noc-tur-nal, (Lat. nocturnfas, by night, from nox, night.) Di-ur-nal,
(Lat. diurnus, by day, from dies, day.) "Crepuscular, (Lat. crepusculwn, twi-
light.) Are Panthers attached to their young, and what is their usual
number ?

62 CARNIVORA.

How does the Royal Tiger compare with the Lion ? What countries
does he infest? What is said of his ravages? How many cubs has the
tigress ? When tamed, are they trustworthy ? Where is the Ocelot found ?
Where the Chati ? What is said of its size ? Where is the Jungle Cat
found ? On what does it live ? What other Tiger Cats can you mention ?

Are Leopards or Spotted Cats numerous? Where are they found ? For
what are they distinguished ? What is their color in the East ? What
their usual length and height? Upon what do they prey ? What is said of
the flexibility of their bodies? What of their disposition? Which is tfie
Leopard of this Continent, and where found ? What is he often called ?
Where is the Cheetah found? What called? What habits are united in
him ? What is the meaning of the specific name jubata ? Why given ?

How are the Lynxes distinguished ? How many species are described ?
What is said of the Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx * What of the Canada Lynx ?
From what does the Caracal take its specifi*name ? From what language
is the name derived? What does it mean? Is the Caracal larger or
smaller than the true lynxes ? What is it called ?

Are Domestic and Wild Cats of the same or different species ? What is
a plain difference ? Mention the most noted varieties. Give the character
of the cat. What is her average age ?

SECTION XL
SUB-FAMILY HYAENINA.

HYAENA, (Gr. vawa, Huaina.)

The Hyaena has the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines
of a civet. Linnaeus placed it between the wolf and fox. It is
one of the most ferocious, malignant and carnivorous of animals.
There are three species, the Striped, (H. slriata,) the Villose,
(H. viltosa.) and the Spotted, (H. maculata.) The Striped is the
H. vulgaris, or Common Hyaena, (see Chart.) It often deceives
its pursuers by feigning lameness at the commencement of a
chase. It dwells in caverns and rocky places; prowling about
at night to feed on dead animals, or such living prey as it can
seize, seldom, however, assailing man unless in self defence.
Hyaenas are useful as feeders on carrion, in cleansing the
region where they dwell of the decaying remains of larger ani-
mals, and preventing the increase of poisonous effluvia. They
are found in the train of armies, whose slain they feed upon,
and sometimes even tear newly buried corpses out of their
graves.

VIVERRIDAE, (Lat. viverra, a Ferret.) The CIVETS.

This entire group are noted for their perfume, which is secreted
in a glandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance as
an article of commerce. It is called Civetta, (Arabic, Zibetia,)

CARNIVORA. 63

meaning scent or perfume, and gives name to the animal. They
are nocturnal and predatory ; inhabit Africa, Asia and the adja-
cent islands, and are particularly numerous in Abyssinia. Their
general appearance is like that of the fox.

GENETTA, (Fr. Genette.) The GENETS or WILD CATS.

The Genets are similar to the Civets, but in contour of body,
are most like the Weasels, having long arid slender forms, short
limbs and sharp pointed muzzles. They give out the same odor
as the Civets, though the odoriferous pouches are much reduced
in size.

HERPESTES ICHNEUMON, Pharaoh's Rat, or Mangouste.

This beautiful little animal is appropriately called Herpestes,
(Gr. a creeper,) and Ichneumon, (Gr. a tracker.) It was an-
ciently ranked among the sacred animals of Egypt; destroys
reptiles and young crocodiles, and thousands of crocodile's eggs.
It is kept tame in the houses of the east, to destroy unpleasant
intruders.

What is said of .tlie rnwed form and nature of the Hyaena? What
of its disposition and habits? How many species are there? Describe
the one figured on the chart. Give its zoological gradations. Ans. The
Common or Striped Hyaena is of the VAUIETY, striata ; SPECIES, vulgaris;
GENUS, Hyaena; sub-family, Hyenina, FAMILY or TRIBE, Cauidae; SUB-ORDER,
Digitigrada; ORDEJR, Oarnivora; CLASS, Mammalia; WARM BLOODED division
of the SUB-KINGDOM, Vertebrates, the highest branch of the ANIMAL KING-
DOM. Give the meaning of these several gradations. Trace out every
genus studied by the class in this way. To what deceptive expedient do
the Hyaenas resort? Do they often assail man? Where do they live?
Upon what do they feed ? What do they sometimes do ?

For what are the Civets noted ? From what is their name derived ?
Where are they found ? What is their general appearance ?

What are the Genets most like? In what do they resemble the Civets?
How was the Ichneumon ranked, and for what is it useful in Egypt?

SECTION XII.

2. DIVISION OF THE DlGITIGRADES.

The CANIDAE, (Lat. cants,) a dog. (PI. IV., fig. 2.)

This includes a large number of animals, some of which, in
particular respects, resemble the Cats; others, the Weasels and
Bears. The dog has, from olden time, been the friend and com-
panion of man; yet some uncertainty still exists as to its original
stock. It is quite like both the Wolf and the Jackal. Some

64 CARN1VORA.

naturalists incline to assign it a common origin with the former ;
others have identified it with the latter. The balance of the ar-
gument, however, seems in favor of the wolf as the original
source from which the domestic dogs have sprung. Their skulls
and skeletons are similar. The period of gestation is sixty -three
days in both. Both open their eyes the tenth or twelfth day, and
live fifteen or twenty years. We, however, prefer the position
that when man first went forth to till the ground whence he was
taken, the dog was given him by the Creator as his assistant and
ally. The relation which he sustains to man differs much from
that sustained to him by other animals. The dog is alone iden-
tified with his master's interests and occupations. Other animals
may endure his rule ; to the dog it seems a pleasure. He knows
his looks, his voice, his walk, rejoices at his approach, and shows
himself his willing defender. The classic scholar will remem-
ber that Homer, in the true spirit of nature and of poetry, repre-
sents Ulysses as recognized on his return to Ithaca by his old and
faithful dog alone, which died with joy at his feet. The value
of the dog's services, in the early stages of society, and in pre-
paring the way for civilization, affords confirmation of our idea
concerning its origin. In wild and uncultivated regions, and es-
pecially in northern latitudes, the very existence of man is
often dependent upon the fidelity and ever ready aid of the dog.
"He is the only animal which has followed man through every
region of the earth." The intimacy of relation implied in this
remark of Cuvier should be qualified in respect to its extent, as
it is well known the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindoos, regard
the dog as impure and aborninable, and will not touch it without
ablution. The teeth of the Canine family, (including dogs,
wolves and jackals,) are forty-two in number. The muzzle of
these animals is more or less lengthened ; the tongue small, and
the pupil of the eye circular. The fore-feet have five toes ; the
hind feet four, and sometimes a fifth ; the toes are not retractile.
DOMESTIC DOGS.

Their legs are long, and hence their stature is elevated.
Though carnivorous, their ferocity is not generally equal to their
strength. They obtain their prey, not by sudden bounds, but by
T- hunting it down by the aid either of sight or smell, often associ-
ating in packs for that purpose. Martin makes seven divisions,
containing fifty varieties of the Domestic Dog.

Facts almost innumerable illustrate the docility, sagacity,
and memory; the courage, faithfulness and love of this
animal. The ESQUIMAUX dogs, included in the first division, are
peculiarly valuable to the dwellers in Arctic regions. They are

CARNIVORA. 65

used by them in pursuing the seal, the bear and the reindeer.
Yoked to heavily laden sledges, they often drag them with untir-
ing patience, fifty or sixty miles in a day. Capt. Parry's " Jour,
nal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North West
Passage," and Dr. Kane's "Arctic Explorations," abound in
graphic descriptions of the manners of the Esquimaux them-
selves, and in interesting particulars showing the utility of their
dogs. With good sleighing, six or seven of these dogs will draw
from eight to ten hundred weight, at the rate of seven or eight
miles an hour, for several hours together.

The GREYHOUND, (one of the second division,) is the swiftest
of all the dogs, and is used principally in the chase of the hare.

The NEWFOUNDLAND dog is so named from the place whence it
originated. It is not to be confounded with the Labrador dog,
which is a larger and stronger animal. Both are trained to draw
sledges and light carriages. The Newfoundland dog is well
known for his care in guarding the property of his owner. He
is remarkably fond of the water, and will bring out any object
which his master points out in the water, and place it at his feet.
Many have been rescued by this dog from a watery grave. He
evinces the greatest fidelity and affection towards those who take
care of him.

The WATER SPANIEL, (of the fourth division,) delights in taking
itself to the water, which it does in pursuit of game. It is use-
ful to persons who are shooting wild ducks, or water hens, as
these fowl conceal themselves so closely that without aid they can.
not be discovered. It will dive to a considerable depth, and bring
up any small object from the bottom.

The BLOODHOUNDS, (fifth division,) are noted for the acuteness
of their smell, and can trace a man or an animal with unfailing
certainty. Sometimes they have been used in the capture of
thieves, especially sheep stealers. It is about two feet four
inches in height, and has a voice peculiarly deep, and that may
be heard a considerable distance.

The MASTIFFS, (sixth division,) are distinguished by the short-
ness of the nose, and the breadth of the head, which is caused by the
large muscles that move the jaw. Its powerful frame and deep
voice have led to its selection as a house guard against burglars.

The TERRIERS, (seventh division,) are used for destroying rats
and other vermin, and will boldly invade the covert of the fox or
the badger. They become strongly attached to their masters,
and can be taught many tricks for their amusement.

The Shepherd's dog, (of the same division with the Esquimaux,)
is a rough and shaggy animal, having sharp pointed ears and nose.

63 OnULNIVORA.

To the shepherd it is an invaluable assistant. In point of intel-
ligence, thoughtfulness and promptitude, it is not probably ex-
celled by any of the varieties of dogs. A story is told of a dog
belonging to the " Ettrick Shepherd," who had 700 sheep under
his care. On a certain occasion, they broke away in the middle
of the night, and in spite of every effort of the shepherd and
his assistants, roamed to a distance across the hills. " Sirrah,"
said the afflicted shepherd to his dog, " Sirrah, my man, they're
a' awa." Away went the dog in the darkness, the shepherd and
his companions meantime scouring the hills, but seeing nothing
of the flock or the dog. The next morning they found them at
the bottom of a deep ravine, not one lamb of the whole flock
missing, and the dog standing in front of them, keeping watch.

On the Alpine summits of St. Bernard, remarkable for its
hospital, and covered with the snows of a ceaseless winter, the
resident monks have been often known to issue forth in the midst
of tempests and snow storms, and by means of their large dogs,
of peculiar breed, have discovered travelers unable to track
their way, and saved them from the cold embrace of death. We
subjoin the following as illustrating the powers of imitation and
memory possessed by the dogs.

A few winters since, a gentleman in Lawrence, Mass., one
morning when the snow was covered with a smooth icy crust,
noticed a little dog seated on his haunches, sliding down the
steep bank before his house. He supposed that the dog had slipped,
but noticed as he reached the bottom of the hill, he ran up again.
He continued his sport for some time, apparently with great delight.
P. H. Gosse, in his article on the dog, relates that " Lord Com-
bermere's mother, (Lady Cotton,) had a terrier named Viper,
whose memory was so retentive that it was only necessary to re-
peat to him once the name of the nu'merous visitors at Comber-
mere, and he never afterwards forgot it. Mrs. H. came on a
visit there on a Saturday. Lady Combermere took the dog up
in her arms, and going up to Mrs. H. said, "Viper, this is Mrs.
H." She then took him to another newly arrived lady, and said,
" Viper, this is Mrs. B. ; " and no further notice was taken.
Next morning, when they went to church, Viper was of the
party. Lady Cotton put a prayer book in his mouth, and told
him to take it to Mrs. H., which he did, and then carried one to
Mrs. B., at his mistress's order."

A man in Windsor, Vt., owned a large and valuable Mastiff dog,
which had the misfortune to break his leg. The owner, aftef
trying in vain to set the bones himself, sent for a physician, who
speedily put the bone in its place, and splintered up the leg.

CARNIVORA. G7

For several days the doctor visited the dog, and dressed the
wound, and then told the owner he should come no more, but if
any thing seemed to be wanting, to bring the dog to his office.
He did so two or three times, and when he ceased going, the dog
would go alone to the doctor's office every morning, and lie down
until the doctor looked at his leg, and then he would return, con-
tinuing this practice until he was fully cured. Some time after
this, the great dog found in the street a little one, with a broken
leg ; and after smelling around him for some time, he got him
up on his three legs, and managed to get him to the before men-
tioned doctor's office, where he waited with the little dog, until
the doctor came and set the bone.

Canis vulpes, (Lat. vulpes, a fox.)

The Fox is about the size of a small dog. He is by nature
suspicious, timid and cunning ; his sight is keen ; his smell and
hearing so acute that it is difficult to take him in any kind of trap.
Unmolested, the fox lives from twelve to fourteen years; the first
year he is called a cub ; the second, a fox ; and the third, an old
fox. Audubon enumerated twelve species, four of which exist
in North America. The skin of the Silvery Fox, (C. argentatus,
Lat. silvered,) of Labrador, has been sold in London for five
hundred dollars. Its fur is copious, and of a beautiful, lustrous,
black hue, with the longer hairs of a silvery white. It is found
in Oregon, and the northern parts of this continent.

The Common Fox of Europe, Vulpes vulgaris, is there the
favorite object of the chase. The American Red Fox, C.fulvus,
(Lat. tawny,) is somewhat larger ; its fur is finer, and of a bright-
er color, and it has a larger brush tail. It eats fish as well as rats,
rabbits, &c. The Swift-Fox, C. velox, (Lat. swift,) is the smallest
of the fox tribe. The Cross- Fox derives its name, C. decussatus,
(Lat. divided cross-wise,) from its markings, not from its nature.
The Gray Fox, C. cinereus, (Lat. ash-colored,) is the annoyance
of the southern planter, as the Red-Fox is of the northern farmer.
The Arctic Fox, C. Lagopus, (Gr. Lagos, hare,pous, foot, Hare's-
foot,) is covered with white woolly fur. The Antarctic Fox, C.
Antarcticus, is called the Wolf- Fox, from its resemblance to that
animal. It rs tame, and barks like a dog. The Caama, C. Caa-
ma, is the smallest African fox. The Fennec, or Zerda, C.
Zerda, whose place has been so "often discussed by naturalists,
has the skeleton and teeth of the dog family. Its fur is short and
silky.

C. Lupus, (Lat. a wolf.) The WOLF.

The Wolf, in its habits and physical development, we have
already intimatetl, is closely related to the dog. His proportions

G3 CARNIVORA.

are larger, and his frame more muscular than those of that ani-
mal, and between the two there exists a most inveterate hatred.
The well known traits of the Wolf are ferocity, cunning and
cowardice. In the earlier periods of English history, it is often
adverted to as a common and dreaded pest. In consequence of
its ravages, many of the early British kings and chieftains, as if
to render themselves more formidable, adopted its name with cer-
tain adjuncts. This is seen in such names as Athlewolf, (noble
wolf;) Berth wolf, (illustrious wolf;) Bad wolf, (prosperous wolf,)
etc. It was finally extirpated in England, about 1350, in Scot-
land, about 1600, and in Ireland, about 1700. It is still abundant
in the northern countries of Europe, and in France and Western
Asia. Wolves always hunt in packs, and evince great craftiness
in waylaying and pursuing their prey. Sometimes they form a
semicircle and advance upon the animal which they would reach,
in this way forcing it over a precipice, or gradually hemming it
in so as to prevent its escape. Winter is the time when they
are most dreaded by those living in the regions which they in-
habit. Then as hunger renders them peculiarly ferocious and
daring, they, with the greatest obstinacy, follow after their prey,
whether it be man or animal. Under the gnawings of famine,
they will devour every sort of offal, and even disinter the dead.
It is related that in the reign of Louis XIV. a large party of
dragoons were, in the depth of winter, attacked at the foot of the
Jural mountains, by a numerous band of wolves. The dragoons
fought bravely, and killed many hundreds of them ; but at last,
overpowered by numbers, they and their horses were all devoured.

Of the Wolf, many varieties are found in both continents.
The C. lupus, Common Wolf, is of a yellowish or fulvous gray
color; covered with harsh and strong hair, and from twenty-
seven to thirty inches high at the slioulders. Of this there is a
variety, white, either as an albino, or as the effect of a northern
or cold climate, also found in both continents, viz. C. lupus albus.
The wolves of Lapland and Siberia are almost all of a whitish
gray color ; those of the Alps in Europe, and the Rocky Moun-
tains of North America, become white or nearly so. The length
of the American White Wolf (albus) is about four and a half feet,
it being the largest of all the varieties of this animal. The
Black American Wolf, C. Lupus, (Niger.) is of the same shape
as the Common American Wolf, and rising three feet in length.

Packs of this animal, showing various shades approaching
black, have been found occasionally in every part of the United
States. In Florida the prevailing color is black. This is the
most numerous variety among the Pyrenees of Europe, and also

THE

CAENIVOHA.

OF

south of those mountains, where it is of largeVstzaJ&ar* the com-
mon wolf. Several varieties of wolves are met with in Asia.
Those of Asia Minor are deeply fulvous, and show more of red
than the wolves of Italy.

Numbers of such as the C. lupus (nubilus,) the Dusky Wolf,
the Black Wolf, C. lupus (niger,) are found on the sandy plains
east of the Rocky Mountains. They go in droves, arid hunt deer
by night, with dismal, yelling cries', and woe to the foxes if they
find them on a plain at any distance from their hiding places ! .
In the same districts, and associating in greater numbers than
other wolves, are found the C. lupus (latrans,)the Prairie or Bark-
ing Wolf, intermediate in size between the large American Wolf
and the Virginia Fox, and in many respects like the fox. In its
bark or howl it greatly resembles the latter animal, as well as
the domestic dog of the Indians. Their general color is ashy
gray ; their length two feet, ten inches. They are well known
to the inhabitants of the western parts of Arkansas and Missouri,
and to those who live on the borders of the Upper Missouri and
Mississippi rivers.

Their skins are of some value, the fur being soft and warm,
and constitute a part of the exportations of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany. The Prairie Wolf is found in California and Texas, and
on the eastern side of the mountains of New Mexico, as well as
on the western prairies.

C. lupus, (rufus.) The Red Texan Wolf resembles the
common gray variety, is more slender and light than the White
Wolf of the North-West part of this continent, and has a more
fox-like aspect. The hair is not woolly like that of the White
Wolf, but lies smooth and flat. The length is two feet, eleven
inches. In habits, it is nearly like the Black and White Wolf.
It is said that " when visiting the battle fields of Mexico, the waives
preferred the slain Texans or Americans, to the Mexicans, and
only ate th.e bodies of the latter from necessity, as owing to the
quantity of pepper used by the Mexicans in their food, their flesh
is impregnated with that powerful stimulant." Audubon, in re-
ferring to the geographical distribution of this animal, remark's of
quadrupeds generally, that toward the north they are more sub-
ject to become white ; toward the east, or Atlantic side, gray ; to
the south, black; and toward the west, red,

C. aureus, (Lat. golden.) The JACKAL. This animal is found
throughout the Levant, in Persia, India and Africa. It is called
"aureus" on account of the yellow tint of its skin. The Jackal
is supposed to be the fox of the sacred writers, (Judges xv. 4, 5.)
Like the wolf, it hunts in packs, pursuing the antelope and other

70 CARNIVORA.

animals for prey, and making away with carrion in every state of
putrefaction. It has been called the "lion's provider," for when
the cry of the Jackal is heard, the Lion, aware of the cause,
makes his appearance, and without ceremony seizes upon the
hooty. The Jackals, however, retaliate by aiding in the con-
sumption of the larger prey which the lion destroys. They are
useful in the east as scavengers, consuming the offal which in
oriental cities is thrown into the streets, and might otherwise
breed pestilence. Grapes are the special delight of the Jackal,
and it often makes great havoc in vineyards. When hunting,
these animals utter most piercing shrieks, which produce, it is
said, a very terrific effect, "as resounding through the stilly dark-
ness of night, and answered from a thousand throats."

The Jackal is rather larger than the fox, but its tail is shorter
and less bushy. It is easily tamed, and is dog-like in disposition
and habits. One species of the Jackal, Canis Corsac, the ADIVE,
is not larger than a pole-cat, has a long tail, and is found in
troops amidst the deserts of Tartary. Other species are the Cape
Jackal, C. mesomela, (Gr. mesos, middle, melas, black,) and the
C. anthus, (Gr. anthos.) of Senegal. All agree in manners and
general disposition, and in exhaling a strong and offensive odor,
which, however, is "scarcely perceptible" in a state of domesti-
cation.

Proteles Lalandii. The AARD-WOLF, or EARTH- WOLF, of
So^th Africa. This animal has interest as connecting together
the Civets, Dogs and Hyaenas. It has the bones and external
appearance of a hyaena, the head and feet of a fox, and the intes-
tines of a civet. The fore legs are considerably longer than the
hind ones, and in this respect it is also like the hyaenas. It is
about the size of a full grown fox, yet stands higher on its legs ;
but for its more pointed head, and the additional fifth toe of the
fore feet, it might, at first sight, be easily mistaken for a young
hyaena. Thr; color is a pale ash, with a slight shade of yellow-
ish brown. The fur is woolly, except the mane, which is coarse,
stiff hair, and bristles up when the animal is provoked. One of
these animals was brought from Africa, by the traveler, Lalande,
from whom it received its specific name. The generic term is
from the Greek protefes, and relates to the superior length of the
fore legs.

Spell CANIDAE and give its derivation. What does the second division
of DIGITIGRADES include? What other animals do they resemble? What
is said of the origin and antiquity of the dog? What of their resemblance
to Wolves and Jackals, and in what respects do they agree ? How do his
fidelity and attachment compare with those of other animals? In what

CARN1VORA. 71

state of society and in what regions is he particularly valuable ? What
does Cuvier remark respecting the dog? What qualification does this
remark require ? What is said of their teeth, muzzle, tongue, eyes, feet,
claws, &c. ? How many varieties of domestic dogs does Martin make ?
Does their ferocity equal or surpass their strength ? How do they obtain
their prey? To what people are the Esquimaux dogs of great value?
What use is made of them? What works give interesting particulars
respecting them ? What is said of the Greyhound ? Why is the New-
foundland dog so named? What is said of his fidelity and affection?
What use is made of him ? In what does the Water Spaniel delight ? For
what is it useful ? For what is the Bloodhound noted ? How are Mastiffs
distinguished ? Of what use are Terriers ? In what does the Shepherd's
dog excel ? Relate the story of the Ettrick Shepherd and dog. What is
said of the dogs of St. Bernard? For what are they trained? What
anecdotes can you give showing the imitative power and memory of dogs ?
What is the size of the common fox ? Describe him. How long does he
live ? How many species did Audubon enumerate ? How many are found
in North America ? What fox furnishes the most valuable fur ? Where is
it found ? Name and characterize the other principal species.

How do the dog and wolf compare with each other? What are the
traits of the wolf? What is said of it in English history? From what
places has it been extirpated? Where is it still abundant? How do wolves
hunt? When are they most dreaded ? Why at that time ? What occur-
red near the Jural mountains? Are there many varieties of the common
Wolf? Describe it. What is said of the Red Texan Wolf, and its prefer-
ences? What does Audubon say of the changes of color in quadrupeds ?

Where is the Jackal found ? What is it supposed to be ? What is it
called ? Why ? Of what is it particularly fond ? What is said of Jack-
als' hunts ? Are they of any use ? What is their size ? Why called aureus ?
Are they easily tamed? What is said of the Adive? What of the
Aard, or Earth Wolf? What does it connect? Describe its habitat, size,
color, fur, &c. &c.

SECTION XIII.

3. DIVISION OF THE DlGITIGRADES.

MITSTELIDAE, (Lat. Mustela, a weasel.) The WEASEL TRIBE.
The weasels are readily distinguished by their long snake-like
bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth and predatory habits. Their
relish for blood is strong. In pursuing their prey, they are bold,
cautious and resolute, creeping toward their unsuspecting victim,
usually a rabbit, rat or bird, and on a sudden, darting at it, and
piercing its neck with its sharp teeth. Fixing themselves where
some large vein invites them, they hang on until their prey ex-
pires, devouring its brain, and sucking its blood; but almost
always leaving the flesh untouched. Their head is small, oval
and flattened, and their bodies so pliable as to be capable of being
insinuated into holes and crevices which it would seem they

2 CARNIVORA.

could not possibly enter ; and their short strong limbs and sharp
claws, enable them to climb with the greatest celerity and adroit-
ness. In their habits they are more or less nocturnal. Accord-
ing to Audubon, about twelve species of the true Martens are
included in this family, four of which inhabit North America.

Mustela vulgaris, (or Putorius Vulgaris.) The COMMON
WEASEL.

This is the smallest of the tribe, and well known, especially
by farmers, as they often have occasion to lament its onsets upon
their young broods of poultry. For this, however, they have
some compensation in the destruction, by this animal, of numer-
ous rats and mice that infest their barns and out-houses ; so that
it is sometimes said, weasels " ought to be fostered as destroyers
of vermin, rather than extirpated as noxious depredators." This
active little creature is sometimes tamed, and by its playfulness
and unexpected display of affection, has awakened much interest.

M. Erminea, or Putorius Ermineus. The STOAT, or ERMINE.

This species closely resembles the Weasel, but is a third lar-
ger, being about the size of a cat. In the summer, its general
color is a yellowish brown, when it is called a STOAT ; but it
changes to a pure white in winter, when its fur is extremely
beautiful, and it is called ERMINE. It is abundant in the northern
parts of this continent, and in Europe and Asia. The fur of the
Ermine is closest and most purely white in the most northern
latitudes, and constitutes a valuable article of commerce. The
white skins of this animal usually bring from ten to fifteen dol-
lars per hundred. The tail remains black at the extremity, du-
ring all the changes of the color. Formerly, the official robes of
judges and magistrates were lined with this fur. In predatory
habits, it is liUe the kindred species. Hares and rabbits fall easy
victims to this animal, which kills them with a single bite, pene-
trating io the brain. It frequents stony places and thickets, and
in a short race will outstrip a dog.

Mephitis, (Lat. a noxious odor or exhalation.) MEPHITIC WEA-
SELS.

The animals of this genus are so named from the intolerable
odour which, when irritated, or for self- protection, they give
forth. They have on their fore feet nails, strong and well suited
for digging. The distinguishing color of the genus is black,
striped with white, lengthwise along the back, and the tail is long
and bushy. The Mephitic weasels all move slowly ; seldom flee
fsorn man, unless when they are near their burrows. Though fee-
ble and insignificant in some respects, yet they seem conscious of a
power to " annoy Beyond the point of endurance." Large num-

CARNIVORA. 73

bers of them are sometimes found in the same hole. They feed
on poultry, birds, eggs, small quadrupeds and insects. The
head is short ; the nose rather projecting ; the snout generally
blunt; the hairs on the tail are very long. Seventeen or eight-
een species have been enumerated ; one in South Africa, two
or three in the United States, and the rest in Mexico and South
America ; but of these species there are almost endless varieties
in respect to color and markings.

Mephitis Americana or M. Chinga. The COMMON AMERICAN
SKUNK.

This animal is about as large as a cat, and generally is of a
blackish brown, with white stripes running lengthwise on the
back. In the markings of white, it shows many diversities, and
it has a long bushy tail. All the varieties of this animal have. a
broad fleshy body, not unlike that of the wolverine. Its legs are
short ; the fur is rather long and coarse, intermingled with much
longer smooth and glossy hairs. Its length from the point of the
nose to the root of the tail is seventeen inches. No quadruped
found on this continent is more universally detested than the
skunk. The offensive fluid is contained in two small sacs situ-
ated near the root of the tail. By day it is so thin and transpa-
rent as to be scarcely perceptible ; but at night has a yellow
luminous appearance. He is himself a very cleanly animal,
never suffering a drop of the fluid to touch his fur, nor does his
burrow give forth any offensive smell. In the northern states,
this animal retires to his burrow about December, and is not seen
again till the following February. In the southern states he
does not go into winter quarters, but continues to prowl at night
during the winter. It is said his flesh is " well tasted and savory,"
and cooked and eaten by the Indians.

The LONG or LARGE TAILED SKUNK, M. macroura, (Gr. fiaxgog,
makros, long, ovqa, oura, tail.) common in Mexico and Texas, is
of the size of a common cat, and has five or six young at a time.

The M. Zorilla, or CALIFORNIA SKUNK has white spots on the
forehead and on each temple, and four white stripes on the sides
and back, with a br.oad tip of white on the tail ; in form is a
small image of the common skunk, and like it, so offensive as
seldom to be approached. The African Zorilla, found at the
Cape of Good Hope, has the tail spread out in the form of a
plume, and does not give out the overpowering odor of other
species.

The M. mesoleuca, (Gr /w^orog, mesos, middle, levxog, leukos,
white.) The MEXICAN SKUNK has the long and under fur of the
whole back and the tail, white. The long tail of this animal is

4

74 CARNIVORA.

often first seen in the high grass and bushes, and makes a beau-
tiful appearance.

The Teledu, or Skunk of Java and Sumatra, Mydatis mcliceps,
(Lat. melis, a badger, caput, a head,) has a short tail covered with
a mere pencil of hairs. In somethings, it reminds one of a hog.

M. Maries. The MARTEN. Of this there are three varieties,
the Common Beech, or Stone Marten, the Pine Marten, and the
Sable, of which the furs are exquisitely soft and beautiful. Their
agile and graceful motions are not excelled by any of the Weasel
tribe. They reside in woods, and prey chiefly on birds, and
small animals. They also feed on rats, mice, and moles, and will
sometimes eat seeds and grain. The general length is about a
foot and a half; the tail is ten inches long, bushy, and of a darker
color than the other parts. The Marten is. of a dark, tawny
color, with a white throat, and the under part is of a dusky
brown ; the muzzle is pointed, and the eyes bright and lively.
The fur is of two sorts ; the outer is long and brown, with vary-
ing shades, in different parts of the body ; the inner, very soft,
short and of light yellowish gray color.

M.fagorum, (Lat. of beech-trees.) The BEECH MARTEN is a va-
riety with a white throat, found in Northern and temperate Europe,
and Western Asia. It approaches the habitations of men oftener
than the Pine Marten, resorting for prey to the vicinity of farm yards
and homesteads. Its fur, which is much inferior to that of the Pine
Marten, is called in trade, the Stone Marten. Many skins of this
animal are obtained from the north of Europe, and the fur is dyed
to represent Sable ; though the practised eye easily distinguishes
it from the latter. The richest furs of this Marten come from the
most northern latitudes.

M. Abietum, (Lat. of fir-trees.) The PINE MARTEN. This
variety with a yellow throat, varies much in color, so that it is
difficult to find two specimens alike, but generally is yellowish,
blended into a blackish hue in other parts. It is found in Mount
Caucasus, and the northern parts of Europe ; and is very numer-
ous in the wooded districts of the northern latitudes of this conti-
nent. It is particularly abundant where the trees have been killed
by fire, but are still standing. Specimens have been obtained from
near Albany and the Catskill mountains, and the northern parts of
Pennsylvania. Its southern range is about lat. 40o, and the north-
ern about 680. The length is one foot five inches. This Marten
is, in its disposition, shy, cruel, cunning and active ; does not ap-
proach the residences of men, but keeps rather in dense woods.
The fur of this animal is valuable, next to the Sable ; and when
in fashion, Marten skins bring good prices. It is sometimes dyed,

CARNIVORA. 75

and efforts are made to palm it upon buyers as fur of a more
costly kind. The Hudson's Bay Company have sold as many as
1 1,000 skins in a year, and upwards of 30,000 have, in the same
time, been exported from Canada by the French. According to
Sir John Richardson, Martens of the finest and darkest fur "ap-
pear to inhabit certain rocky districts." The flesh of the Pine
Marten is rank and coarse, but is eaten by the Indians. In con-
finement, it appears tolerably gentle, and loses much of its "snap-
pish character." They are trapped only in autumn and winter.

Mu.st.ela Zibellina. The SABLE. This is the most celebra-
ted of all the Weasel tribe, not only on account of the richness of
its fur, but from the perils connected with the chase of it, carried
on in the depth of winter, and in regions the coldest and most des-
olate traversed by human footsteps. It has long whiskers, round-
ed ears, large feet, (the soles of which are covered with fur,)
white claws, and a long bushy tail. The general color of the fur,
of which the hair lies each way, is brown, with the lower part of
the neck and throat grayish. These animals inhabit the northern
parts of Europe and Asia.. Vast numbers of them are killed in
Siberia, and their skins form a very considerable article of com-
merce among the Russians. Sables' skins are in the highest
perfection between November and January ; and within that time
they are sought after by large numbers of hunters. They are
taken in snares, or traps, which are usually pit-falls, with loose
boards placed over them, baited with flesh. Sometimes fire-arms
and cross-bows are used in taking them.

Putorius Vison. The MINK. This animal is of a brown
color, with a white chin and short ears. The feet and palms are
covered with hair to the extremity of the nails, and the feet are
semi -pal mated. It is smaller than the Pine Marten, being thir-
teen inches long, and the tail is half the length of the body. It
presents varieties which are striking and permanent, both in
respect to size and color. Next to the Ermine, it is the worst
depredator that prowls about the poultry yards of the farmer.
The Mink catches rats like the weasel or ferret, holding them by
the neck like a cat, and it has no aversion to fish; trout and
salmon seem to be special favorites. It will steal them when it
can, or dive after them in brooks and shallow water, swimming
with considerable facility, and like the muskrat, diving at the
fiiish of a gun. It resides of preference on the borders of ponds,
and along the banks of small streams. This species is very
numerous in salt marshes of the southern states, where it subsists
principally on the marsh-hen, the sea-side finch, and sharp-tailed
finch. It has not much cunning, and is easily taken in any kind

76 CARNIVORA.

of trap. When taken young, it becomes very gentle, and much
attached to those who fondle it. It does not emit its unpleasant
odor except when it is hurt. The skins of the Mink have been
used for making muffs, tippets, &c., and sold for about fifty cents
each. Some skins are of a beautiful silver gray color, the fur
being quite unlike that ordinarily obtained. Such skins are rare ;
six of them suffice to make a muff worth at least a hundred dol-
lars. (Audubon.) The Mink is constantly found in almost
every part of North America.

Mustela furo, (Lat. I rage.) The FERRET. This useful but
ferocious little animal is kept in Europe, in a domesticated state,
and is employed for rabbit-hunting, and for destroying rats. Its
general form is like that of the Polecat, but it is smaller, being
usually about thirteen inches in length. It has a very sharp
nose, red and fiery eyes, and round ears. In the slenderness
of its form, and the shortness of its legs, it resembles the Weasel.

The head of M. Canadensis, the FISHER, or PENNANT'S MAR-
TEN, is more like that of the dog than that of the cat. It catches
and eats fish.

The BLACK-FOOTED FERRET is about a foot and a half long ;
found in woody districts, as far as the Rocky Mountains. The

P. pusillus, (Lat. very small,) is the smallest of the Weasels.
It is one-third smaller than the Stoat, the Polecat, or Fitchet
Weasel.

M. Putorious, (Lat. Putor, stink,) is stouter than the common
weasel. The under coat of fur is short, silky and pale yellow ;
the outer is of a dark chocolate brown, and long and coarse. The
fur is inferior to that of the Sable and Marten, but esteemed as
an article of commerce under the name of Fitch.

Lutra, (Lat. Otter,) (Gr. fova>, louo, to wash.)

This genus includes a species known as the common or river
Otters, whose habits are aquatic, and whose food is fish, and also
the Sea Otters. In their skulls and muzzles, there are points of
resemblance to the Seal, (pkoca vitulina.) The limbs are short
and strong, and so articulated as to allow of free motion ; the
animal being able to turn them easily in almost any direction,
and bring them on a line with the body, so as to act like fins.
The teeth are sharp and strong, and the tubercles of the molars
very pointed; which aids them in taking and destroying their
slippery prey. Their intestines are very long. The body is
covered outwardly with long and glossy hair, with a softer, short-
er, downy fur, intermixed. The Otter is fierce, wild, and shy,
and its habits principally nocturnal. The hunt of this animal has
been a favorite, but a cruel sport Pursued, he betakes himself

CARNIVORA. 77

to the water, where he is more than a match for the strongest
dog. His determined courage holds out to the last, and pierced
with spears, he dies without uttering a cry. Eleven species are
enumerated.

Lutra vulgaris. The COMMON OTTER. This species is about
two feet long, and its tail fifteen inches in addition. The tail is
flat and broad, and the toes of the feet are connected by a com-
plete web. In its entire structure, the animal is well adapted for
an aquatic life ; diving and swimming with- great readiness, and
with much ease and elegance of movement. It has a black nose,
and long whiskers. The ears are small and erect, the eyes very
small, and nearer the nose than in most animals. The color is
brown except small patches of white on the lips and nose. The
size varies from two to three and a half feet. When it has seized
a small fish, it immediately leaves the water and eats it, begin-
ning with the head, while the body is held in the fore paws.
Larger fish are held down by the paws, and the head and tail
often left uneaten. These animals destroy multitudes of fish, in
ponds and rivers, eating but a small portion of the fish, when they
have an abundance of prey. When fish are scarce, and they
are pressed by hunger, it is said, they sometimes go far inland
and attack lambs, sucking pigs and poultry, and even feed upon
larvae and earth worms. The Otter's place of retreat is beneath
roots of trees, or in holes near ponds and rivers. The female
bears from three to five young at a time.

The Common Otter is capable of domestication, but most readi-
ly when taken young, and fed with small fish and water. Some-
times it shows attachment, but if offended, "bites grievously."
In some instances, it has been trained to catch fish, or to assist in
fishing. When tamed, "they will allow themselves to be gently
lifted by the tail ;" though they "object to any interference with
the snout, which is probably with them the seat of honor."
Usually they resort to fresh waters, but in some regions frequent
the sea, and hunt far out from land. Few animals show more
attachment for their young than the Otter. When these are
taken from them, they express their sorrow in tones resembling
the crying of children.

Lutra Canadensis. The CANADA OTTER.

This is larger than the Common or European Otter, having
dark, glossy brown hair, with the chin and throat dusky white,
and is five feet in length. The longer and outer hairs are glossy
and stiff, but the inner fur is soft, dense, and nearly as fine as
that of the Beaver. The ears are closer together than in the
Common Otter, and the tail flattened horizontally for half its

78 CARNIVORA.

length. The American Otter frequents running streams and
large ponds, and sometimes is found on the shores of some of our
great lakes. It prefers those waters which are clear, and a bur-
row in the banks, the entrance to which is under water. Their
favorite sport is said to be sliding down steep banks, head fore-
most, sometimes for the distance of twenty yards. When shot
and killed in water, they sink from the weight of their bones,
which are solid and heavy, so that in deep water, the hunter may
lose his game. The American Otter, like the European, when
taken young, is easily tamed, will follow its owner, and sometimes
is playful. Audubon had one which was very familiar, and
much attached to him. And he relates that a landlord in the in-
terior of Ohio, had four Otters alive which were so gentle that
they would come when he whistled for them, and approach him
with much apparent humility. This species ranges almost the
whole of North America, but is now obtained most readily in
Maryland, and the western parts of the United States. The Brit-
ish provinces of North America annually furnish a considerable
number. Their furs are much esteemed.

Enhydra marina. (Mustela Lutris, Linnaeus.) SEA OTTER.

The generic name enliydra, is from the Greek evvdgog, (enu-
dnos,) ev, (en, in,) 'vdag, (hudor, water.) The palmated feet, and
the teeth of this genus are so modified as to connect this Otter
with the Seal, (Otia,) which have ears. The color is chestnut
brown or black ; the fur exceedingly fine and velvety ; the size
about twice that of the Common Otter. In length it is from four
to five feet. The hind legs and thighs are short, and better
adapted for swimming than in other mammalia, seals excepted ;
the hind feet are flat and webbed, and clothed with glossy hairs.
The hair, both on the body and tail, is of two kinds ; the longer
hairs are silky and glossy, but not very numerous ; the fur is
shorter hair, exceedingly fine and soft. This Otter runs very
swiftly, and swims with great rapidity, either on its back or
sides, and sometimes as if upright in the water. It has very
long intestines, they being twelve times as long as the animal,
while those of the Common Otter are but three and one-fourth
times its length. It seems to have more the manners of a seal
than a land otter; haunts sea-washed rocks, and lives mostly in
the water. The female brings forth its young on land, and
though the animal is marine, it is found occasionally, very far
from the sea.

The Kamtschatdales, on whose coasts the greatest numbers of
these animals are killed, exchange the skins with the Russians,
for those of the fox and sable ; and the Russian merchants for-

CARNIVORA. 7'J

merly sold thrm to the Chinese, at a very high price, even as
high as from eighty to one hundred dollars each. The fur is not
prized so high as formerly. The Sea Otter is caught by placing
a net among the sea weeds, or by chasing it in boats. It inhabits
the waters that bound the northern parts of America and Asia,
and the seas and bays from Kamtschatka to the Yellow Sea, on
the Asiatic side, and from Alaska to California on the American.

How are Weasels readily distinguished? What is their character?
What their habits ? How many species of true Martens does Audubon in-
clude in this family ? Who was Audubon ? Answer. One of the most en-
thusiastic, industrious and observing American naturalists. Died near New
York city four or five years since, aged 76. How many of these inhabit
North America? What is said of the Common Weasel? Describe the
Ermine or Stoat. Describe its winter and summer dress. Which is the
Ermine dress? For what was this fur particularly used? What places
does it frequent? What is its pace? Give the meaning of the generic
term MEPHITES. Why is this genus so called ? What is said of their name ?
What is said of the nails of these animals ? What of the tail ? What is
their distinguishing color ? How are they striped ? What is said of their
movements ? What gives them their power ? Upon what do they feed ?
How many species have been enumerated? How many in the United
States ? How many in Africa ? Where are the rest found ? What is said
of their varieties ? To what do these varieties refer ? Give some account
of the Skunk. What places does it frequent? Describe the Common
American Skunk, and give its peculiarities. When in the Northern States,
does it retire to its burrow, and when reappear ? How is it in the Southern
States ? What is said of its flesh ? What is said of the Large Tailed
Skunk? Where found? What is said of the California Skunk ? What of
the African Zorilla ? What of the Mexican ? What of the Teluda of Java,
and what docs it resemble ?

How many varieties of the Marten ? What is said of their motion ?
Where do they reside ? What is said of the fur ? Where is the Beech, or
Stone Marten found ? What distinguishes it ? What is said of its fur ?
What is it called in trade ? Whence are many skins obtained, and what is
said of their fur ? What distinguishes the Pine Marten ? What is the gen-
eral color ? Where is it found ? In what places is it particularly abun-
dant ? In what part of the United States has it been found ? What is said
of its fur and flesh ? Which is the most celebrated of the Weasel tribe ?
What countries does it inhabit ? At what time are the skins of the Sable
in the highest perfection ? How are they taken ? How does the fur differ
from the Marten ? What others are mentioned, either on the chart, or in
the text? From what animal is the fur called Fitch obtained? Mention
the varieties and habits of the Mink ? Where is it numerous ? What use
is made of its skin ? What is said of the Ferret ? Which is the smallest
Weasel ? Give the derivation of LUTUA ? Describe the Otters ? Repeat
the description given of the Common Otter ? How does the Canada Otter
compare with the European Otter ? Give some account of it. How exten-
sive is its range ? What is said of its fur ? What is the meaning of ENHY-
DRA ? In what respect does the Otter resemble the Seal ? What is said of
its size, speed, fur, &c. ? For what do the Russians exchange its fur ? In
what waters is it found ?

80 CARNIVORA.

SECTION XIV.
III. DIVISION of THE CARNIVORA.

II. PLANTIGRADA. (Lat. pfanta, sole of the foot, gradior, to walk.)
This name is given to those carnivorous animals which apply the
whole, or part of the sole of the foot to the ground in walking.
They are able to raise themselves on their hinder limbs or haunches,
and easily keep an upright position. There is a slowness and
heaviness in their motions; their habits are generally nocturnal,
and in northern latitudes, they are in a lethargic condition during
the winter.

First in order are the URSIDAE, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) the Bears
forming a connecting link between this family and the herbivo-
rous animals. These lay the whole of the foot upon the ground
in walking, which occasions their well known heavy, shuffling
gait, but allows them to raise themselves with facility, and to
maintain an erect position. When in this position they fre-
quently use the fore paws in self defence, or else to strike or
hug an assailant to death, by muscular pressure. The entire soJe
of the foot is naked. The feet have five toes each, fortified with
strong, curved, and somewhat obtuse claws, adopted for digging;
their grinding teeth are more or less tuberculated, and the food
is either animal or vegetable. In form they are generally robust.
The genera of this family inhabit both continents.

Ursus. The BEAR. Of this animal, according to Audubon,
eight species have been described, "three existing in Europe,
one of which, the Polar Bear, is common also to America; one
in the mountainous districts of India ; one in Java ; one in
Thibet ; and three in North America." The head of the Bear,
is large, the body stout, and thickly covered with coarse,
shaggy hair ; the ears are large and slightly pointed ; the limbs
are stout and massive ; the five toes have strong curved claws,
fitted for digging rather than for taking prey ; the tail is short,
and usually hidden in the hair of this animal ; the teeth are forty-
two in number ; the grinders have flattened crowns, surmounted
with tubercles, and are fitted for bruising vegetables, rnther than
cutting flesh, and the incisor teeth give these animals but a
limited power of cutting it, so that they are ranked as the most
omnivorous of all the Carnivora. Some of them subsist on
vegetable food alone, and nearly all are capable of supporting
themselves upon it. They are nocturnal, but often seen wander-
ing about during the day. Their habits are unsocial, most of
them frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns, and the

CARNIVORA. 81

depths of forests. In winter, they dwell in caves and hollow
trees, almost without food, and comparatively dormant. In that
season the female produces her young. Though widely diffused
throughout both continents, they are seldom met with in Africa.
Bears are said to be very fond of honey, and will climb trees in
order to get at the nests of wild bees, for though clumsy ani-
mals, they are expert climbers. In Russia and other northern
regions, the skins of bears are among the most useful as well as
most comfortable articles of winter apparel. They are made
into beds, coverlids, caps and gloves, and used also for the ham-
mer cloths of carnages, for pistol holsters, etc. ; and the leather
prepared from them is used in harness, and for other purposes
where strength is requisite.

Ursus Arctus, (Gr. a^xrog, arktos, a be-ar.) This bear is
found in mountainous districts of Europe, from very high lati-
tudes to the Alps and Pyrenees.

It was once common in Great Britain ; but centuries ago was
there extirpated.

This bear of Northern Europe seems to be the only one with
which Linnaeus was acquainted. To the people of Kamtschatka
it gives the necessaries, and even the comforts of life ; its skins
forming their beds and coverlids, bonnets for their heads and
collars for their dogs; overalls are also made of the skins,
and drawn over the soles of their shoes, to prevent them from
slipping on the ice ; the intestines yield them material for masks
or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the
sun in spring, and as substitutes for glass, cover their windows.
The flesh is much esteemed as food, and the hams and paws con-
sidered great delicacies. So great are the benefits which it
yields, that the Laplanders, it is said, call it "the dog of God; "
while the Norwegians say, " it has the strength of ten men and
the sense of twelve." If this bear is unable to find a hollow
tree or cavern for its wintry home, it constructs a habitation for
itself, out of branches of trees, lined with moss, where it contin-
ues dormant and without sustenance until spring. The female
produces two cubs at a birth, which at the first are about the
size of puppies. The brown bear is long lived. One in the
menagerie at Paris, France, is spoken of as forty-seven years
old. This animal is four feet in length, and about two and a
half feet in height.

Ursus ferox, (Lat. ferox, fierce.) The GRIZZLY BEAR is
the most ferocious and powerful of the family, frequently attack-
ing man. It sometimes weighs more than 1,000 pounds. The
Indians fear it so much that a necklace of its claws, which may

82 CARNIVORA.

only be worn by one who has destroyed this bear, is an orna-
ment that entitles the wearer to distinguished honor. In Califor-
nia it keeps among the oaks and pines, on the acorns and seeds
of which it feeds. It is strong enough to overcome and carry
off a Buffalo.

U. Americanus. The AMERICAN BLACK BEAR is smaller than
the Grizzly bear, and of a more clumsy appearance. It feeds
upon berries, succulent roots, and juicy plants. When in
swamps, it wallows in the mud like a hog, living on cray fish,
roots, and nettles ; sometimes it seizes on a pig, or sheep, or calf,
or even a full grown cow. In robbing bee trees it is peculiarly
expert. The young are at first not larger than kittens. The
Cinnamon Bear, which is a permanent variety of this species, is
quite a northern animal, and its fur is more valuable than that
of the black bear.

Ursus maritimus, (Lat. belonging to the sea.) or thalarctos,
(Gr. Oakaaaa, tJialassa, the sea, agxiog, arktos, a bear.) The
POLAR BEAR.

This formidable species of bear has a long and narrow head,
prolonged in a straight line with the forehead, which is flattened ;
a long neck, and long, soft hair or fur, of considerable value.
Its average length, when full grown, is from six to seven feet. Capt.
Ross brought back a specimen measuring seven feet ten inches,
and the weight of which, after losing thirty pounds of blood,
was 1131 Ibs. Another specimen, described by Capt. Lyon,
measured eight feet seven and a half inches, and weighed 1600
Ibs. The Polar Bear is entirely white, except the tip of the
nose and claws, which are jet black. Dr. Kane, in his "Arctic
Explorations," remarks that this animal is, " next to the Walrus,
the staple diet to the North ; and excepting the Fox, supplies the
most important element of the wardrobe." " The liver of the
animal," he says, " is, for some reason, poisonous, though eaten
with impunity by the dogs."

The chief diet of the Polar Bear is obtained from the floating
carcasses of whales and fishes, which often carry him, as a swim-
mer, far away from the shore. He also makes unceasing war upon
the seals and walruses, and neither refuses the animal exuviee
which the waters cast upon the land, nor the few berries afforded
by the shrubs of an arctic climate. On the land, these animals
prey upon hares, young birds, etc. Their lodges are dens
formed in layers of ice which are piled up so as to make stupen-
dous masses. The males are said not to hybernate, but to brave
the severity of the winter upon the ice of the open sea, wander-
ing along the margin and swimming from floe to floe in search

CARNIVORA. 83

of prey. The females, however, do not appear until the approach
of milder weather, when they sally forth from their retreats, ac-
companied by two cubs. At this period, gaunt, lean and fam-
ished, they are peculiarly formidable, hunger and the presence
of their young adding to their natural ferocity. This bear is,
however, formidable at all times, strong and active as it is, run-
ning with great swiftness either on the ground or on the ice, and
with its claws, easily ascending the slippery sides of icebergs.
The affection of this animal for its young is much celebrated,
and its sagacity is great.

U. ornatus, (Lat., furnished or adorned.) The SPECTACLED
BEAR, in the Cordilleras of the Andes, in Chili, has two semi-cir-
cular marks of a buff color above the eyes, appearing somewhat
like a pair of spectacles.

U. collaris, (Lat. collar e, a collar.) The BEAR OF SIBERIA
has a large white collar passing over the neck and shoulders, on
to the breast.

U. Syriacus. The SYRIAN BEAR, mentioned in 2 Kings, ii,
23, is probably the first of which there is any record.

U. labiatiiSi (Lat. labia, a lip.) The LABIATED or SLOTH BEAR,
was, sixty years since, called the Five-fingered Ursine Sloth.
The cartilage of the nose is capable of extension, and the lips
of considerable^ protrusion.

U. Malayanus. The MALAYAN BEAR.

The long tongue of this Bear aids it in feeding upon the honey
of bees, of which, as of other delicacies, it is extremely fond.
It has also a taste for the young shoots of the Cocoa trees.

The existence of bears in Africa was doubted by Cuvier, but
there is now good reason to believe the animal is found in Ab-
yssinia, and the mountains of Arabia Felix.

Procyon lotor, (Gr. ngoxvwv, prokuon, nqoy pro, before, xvcav,
a dog.) The RACOON.

The remaining animals of this group form a sort of connect-
ing link between the plantigrade and digitigrade carnivorous
tribes. The Racoon, which with one or two other species, was
formerly included in the genus Ursus, is now separated from it,
and included in the new genus Procyon. It is a native of this
continent, and numerously found in its northern territories, also
in the Eastern, Northern and Middle States of the American
Union, and yet more abundantly in some of the Southern States.
The average length of the animal is about two feet, from the
nose to the tail. The head is somewhat like that of a fox, the
forehead being broad and the nose sharp ; the ears are short, and
slightly rounded ; the body is broad and stout ; the back arched ;

84 CARNIVQRA.

the limbs rather short, and the fore legs shorter than the hindor.
The upper part of the body is of a grayish color mixed with
black. The ears nnd under part whitish, with a black patch
across the eye. Varieties, however, are seen, some of which
are black, others, yellowish white. The tail is bushy, and
rather long, with rings of black and gray. Albinos are some-
times found, with red eyes and only faint traces of rings on the
tail. In its feet the Racoon is only partially plantigrade, and
when it sits, it often rests the whole hind sole of the foot on the
ground, in the manner of a bear. The nails are strong, hooked,
sharp and without hair. The outer hair is long and coarse;
the inner> softer and more like wool.

The Racoon is a cunning, and when mature and in good case,
quite a handsome animal. It mounts trees with facility, and fre-
quently invades the woodpecker's nest ; and it digs up and de-
vours the eggs of the soft-shelled turtle.

This animal sometimes makes great havoc among wild as well
as domesticated birds, eating only the head, or the blood which
flows from their wounds. Occasionally it ravages plantations
of sugar cane and Indian corn, especially when the latter is
young. Oysters are also a favorite article of food with the
racoon. These it is very expert in opening, biting off the hinge,
and dexterously hooking out the contents of the shells. Audu-
bon remarks that " the habits of the muscles, (unios ) which are
found in our fresh water rivers, are better known to the Racoon
than to most conchologists, and their flavor is as highly relished
by this animal as is that of the best bowl of clam soup by the
epicure in that condiment." Swampy or marshy lands, abound-
ing in trees and coursed by small streams, are the Racoon's fa-
\5orite resorts ; it traverses the margins of creeks and other wa-
ters, looking after frogs and muscles, which are found along their
banks. It feeds chiefly by night, keeping by day in its nest or
lair, which is usually made in the hollow of some broken branch
of a tree. It rolls itself up, with the head between the hind legs,
and sleeps away the time until the approach of darkness, when
it goes forth in search of food. Sometimes, however, it is seen
in corn fields ; occasionally it will make an onset upon poultry
during the day. The universal testimony is that it shows great
slyness and cunning in its tricks and devices for procuring food.
When in captivity, kind treatment soon renders it docile ; it learns
to be active during the day and to remain quiet at night. It
shows an insatiable curiosity, prying into every corner and crev-
ice with the greatest assiduity. In its habits it then becomes
omnivorous, eating any thing, "vegetable or animal, cooked or

CARNIVORA 83

uncooked," with equal avidity. The Racoon exhibits a peculiar
fondness for sweets of every kind, and a great dislike for acids.
It is fond of water, and before eating its food usually washes it ;
hence its name Zo/or, or washer. When hard pursued by the
hunter, the animal takes to a tree, but unless the tree is very
large, the pursuer is still after the " coon." If he cannot be
taken otherwise, the axe levels the tree to the ground, when he
is soon dispatched. The more common method of taking him is
by box traps, baited with an ear of corn, a fish or a squirrel.
For several months during winter, this animal hibernates in the
hollow of some large tree, leaving its retreat only occasionally
and when the weather is warm. The flesh is eatable, and the
fur considered by hatters next in value to that of the beaver.

Proycyon cancrivorus, (lat. cancer, a crab; two, to devour.)
CRAB EATING RACOON. This species has a longer and more slen-
der body than the common racoon. As observed in California, it
conceals itself during the day, in the holes of decayed oak trees,
which exist in the branches, not in the trunk itself, (Aud.) Be-
sides crabs, frogs and fish, it feeds on birds, eggs, fruits, etc., and
is said to be specially fond of the sugar cane.

Nasua, (lat. from nasus, a nose.) The COATI-MONDI, found in
Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay, — is like the Racoon, characterized
by nocturnal habits, a semi-plantigrade mode of progress, and
facility of climbing, but is readily distinguished from the racoons
by its snout, which is quite long and extremely flexible ; also by its
longer and more slender body, and by its feet, which are stronger
and well fitted for digging. The animal uses its snout in routing
the worms and insects, which it digs up. The size is about that
of a large cat, and in addition to insects and worms, it eats birds
and eggs, and sometimes roots. Like the cat, it descends a tree
with the head downwards, and it is even more active than that
animal. The smell of the Coati seems to be more highly devel-
oped than any other sense. It is easily tamed, but is irritable
and not to be touched without caution.

Cercoleptes, (Gr. x^wos, kerkos, a tail, ACTTOS, Zeptos, thin.)
caudivolvulus, (Lat. cauda. tail, volvulus, twisted.) The POTTO
KINKAJOU, or MEXICAN WEASEL, — is found in Mexico, and the
warmer parts of South America, resembling the Coati in its habits,
but showing more activity, and having a long tail, which is prehen-
sile, and used after the manner in which the spider monkeys use
theirs. Its size is that of a cat, but its limbs are shorter, thicker
and more muscular. The tongue is long, slender, and very ex-
tensible, and used for drawing out of crevices, insects which are
beyond the reach of its paws. This animal is a great

83 CARNIVORA.

of the nests of wild bees, for the sake of obtaining the honey, of
which it is very fond, and has, therefore, been called the "Honey-
bee."

Metes, (Lat. a badger.) M. vulgaris, (Lat. common.) The
BADGER. The Badger has teeth which are best suited for masti-
cating and bruising vegetable substances, and is less carnivorous
than any of the PLANTIGRADES, except perhaps the bears. It is
about as large as a dog of medium size, being about two feet
three inches in length, but stands much lower on the legs, and
has a broader and flatter body. The hairs taken separately are
yellowish white at the bottom, black in the middle, and ashy
gray at the point; the last color alone appears externally, and
gives a sandy gray shade to the upper parts of the body. The
face is white, and a long band of black runs along each side of
the head, to the upper parts of the body. It is a quiet and inoffen-
sive animal, but is often subjected to such ill-treatment, that " badg-
ering" a person is a phrase used to express irritating him in every
variety of manner. This animal inhabits most parts of Europe
and Asia, but in some places is less common now than it once was.
It is rather solitary and stupid, seeking refuge in retired places,
where it excavates deep burrows, and shuns the light of day. The
cruel sport of " baiting the badger," which consists in putting him
in a kennel, and setting dogs to bite him through his thick hair and
tough skin, is in some parts still continued. The Badger defends
itself with great resolution, and sometimes to the destruction of its
assailants. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Italy, France and
China, and may be made into hams and bacon. The skin, when
dressed with the hair, is impervious to the rain, and makes ex-
cellent pistol furniture and covers for traveling trunks, while the
hairs or bristles are made into paint brushes.

M. Labradorius. The AMERICAN BADGER. The general
characteristics of the American are the same as those of the Eu-
ropean Badger. There is, however, a difference in the teeth af
the American animal, and it has one tooth less than the Common
Badger, on each side of the lower jaw. The length of this spe-
cies is about two and a half feet. The body is very thick and
fleshy, the nose thinner than that of the European species, and the
claws of the fore feet much larger in proportion, while the tail is
comparatively shorter; its fur is also of a quite different quality,
and its appetites more carnivorous. The hair of the head and
extremities is short and coarse ; that of the other parts is fine and
silky. At the roots it is dark gray, then light yellow, then black
tipped with white, so that in winter it has an aspect of hoary gray ;
but in summer is more nearly a yellowish brown. It abounds in

CARNIVORA. 87

the plains watered by the Missouri, and has been traced as far
north as the banks of the Peace River. It is known to inhabit
Mexico, but its exact southern range is perhaps not accurately
determined. The sandy plains on the borders of Lake Winnipeg,
are perforated with innumerable badger holes, which greatly
annoy horsemen, particularly when covered with snow. Its bur.
rows are sometimes six or seven feet deep, and run beneath the
ground to the distance of thirty feet. It enlarges and pene-
trates the burrows of marmots, ground squirrels, etc., and feeds
upon these animals, which it cannot obtain when the ground is
frozen. During the snowy season, or from November to April,
it remains in a half torpid state. The badger is a slow and timid
animal, taking to the ground when pursued, and to escape from
danger, burrowing in the sandy soil with the rapidity of a mole.
"The strength of its fore feet and claws is so great that one which
had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted the
utmost efforts of two stout young men, who endeavored to drag it
out by the hind legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents
of his fowling piece into its body." Early in the spring, badgers
come abroad, at first fat, but soon become lean. At that time,
'they may be easily caught by pouring water into their holes, for
the water not penetrating the frozen ground, soon fills the hole,
and the animal is forced to come out. In this as in the Oois
montana, the Rocky mountain sheep, the fur, during the winter,
changes from a furry texture to a woolly covering. In confine-
ment, the American Badger appears gentle, and "allows himself
to be played with, and fondled by his keeper, but does not appear
to be well pleased with strangers." It produces from three to
five young at a litter.

M. collaris. The INDIAN BADGER, or BEAR PIG of the Hin-
doos,— is about the size of the common badger. It has the body
and limbs of a bear ; the snout, eyes and tail are those of a hog.

Gulo, (Lat. a glutton.) This genus includes the GLUTTON,
or WOLVERINE, and the GRISON. These animals are semiplanti-
grade in their walk, but resemble the weasel tribe in their teeth,
and their thoroughly carnivorous propensity, as well as in the
lengthened form of their bodies. Four species of this genus
have been described.

G. Arcticus. This species is found in the Arctic, or northern
regions of both continents ; in size is about equal to the badger,
but is more slender in body, and much more active. It seems
to be intermediate between the badger and the polecat; in its
general figure and aspect resembling the former; in its teeth
the latter. The hair is of a chestnut color, verging, in some in-

88 CARNIVORA.

stances, towards black ; its head is something like that of the
polecat, hut broader, and indicates greater strength of jaw. The
nature of the Glutton is indicated by its name ; and its laniary
teeth evince its voracious and blood thirsty appetite.

It is sometimes called the "Quadruped Vulture," from the
fact that it preys occasionally upon dead bodies of quadrupeds,
chiefly those which have been killed by accident. It is said,
these animals "do more damage to the fur trade than all other
animals conjointly. They follow the Marten hunter's path round
a line of traps, extending forty, fifty or sixty miles, and render
the whole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits, which are
generally the head of a partridge, or a bit of dried venison.
They are not fond of the Martens themselves ; but they never
fail to tear them in pieces, and bury them in snow at a consider-
able distance from the trap. Drifts of snow often conceal the
repositories thus made of the Martens, at the expense of the hunt-
er, in which case, they furnish a regale for the hungry fox,
whose sagacious nostril guides him unerringly to the spot, and
two or three foxes are often seen following the Wolverine for
this purpose." Perhaps these attendant foxes have given rise to
tlie roinurk that the Arctic Fox is the "Jackal or provider" of the
Glutton.

The Glutton feeds upon meadow mice, marmots and other
rodentia, aad occasionally upon disabled quadrupeds of a larger
size. It resembles the bear, but is not as fleet ; is industrious,
feeds well, and is generally fat. It goes abroad much in the win-
ter, and the track of its journey in a single night, may often be
traced *0r miles. From the shortness of its legs, it moves with
difficulty through the loose snow. Sir John Richardson says
" the Wolverine is a great destroyer of beavers." It must, how-
ever, be only in summer, when these animals are at work, that
it can surprise them, for an attempt to break through their frozen
mud-walled hoiwe, would drive the beavers into the water, to
seek shelter in their vaults, on the borders of their dam. What-
ever the boldness of the Wolverine, in defending itself against
other quadrupeds, "it makes but a poor fight with a hunter, who
requires no other arms than a stick to kill it."

This animal has two secretory organs, from which he, on oc-
casion, discharges a yellowish brown fluid that gives forth an
offensive odor. The female brings forth yearly from two to
four cubs, covered with a downy fur, of a pale cream color.

The Wolverine remains through the winter, as far north as
70o 11' latitude, but does not change its color on account of the
intense cold. According to Lesson, it inhabits a complete circle

CARNIVORA. 89

around the North Pole, in Europe and Asia, as well as America.
The skins furnished by Wolverines, do not compensate for their
destructive habits. The fur resembles that of a bear, and is
much used for muffs, and when. several skins are sewed together,
makes a beautiful sleigh robe. In Kamtschatka, the women
dress their hair with the white paws of this animal, which they
esteem a great ornament.

G. vittatus, (Lat. from vitta, a band or fillet,) the GRISON. A
white line or band passes on each side of the front to the shoulders.
They are most numerous in Guiana and Paraguay.

G. or Ratellus mellivorus, (Lat. mel, honey, voro, to devour.)
The RATEL of the Cape of Good Hope, in general characters, cor-
responds with the glutton; in size is about equal to the badger.
The color is of a dull ash gray, but whitest towards the head. It
is said to feed principally upon the honey of bees, which inhabit
the deserted lairs and burrows of the Ethiopian boar, the porcu-
pine, etc.

Ailurus Julgens, (Lat. shining,) the PANDA, or WAH, — is found
in the Himalaya chain of mountains, between Nepaul and the
Snowy mountains. Cuvier declared this to be one of the most
beautiful of quadrupeds, and included it in the Bear tribe. In
the arrangement and form of the teeth, it shows some resemblance
to the Nasua and Procyon. It is about the size of a large cat ;
the soft and thickly set fur is above, of the richest cinnamon red,
behind more fulvous, and beneath, deep black, while the head is
whitish, and the tail whitish, annulated with brown. Its loud cry
resembles the word wah, whence its name. " This elegant animal
frequents the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes
much of its time on trees, and feeds upon birds and the smaller
quadrupeds." The generic name is from the Gr. ailouros, a cat.

To what animals is the name PLANTIGRADES given ? What is the derivation
of the word ? What their movements and habits ? When and where are they
in a lethargic state ? From what is the family name URSIDAE derived ? To
what animals are the bears a connecting link ? What is said of their gait ?
What use do they make of their fore paws? Describe their claws. To
what kind of food are their teeth adapted ? Where are the genera of this
family found? According to Audubon, how many species of the genus
TTRSUS have been described? Give their locations. Describe the bear.
What is said of the number and kind of their teeth ? Which of the carniv-
orous animals is most omnivorous ? Do any bears subsist on vegetable food
alone ? What are their habits ? What is their condition in the winter ?
In what part of the world are they seldom met ? What use is made of
their skins ? Where is the common bear found ? Is it now met with in
Great Britain? What was the only species known to Linnaeus? What
does it furnish the people of Kamtschatka ? What do the Laplanders call it ?
Why ? What do the Norwegians say pf it ? What is said respecting its

93 CARNIVORA.

winter home ? Is it long lived ? "What is said of the age of one in the
Menagerie at Paris ? What is its size ? What is said of the ferocity of the
Grizzly Bear? What use is made of its claws? How much does it weigh ?
Upon what does it feed ? What is said of its strength ? What is said of
the size, appearance and food of the American Bear ? What is the size of
the young at first ? What is said of the Cinnamon Bear ? Describe the
Polar Bear. What is its average length ? What is said of its weight ?
What does Dr. Kane remark respecting this animal ? What is its chief
diet ? On what else does he feed ? What do these animals eat when on
the land ? What is said of their dens ? How do the males spend the win-
ter? Define and spell hybernate, migrate and emigrate. When do the
female bears sally forth from their winter retreats, and what is their appear-
ance, and the degree of their ferocity? What is further said of the Polar
Bear ? What is said of the Spectacled Bear ? What of the Siberian Bear ?
What of the Syrian Bear ? What of the Sloth Bear ? What of the Malayan
Bear ? Are bears found in Africa ? Were they known to exist there dur-
ing Cuvier's life ?

What is said of the remaining animals of this group ? What name is given
to the Racoon ? Give the meaning of the generic and specific terms ? How
were the racoon and other species formerly arranged? To what continent
does it pertain ? On what part is it numerously found ? Describe the ani-
mal in his appearance and habits ? What is a favorite kind of food with
the racoon? How does it get at the contents of the shells? What does
Audubon say as to the racoon's knowledge of the habits of fresh water
muscles ? What are its favorite resorts ? How does it appear in captivity ?
What is said of its curiosity? Why is it called lotor? How does it spend
the winter ? What is said of its flesh and fur ? How does the Crab-eating
Racoon differ from the Common Racoon ? Where does it conceal itself in
the day time ? On what does it live ? From what is the generic term
nasua derived ? Where is the Coati mondi found ? What are its charac-
ters? How is it distinguished from the Racoon? How does it use its
snout? What is its food? In what respects does it resemble the cat?
What is further said of it ? Give the derivation and meaning of CERCOLEP-
TES. Where is the Mexican Weasel found? What other names has it?
What animal does it resemble ? What is said of its tail and size ? What
use does it make of its tongue ? What name has been given it ? Why ?

What is said of the Badger's teeth ? What of its food ? What of its size
and hair? What does "badgering" a person mean? Where is the animal
found ? What are its habits ? What is " baiting the Badger?" What is said
of the flesh, and what use is made of the skin ? Wherein does the Ameri-
can Badger differ from that of Europe ? Where does it abound ? What is
said of its Northern and of its Southern range ? What is said of its bur-
rows ? How does it annoy huntsmen ? How long and at what season is it
torpid ? What is said of the strength of its fore feet and claws ? How are
these animals easily caught in the spring ? How do they appear in confine-
ment ? What changes does the fur undergo ? What is said of the Indian
Badger? What does the genus Gulo include ? Give the characteristics of
these animals. How many species ? To what is the species Gulo arcticus
intermediate ? What is it sometimes called? Why ? How do these animals
injure the fur trade? Upon what does the Glutton feed? What animal
does it resemble? What more is said of it? How is the Grison marked,

CARNIVORA. 91

and where most numerous ? Describe the Rattel ? Where is the Panda
or Wan found ? What animals does it resemble ? What are its resorts ?

SECTION XV.

SUB-ORDER AMPHIBIA, (Gr. 'a^cplCiog, amphibios, having a double

life.) -, |

The term Amphibia, is, strictly speaking, applicable only to

such animals as have double sets of lungs, or gills, giving them

the power of living, indifferently, at the same time, either upon

land or water ; but it is commonly given to seal, otters, beavers,

etc., and to many reptiles whose habits are at once terrestrial and

aquatic. (PL VI. fig. 11.)

PHOCIDAE, (Gr. qpow^, PhoM, a sea-calf or seal.) This tribe
of animals, belonging to the carnivorous order, show a peculiar
adaptation to the sphere assigned them by the All-wise Creator.
None of the four-limbed mammalia display such complete adapta-
tion to residence in the water. Seals resemble quadrupeds in
some respects, and fishes in others. They have round heads, and
broad noses, not unlike those of dogs, with the same mild and ex-
pressive physiognomy ; large whiskers ; oblong nostrils, and large,
sparkling black eyes. In the seal there is no external ear; but
a valve exists in the orifices which he can close at pleasure, in
order to keep out the water; a valve is also found in the nostrils,
which is useful for the same purpose. The body is covered with
stiff, glossy hairs, which are closely set against the skin ; it is
elongated and conical in form, gradually tapering from the shoul-
ders to the tail. The feet of the seal differ from those qf all other
quadrupeds. They have the same number of bones, but are
covered with a membrane which would make them resemble fins
more than feet, but for the sharp, strong claws with which they
are pointed. The limbs may be viewed as a sort of oars, or pad-
dles. In the front pair, the arm and forearm are very short, so
that but little more than the forearm advances from the body ;
the hind limbs are directed backwards so as to almost seem like
a continuation of the body; the thighs and legs very short; the
tail is short and thick ; the foot is formed on the same plan as the
forepaw ; but the toes are in contact ; the web is folded when not
in use as a paddle ; but spread out when the animal is swimming.
The seal moves in the water with great ease and rapidity, but on
the land, or on masses of ice, with extreme awkwardness. It is
gregarious, living in herds more or less numerous, along the shores
Of the sea. The cellular tissue, situated between the skin and
muscles, is very loose and fibrous, and seems to be a receptacle

92 CARNIVORA.

for the blood, during the suspension of breathing under water.
It can remain in that element a long time without injury ; when
it is submerged, the blood not freely circulating, and thus accu-
mulating in the larger veins. Its tissue appears designed in
part to relieve the animal from the pressure of the superincum-
bent water. The blood is abundant and dark in appearance,
showing that it has less oxygen than that of strictly terrestrial
animals.

Seals are found in almost every quarter of the globe, but they
are most numerous in frozen and temperate regions. They exist
in vast numbers in the seas around Spitzbergen, and on the coasts
of Labrador, and Newfoundland. About thirteen species are
included in the genus Phoca. In their wide range, seals are
sometimes found within the waters of the state of New York,
About the middle of the Spring of the year 1857, one wa%
taken in the Hudson river, and another on the borders of Long
Island. Dr. Dekay (N. Y. State Nat. Hist.) describes a female
seal caught in Long Island Sound, near Sand*s Point. At a for-
mer period, these animals were abundant in our waters. "A
certain reef of rocks in the harbor of New York, is called Robin's
Reef, from the numerous seals which were accustomed to resort
thither; robm, orrobyn, being the name in Dutch for seal."* In
the Kingston (U. C.) Chronicle, of February, 1823 or 1824,
there was a notice of a seal taken on the ice of Lake Ontario,
near Cape Vincent, (Jefferson county,) N. Y. In August, 1824,
a seal was exhibited alive in New York, which had been taken
in a seine in the Chesapeake, near Elkton, Maryland. A seal,
said to have been beautifully spotted on the under side, was taken
some years since near Lynn, Mass.

The length of the common seal, Phoca concohr, or P. vitutina,
(Lat. calf-like,) (see Plate VIII. fig. 1.) is, on an average, about
five feet; the color, yellowish gray, clouded with brown or
yellow. The female produces her young during the winter,
taking care of them at the place of birth for a few weeks, until
they become sufficiently strong to be taken to the water, to
which they are then removed by the parent, not without solicitude
for their safety. By her they are taught to swim, and seek for
fish, and when they are fatigued, she carries them on her back.
As might be expected from the nature of its food, the seal has a
fishy smell. It is reported that when assembled in numbers on
shore, the odor is perceivable at some distance. In pursuing their
watery prey, seals display much cunning and power of swimming.

* Nat. Hist, of State of New York.

CARNIVORA. 93

The voice of the animal when old, is a hoarse, gruff bark ; when
young, a peculiarly plaintive whine. " With a good glass," says
Dr, Kane,* *• you may study these animals in their natural habit-
udes, undisturbed by suspicion. As thus seen, in the centre of a
large floe, and within retreating distance of his hole, the seal is a
perfect picture of solitary enjoyment, rolling not unlike a horse,
stretching his hide, awkwardly spreading out his flippers, and
twisting his rump towards his head. Again he will wriggle
about in the most grotesque manner; the sailors call it 'squirm,
ing,' every now and then rubbing his head against the snow.
The shapes of a seal, or rather his aspects, are full oi strange
variety. At a side view, with his caudal end slued round 10 the
side from you, and his head lifted suspiciously in the air, he is
the exnct image of a dog, cluen de mer. During his wriggles, he
resembles a great snail; a little while after, he turns his back to
you, and rises up on his side flippers, like a couching hunter, pre-
paring for a shot, the very image of an Esquimaux." The seals
are proverbially shy. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders, to
whom these animals are of inestimable importance, as furnishing
them with the chief means of subsistence, are from earliest youth,
trained to the pursuit of them, and look upon the most successful
hunters of them as their great men. "No one can pass for a
right Greenlander who cannot catch seals." This is not
strange, considering the manifold benefits furnished the northern
tribes by these animals. The boat, or kajah in which they brave
the violence of a northern sea, and the perils of the chase, con-
sists of the skin of the seal placed over a light frame work of
wood. The same skin furnishes the material for his dress; the
flosh of the animal supplies him with his " most palatable and
substantial food ; the fat gives him oil for lamp-light, chamber
and kitchen fire. He can sew better with fibres of seal's sinews
than with thread or silk. Of the skins of the entrails, he makes
the windows of his house, curtains for his tents, his shirts; and
part of the bladders they use at their harpoons, and he makes
train bottles of the maw or stomach." Seal skins and oil are to
him also important articles of commerce. The fishing com-
mences in autumn, and is practised by means of nets stretched
across narrow sounds where the seals are in the habit of swimming.
Only the young ones can be taken in these nets ; the old ones
are shot, or else the boatmen enter the recesses of the animals at
night, with torches and bludgeons, and despatch them, winch they
do easily with a slight blow on the forehead or muzzle.

* Grinnell Arctic Expedition.

91 CARNJVORA.

x

"To shoot seal," says Dr. Kane, "one must practise the Esqui-
maux tactics, of much patience and complete immobility. It is
no fun to sit motionless and noiseless as a statue, with a cold iron
musket in your hands, and the thermometer 10o below zero.
Very strange are these seal ! a countenance between the dog and
the ape; an expression so like that of humanity, that it makes
gun-murderers hesitate. At last, at long shot, 1 hit one. The
ball did not kill outright ; it struck too low. He did drown finally
and sunk, and so I lost him. Curiosity, contentment, pain, re-
proach, despair, and even resignation, I thought I saw on this
seal's face." . . . " A Danish boy who had joined us by stealth
at Disco, told us that the animal's sinking was a proof that he had
no blubber, and he was probably right." Though the orifice of
the ear, as we have said, contains a valve which closes, yet the
seal has a most delicate sense of hearing, and delights in musical
sounds, a fact not unknown to the ancients. Laing, in his ac-
count of a voyage to Spitsbergen, states that when the violin was
played, "a numerous audience of seals" would generally collect
around the vessel, following her course for miles. In allusion to
this peculiarity of the seal, Sir Walter Scott says,

" Rude Heiskar's seals, through surges dark,
Will long pursue the minstrel's bark."

The seal has often been domesticated, and it is said, made use
of in fishing. The following is among the anecdotes illustrating
this remark. "In January, 1819, a gentleman residing in the
county of Fife, Scotland, completely succeeded in taming a seal.
Its singularities attracted the curiosity of strangers daily. It ap-
peared to possess all the sagacity of a dog, lived in its master's
house, and ate from his hand. In his fishing excursions, this
gentleman generally took it with him, when it afforded no small
entertainment. If thrown into the water, it would follow for
miles, the track of the boat, and though thrust back by the oars,
it never relinquished its purpose. Indeed it struggled so hard to
regain its seat, that one would imagine its fondness for its master
had entirely overcome the natural predilection for its native
element."

When companies of seals are seen at some distance " walking
the water," their heads peering above it, they assume sometimes
such appearances as have given rise to the stories of TRITONS,
SIRENS and MERMAIDS, concerning which many marvelous things
have been written.

The Phoca Groenlandica, or HARP SEAL, is about six feet in

95

length, and noted for the variations of its color, as it advances
towards maturity.

The Phoca barbata, (Lat. bearded.) is larger, and has thicker
and stronger moustaches than the others. Its length varies from
seven to ten feet. Dr. Kane speaks of one which was shot by
Capl. Haven, of the Grinnell Arctic Expedition, measuring
" eight feet from tip to tip ; five feet eleven inches in his greatest
circumference, and five feet six inches in girth behind the fore-
flippers." " His carcass," says the Dr. "was a shapeless cylin-
der, terminating in an awkward knob, to represent the head."

P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) or Slemmatopus cristat.us, (Gr.
stemma, a wreath; dps, face,) or HOODED SEAL, is distinguished
for having a globular sac, which can be swelled upon the top
of the head, in the male animal. This species reach the size
of seven or eight feet, and live in the seas about Greenland and
Newfoundland.

The ELEPHANT SEAL, or SEA ELEPHANT, P. Macrorhinus, (Gr.
makros, long, rhin, nose,) proboscideus, (Gr. proboskis, a trunk,) is
the largest known species, being from twenty to thirty feet long,
and having a girth at the largest part of the body, of eighteen feet.
A full grown male of this species will yield seventy gallons of
oil. This kind of seal is found on the southern coasts of Austra-
lia, Juan Fernandez, and the neighboring parts of South Ameri-
ca. Its voice is like the lowing of cattle, and it is inert in its
habits. The name " Elephant Seal/' is given to the animals of
this species, partly on account of the large size of their tusk-like
canines, and partly from their power of lengthening the upper
lip into a kind of proboscis. They are much sought after on ac-
count of the quantity of oil which they yield, and also of their
strong skins, which are valuable for harness making.

The SEA LION, Plalyrhyncus leoninus, found on the north and
south coasts of the Pacific, is from six to ten feet in length, and
of a yellowish brown color. The males have a large mane upon
their necks, partly covering the head and shoulders, and a very
powerful voice, whence their name.

The SEA BEAR, Arctocephalus ursinus, is so called from the
fur and shape of the head. It grows to the length of five or six
feet, and has small external ears. The membrane of the hind
feet is prolonged into as many lobes as there are toes, and the
fore feet are placed very far back. The color of the fur is
brown, but when it is old, assumes a grayish tint. This species
inhabits the coasts of the South Pacific, and is also said to be
found in the northern hemisphere.

Tricliccus Rosmarus, the WALRUS, MORSE, or SEA Cow.

93 CARNIVORA.

This animal resembles the seal in its general conformation, but is
much larger, and more thick and clumsy in its proportions. Its
distinguishing peculiarity is the construction of the skull. The
lower jaw is without incisor and canine teeth, and is compressed
laterally to fit in between two enormous canine teeth, or tusks,
which arise out of the upper jaw, and are inclined downwards
with a gentle curve. The length of the tusks is sometimes two
feet. The alveoli, or sockets of these tusks, occupy the whole
of the front portion of the upper jaw, and give a roundness to
the form of the muzzle ; the nostrils do not end in a snout, but
are far above the mouth, or what seems the middle of the face.
The development of the brain is less in the Walrus, than in the
seal, and it shows less intelligence. The ears are merely two
small orifices; the head is small in proportion to the bulk of the
body; the neck short; the lips are thick, the upper one divided
by a longitudinal furrow, and studded with strong bristles ; the
skin is very thick and impenetrable, and covered with smooth,
yellowish hair. This huge animal is often eighteen or twenty
feet in length, and ten or twelve in circumference, around the
chest.

The Walrus is found in the icy seas of the north. Like the
seal it is gregarious. It is not a ferocious animal, but on account
of its great strength, and formidable tusks, is dangerous when
attacked ; and the more dangerous because many hasten to the
help of a companion when in trouble. They are said to be mo-
nogamous. The females defend their young with great resolu-
tion and perseverance. These animals resort to islands of ice,
or the ice-bound shore. The tusks furnished them by the Crea-
tor, assist them to mount the slippery acclivities, or ledges of ice,
they striking the points of the tusks into the glassy surface in
order to secure themselves firmly, and drawing up their unwieldy
bodies. It is said their hind feet are furnished with suckers,
which act on the principle of cupping glasses, exhausted of air,
so that the feet adhere to the ice, and thus help the animals to
propel themselves forward. Thus the Walrus can climb the ice-
berg with security, pass over its surface and betake itself at
pleasure to the waters of the ocean.

Captain Cook, in his Journal of his Voyages, speaks of meet-
ing with Walruses off the northern coast of America. "They
lie," says he, "in herds of many hundreds, upon the ice, hud-
dling over one another like swine, and roar and bray so very
loud that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice
of the vicinity of ice before we could see it. We never found
the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch. These,

CARNIVORA. 97

on the approach of the boat, would awaken those next to them,
and tjie alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole
herd would be awake presently; but they were seldom in a
hurry to get away till after they had been once fired at ; they
would then tumble over one another into the sea, in the utmost
confusion, and if we did not at the first discharge, kill those we
fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. The
dam, when in the water, holds the young one between her fore
arms." The chief use of the walrus to man, is in its tusks,
which yield the finest ivory, and in its abundant blubber, or fat,
which yields oil. They, and indeed all the marine mammalia
which are found in the Arctic seas, have abundant fat, as their
defence against the cold. A beautiful and striking evidence of
kind and intelligent design, of which numberless instances are
presented to the student of Natural History, is seen in the fact
that immediately beneath the skin, a thick layer envelopes the
body, and being a bad conductor of caloric, besides other advan-
tages already referred to, prevents the vital heat from passing off.
With the Polar Bear, U. Maritimus, the Walruses have frequent
and desperate conflicts. They feed upon shell fish, and marine
vegetables, and perhaps a further use of their tusks is to root up
their food from the spot to which it adheres. Their flesh, like
that of the seal, is highly valued by the inhabitants of Arctic re-
gions, and northern voyagers have often found it a most accepta-
ble repast.

Give the derivation and meaning of AMPHIBIA. To what animals alone
does it strictly apply ? To what others is it commonly given ? From what
is PHOCIDAE derived ? What is said of their adaptation to a watery resi-
dence ? Describe the Seal. What is said of its habits ? How is it enabled
to remain in water a long time without injury ? Where are Seals most nu-
merous? How many species does the genus include? Where have they
been found in this country ? What is their size ? What does Dr. Kane say
of these animals ? To what people are they of inestimable importance ?
Relate the particulars which are given respecting them. What has occa-
sioned the stories respecting Tritons, Syrens and Mermaids? What is said
of the Harp Seal ? Give some particulars of the Bearded, Hooded and Ele-
phant Seals. What is said of the SEA LION ? Why is it so called ? Give
some account of the SEA BEAR. What animal does the Walrus resemble ?
What other names has it? What is its distinguishing peculiarity? How
long are the tusks ? Give its general characteristics. What is said of its
intelligence? What is its length? Where is' it found? What are its
habits and disposition ? With what are its hind feet furnished ? What
does Captain Cook relate respecting Walruses ? Who was Captain Cook ?
Ans. A celebrated English circumnavigator, who was killed by the natives
at Owyhee, Sandwich Islands, in 1779. What is their chief use to man ?
What evidence do they give of kind and intelligent design on the part of the

5

93 CARNIVORA.

Creator? With what animal doep the Walrus have severe conflicts? What

is its food ? What is said of its flesh ?

•»

SECTION XVI.

SUB-ORDER INSECTIVORA. (Lat. insecta, insect, voro, to eat.)
The INSECTIVORA, as the term denotes, comprehends those ani-
mals whose food is especially insects, but not exclusively, as
sometimes they feed on other, and even vegetable substances.
They walk on the sole of the foot, (plantigrada.) The sub-or-
der includes three families. Their motions are feeble, feet short
and slender, snout lengthened. In cold climates they pass the
winter in a dormant state.

HEDGE-HOGS, (Erinaceadce, from erinaceus, Lat. for hedge-hog.)
The true hedge-hogs are found in Europe, Asia and Africa,
while others are found in Madagascar and the Oriental Islands.
They are slow and inoffensive, but are self-defended by a coat
of stiff, tough spines or prickles. They roll themselves up into
a round ball, and thus the spines project from every part of the
surface, and are a defence and safeguard. They lie concealed
in some crevice between the moss-grown roots of a tree, among
a mass of withered leaves, or in a hole which they have exca-
vated ; and in this condition, the animal remains during the day,
protected from injury in the way before described, should its
retreat be discovered. As the dusk of evening comes on, it
issues from its lurking place and prowls about for food. If
pursued it makes no defence, but rolls itself up and trusts to its
spines for safety. These are, indeed, the only means of defence
bestowed upon this little, weak and timid animal. It feeds upon
insects, frogs, snails, fruits, and esculent roots. It is useful in
gardens, and often kept in large kitchens for the destruction of
beetles and cockroaches.

The TENREC, (Centetes, Gr. xevrfa, kenteo, to sting or prick,)
called also the Asiatic or striped hedge-hog, of Madagascar,
has no tail, but is covered with a spiny coat of mail. It rolls
itself up in the way of the hedge-hog already mentioned,
though not so easily, is nocturnal, and passes three months of
the year in sleep. Some are not larger than a mole.

The species are Tenrec Centetes acaudatus, Lat. a, without,
cauda, a tail.)

C. setosus, (Lat. bristly.) Its spines are short and rigid.

Vaiied Tenrec, C.semi-spinosus, (Lat. semi, half, spina, spine.)
Its body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles.

SOREX, (Lat. shrew.) The SHREWS have usually been con-
sidered a kind of mice and of the order Rodentia. They are,

CARNIVORA. 99

however, distinguished from the latter by their teeth, and the con-
ical form of the head, and nose tapering to a long point. They
place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground, which makes
their legs appear short. They have glands along the side of the
body, which secrete a humor of an unpleasant and peculiar
odor. Their shrill, piercing cry may often be heard in spring
and summer. Water shrews, which are twice the size of the
others, are found upon the banks of rivers, ponds, and marshes,
and appear to collect their food, consisting of the larvee of the
ephemeral flies, from the loose mud. Stationing themselves at
the mouths of their holes, they look intently on the water, and if
a shoal of minnows pass by, they plunge in among them, diving
with much adroitness. Their fur repels the water, and while
submerged they appear almost white. The Common Shrew, S.
araneus, (Lat. Spiders,) is covered with soft velvety fur, is easily
distinguished from the mouse by its long, tapering and cartilagin-
ous snout; the eyes, too, are very minute, almost hidden in the
surrounding hairs, and the ears are round and close. It is usu-
ally of a reddish mouse color above, grayish beneath, and some-
times tinged with yellow. Its entire structure is well adapted
to burrow under the earth, but it can also move rapidly upon the
surface. Its length, from the snout to the tail, is about five
inches ; its tail is one inch long ; it feeds upon insects, worms
and grubs.

Sorex fodiens, (Lat. digging.) The WATER SHREW closely
resembles the common shrew in its conformation. Its feet are
rather broad and formed for swimming, having a lock of stiff
hairs on the end of the toes ; its tail is rather slender and fringed
with stiff hairs. Its swimming is principally effected by the al-
ternate action of the hind feet. The appearance of these ani-
mals, and their motions in water are quite amusing. A sort of
musk is expressed from the region about the tail, and the skins
are put into chests and wardrobes, among clothes, to preserve
them from moths.

The DESMAN or MUSK RAT, Mygale (Gr. spider-mouse,) mos-
cliata. This is known as the Russian Musk Rat, is about the
size of a hedge-hosj and distinguished from the shrews by its
long scaly tail, flattened at the sides. Under the tail of the Des-
man are two small follicles, containing a kind of unctuous sub-
stance of a strong musk odor, from which the name of musk
rat is given to it.

The SCALOP, to which Linnssus gave the name of Sorex
aquaticus, is a native of Canada and is now separated from the
true shrews.

100 CARNIVORA.

We come now to notice the MOLE (Ta/pa) — Family, Tatyida.
This animal is five or six inches in length and formed for an un-
derground life. Its body is thick and cylindrical ; the he id is pro-
longed, especially the muzzle, which projects far beyond the
jaws, and is very flexibile and strong, serving to convey the food
to the mouth ; it has no external ears, but the auricular appara-
tus is highly developed, and the sense is very acute ; its ey$s
are very small and concealed by its fur, so that it is a vulgar
opinion that it is deficient in these important organs. The head
is not distinguished from the body by any appearance of neck ;
the legs do nor project perceptibly from the body.

The mole is accustomed to burrow for its food, forming its
abode or "encampment" under ground, and raising a larger hil-
lock than the rest for the reception of its young. Its subterra-
nean excavations are most distinctly and determinately made,
having passages or " high roads " from one part of its domain to
another. Into these roads open the excavations in which it daily
searches for food. In this home, which is separated from that in
which its nest is formed, it dwells from autumn to spring. The
mole is essentially an accomplished miner, and unlike most of
the mammalia, finds his happiness and his home in the subterra-
nean (underground) galleries which he excavates with admirable
skill and industry. Its fore feet, which are broad and muscular,
are constructed like hands and form complete paddles for throw-
ing the soil behind the animal. (See Plate VI, fig. 4 of Mole's
foot.)

It has been mentioned that there is no external conch to
the ears, as the auditory opening concealed by the fur is
small. "A valve, capable of being raised or lowered like an
eye-Hd, the mechanism of which is visible if the fur be shaved
away, closes this aperture at the will of the animal, so as to ex-
clude any particle of earth or sand." The eyes, too, which are
exceedingly small and buried in the fur for protection, may be
uncovered at pleasure, when it emerges to the light. The Crea-
tor has given it the power of vision, but in a very limited degree ;
in fact it is in the very lowest stage of development, but it has
all in this respect that is needed. Its keen sense of smell is its
chief guide in searching for food, and dwelling as it does, in
darkness, this sense is remarkably perfect.

The structure of the mole is such as to concentrate the whole
force and energy of the animal in the anterior portion, and thus
is adapted to its habits and mode of life ; the hands are large,
bread, and thick ; the bones knit firmly and solidly together; the
claws are enormous — these are the organs by which it throws

CARNIVORA. 101

up the earth ; the head is an organ for boring or digging, very
iong and flat, with the cartilages of the nose ossified ; the liga-
ment of the neck, which in other animals is elastic, is here
bone also, so that the strain in digging is better borne ; the pelvis
is very small ; the bones of the hind limbs are small and slender
and the hind feet, though having claws, are feeble in comparison
with the spade-like hands, thus hindering not its course through
its under-ground roads, but yet having sufficient strength, and
not in the way.

In short, were we called upon for striking evidence of the de-
sign and attentive care of GOD. we would point to the habits and
manners of the MOLE, and the fitness and adaptation of the
means and instruments with which it is provided. The mole
does not, of its own accord, emerge from its subterranean abode,
except to seek for some more favorable soil in which to construct
its halls and winding galleries. Rich and cultivated meadows,
abounding in worms and other insects, are its favorite localities
in which it makes its burrows.

Unlike the dormouse or marmot, it is not less active in winter
than in summer ; the twilight hours of morning and evening are
its period of labor.

The nest where the female mole nurses her helpless young,
(of which she has one brood yearly, generally four or five, some-
times as few as three, rarely six,) is formed in a vault, carefully
constructed at the center of diverging passages, made soft with
leaves, grass, and scales of bulbous roots. '• The parents afford
a pattern of mutual affection and assistance."

The food consists of worms, insects, and when it can obtain
them, small birds or quadrupeds, to which roots are also added.
It is impatient of hunger, and cannot endure a fast of more than
six hours' duration ; an abstinence of twelve hours is said to
produce death.

Agriculturists complain that they suffer injury from the young
corn which moles carry off for constructing their nests ; but its
turning up and lightening the soil, and its destruction of insects,
earth worms and noxious creatures found near the surface of the
ground and so hurtful to grass, corn and other, plants, furnish
advantages to the farmer which probably more than counter-
balance any injuries which he suffers from the doings of the
rr.ole ; at the same time, we should guard the undue increase of
these mining animals.

CONDYLURA, (Gr. xavdvlr], kondule, a knob, otigd, oura, a
tail ; knobbed tail.) CRESTED or &TAR-NOSED MOEE. This
name was given to this animal, by Illiger, under an erroneous

102 CARNIVORA.

impression that the tail is " knobbed." There is but one spe-
cies well known, cristata, (crested,) found in various parts of the
United States. The nostrils are surrounded by movable carti-
laginous points that radiate like a star when expanded. The
color is brownish black above, a shade lighter beneath. The
head is remarkably large ; the body thick and short, growing
narrower towards the tail, which is smaller at the root, large in
the middle, and tapering to a fine point at the tip ; the fur on the
body is very fine, soft and shining. The shape of the body
resembles that of the common shrew mole, and it is similar in
its habits.

The BANXRINGS, (Tupaidce,) of Sumatra and Java, are remark,
able insectivorous animals. They are nocturnal, and squirrel-
like in their appearance and habits.

QUESTIONS ON THE INSECTIVORA.

How many families does the INSECTIVORA include ? On what do they
feed? What is said of their motions and habits? Where are the true
Hedge-hogs found ? Where others ? How are they self-defended ? How
do they conceal themselves ? How is the day spent ? When does it seek
its food? How act when pursued ? For what is it useful ? Where is the
Tenrec found ? What is it called ? How covered ? What are its habits ?
What its size ? How many species ? Give their names and derivation. To
what order have Shrews commonly been referred? How are they distin-
guished from mice ? How do they tread ? What have they upon the side
of the body ? What is said of their cry ? To what places do Water Shrews
resort ? What do they use for food ? What is said of their watching for
minnows? What effect has their fur upon the water? How is the shrew
distinguished from the mouse ? What is its color ? For what is it well
adapted ? What is said of the Water Shrew ? What of the Russian Musk
Rat? What of the Scalop ? For what kind of life is the mole formed?
Describe the animal. How does it obtain its food? What is said of its ex-
cavations ? How are its fore feet constructed ? What is remarkable about
the ear ? What is said of the sight and smell ? In what part of the body
is the strength concentrated ? Give particulars as to its structure. Wherein
does it give proof of divine care ? Why does it leave its subterranean
abode ? In what respect is it unlike the dormouse or marmot ? What is
said of its nest? What of its abilities to fast? Why do agriculturists com-
plain of the mole ? What benefits does it confer upon the farmer ? From
what is the term Condylura derived ? Was it rightly given ? Why is this
animal called Crested or Star-nosed ? Describe it. What is said of its
shape and habits? What is said of the Banxrings?

OBS. Here, at the close of the order CARNIVORA, and every other order,
let the teacher have a general review, naming the sub-orders, tracing out
the genera, families, &c., giving the specific name to each as he describes
the animal, pointing them out when on the chart, telling all he can remem-
ber about them, either from the book or chart. If he omits anything, let it
be mentioned by other members of the class. No pupil should ever be per-
mitted to pass the name of a person, or place, or even a word, without
knowing who the person was, where the place is, and what the word means.

MARSUPJALIA. 103

SECTION XVII.
FOURTH ORDER. MARSUPIALIA, OR MARSUPIATA.

(Lat. marsupium, a purse or bag.)

This order is arranged into two sections, — Marsupials and
Monotremata. These are not unfrequently regarded as separate
orders, constituting a sub-class termed Ovo-vivipara, (Lat. ovum,
an egg ; irivo, to live, and pario, to produce,) and intermediate
between the truly viviparous mammals and the oviparous birds
and reptiles. The animals of this order are numerous and quite
different in their organs from all other mammals. So peculiar
is their internal structure that Cuvier remarks they may be looked
upon as containing several orders running parallel with the or-
ders of ordinary quadrupeds. Their rank is low in the scale of
intelligence. Of the two sections the marsupials show the least
departure from the general type of the Mammalia. The most
striking peculiarity, common to them all, is the immature state
of the young at birth, they being much like the half formed
chick in an egg which has been but a few days incubated •, and
their reception, into a pouch or fold of a skin in the female, in
which they .are nourished, remaining there five or six weeks,
until they increase in size and are able to take care of them-
selves. Even for some time after the young one can procure its
own living^ and runs and plays by its mother's side, it instinct-
ively flies to the maternal pouch for protection from threatening
danger. The pouch is supported by two bones placed amidst
the abdominal muscles and called the marsupial bones. They
are found in the male as well as in the female, and even in species
where the pouch- formed fold of the skin is scarcely perceptible.
It is remarkable that these mammals are confined almost entirely
to Australia, including New Guinea and the islands immediately
adjacent, excepting the Opossums, whose home is South America,
but which are also found abundantly in the United States, resid-
ing in woods and thickets near hamlets and villages. Appear-
ances of secondary rocks seem, however, to indicate that at for-
mer periods they were more widely spread over the earth's sur-
face than they are at present.

The Marsupials include between seventy and eighty known spe-
cies, arranged by Prof. Owen into sixteen genera. The whole
are divided into five families, named from the more usual char-
acter of their food. I. The SARCOPHAGA, (Gr. ow£l, sarx ;
qpaycu, phago, to eat.) FLESH-EATERS.

These are found in New Holland and Van Diemen's Land

104 MARSUPIALIA.

alone ; though remains of them have been found in the Stonefielcl
slate, (England,) and in the gypsum quarries of Paris, (France.)
They show great varieties of size, from that of a small
wolf to a mouse, the larger ones being considerably fierce, des-
troying sheep, and even making their way into houses ; others
attack poultry and suck their blood. Those of the smallest size
show a likeness to the Insectivora, and live on trees. Prof.
Owen enumerates three genera of the Sarcophaga, viz. : Thyla-
cinus, Dasyurus and Phascogale. These, with others of the or.
der, show a tendency to the multiplication of teeth, and peculiar,
ities of the arterial system and bodily organs. The Thyladnus,
(Gr. Oulaxog, thulacos, a sac ; Iviq, inis, offspring,) has incisors,
f.; Canines, |;f ; Molars, ^:^ =46. The species T. cynocephalus,
(Gr. xvuv, kudn, a dog ; xecpal^ kephale, head,) Dog-headed Thy-
lacinus, Tasminian or Zebra Wolf, is an extremely active animal,
of the size of a young wolf; has short smooth hair, of a dusky
brown above, but barred or zebraed on the lower part of the back
with about sixteen jet-black transverse stripes. This has to the
other animals of the group, relations similar to those which the
lion and tiger have to the larger quadrupeds of Africa and Asia.
Formerly it preyed chiefly upon Phalangers and Kangaroos, re-
jecting the flesh of the Wombat, an animal common in the dis-
trict which it inhabits. Since sheep have been introduced, its
favorite food is mutton, which puts shepherds on the alert to des-
troy these animals by every possible means. The Dasyurus,
(Gr. daaf>st dasus, thick ; ou^ct, dura, tail,) has a conical shaped
head, and on the hind feet the great toe is reduced to a tubercle,
or entirely absenf. It has four less molar teeth than the Thyla-
cinus, making the number forty -two. One species is named D.
ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) — Ursine Dasyurus — having very
strong muscular jaws, and in its movements resembling the bear.
Its vulgar name is " Native Devil." The Dasyurus is very
destructive to poultry, eats raw flesh of all kinds and probably
dead fish and blubber, as its tracks are found on the sea shore.
In confinement it appears untamably savage, biting severely,
and uttering at the same time a low, yelling growl. The Phas-
cogale, (Gr. cpagx&hov , phaskoUon, a bag; y«^£, gale a weasel.)
has seven molars instead of six, on each side, above and below,
making the whole number forty-six. The species P. peniciUala,
(Lat. penicillus, a little tail,) lives on trees, has fur short, woolly
and thick, and is rather larger than the brown rat.

II. FAMILY, the ENTOMOPHAGA, (Gr. Iviopn, entoma, insect;
qpayw, to eat.) INSECT EATERS.

These have three kinds of teeth in both jaws and a simple

MARSUPIALIA. 105

stomach, like the preceding family, but more complicated in-
testines. This family includes three branches, or sub-fami-
lies; Ambulaloria, (walking;) Saltatoria, (leaping;) Scan-
soria, (climbing.) The only genus of the Ambulatoria, or
Walking section, is Myrmecobius, (Gr. {ifyuii%, murmex, an ant ;
fiioo), biod, to live. The only species is M. fasciatus, (Lat.
swathed,) which feeds on ants and has the reddish black of the
body adorned with nine white bands, whence the specific name.
Its length is ten inches. The Perameles, (BANDICOOTS,) is of the
Leaping section, including animals which, in their general struc-
ture, form a link between the Opossums and the Kangaroos, evi-
dently approaching the latter in their form, and particularly
in the development of their hind quarters ; with the Opossums
they agree in having a simple stomach and ten incisors in the
upper jaw. Some species, as P. lagotis, (Gr. Aayo>g, logos, a
hare,) make large and almost exclusive use of vegetable food.
In most of this family the pouch opens backwards, the reverse
of what occurs in the other Marsupialia, though in P. lagotis it
opens anteriorly. The species are found in Van Diemens' Land
and in New Guinea. The Scansoria, or Climbing section, include
the DidelphidtB, or OPOSSUMS, in their geographical distribution
confined to this continent. These animals are all small, the larg-
est being about the same size as the domestic cat, while some
of them are no larger than mice. They number about thirty spe-
cies, ranging from Brazil to Virginia, under one genus Didelphis,
(Gr. dig, dis, double ; dehyig, delphis, a pouch,) with the exception
of a single species, found in Surinam, in size larger than a rat,
and from its aquatic habits, as shown by its broad webbed feet,
ranked as a sub-genus, under the name Cheironectes, (Gr. %elg,
cheir, hand ; vrjxxi\<;, nekles, a swimmer.) The true OPOSSUMS,
(Didelphis,) have fifty teeth, viz. : ten incisors above and eight
below, four canines, twelve false molars, sixteen molars. The
incisors are small and disposed in the form of a semi-circle ;
the canines are large and strong ; the molars are crowned with
sharp tubercles. The feet have each five toes, armed with strong
curved claws ,• the inner toe of the hind feet, however, is desti-
tute of a claw, and is so placed as to be opposable to the oth-
ers, thus constituting a true thumb. The tail is more or less
prehensile at the tip, and hence they are arboreal. The soles
of their feet are covered with a naked skin of great sensibility ;
the ears and tip of the muzzle are likewise naked. In some
species, as D. dorsigerus, (Lat. dor sum, a back ; gero, to carry,)
the pouch exists only in a rudimentary state, or slight folds of
the skin. The young of these species, when of sufficient size,

106

MARSUPIALIA.

leave the pouch of the parent and are carried on her back, where
they hold themselves by entwining their prehensile tails around
that of the parent. (See Plate V. fig. 7.) The species best known
is the common Opossum, D. Virginiana, of the United States,
as early as 1649 thus described : " This beast hath a bagge un-
der her bellie, into which she taketh her young ones, if at any
time they be affryghted, and carry eth them away." The food
of the Opossum is roots, poultry, and wild fruits. Like the spi-
der monkeys,, this animal uses the tail for climbing and swinging
from branch to branch ; it crawls slowly on the earth. When
attacked it will feign itself dead, and no. beating will induce it to
show any signs of life. Even dogs are deceived, and turning it
over, pass it by, The initiated determine whether it be alive or
not " by the appearance of the last joint of the tail, which is
never relaxed." From its assuming a feigned character, any
adroit cheat, or sly deceitful acting, is said to be " possuming,"
or " playing possum." It has been said, "if a cat has nine lives,
this creature surely has nineteen ; for if you break every bone
in their skin and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you
may come an hour after and they will be gone quite away, or
perhaps you may meet them creeping away." — (Lawson.) The
color of the Opossum is greyish white, darker along the sides ;
the flesh is very white and well tasted ; for this it is hunted, but
not for its fur. When disturbed or alarmed it gives out a very
unpleasant odor.

The Virginia Opossum is about the size of a domestic cat. Its
hair is of two kinds ; the lowest a long woolly down, brownish at
the tip, through which pass the long hairs of a pure white on
the head, neck, and upper parts of the body. The tail
is not so long as the body, covered at the base by long hairs, but
only scantily furnished with bristles which come out from be-
tween the whitish scales that protect it for the greater part of its
length.

III. Family, the CARPOPHAGA, (Gr. xagnog, Icarpos, fruit ;
qpayoj, phago, to eat.) FRUIT EATERS have large and long inci-
sors in both jaws ; the canines sometimes wanting, and a still
longer intestinal canal. They resemble the squirrel tribe, but
are more closely related to the Kangaroos, the Kangaroo-rats,
(Hypsiprimnus, Gr. "vywyviuvog, hupsiprimnos, high extremity
or stern,) affording the connecting link.

Of this family are the PHALANGERS, Phalangista, (Gr. <falay%,
phalanx, plu. yctlayyeg, phalanges, small bones of the hands or
toes, (see Plate III. figs. 3 and 4.) These are so named because
they have the second and third toes of the hind feet united as far

MARSUPIAL! A. 107

as the last phalanx, (or small bone,) in a common skinny sheath.
They have short, woolly fur, and a long prehensile tail. Among
these are the COESCOES, (sub-genus Cuscus,) of the Molucca
Islands, said to suspend themselves by the tail at the sight of a
man.

The Petaurus, (Gr. petad, to fly ; aura, air,) has thirty-eight
teeth ; no canines ; the skin expands between the fore and hind
limbs, enabling it to take very long leaps, supported in the air as
by a parachute. In leaping, it is aided by its flattened and
bushy tail.

P. sciureus, the NORFOLK ISLAND SUGAR SQUIRREL, or FLY-
ING SQUIRREL, rests by day, but at night skims through the air,
half leaping, half flying from branch to branch, feeding upon
leaves and insects.

The IV. Family is the Poephaga, (Gr. ndy, poe, grass, qoa/w,
phago, to eat,) GRASS EATERS.

Sub-family Macropida, (genus Macropus, Gr. long-footed.)
The KANGAROOS. The aspect of these animals is singularly
striking — the front parts are light and graceful, while the hinder
parts of the body, limbs and tail are very stout and muscular ;
the head is lengthened ; the ear; very large ; the upper lip cleft ;
the whiskers very short and few ; the hind limbs have very long
tarsi, like those of the Kangaroo-rat, but are much longer and more
robust ; the tail is long, triangular and very muscular. The teeth
are comparatively few, viz. : incisors, f ; canines, 0 ; molars,
134=24. The species are numerous. The one best known is
the Macropus major, the GREAT KANGAROO. The natural posi-
tion of these animals is sitting upon their hind legs, in which
attitude they are supported by the strong, muscular, and tapering
tail. Their movement on all fours is awkward and constrained,
but they bound or hop along on their hind limbs with great facil-
ity, each leap being about fifteen feet. They easily clear obsta-
cles seven or eight feet high. M. Brunii, Le Brun's Kangaroo,
is the first of the Marsupials with which naturalists became ac-
quainted. It is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and was described
by Le Brun as early as 1711. The Kangaroo was discovered
by Capt. Cook in his first voyage. Since that period, (1770,) it
has been brought over in abundance to Europe and this country ;
has bred freely and might become an associate of deer in parks
and forests. The conical and tapering form of the body at once
suggests to the beholder the idea of great muscular power in the
loins and lower limbs, just the opposite to the mole. Its fore
limbs are of little use in its forward movements. The defensive

108 MARSU1MAL1A,

weapon of these animals consists of the large claw of the hind
foot, which is lengthened, strong, and armed with a hoof-like
nail. With this they can inflict a severe blow ; their eyes are
full and bright ; the mouth small ; the ears large and pointed ;
the fore paws are divided into five fingers, armed with nails for
scratching or digging ; the hind feet have five toes, but the two
inner ones are very small, and so united in their whole length
under the skin as to appear but one. The Great Kangaroo in-
habits New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, and is about five
feet without the tail, the length of which is about three feet.
The female, like the Opossum, carries the young about in its
pouch, from which they emerge when they desire exercise, and
leap back again on the least alarm. The largest weigh 140 to
150 pounds. The Kangaroo's flesh is much esteemed ; it is
hunted in Australia with a breed of dogs between the mastiff and
greyhound.

The V. family is the Rhizophaga, or ROOT EATERS, (Gr. V£«>
rhiza, root; <jxtyu), phago, to eat.) In this we find the WOMBAT,
Phascolomus, (Gr. yaaxufaov, phaskdlion, a pouch; pvg, mus, a
mouse,) Sub-family Phascolomyidae.

This animal has been described as follows : " The Wombat,
or as it is called by the natives of Port Jackson, the Wornback,
is a squat, short, thick, short-legged, and rather inactive quadru-
ped, with great appearance of stumpy strength, and somewhat
bigger- than a large turnspit dog. Its figure and movements, if
they do not exactly resemble those of the bear, at least strongly
remind one of that animal. Its length from the tip of the tail to
the tip of the nose is thirty -one inches. The hair is coarse and
about an inch and a half in length, thinly scattered ; thinly set
upon the belly, thicker upon the back and head, and thicker upon
the loins and rump ; the color is of a light and sandy brown of
various shades, but darkest along the back." The Wombat will
not compare with the Kangaroo in swiftness of foot, as most men
could run it down. Its pace is a hobbling or shuffling, something
like the awkward gait of a bear. The flesh is said to be excel-
lent meat, and as it is nearly three feet in length, it is suggested
that it might be worth naturalizing in other climates, specimens
which have been taken to Europe having lived for years.

The whole of the Marsupialia, though some are active and
sprightly in their manners, present but "little appearance of real
docility and intelligence ; and this fact, connected with the low
degree of development of their brain, points to their inferior
rank among the placental Mammalia. To denote this inferiority
the boundary lines of this Order are, on the chart, bent round to-

MARSUP1ALIA. 109

wards the CETACEA. The earliest mammiferous animals whose
remains are found in the secondary and tertiary formations, are
those of this order.

Sub-order MONOTREMATA, (Gr. /novos, monos, one ; r^^a, trema,
perforation.) The animals of this sub-order have given occasion
to naturalists for much discussion concerning their proper affini-
ties and their appropriate position among the MAMMALIA. They
are truly unique, both in their external form and their anatomi-
cal and internal arrangements, the details of which cannot be
given in this work. We will only say that "in the form of the
skull, the construction of the shoulder and the breast-bone, but
particularly in the whole reproductive system of organs, the
Monotremata present a manifest departure from a mammalian
type, and a corresponding approach to that of the oviparous Ver-
tebrce, tending to the reptiles more than to the birds." But how-
ever anomalous, it is evident they should have a place among the
mammals ; and also, though without any external pouch, that
the marsupial bones in the skeleton require that they be placed
next in order to the Marsupialia, "of which they constitute the
lowest and most aberrant type."

These singular animals have no true teeth, but those of one
genus have horny substances in the jaw which represent those
organs. The muzzle is prolonged into a flat beak, more or less
like" that of a duck ; the eyes are small ; the ears are merely
minute orifices and without any external conch ; the limbs are
short and strong, suited for digging ; the feet have each five toes,
furnished with stout claws, and on the hind foot is a kind of sharp
spur.

The order includes but two genera, viz. ; Echidna and Orni-
thorhyncus. Both are found exclusively in New Holland and
Van Diemen's Land.

Echidna, (Gr. "e%iSva, echidna, a fabulous monster or viper.)
Of this there is but one species, changing its name vvi'th the varia-
tions of its clothing at different seasons, viz. : E. histrix, (G*.°wr£»$,
a porcupine,) to E. setosa, (Lat. bristly.) The muzzle of this ani-
mal is elongated and slender, terminated by a small mouth, having a
long extensile tongue, similar to that of ant-eaters and pangolins ;
it is, however, more beak-shaped. The skin of this beak is thick
and without hair. The animal has no teeth, but the palate is
armed with many rows of small spines, directed backwards.
The feet are very large, robust, and armed with claws, being
formed for opening ants' nests. The upper surface of the body
and of the sh^rt tuberculous tail is covered with stout and strong
spines, intermingled with stiff, bristly hairs, and when alarmed,

110 MARSUPIALIA.

the animal can roll itself up like a"hedge-hog or porcupine, with
which latter it well compares in point of size. The chestnut
colored, soft and silky hair is so abundant at a certain season as
to half cover the spines, whilst at another, the hair entirely dis-
appears. It lives on ants, with their larvse and pupse. It takes
them with its extensile tongue, which it can protrude to a great
distance, and which is always covered with an adhesive secretion.
The Echidna digs for itself burrows in which it remains during
the dry season, coming out of the earth only during the rains.
It is supposed capable of enduring a long abstinence, and it has
intervals of suspended animation which continue for more than
three days at a time, and recur frequently when the animal is
kept in confinement. Its strength has been thought to exceed,
considering its size, "that of any other quadruped in existence."

Ornithorhyncus, (Gr. ogvtg, ornis, a bird, and l^/og, rhunchos,
a beak, so named from its bird-like bill.)

Two species have been described, O.fuscus, (Lat. dusky,) and
O. rufus, (Lat. red,) but the latter differs -from the former only
in having the fur softer and of a redder tint. It is said that in
looking at this animal one would imagine that the beak of a shov-
eller-duck had been artificially fastened on the front of the head
of a small otter. The beak, which is broader at the tip than at
the base, is covered by a thick leathery skin. This skin projects
in the form of a loose flap from each mandible, and protects the
eyes from the mud in which the animal is perpetually dabbling
for food. There are no true teeth, yet back of each mandible
are two horny appendages resembling teeth, but without roots,
which are of a form verging to a square, with a broad uneven
surface, fitted rather for crushing than grinding. Beneath the
skin of the face are capacious cheek pouches for the carrying
of food. The eyes are bright, but very small and high set ; the
ears mere orifices which are opened and closed at the will of the
animal ; the feet have five well developed toes, all armed with
long, curved, and pointed claws, connected by a leathery web,
which in the fore feet extends considerably beyond the tips of
the claws, presenting a broad and powerful oar when in the wa-
ter, but folded back when the animal is digging in the earth. On
the hind feet the web reaches only to the termination of the toes.
In the male the feet are also armed with a stout, sharp, movable
spur, formerly regarded as highly poisonous. The tail is broad
and depressed ; the fur combines the properties of an aquatic and
also of a burrowing animal, readily expelling both water and dust.
A full grown ornithorhynchus is about two feet long, measuring
beak and tail. The general color is deep brown, with a white

MARSTIPIALIA. Ill

spot in front of each eye. These animals are called Water
Moles by «the colonists. Their favorite resorts are the borders
of some stream covered with aquatic plants, where the banks are
steep, shaded, and convenient for burrowing. They burrow in
a serpentine direction, sometimes to the distance of fifty feet,
and ending in a small chamber. In this chamber they place
their nest made of dry grass.

QUESTIONS ON THE MARSUPIALIA.

From what is the term MARSUPIALIA or MARSUPIATA derived? Into what
two sections is this order arranged ? How are these sometimes regarded ?
What does Cuvier remark respecting the animals of this order ? Which
of the two sections deviates least from the general type of mammalia?
What is their most striking peculiarity ? To what part of the globe are
these mammals confined ? What is the ground of their division into fami-
lies? What is said of the first family, SARCOPHAGA? How many genera
of this family does Prof. Owen enumerate? What peculiarities do they
show ? Describe the Dog-headed Thylacinus or Zebra Wolf? What rela-
tion does it bear to the other animals of the group ? What is said of the
Dasyurus ? What species of this animal is mentioned ? On what does it
feed ? How does it appear in confinement ? What is said of the Phasco-
gale? What species is named? Give the names and characters of the
second family. What three branches or sub-families does this include ? To
which of these does Myrmecobius belong ? How many teeth has it ? What
species of this genus is named? What genus of the leaping section is
mentioned ? What link do the animals of this genus form ? In what re-
spects do they agree with the opossums? What species is named and
what is said of it ? What animals do the Scansoria include ? How many
species of them ? To what region are they confined ? How is the term
JJidelphis compounded ? What sub-genus is named ? How are the Opos-
sums characterized and described ? Describe the best known and only spe-
cies found in the United States. Give the general character of Fruit-eaters,
or the third family. How are they linked to the Kangaroo ? What genera
and species are mentioned? Describe and characterize the Kangaroos, or
grass-eaters. Which is best known ? Where is it found ? Which of the
Root-eaters is mentioned ? How Is it described ? How do the MARSUPIALS
rank among mammals ? Why are the boundary lines of this order carried
round next Cetacea ? What is peculiar in the MONOTREMATA, and what is
their general rank ? How many genera do they include ? Where found ?
What is said of the Spiny Ant-eater ? Particularly describe the Ornithor-
hyncus.

What is said of this order along the branches of the Chart ? Mention
the animals of this order named or figured on it, tracing each.

112 EDENTATA.

SECTION XVIII.
FIFTH ORDER, EDENTATA. (Lat. toothless.)

This name was originally given by Cuvier, to the animals of
this order, from their agreement in the absence of incisive teeth
from their jaws, and in the length of their claws. Apart from
this agreement, they appear to have among themselves but little
natural affinity. To several of the ant-eating tribe, which this
order includes, the name Edentata is literally applicable ; but in
other genera it is limited to the front, or incisor teeth. In this
order Cuvier included the Monotremata, but their most natural
place seems to be with the Marsupials.

I. Family, TARDIGRADA, (Lat. tardus, slow, gradior, to step;)
also named Bradypodidae, (Gr. Ggadvg, bradus, slow, novg, pous, a
foot.) This includes two genera, Bradypus tridactylus, (Lat.
three-toed,) the Ai, or SLOTH, and Choloepus, (Gr. /wlo?, cholos,
lame, novg, pous, a foot,) didactylus, (Lat. two-fingered ;) the
UNAU.

These animals have no incisor teeth, four canines, two in each
jaw, fourteen molars, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw.
The molar teeth consist each of a cylinder of bone, covered with
enamel ; hence their surfaces are always concave, the enamel
wearing less rapidly than the soft interior. No laminae, or folds
of the enameled substance penetrate the body of the teeth, as in
most other animals ; the canines are somewhat longer than the
molars, and in form pyramidal. When these animals stand
erect upon their hind legs, their fingers can reach to the ground ;
and when moving upon all fours, they trail themselves slowly
and painfully along upon their elbows. Their claws surpass the
whole foot in length, and are very sharp and crooked. (See Plate
VI. fig. 5.) In a state of rest, they are drawn down upon the palm
and wrist, and can be extended only by the will and muscular effort
of the animal. Sharp, and bent in form, they are so many effective
hooks for holding on; while the rigidity of the limbs gives a firm
hold ; the feet and thighs are jointed obliquely, which adapts them
for embracing a branch ; and the great length of the arms aids
these animals in seizing a fresh hold, and drawing twigs and
leaves, their usual food, to their mouths. They are born and live
on the trees, and never leave them, unless from the operation of
force, or accident, resting not upon the branches, like the squirrel,
or monkey, but under them, and moving and even sleeping sus-

EDENTATA. 113

pended from them. It is remarked of some which were in a state
of captivity, that they assumed, during sleep, "a position of per-
fect ease and safety, on the fork of a tree," the head being sup-
ported between the arms and chest, and the face buried in the
long wool which covers those parts, and thus protected during
sleep, from the myriads of insects which would otherwise assail it.

The animals of the other genus, the Unau, or Choloepus diddcty-
lus, the two-fingered sloth, have essentially the sa-me singular
conformation and habits as the three-fingered sloth, and are with
those of the other genus, found among the tropical forests of South
America.

II. EDENTATA PROPER. MYRMECOPHAGADAE, ANT-EATERS.
Myrmecophaga, (Gr. pvQ[tr]%, murmex, an ant, qpdj'co, phago, I eat.)

The Ant-eaters are distinguished by being entirely without
teeth, and also by their hairy covering. The latter peculiarity
separates them from the Pangolins, (Manis,) or Scaly Ant-eaters,
of Asia and Africa, which animals, in other respects, they closely
resemble. In this family, the jaws are produced into a very long
and slender muzzle, which has a mouth of very diminished size.
(See Chart.) The phalanges, or small joints of the toes (particu-
larly the last,) which bear the claws, are so formed as to allow
them to be bent inwards only as in the Sloths ; and to this end,
have very powerful ligaments, which keep them in a state of re-
pose, bent in along the sole of the foot, and do not allow the hand
to be opened entirely, but only half extended, as seen in gouty or
rheumatic people. (Plate VI. £g. 5.) The toes are of unequal
size, and vary in number, in different species; as in the Sloths,
they are united closely together as far as the claws, and are not
capable of separate or individual motion ; but this disability is
more than compensated by the increased strength which it pro-
duces. The claws are all large and powerful, especially that of
the middle toe, which is enormous. In walking, these animals
tread upon the outer edge of the foot, which is provided with a
large callous pad for that purpose; whilst their toes being bent
ih wards, along the palms, the sharp claws are preserved from
being injured by the friction of the hard ground.

The Ant-eaters are remarkable for their very long and round-
ed tongues. With these, they take the ants which are their prin-
cipal food. On approaching an ant-hill, the animal scratches it
up with his claws, and then protrudes his slender tongue, which
has the appearance of an exceedingly long tape worm. The
tongue is covered with a glutinous saliva; it is nearly twice the
length of the whole head and snout together, and when not ex-
tended, is kept doubled up in the mouth, with the point directed

114 EDENTATA.

backwards. The ants adhere to his tongue when it is thrust into
their hills, and by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them.
The eyes of the Myrmecophaga are exceedingly small; their
ears short and round ; the legs robust and amazingly powerful,
but so unfavorable for locomotion, that these animals are almost
as tardy in their movements as the Sloths themselves, except
when put to their speed, at which time, their motion is pretty
rapid. Of the Ant-Eaters proper, we name three species. 1.
M. jubata, (Lai. maned or crested,) the GREAT ANT-EATER.
This animal is about four and a half feet in length, from the
snout to the tail, which is three and one-quarter feet long, so that
the entire length of the animal is seven and three-quarters feet ;
the height at the shoulders is three and three-twelfths feet, and
but two and ten-twelfths feet at the croup, in consequence of
which, being perfectly plantigrade, it necessarily stands lower
behind than before, as is seen in the bear and badger ; the toes
are four on the front, and five on the hind extremities. It is
sometimes called Ant-Bear, from its mode of defence, which
resembles that of the bear. When assailed by a dog, he seizes
him between his strong fore legs, and squeezes him to death, or
else deals out severe blows with his sharp prehensile claws.
The clothing of the Great Ant-Eater consists of long, coarse hair,
forming a mane down the neck and back, and enveloping the tail
in a thick brush, which trails upon the ground. On the head the
fur is close and spare. The color is generally a grizzled black ; a
dark black stripe, bordered with white, passing obliquely from
the side of the neck, to the upper part of the back. This singular
animal has but a single young one at a birth, which for a whole
year is carried about with the mother wherever she goes. Its
digestive organs seem adapted for extracting nutriment from ants
alone. In its habits, it is solitary as well as slothful. Like all
other animals living upon insects, it can exist a long time without
food. Its flesh, though black, and of a musky flavor, is sometimes
found on the tables of Europeans, and by the Indians is highly
esteemed.

M. Tamandua. (Cuvier.) The TAMANDTTA.

This Ant-Eater is much smaller than the one just described,
being not so large as a fox, or even a good sized cat ; whereas
the Maned Ant-Eater exceeds in length the largest greyhound,
though much inferior to that animal in height, owing to the short-
ness of its legs. In the conformation of its extremities, and the
number of its toes before and behind, the Tamandua is like the
Ant-Bear ; but it differs from that animal in the prehensile power
of its tail, which makes it essentially an arboreal quadruped.

EDENTATA. 115

The hair differs also, being short and shining, and of a consistence
which makes it a medium as to its qualities, between silk and
wool. The colors, are, likewise, more variable than those of the
Great Ant-Eater. The Tamandua is found in the thick primeval
forests of tropical America, living on trees, upon termites, honey,
and according to D'Azara, upon stingless bees, which have their
hives among the loftiest branches of the forest. The female has
but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with her on
her shoulders, for the first three or four months.

M. didaciyla, (Lat. two-fingered, or toed.) The LITTLE or
Two-ToED ANT-EATER.

This is easily distinguished from the other two species, by its
size, which does not exceed that of a large rat or squirrel ; also
by the number of its toes, four on the hinder, and only two on the
front extremities. The length from the snout to the tail is but
six inches; that of the tail is seven and one-quarter inches; to-
wards the point the tail tapers, and becomes naked, and it is
strongly prehensile. The snout is not so long in proportion to the
body, as in the other two .species; the legs are stout and short;
the hair very fine and soft to the touch. Like the other species,
the Little Ant-Eater has but one young at a birth, which it con-
ceals in the hollow of some decayed tree.

Orycteropus Capensis, (Gr. OQVXT^Q, orukter, a digger; nov^
pous, a foot.) The AARDtVARK, or EARTH- HOG.

This animal, of Southern Africa, is also to be numbered with
the Ant-Eaters, though there has been some difference of opinion
as to its proper location. It resembles both the Ant-Eater and
the Armadillo, agreeing with the former in its general habits;
but though without any scaly armor, more like the latter in its
anatomical structure. Like the Armadillo, it has large and pow-
erful claws, adapted for digging up roots and insects, and for
making burrows in the earth. When full grown, it is five feet
long, from the snout to the end of the tail, which is about half the
size of the body. Its tongue is not cylindrical like that of the
Ant-Eaters proper, but flat and slender, and cannot be protruded
so far. The flesh, particularly of the hind-quarters, is dried for
hams, and much esteemed as food.

Manis. (Linnaeus.) The PANGOLIN, or SCALY ANT-EATER.

The name Pangolin, which is given to the animals of this
genus, is said to be derived from the word Pangoeling, signifying,
in the Javanese language, "an animal which rolls itself in the
form of a ball." The Pangolins are limited to the warmest parts
of Asia and Africa. In common with the Hairy Ant-Eaters,
they are without teeth, and have a very long extensile tongue,

118 EDENTATA.

covered with a glutinous mucus, for securing their insect nutrK
rnent, but they differ from them in their body, limbs and tails,
which have as a panoply, their scales large, imbricated, (i. e.
hollowed like a roof, or gutter-tile,) and overlapping each other;
they differ also in being able to roll themselves up when in dan-
ger, by which means their trenchant or sharp cutting scales be-
come erect, and present a defensive armor against their enemies.
These animals are particularly remarkable for the strength and
number of the vertebrae of the tail, (forty-seven in the large spe-
cies.) By some they are regarded as a kind of link between
viviparous quadrupeds and the Lizards.

M. macroura, (Gr. long-tailed,) or M. tetradactyla, (Lat four-
fingered.) (Linnaeus.)

This species, found in Africa, is more than two feet in length,
and the tail is more than twice as long as the body. The broad,
striated and pointed scales, cover the whole body, except the un-
der part ; the legs are very short, and also scaled ; on each of the
feet are four claws, those on the fore feet being stronger than the
others. The scales are of a uniformly deep brown color, with a
tinge of yellow, and a glossy surface.

M. brachyura, (Gr. ffgax^g, brachus, short; iovQai oura, tail,) or
M. penladactyla, (five-fingered.) The SHORT-TAILED MANIS.

This Scaly Ant-Eater is a native of East India, where it re-
ceives different names, Tiled-Cat, Land-Carp, Caballe, &c. It
has a much thicker and shorter tail than is found in the preceding
species; the body is stout, and shorter than the tail. Each of the
feet, as the specific term pentadactyla denotes, has five toes ; those
on the fore feet, except the outer one, which is small, being very
strong. The scales differ in shape from those of the Long-Tailed
Manis, and are much larger and wider in proportion to the body
and the tail ; they are so impenetrable that when the animal rolls
itself up, the tiger, panther, or hyaena attempts to force it in vain.
The middle claw of the fore paws, far exceeds the others in its
proportions, and is admirably adapted for the destruction of the
nests of termites, or white ants, which are a great part of its food.
It is said the natives " have a method of making a hole in its skin
with a knife, and thus of guiding and governing the animal at
their pleasure, the point of the knife, which is kept in the hole,
goading and irritating him." It is numerous in Ceylon.

III. Dasypodidae, (Gr. dacrvg, dasus, hairy ; novs, pous, a foot.)
The ARMADILLOS.

This remaining family are arranged by Cuvier into five groups.
They are distinguished by having molar teeth alone, and appear
to have a place between the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, the latter

EDENTATA. 1 17

being without teeth, and the Sloths, in addition to the molars,
having large and powerful cartines. Ant-Eaters differ from the
Sloths and Armadillos, not only by being without teeth, but also
by the want of clavicles, or collar bones. The most prominent
distinction of the Armadillos, is the peculiar nature of their ex-
ternal covering. This consists of a bony, tessellated crust, in
which their bodies are enveloped ; the hips and shoulders being
covered by large, broad bucklers, while the intermediate back is
shielded by transverse movable bands, similar in form and ap-
pearance to the plate armor of the middle ages. Hence the name
Armadillos, (from Armada, armed, and of Spanish origin,) has
been given to these animals. The transverse bands which are
separated by narrow strings of membrane, overlap each other, as
in the ancient coats of mail, so as to give greater freedom, and
some degree of lateral motion. The tail, with the exception of
one species, is covered with a series of rings ; the limbs are in-
cased in a hardened, tuberculous sort of skin, and are very short
and strong; the toes have strong claws, adapted for digging or
burrowing, a process, which, in the light sandy soil traversed by
them, they accomplish with surprising celerity. The molar
teeth with which they are furnished, are never less than twenty-
six in the whole; and in one species amount to ninety -eight I
those of one jaw fitting into interstices of the other as in the Dol-
phins. (See Plate IV. fig. 11.) The eyes are very small; the
ears large ; the long and slender tongue, like that of the Ant-Eaters
proper, is lubricated with a viscid saliva, by means of which it
readily takes up ants and similar insects, upon which it chiefly
subsists. It however, also feeds on farinaceous roots, and on car-
rion, so that in Paraguay, deceased persons who are "interred at a
distance from the usual place of sepulture, are obliged to be pro-
tected by a lining of strong boards." In searching for food, it is
guided chiefly by the sense of smell ; its sight is poor, but this is
compensated by the acuteness of its hearing. The Armadillos
burrow with such rapidity that they soon disappear in the earth,
when suddenly surprised. Their movement is a sort of waddling
run, but rather rapid, most of them easily outstripping a man. In
captivity, this is kept up by the hour together, and without any
apparent motive. The greater portion of them are nocturnal,
never moving abroad while the sun is above the horizon, but re-
maining concealed in their burrows. The female bears annually,
and frequently six, eight, or even ten at a birth. The Armadillos
are able, more or less perfectly, to roll themselves up into a ball.
These hardy animals thrive and breed rapidly, with a moderate
portion of care, in most temperate* countries, but their proper hab-

118 EDENTATA.

itat is the tropical and temperate portions of South America. Of
the nine or ten species, we particularize

1. Dasypus Peba, or D. novemcinctus, (Lat. nine-banded.)
The PEBA or BLACK TATTT. PL VI.

This species, found in Paraguay, Guiana and Brazil, varies in
the numbers of its bands, so that it is sometimes called D. octo-
cinctus, (Lat. eight-banded,) and D. septemcinctus, (Lat. seven-
banded.) Its length, from the snout to the tail, is sixteen inches ;
that of the tail is fourteen inches, and its circumference at the
base, six inches. It is much hunted on account of the delicacy
of its flesh, which when roasted in the shell, is fat and well tasted ;
said to resemble that of a sucking-pig. Of individuals of this
species, found in the Zoological Gardens of England, it is re-
marked, "they are fed on vegetable diet, and appear to be in ex-
cellent health. During the summer, they are allowed the liberty
of a little paddock, where, by the singularity of their actions, they
attract a crowd of spectators, and come in for a share of the in-
terest excited by the gambols of their fellow countrymen, the
Spider Monkeys." (Martin's Quadrupeds.)

D. Apar. The MATACO.

The animals of this species are distinguishable from all others
of the genus, by "the faculty which they possess of rolling them-
selves up like a hedgehog, into a round ball, in which situation
they may be tumbled about, or even, it is said, thrown over preci-
pices, without receiving any material injury." They are, how-
ever, less common than some of the other species.

D. gigas, (Lat. a giant.) The GREAT ARMADILLO.

This species have unequal toes and enormous claws, but what
most distinguishes the animals of this group, is their possession of
from eighty-eight to ninety-six teeth, a number greater than is
found in any other mammal. (PI. VI. fig. 6.)

The Great Armadillo is about three and one-quarter feet long,
from the nose to the tail, which is one foot, five inches. It is sep-
arated from the other species of this genus, not only by its supe-
rior size, but by various remarkable characteristics. Its head is
proportionably smaller ; the forehead more protuberant ; the face
rather cylindrical in form, like that of the Peba; the ears are
not very large, pointed, and crouched backwards; the bucklers
of the shoulders and croup have nine and eighteen rows of
plates respectively, and are separated by movable bands to the
number. of twelve or thirteen, formed of rectangular scales, about
half an inch square. At the root, the tail is as much as ten inch-
es in circumference, and covered with ring plates, at the base,
and with crescent-shaped lines'throughout the rest of its length.

EDENTATA. 119

The claws are very large and powerful. This animal confines
itself to the great forests, and burrows with surprising facility,
being assisted in this by the strength of its claws. "Those
who are employed in collecting the Jesuit's bark, frequently meet
with it in the woods, and report that when any of their compan-
ions happen to die at a distance from the settlements, they are
obliged to surround the body with a double row of stout planks, to
prevent it from being scratched up and devoured by the Great
Armadillo."

Chlamyphorus, ((JDO^W, phoreo, I bear; xAa^vg, chlamus, a
cloak.) The PICHIAGO.

This edentate animal seems to blend in itself the characteris-
tics of several distinct tribes. Like the Armadillos, it has a tes-
sellated shield ; this, however, is not, as in them, attached by integ-
uments, to the entire under surface, but is connected with the
back only, by a ridge of skin along the spine, and with the skull
by two bony prominences from the forehead, the margins of which
are beautifully fringed with silky hair. Its feet, eyes and snout,
exhibit resemblances to the mole. From the appearance of the
hind part of the tesselated shield, this animal has the specific
name truncatus, (Lat. truncated, or cut off.) Naturalists have
designated resemblances in it to the Sloth, the Aard-Vark, the
Greater Maned Ant-Eater, the Echidna, and the Ornithorhyncus ;
and to the Ruminants and Pachyderms. Dr. Buckland regards
it as "one of the nearest approximations to the Megatherium, par-
ticularly in regard to its coat of mail, and in the adaptation of the
animal for digging." Dr. Harlan says, "taken collectively, it
furnishes us with an example of organic structure, if not unpar-
alleled, not surpassed in the history of animals." The Pichiago
is quite small, the total length of the animal being only five inches
and a quarter. "It is a native of Chili, but is so rare even there,
as to be regarded by the natives as a curiosity."

IV. Megatherida, (Gr. /ufyas, megas, great; Orglov, therion,
wild beast.) FOSSIL SLOTHS.

This is a group of animals of such gigantic size, and massive
proportions, that even their fossil remains strike the beholder with
wonder and astonishment. Of such a character are these re-
mains, that we are constrained to bestow more space upon them
than can be given to other fossil tribes. These are the MEGATH-
EROIDS of Professor Owen, whose descriptions of them are ex-
ceedingly elaborate and interesting. Of these fossils, the. follow-
ing genera have been enumerated by him, viz., Megatherium,
Megalonyx, Glossotherium, Mylodon, and Scelidotherium, all of
which are found in South America alone. Of the Megatherium,

120 EDENTATA.

nearly the whole skeleton has been considered, by comparing
different imperfect specimens, found after three unusually dry
seasons, in the river Salado, running through alluvial plains, to
the south of Buenos Ayres. This has given rise to the not im-
probable "suggestion," that the long continued drought brought
these extinct gigantic animals to a slender stream, running be-
tween mud banks, and that they may have been "engulphed in
their efforts to reach the water."

The Megatherium gives evidence in its remains, that it was
more nearly allied to the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, than to the
Armadillos. The skull is thought to resemble the former two;
the rest of the body was adapted partly to the former and partly
to the latter. When full grown, it is judged this enormous ani-
mal must have been not far from eighteen feet in length, and nine
feet in height. (See fig. on the chart.) The thigh bone twice
the thickness of the largest elephant's; the fore foot more than
three feet in length, and more than one in width, and terminated
by an enormous claw. The width of the upper part of the tail,
could not have been less than two feet. The entire structure of
this extinct animal, must have been admirably adapted for digging
in the earth, so as to enable it to obtain the succulent roots which
probably constituted the principal part of its food. Dr. Buckland,
in his " Bridgewater Treatise," says, " The size of the Megatherium
exceeds that of the existing Edentata, to which it is most nearly
allied, in a greater degree than any other fossil animal exceeds
its living congeners. The entire frame must have been an appa-
ratus of colossal mechanism, adapted exactly to the work it had
to do; strong and ponderous in its proportions, as its work was
heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of life and enjoyment to a
gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they have ceased to
be counted among the living inhabitants of our planet, have, in
their fossil bones, left behind them imperishable monuments of the
consummate skill with whic'i they were constructed."

Megalonyx, (Gr. piyagj megas, great ; "0™$, onux, nail or claw.)
To the remains of this animal, this name was given on account
of the size of its claws. Mr. Jefferson described it from some
bones found in caverns in Western Virginia, and considered it to
be carnivorous. He supposed it the largest of unguiculated ani-
mals, and probably the enemy of the Mastodon. Dr. Wistar, of
Philadelphia, afterwards saw in the bones of the fossil foot, resem-
blances-to those of the Sloth. Cuvier showed that it belonged to
the Edentata. Professor Owen reviewed the whole subject, and
arranged the animal as a distinct genus.

EDENTATA. 121

Glossotlieriuni) (Gr. ylMvaa, gldssay a tongue ; Or^lov, therion,
a wild beast.)

Tliis genus is based " on a fragment of a cranium found in Mr.
Damin's collection, discovered in the bed of the sarne river, in
Banda Oriental, with the skull of the Toxodon." Reasoning
from this fragment, Professor Owen found decisive evidence that
the cranium was that of an extinct Edentate, and related to the
genera Myrmecophaga and Manis.

Mylodon, (Gr. /uvArj, mute, a grinding mill; odoi>s, odous, a
tooth.)

This fossil Edentate, according to Professor Owen, "holds an
intermediate place between the Ai and the Great Armadillo." It
must have had the size and proportions of a Rhinoceros, but with
the limbs still more massive. So great was probably its muscular
strength, it could overthrow trees ; and as it was a leaf-eater, and
too bulky and ponderous for climbing, it could thus feast at its
ease, on the abundant foliage.

Scelidotherium, (Gr. oxehls, skelis, a haunch, or thigh ; tlierion,
a wild beast.)

This large extinct Edentate was allied to the Megatherium, and
the Orycteropus, Cape Ant-Eater.

What is the fifth Order of the MAMMALS ? Why did Cuvier give this
name to the animals of this order ? Is it strictly applicable to all the genera?
To which is it applicable ? Name the first family. What is its meaning ?
Give the other name of this family and its significations. How many genera
does it include ? What are the leading characters and habits of the Sloth
or Ai ? What gives them a firm hold on the branches of trees ? Do they
ever leave them ? On what part do they rest ? What is said of their sleep
during captivity ? What is said of the habits of the Unau and other tropical
Sloths ? Where are they all found ? Give the name of the second family.
What is its derivation? How are the ANT-EATERS distinguished? What
peculiarly separates them from Pangolins? What is said of their jaws,
phalanges (small bones of the fingers and toes,) and toes? Are the toes
capable of separate motion? How do they walk? Describe the tongue
and its uses. What is said of the other parts of the animal? How many
species of the ANT-EATERS PROPER are named? What is said of the size of
the animal ? How many toes has it ? Why is it sometimes called Ant-
Bear ? Why Jubata or crested ? What more is said of it ? What is said
of the size of the Tamandua ? In what respect does it differ from the Great-
Ant-Eater ? How is the Little, or Two- Toed Ant- Eater distinguished, and in
what particular respect or feature does it differ from the other two spe-
cies ? Where is the Aard- Vark or Earth-Hog found ? What animals does
it resemble ? What is its size ? Does its tongue differ from that of the A.
E. Proper? Why was the name Pangolin given to the Scaly Ant-Eaters?
To what region is it confined ? How does it resemble the Hairy Ant-Eaters,
and how differ from them ? For what are these animals particularly remark-
able ? Where is the Long-tailed species found ? What is said of the scales ?
Where is the Short-tailed species found? What names has it received?

6

122 RODENTIA.

How does it differ from the Long-tailed species? "What more is said of it?
What is the name of the Third Family ? How does Cuvier arrange it ?
Has it teeth? What is the chief distinction of the Armadillos? Describe
them. What is the origin of the name? What is said of the tail? How
doee the number of the teeth vary ? How do they resemble those of the
Dolphin? What further is said of these animals? Where is the Peba
found? How long is it? On what account is it hunted? What is said of
animals of this species in the Zoological Gardens of England ? What dis-
tinguishes the Mataco from all others of the genus ? What is said of the
toes and claws of the Great Armadillo? What is its size? How is it
separated from the other species ? What is reported by the collectors of the
Jesuits' bark ? Give some account of the Chlamyphorus ? What does Dr.
Harlan remark ? What is its size ?

What is the Fourth Family ? What is said of the size and proportions of
these animals ? What of their fossil remains ? How many species does
Prof. Owen name ? How has the structure of this animal been made out ?
What suggestion has been made respecting it ? To what animals were they
most nearly allied ? What is said of their size ? What of its fore feet and
tail ? For what was it adapted ? Give the quotation from Dr. Buckland.
Define the term Megalonyx. Why was this name given ? State Jefferson's
views of this animal. What did Cuvier show ? Who arranged it as a dis-
tinct genus ? What is the import of the term Glossotherium ? Upon what
was this genus based ? How did Prof. Owen determine their relation to Ant-
Eaters ? Explain the term Mylodon. What place does Prof. Owen assign it ?
What is said of its size ? Define the term Scelidotherium. To what does
it relate?

What is said of the MEGATHERIUM on the chart ? Give its dimensions and
trace it from its position among the Sloth Family, BRADYPIDAE, through all
its grades. Trace the Armadillo in the same way.

SECTION XIX.
SIXTH ORDER. — RODENTIA. (Lat. rodo, to gnaw.)

RODENTS or GNAWERS. The GLIRES of Linnaeus.
The animals of this order may be at once known by their hav-
ing, for the most part, two incisors or front teeth in each jaw,
remote from the back teeth or grinders; (the Hare family have
two, four, and sometimes six in the upper jaw.) There are no
canine teeth, but a vacant space appears between the front and
back teeth. The greatest number of cheek teeth is twenty-two.
The incisors have no roots, but are deeply inserted in their sock-
ets. The enamel of the front side being more durable than the
other bony matter of the teeth, always preserves their chisel-
like edge. The jaws are so articulated that the lower jaw, (be-
sides opening and shutting.) simply moves backwards and for-
wards, or horizontally ; so that the front teeth serve to file down,
or reduce to fine particles, the hard substances which are brought

RODENTIA. 12.3

under their action. To meet the wear of the enamel and other
parts, the teeth constantly grow in a ratio corresponding with the
decrease or wear. Should one tooth be lost by accident, or dis-
placed, the counter one of the opposite jaw becomes enormously
long, so as to impede its feeding, as is seen in rabbits. The mo-
lar teeth have flat surfaces, with ridges of enamel running trans-
versely across, so as to be opposed to the horizontal movement of
the jaw, and thus more readily grind their food. The entire
dental arrangement evinces admirable beauty and simplicity of
design.

The Rodentia, according to De Kay, include not far from 300
species, spread over the globe, (except Australia,) of which
seventy are found in North America. They are generally inof-
fensive, being of a gentle and timid disposition, and trusting for
protection to flight or concealment ; seldom more than of a mod-
erate size, while a portion of them are the smallest of the mam-
mals. Of these last the Harvest Mouse is an example ; the lar-
gest Rodents are .the Beaver, Capybara, and Porcupine. The
Rodents feed upon the harder sort of vegetable matter, as
nuts, grain, roots, twigs, etc., (except rats and mice, which are
omnivorous, eating anything that comes in their way, as most
house-keepers know to their sorrow.) The Rodents have gener-
ally six or eight young at a birth, and this two, three, and even
four times in a year. They are, however, kept from overrun-
ning the earth by the rapacity of beasts and birds that live upon
them.

Many are remarkable for their soft and beautiful fur. The
Beaver, Chinchilla and Grey Squirrel are valuable in commerce.
Some of them, as the squirrel and dormouse, use the fore paws
to convey food to the mouth, to hold an object, and to climb.
The form of the body is usually more or less conical, the chest
and shoulders being small, whilst the loins and haunches are
robust and muscular ; the hinder limbs are longer than the fore
ones, whence their movement is that of leaping or hopping
along. "Most of them are nocturnal or crepuscular in their
habits; many dwell in burrows ; some conceal themselves amidst
herbage, some among the foliage of trees, and some build for
themselves habitations which have exteited the interest and admi-
ration of men." (Pict. Museum.)

We arrange the numerous animals of this order into eight fam-
ilies, viz. : 1. SrrTRina:, (Squirrels,) 2. ARCTOMYDJE, (Marmots;)
3. GERBILLTDJE, (Jerboas;) 4. CASTORIDJE, (Beavers;) 5. HYS-
, (Porcupines;) 6. MURIDJE, (Rats and Mice ;) 7. CAVI-
(Cavies :) 8. LEPORID.E, (Hares) Our limits will not

121 RODENTIA.

allow us to do more than to give brief accounts of some of the
principal genera and species.

T. Family Sciuridse, (Lat. Sciurus, a squirrel,) SQUIRRELS.

This includes between sixty and seventy species. Audubon
says about twenty well determined species are found in North
America. They are arranged into two groups, viz. : I. Squir-
rels with free limbs; II. Squirrels with their limbs invested in
the skin at the sides. These are not only the most elegant and
sprightly, but the most numerous and widely scattered of the
Rodents. They are distinguished by their simple grinders, hav-
ing tuberculous summits, and the lower front teeth paired and
much compressed at the sides. The toes are long and accompa-
nied with sharp and hooked claws, and the rudiments of a thumb.
There are four claws on each fore foot and five on the hind. The
full development of the collar bones, (clavicles,) gives them
much facility in using their paws as hands. In eating, the squir-
rels usually sit upon their haunches, and holding the food be-
tween the rudimentary thumbs of both paws, nibble it away un-
til the whole is consumed. The head is proportionably rather
large ; the eyes full and prominent ; the tail long, with the fur
disposed on its sides like a feather ; the ears in many species
are tipped with a pencil of hairs. These animals are easily
tamed, and from their playful and graceful manners, often be-
come great pets. Most of the species resort to trees, but the
Ground Squirrel, ( Tamias or <S. striatus,} burrows in the ground.
The generic name, Sciurus, or Shadow-tail, is derived from Gr.
<rx)a, (skia,) a shade, and ovga, (oura.) a tail. Of this name the
English term squirrel is a corruption ; it refers to the fact that
when the animal is at rest, its long and bushy tail is turned over
the back and shades it.

I. GROUP.

S. vulgaris, COMMON RED SQUIRREL. This graceful and ac-
tive little animal is generally about fifteen inches long from the
nose to the tip of the tail, having the ears terminated by long
tufts of hair ; the color of the head, body, tail and legs of a
bright reddish brown ; the belly and the breast white ; the eyes
large, black and sparkling ; the fore feet strong, sharp and well
adapted to hold its food ; the legs short and muscular ; the toes
long and the nails sharp and strong ; the lip is cleft ; the fur
short and silky. It lives in pairs, constructing in the hollow of
a tree, or in the fork between two branches, a water-proof nest
of curiously interwoven moss, twigs and dry leaves. In May

RODENTIA. 125

or June it commences to rear a young family, usually four or
five in number. In the fall of the year it carefully hoards up
its winter stores, which are concealed in holes and crevices of
trees not far from its retreat. In Sweden and Lapland, the color
of the Common Squirrel becomes gray in the winter season ; in
Siberia it is often seen entirely white ; in other regions slight va-
riations of color are also noticed.

In the varieties found on this continent, the pencil of hairs
which tufts the Common Red Squirrel is wanting. The Gray
Squirrel, (S. CaroZinensis, or £ migratorius, Lat. migratory,)
is one of the most common American species, found along the
Atlantic, from Hudson's Bay to Carolina. Of this De Kay enu-
merates five varieties. It is about the same length as the Com-
mon Squirrel, (15 inches.) One of the most remarkable pecul-
iarities of this species is a propensity to distant emigration in
large numbers.

The Northern Migratory or Gray Squirrels are as much dreaded
by the farmers of the West, as the devouring locust by the East-
ern nations Everything suited to their taste vanishes before
them, and no obstacle can withstand their progress. It is be-
lieved by many that they pass rivers seated on a piece of bark
brought by them for the purpose, and their tails hoisted for a
sail. Audubon saw troops of squirrels cross the Hudson river
at different places between Waterford and Saratoga, in the au-
tumn of 1808 or 1809, but said they appeared to him unskillful
sailors and clumsy swimmers.

S. vulpinus, (Lat. vulpes, fox.) The FOX-SQTTIRREL abounds
in the pine forests of the Southern States, feeding upon the seeds
of the cones of the long-leaved pitch pine, (pinus palustris,
Lat. marshy,) acorns and other nuts. It makes long journeys
to visit corn fields when the corn is in the milky state, and
often erects a temporary summer house in their vicinity.

S. Palmarum, (Lat. of palms.) The Palm-Squirrel, usually
seen frisking about palm trees, is said to be remarkably fond of
palm wine. They are often taken to England alive.

S. Ulineatus, (Lat. marked with double lines.) The Plantain-
Squirrel, kept by the Javanese as a pet ; the tail trails gracefully
upon the ground ; when angry it bristles up like an irritated cat;
when asleep, rolls itself up like a dormouse, with its tail encir-
cling its body.

S. niger, (Lat. black.) The Black Squirrel of a glossy black
with a lighter shade beneath; claws covered with hair; the
hind legs have a few scattering hairs ; the fur is softer and finer
than that of the little Gray Squirrel, before which this species is

120 RODENTIA.

said to be disappearing. The flesh of both these species tastes
like that of a rabbit, but is more juicy ; it is nice broiled, and
makes excellent meat pies.

S. macrourus, (Gr. makros, long, owra, tail.) The Long-tailed
Squirrel, of Missouri, is 22 inches long, the tail equaling in
length both the body and head.

S. quadrivittatus, (Lat. four-striped.) The Four-Striped
Ground Squirrel is a very beautiful species found in the Rocky
Mountains.

S. striatus, (Lat. streaked. Tamias of Illiger.) The Striped
or Ground Squirrelis characterized by its reddish brown color,
a black stripe upon the back, and a shorter light colored stripe
bordered with black upon the sides ; by having the body shorter
and more robust for its size than that of the Red Squirrel, and
eight instead of ten molars in the upper jaw. It. is also known
under the names Chipping Squirrel, and Chipmuck. Usually it
is seen running along fences ; it is particularly fond of stone
walls, which afford this animal a ready retreat. Under these it
burrows and stores its winter food. Sometimes it makes its home
in the center of ti decayed stump. It does not ascend trees ex-
cept when its retreat is cut off from its hiding place. The range
of this squirrel on this continent is from 33o to 50o N. L.

II. GROUP.

Pteromys, (Gr. nTEQov,pteron, wing; fivg,mus, winged -mouse.)
FLYING SQUIRREL. This genus comprehends ten or more species
found on this continent, in Northern Europe and in Java. Some
of them are nocturnal. These squirrels are distinguished by a
membrane adhering to the sides, extending from limb to limb, so
as to form a parachute, by the agency of which they can throw
themselves from tree to tree to a great distance, and sustain a short
flight. In the sailing movement, they are aided, and perhaps in
part guided by their broadly expanded tail. The species of
Northern Europe, (P. volans, Lat. flying,) is about the size of a
large rat, and of a gray color. P. volucella, (Lat. dim. vfvolu-
cer, flying.) The Small American Flying Squirrel has only a
rudimentary membrane. The loose skin stretches foiward by
his fore legs, and backward by his hind legs as he springs, so as
to buoy him up and enable him to leap a long distance at ont
bound. This squirrel is about ten inches long, including the tail ;
the fur of a brownish ash, tinged with cream color, very fine, soft
and silky. It is found in all the Atlantic States and in Canada
West. In Canada East it is replaced by a species, (P. sabrinus,}

RODENTIA. 127

one third larger than P. volucella. P. dlpinusj of the Rocky
Mountains, is still larger.

II. Arctomydae, (Gr. agxros, arktos, bear; [tvs, mus, mouse.)
MARMOTS.

This family is nearly allied to the Squirrels, among which
Swainson places them. Sometimes they have been arranged
with the RATS. They have a large and somewhat flattened
head, ten molars above and eight below, heavy body, short bushy
tail and short limbs. Some of the species have cheek pouches.
They live in communities and all burrow and hybernate.

Spermophilus, MARMOT SQUIRRELS, sometimes ranked as a
sub-genus, (Gr. ansgua, sperma, seed ; and cpilog, pliilos, lover.)

This includes animals so named by Cuvier from their fondness
for seed, and furnished with cheek pouches. Of them there are
several species. One of these is S. ludovicianus, (Lat. ludo, to
sport or frisk ; vicinia, vicinity or neighborhood,) so named be-
cause living and sporting together in large communities. This
is the Prairie Dog of Missouri and California, an appellation
which Audubon says was probably given to the animal from its
yelp, — "chip, chip, chip ; " it is not like a dog in its form. The
numbers of these animals are very great ; they sit on their little
mounds at the entrances of their burrows, " chirping and chatter-
ing to one another like two neighboring gossips in a village." —
(Hon. C. A. Murray.)

Arctomys, MARMOT. Of this genus there are also several spe-
cies, which have the form, teeth, and habits of the preceding,
but only rudimentary cheek pouches. A. alpinus, the ALPINE
MARMOT is about the size of a rabbit, of a grayish yellow color,
approaching to a brown towards the head ; inhabits the mountains
of Europe, particularly the Alps and Pyrenees, just below the re-
gion of perpetual snow, and feeds on insects, roots and vegeta-
bles. Living in societies, these animals post a sentinel that gives
a shrill whistle if danger approaches, when they retire for safety
into their ingeniously contrived burrows.

A. monax. WOODCHUCK, GROUND HOG, or MARYLAND MAR-
MOT. This, when full grown, is of a reddish gray color and
about as large as a rabbit ; the young are reddish or of a uni-
form black ; its wool is intermixed with long coarse hair ; it has
short ears and cheek pouches ; the length is a little more than
two feet, though in this respect as well as color, it greatly va-
ries. The range of this marmot extends from Maine to California.
It dwells in subterranean abodes, which are partitioned into cham-
bers, feeds on clover and esculents, is easily tamed, and very
neat and cleanly in its habits. In some places it selects forests

128 RODENTIA.

of pine, in others cleared lands and old pastures for its residence.
The Woodchuck is awkward and slow in its movements; its
safety is found in its extreme watchfulness and sharpness of
hearing. When at all alarmed, it flies to its deep and long bur-
rows, "thirty or forty of which have been seen in a field of five
acres." To these its dilated cheeks carry its winter stores. Its
fondness for clover often renders it an annoyance to the farmer.

3d. GERBILLIDAE, or DIPODIDAE, JERBOAS.

This family of the Rodents, sometimes called Jumping Mice,
are apparently formed to live on prairies and sandy deserts.
They have very short fore feet, and the hind ones very long,
being Kangaroos in miniature; the tail is generally longer than
the body, and used in leaping or walking; (Plate V. fig. 2.) the
forefeet are employed in conveying food to the mouth, and
seem of little or no use as organs of progression ; the fur is soft;
there are two cutting teeth in each jaw, the grinders simple or
compounded, six or eight beneath ; parts of the internal structure
are bird-like. As far back as the time of Herodotus, these Ro-
dents are alluded to as inhabiting Africa.

Dipus, (Gr. 4i?, dis, two ; novg1 pous, foot.)

The animals of this genus have compound molars, and may be
regarded as an intermediate link between the Squirrel and the
Rat; but are more like the former than the latter. The fore legs
are very short, and scarcely used in walking ; the enormous hind
legs and tail at once remind the beholder of the Kangaroo.
When first seen, the animal seems supported in its rapid bounds
by only two long legs; whence the name Dipus, two-footed. At
a single bound, it moves four or five yards, and sometimes more ;
it feeds, sitting upon its haunches, like the Squirrel ; is found
abundantly in Egypt, Syria, and the north of Africa. The most
common species is D. sagitta, (Lat. arrow,) the Gerbo, or Egyp-
tian Jerboa, about the size of a large rat, living in large societies,
and constructing burrows under ground.

Meriones. (Gr. [ITJQIOV, merion, a thigh.) The animals of this
genus are small, with long, slender, and nearly naked tails ; they
have six composite molars beneath ; their fore feet have a rudi-
mentary thumb, with a small nail. They hybernate, and are
nocturnal.

M. Americanus, or Gerbillus Canadensis. The Deer Mouse ;
Jumping Mouse. This is about the size of a common mouse,
and of a reddish brown color ; has very short fore legs, long hind
ones, and a scaly, rat-like tail. It leaps ten or twelve feet at a
time ; is found in Canada and farther north, and as far south as
Pennsylvania, in fields of grass and grain. (PI. V. fig. 2.)

PL.V

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

ORDER RODENTIA, FAMILY MURID^E, (Mice.)

Jerboas, or Jumping Mice.

1. Jumping Hare, Cape Jerboa, or Grand Jerboa, Pedetes Capensis, in the

position in which it eats, using its small fore feet to bring the food to
its mouth. With these feet it digs its burrow so expeditiously as
quickly to hide itself; the hind legs are proportionally longer than in
any other known quadruped. The tail is a most efficient organ; if
deprived of it they can neither leap nor sit upright.

2. Labrador Jumping Mouse, Meriones Labradorius. a, animal sitting; b,

jumping.

3. Pouched-Rat, or Sand-Rat, Geomys, or Pseudostoma (false mouth,) burs-

arius, (of skin.) The cheek pouches much resemble the thumb of a
lady's glove in form and size, and hang down by the sides of the head.
In the Canada Pouched Rat, or Missouri GaufFre, or Gopher, they are
like pockets, extending from the sides of the mouth to the shoulders,
lined with short, soft hairs, and opening on the outside of the mouth.

4. Woodchuck, Ground-Hog, or Maryland Marmot, Arctomys monax.

FAMILY LEPORID.E, (Hares.)

us timidus, showing i
conveying sounds, like an ear trumpet.

5. Common Hare, Lepus timidus, showing its long ears for collecting and

ids,

FAMILY CHINCHILLID.E, (Chinchillas.)

6. Chinchilla, CJiinchilla lanigera, a woolly field mouse of S. America. It

feeds in a sitting posture, conveying its food with its fore paws.

ORDER MARSUPIALIA, FAMILY DIDELPHID^E, (Opossums.)

7. Virginia Opossum, Didelphis Virginiana, showing the retreat of the

young when threatened with danger, and the use they make of their
prehensile tails.

132 RODENTIA.

j (Gr. Aklopcxi>, allomai, to leap; [ivg, mus, mouse;) or
Pedestes, (Illiger,) (Lat. Pes, a foot; sto, to stand.)

The animals of this genus have eight molar teeth beneath ; the
front legs are quite short; the hind ones very long, and both armed
with exceeding long claws ; the tail is long and very bushy. This
includes the P.Capensis, of the Cape of Good Hope, the largest of
the Jerboas; (length from nose to tail, about fourteen inches; of
the tail, nearly fifteen inches ;) which leaps from twenty to thirty
feet at a bound, and sleeps in a sitting posture, placing the head
between the legs, and holding its ears over its eyes, with its fore
legs. It is a very strong and rapidly burrowing animal. (Plate
V. fig. 1.)

Myoxus, (Gr. fivo$og, muoxos, a Dormouse.)

The DORMOUSE is intermediate between the Squirrels and
Mice ; is found in temperate and warm countries, and lives en-
tirely on vegetable food. It has the two cutting teeth of the fam-
ily, in each jaw, and the grinders simple, with divided roots; four
toes before, and five behind, (the reverse of the preceding genus;)
and naked ears. When in its winter retreat, this animal rolls
itself up, and becomes torpid, occasionally rousing itself and par-
taking of its stores of food. Of this genus there are several spe-
cies. M. avellanarius, (Lat. avellana, a filbert,) is the Common
Dormouse, about as large as a common Mouse, but more plump,
with a less sharp nose, and large black eyes ; its color is a tawny
red ; the fur remarkably soft.

Chinchilla. This genus is regarded as a connecting link be-
tween the Hares and Jerboas. C. lanigera, (wool-bearing,) is
found in the valleys along the line of the Andes ; inhabiting re-
gions where the temperature is below a moderate degree. It
lives in companies, making burrows in the earth. Its food is en-
tirely vegetable, and principally consists of bulbous roots. The
Chinchilla has an exquisitely fine downy fur. The Creator has
thus protected it against severe frosts. The length of the fur well
adapts it for spinning ; and the ancient Peruvians manufactured
it into stuffs as articles of clothing. Numbers of these animals
are annually destroyed for the sake of their skins. In size and
appearance, they are like young rabbits ; but the tail, like that
of the squirrel, is usually held turned up over the back, and the
ears, though long, are naked, broad, round and open. The color
of the fur varies in depth, in different individuals; is of a dark,
clear gray, lighter beneath. The Chinchilla is mild and inoffen-
sive, but does not, in captivity, exhibit mucfi «prightliness, or in-
telligence. Its length is about nine inches, exclusive of the tail,
which measures about five. (Plate V. fig. 6.)

RODENTJA. 133

4th. The BEAVER FAMILY.

Castoridae, (Gr. x^orwo, kastor, a Beaver.)

The animals of this family have bodies covered with two sets
of hair, viz., fine and soft, down, and long and rather rigid hairs.
The tail is flattened and covered with rounded or hexagonal
scales. The hind feet are the longest ; the ears short. In hab-
its, these animals are aquatic and social. Some species have
webbed feet, and all a musky smell. The range of these animals
on this continent is more limited than in former periods, when it
extended from 680 to 30o. N. L. They are still common on the
Euphrates, and along some of the larger European rivers, as the
Rhone and the Danube. In England, they have not been seen
since 1188.

Castor fiber, (Lat. Beaver.) The beaver is of a yellowish
brown color, and from two to three feet long; it has four incisor
teeth in both jaws; no canines, and sixteen molar teeth. The
toes of the hind feet are webbed. It has also a glandulous follicle
on the lower part of the body, producing an article called castor,
(not castor oil,) and which is used in medicine. The flattened
and scaly tail, it uses as a kind of paddle. By this, it is enabled,
when loaded with a mass of timber, to stem a rapid current ; and
by making strokes up and down with its tail, it can dive or rise
with great celerity : tradition says, but untruly, that the Beaver
uses its tail in plastering its habitation. It moves more easily in
water than on land ; the eye is small, better suited to twilight
than the glare of the sun. The external openings of the ear and
of the nostrils are capable of being closed, which is a divine pro-
vision suited to its diving habits, and its continuance under water.
The Beaver's great incisor teeth are his only tools ; and most
effective they are, for with them " he can divide a common sized
walking stick at a bite, as cleanly as if severed with a knife."
In doing his work, he goes up the stream from the site which he
has chosen for his dwelling, so as to have the advantage of the cur-
rent. Summer is the season ; night the time of his labors. The
skill, perseverance and toil which he exhibits in constructing his
habitation, and storing it with food, have given to this animal
great celebrity. In this, its instinct begins and ends ; in other
respects, it is very stupid, not comparing well with the Dog, Ele-
phant and other quadrupeds. The fur of the Beaver is highly
valued, especially for the manufacture of hats; and is an article
of extended commerce. In one year, (1808,) Quebec alone ex-'
ported nearly 127,000 furs, worth eighteen shillings sterling,
each. C. fiber, (Americanus,) is a variety of this animal.

Fiber, (Illig^r.) Th3 animals of this genus have long, nar-

134 RODENTIA.

row, and somewhat flattened tails; twelve molar teeth; and the
toes of the hind feet partially webbed. The species F. Zibethicus,
is the MUSK-RAT, called in Canada, MUSQUASH ; about the size
of a small rabbit, and of a reddish brown color ; sometimes black,
or black and white. This animal has four strong cutting teeth,
of which those in the under jaw are nearly an inch long ; in in-
stincts and disposition, it is similar to the Beaver. It receives its
name from its strong musky odor, deposited in glands, near the
origin of the tail. Its length varies considerably, but is generally
from eighteen to twenty inches, while the tail alone is from seven
to ten inches. The Musk rat frequents swamps and low, marshy
grounds ; and is specially fond of the calamus root, and of fresh
water muscles, or clams. Its utility consists in its fur, which is
soft and glossy, and used in hat making. The territorial range
of this animal is similar to that of the Beaver.

5th FAMILY, PORCUPINES.

Hystricidae, (Gr. "vcrr^l, hustrix, a porcupine ; 'Wr^-if, from
°v$. hits, a hog; 0§*£, thrix, a bristle.)

We have already contemplated in the Insectiuora, a group of
animals (Hedgehogs,) protected by a coat of spines. In the pres-
ent family, this spinpus defence is more strongly and decidedly
exhibited. The hollow tubes of the Porcupines are somewhat
like the quills of feathers. They usually terminate in a fine
point of hard enamel, but sometimes open at the end, as if cut
off at their greatest thickness. These quills seem to be a smooth,
glossy envelope of horn, with an inner pith or marrow of soft
texture, and pure white. "They grow from a bulbous root,
formed within a cell below the true skin, or cutis, and containing
also a portion of fat, in which the vessels supplying its pulp and
capsule, are imbedded. The capsules consist of three mem-
branes, of which the innermost secretes the horny envelope, while
the pulp supplies the pith of the spine." The spines vary in
size ; some are very long, slender and weak ; generally, they
are from four to eight inches in length, and very strong; thick in
the middle, and tapering to a point at the extremity. (See fig. on
the Chart.) They are less thickly set in the tail, which is short;
their place there is supplied by numerous, open, hollow quills,
raised on slender stalks, so as to vibrate with every movement.
When angry, the porcupine clashes these hollow quills together,
making a rustling noise, resembling; that of a rattlesnake. In his
undisturbed state, the spines lie down in regular order, with the
points all directed backwards; but when he is angry, they are
raised up by means of a peculiar muscular expansion under the
skin, and joined to it, which by its action, influences their elevation

RODENTIA. 135

and depression. When clashed violently together, one or two
more loose than the rest, may be disengaged and fall ; but the
story that they dart out their spines like javelins, is pure fable ;
however, by pushing backwards or sidevvise, quickly and with
violence, the Porcupine can both defend itself, and inflict wounds
on its enemies.

The head of this animal is thick ; his eyes small ; his face
very round or convex ; and his muzzle blunt. His cutting teeth
are very large and strong, so that he can gnaw through the thick-
est and hardest boards. He is unsocial in his habits; when
taken captive, is " neither familiar nor intelligent ; in his native
state, digs burrows in dry and barren situations, as far removed
as possible from the haunts of men. These burrows have several
entrances leading to a chamber in which it passes the day in
silence and in solitude." As the light recedes, it cautiously
ventures out in search of food, such as birds, roots, fruit and other
vegetables. In winter, it goes out only occasionally for food.

The CREATOR has given to the Porcupine special endowments
for his course of life. The animal burrows in hard and stony
soil, and for that purpose is provided with digging implements;
his limbs are short, strong and thick ; and his toes, four before
and five behind, on each foot, have thick and powerful nails or
claws ; the tongue is roughened with scaly prickles, directed
backwards. The length of the Porcupine is about two feet ; his
general color a grizzled black, the spines being elegantly ringed
with alternate black and white, and the limbs entirely black.
This family of animals was originally introduced from Africa
into Europe and America. The description above given is that
of the COMMON PORCUPINE, viz., Hystrix cristata, (Lat. crested.)
The Hystrix dorsata, (Lat. ridged,) (or Hystrix Hudsonius, of De-
Kay,) otherwise called the Canada and North American Porcu-
• pine, ranges as far north as 67o N. L., and in New York, Penn-
sylvania, the northern parts of Virginia and Kentucky, and west
as far as the Rocky Mountains. It is said to be increasing in the
western parts of New York ; in this species, which is from two
to two and a half feet long, the spines are almost concealed by
the hair with which they are intermingled; the fur of a soft and
dusky brown color, is remarkable for its length and fullness; that
of the Canadian animal is almost black. The incisors are of a
deep orange color. This Porcupine is inoffensive, and of gentle
manners ; in size well comparing with that of a fox ; it feeds on
the leaves and bark of hemlock, bass-wood and ash trees ; is fond
of fruit and maize; and when confined, eats almost every kind
of vegetable. The spines or quills vary in length from one to

ISO RODENTIA.

four inches; by a strong muscle in the skin, those of the back,
when the animal is irritated, are erected and extended in various
directions ; the tail is also erected, and by a quite sudden move-
ment, he is enabled to strike, leaving the loosened spines in the
body of his assailant. The flesh of the Porcupine resembles
young pork, and is by the Indians very highly esteemed. Spines
dyed of various colors, form ornaments for their dresses. (De
Kay.)

6th. THE MICE FAMILY.

Murida, (Gr. (tvg, mus, a mouse.)

This numerous family have in each jaw, besides the two cut-
ting teeth common to the Rodentia, six molars (usually) in each
jaw, surmounted by blunt tubercles. The teeth of the upper
jaw shelve backwards ; those of the lower, forwards ; the feet
are neither webbed nor fringed with stiff hairs, but several spe-
cies swim with much ease. The tail is round, usually naked or
thinly haired. Most of this family are small burrowing ani-
mals; some genera are furnished with cheek pouches. Dr. De
Kay, (N. H. S. N. Y.,) arranges all into two groups, I. those
having, II. those not having cheek pouches. The ordinary food
of these animals is grain, seeds, and other farinaceous matter,
for bruising which their teeth are well fitted ; but they .are really
omnivorous.

Musdecumanus, (Lat. tenth.) The NORWAY or BROWN RAT is
of a grayish brown color above and white beneath ; in length,
from the head to the end of the tail, about twenty inches, having
the tail quite as long as the body. It was originally introduced
into Europe from the southern parts of Asia ; from its superior
strength and ferocity, has in some places almost entirely expelled
the Black Rat, (M. rattus.) It came to the United States with
the foreign mercenaries during the war of the Revolution, and
is now spread over the United States and Canadas. It infests
wharves and has been called the WHARF RAT, or DOCK RAT ; the
name decumanus alludes to the tithe or tenth of everything taken
by this voracious creature.

M. musculus, (Lat. dim.) The COMMON MOUSE is of a dusky
gray color, has ears about half the length of the head, a long,
bare and scaly tail, and in constitution and disposition is similar
to the rat. It breeds at various seasons of the year, from six to
ten at a litter ; is omnivorous, but prefers vegetable food. The
young are, in about a fortnight, strong .enough to collect their
own food. The mouse is said to be very susceptible to the
power of music. An anecdote is related of a gentleman who was
playing a violin, seeing a mouse run along the floor and jump
about as if distracted. He continued the strain, and after some

RODENTIA. ] 37

time the mouse, apparently exhausted with its exertions, dropped
dead on the floor.

M. leucopiis, (Gr. Isvxog, leukos, white; novs,pous, foot.)
This little animal is of a brownish color above ; the feet and
all beneath, white; the ears large; the tail hairy and as long
as the body. The whole length is six inches. The colors and
proportions give this mouse a delicate and beautiful appearance.
Like the Deer mouse, it is, from its agile, jumping movement^
called the "Jumping Mouse." It feeds on grains and grasses.
M. messorius, (Lat. messis, a harvest.) This is the smallest
and one of the most beautiful of the mammalia, called the HAR-
VEST MOUSE. It is scarcely half the size of the common mouse.
The color is of a reddish brown or squirrel-like aspect above ;
the under parts white ; its eyes are dark ; its action lively. In
winter it lives under ground in burrows, but it breeds in grassy
compact nests of the size of a cricket-ball, like those of a bird,
made among the stalks of the standing corn, and supported on
two or three straws. The principal food of the harvest mouse
is corn ; but it is also fond of insects.

Arvicola, (Lat. arva, corn-fields ; co/o, I inhabit.) This genus
includes many species known under the names of FIELD MICE
arid FIELD RATS, differing from the mice proper in the structure
of their teeth, and the length and hairy covering of the tail.

A. amphibius is the Water Rat common on the banks of riv-
ers, brooks, &c.

Geomys, (Gr. 7*7, ge, earth ; <wv?, mus, mouse.) POUCHED RAT,
SAND RAT. (See Plate V., fig 3.)

Of this genus there are several species, having eyes small and
far apart ; small ears ; ten molars above and ten below ; large
and pendulous cheek pouches, opening, (according to Audubon,)
outside of the mouth, and extending in some species along the neck
to near the shoulders. These poaches are cold to the touch and
of an oblong form when distended. This animal has been seen
" when in the act of emptying its pouches into its paws like
a Marmot Squirrel, and squeezing its sacs against the breast with
its fore paws."

7th FAMILY.

Caviada of Tropical America.

The Cavies seem to hold a middle rank between the Mouse
and the Rabbit.

Hydrochoerus, (Gr. 'vdu^j hudor, water ; ZOIQOS, choiros, a hog.)
CAPYBARA, or WATER-HOG, of South America.

This animal attains to the size of a hog of two years old ;
lives on vegetables, sugar-cane and fish. To procure the latter,

138 RODENTIA.

it betakes itself to rivers, swimming as readily as the otter.
Like the Peccary, it is without a tail, and instead of a cloven
hoof, its feet are partly webbed, thus fitting it for its aquatic life.
In its manner of walking and its color, this animal resembles the
pigs ; but when seated on its haunches and watching any object
with one eye, it has the appearance of the Cavies. The Jaguar
destroys it in great numbers.

Cavia Cobaya. The COMMON CAVY or GUINEA PIG. This
animal, which is about as large as a rat, is distinguished for the
beauty and variety of its colors, and the neatness of its appear-
ance and habits. It is a native of South America, but has been
introduced into the Eastern Continent. It is the most prolific of
all the mammalia, producing every two months from six to twelve
young. A single pair soon multiply to the number of 1,000.
It has no tail ; its flesh is tasteless and its skin of little value.

C. Patachonica, the PATAGONIAN CAVY, or HARE-LIKE CAVY,
is a burrowing animal, producing two or th-ree young at a time ;
in its essential details of structure is a Cavy ; but its long legs,
long erect ears, combined with the general form of the head, lead
casual observers to mistake it for the Hare, which in size it sur-
passes, sometimes weighing twenty or thirty pounds.

Dasyprocta, (Gr. daavg, dasus, hairy or bristly, 7tQv)XTog,prdc*
tos, anus.) The yellow-nosed Cavy or AGOUTI of Brazil. This
animal is found in great numbers in South America. It exhibits
some resemblances in form and mode of living to the Hare and
Rabbit, and indeed is called the Rabbit of that region. The
toes have large and powerful claws. The Agouti, when eating,
sits upon its hind quarters, using the fore paws, like squirrels, to
hold its food. This consists ordinarily of yams, potatoes and
other roots, though it is almost omnivorous. It does not burrow,
but takes shelter in hollow trees. These animals are quite pro-
lific, and very destructive to sugar cane, and therefore are caught
and killed by the planters.

Leporida, (Lat. lepus, a hare.) HARE FAMILY. (PI. V. fig. 5.)

The most remarkable difference between this family and the
other Rodents, consists in their having behind the two incisor
teeth common to the group, two additional ones of smaller size
in the upper jaw, making four, which in young ones are increased
to six ; the inside of the mouth and the soles of the feet are hairy ;
the tail is very short or wanting; the eyes are large and promi-
nent ; the hind legs are usually more developed than the fore
ones ; the clavicles wanting ; the fur soft and copious.

Lepus. This genus includes, among other species, Lepus tim-
idus, (Lat. timid.) The Common Hare. L. cuniculus, (Lat.

RODENTIA. 139

Little Rabbit.) L. Total, the TOTAI, of Siberia ; L. Capensis,
of North and South Africa ; on the American Continent, L. na-
nus, (Lat. dwarf,) or Americanus, the American Gray Rabbit.
L. Americanus, the Northern Hare of America ; L. variabilis,
the Alpine Hare ; L. Hibernicus, the Irish Hare. Upwards of
thirty species are known, of which half belong to this continent,
all agreeing in having a short erected tail, and the hind larger
and more muscular than the fore limbs.

The HARE, L. timidus, is as large as a fox, of a grayish brown
color, has long pointed ears, and is a native of Europe. The
fur of this animal is an important article in the hat manufacture,
and its excellent flesh often found in the market. This ani-
mal is remarkable for its extreme vigilance. Its senses are most
acute and its fleetness, in proportion to its size, unrivaled. These
are its means of defence. The general length of the animal is
about two feet ; the color verges towards an iron gray, with the
chin and belly white. The eyes are placed laterally, and they
are said to be constantly open, even during sleep. The usual
and favorite residence of the Hare is in rich and rather dry and
flat grounds. It feeds principally by night and remains con-
cealed during the day; its food consists of herbage of various
kinds. Of parsley it is especially fond. Sometimes it does great
injury to wheat and other grains. So timid is it that it flees on
the slighest alarm if disturbed while feeding. Acting like tubes
applied to the ears of deaf persons, its long ears carry to it re-
mote sounds. In their flight, these animals are apt to exhaust
their powers at their first efforts, and hence are more easily taken
than the slower but more wily foxes. Its voice heard when in
distress or wounded, is like the sharp cry of an infant. In addi-
tion to the persecutions of mankind, it is assailed instinctively by
every kind of dogs, and by the cat and weasel tribes : even birds
of prey, snakes, adders, etc., drive it from its summer lodging
place. This lessens the increase of these animals, which from
their prolific tendencies, would otherwise be greatly multiplied.

The L. variabilis, sometimes called the SCOTCH HARE, is found
not only on the Alps, but on the mountains of Scotland. Its
tawny gray color in summer, is in winter changed to white, ex-
cept the tips of the ears, which are black. In portions of Russia
there is a variety called the Russak, which in Siberia is always
white, but sometimes is entirely coal black. The winter dress
of the American Hare is white, or white tinged with brown ; the
summer dress is more reddish brown with white beneath ; the
ears are but little shorter than the head ; the length is twenty to

140 RODENTIA.

twenty-five inches. It is said to be found from Canada to the
Gulf of Mexico, though its range is not well determined.

L. cuniculus, (Lat. a little rabbit.) The RABBIT resembles the
Gray Squirrel in size and shape ; but when domesticated varies
in these respects. It is native to the warmer parts of the Eastern
Continent; is well known as a burrowing animal, and every-
where domesticated. The most common kind of the Albinos
are the white with red eyes. The flesh of the Rabbit is insipid
and its skin of no value, but its fur is made into gloves, stockings
and hats. It has a litter of five or six young ones every month,
and its great fecundity is in some places nothing short of a ca-
lamity.

L. silvalicus, (Lat. woody, wild,) is the AMERICAN GRAY RAB-
BIT, in its wild state, having a color similar to that of_the Euro-
pean burrowing Rabbit, but it does not change to the different
colors which the European Rabbit shows when domesticated.
L. cattails, (Gr. xafog, kalos, beautiful ; ov$f ous, an ear.)
The BLACK-TAILED HARE, of Mexico and adjacent parts, mottled
with gray and yellowish brown above, and white beneath ; it has
very long ears and long and slender legs and body, fitting it for
long and rapid leaps. This is a very interesting species, and on
account of the length of its ears, called in Texas, the Jackass
Rabbit.

Lagomys, (Gr. Aa/w?, lagds, a hare ; fivg, mus, a mouse.)
This is a genus of the Rodents which is separated from the
Hares proper, and includes four species ; " one, the Pika, in the
northern mountains of the Old World, one in Mongolian Tartary,
one in the south-eastern parts of Russia, and one, (L. princeps,
the Little Chief Hare,) in the Rocky Mountains of North Amer-
ica."— (Audubon.) They lay up winter stores, which is never
done by the true Hares.

QUESTIONS UPON THE RODENTIA.

Give the derivation of Rodentia. How may the animals of this order be
easily known ? What family are an exception to this ? Give some further
account of the teeth of this order. How is the wear of the enamel and
other part of the teeth counteracted ? What is the result if one tooth be
lost? How many species does the order include? How many in North
America ? Which of these is the smallest ? Which the largest ? On what
do the Rodents feed ? How are they kept from overrunning the earth ?
Which are valuable in commerce ? Give the remark of the Pictorial Mu-
seum. Into how many families is the order divided ? Give their names.

How many species does the Squirrel Family include ? Into what two
groups is the* family divided ? Describe the family. Give the derivation
of the generic name. Describe the Common Red S. What is one of the
most common American species? How many varieties of this? What

RQDENTIA. Hi

characteristic of the common Red S. is wanting in this ? What is one
of its most remarkable peculiarities? Describe the Striped or Ground S.
By what other name is it known ? What is the meaning of its name ?
Where is it usually seen ? In what respect does it differ from other S. ?
What is its range ?

Give the derivation of the term Pteromys. How are the Flying Squir-
rels distinguished ? Give some account of the American species.

Give the character of the Marmot Family. What is the derivation of the
term Spermojjhilus ? What animals does this genus, (or sub-genus,) in-
clude ? What is the meaning of the term Ludovicianus ? What is the
cauimon name of this species ? What is said of these animals ? Derive
the term Arctomys. In what respect does it differ from the preceding ?
What is said of the Alpine Marmo^? Describe the Woodchuck. Give the
character of the Jerboas. What ancient writer alludes to them ? Derive
the term Dipus. What is said of the animals of this genus ? Which is
the most common species ? Describe the second genus. What is said of
the Jumping Mouse ? Give some account of the animals included in the
third genus. Describe the Dormouse. What is said of the common D. ?
Of what animals is the Chinchilla the connecting link ? Describe this ani-
mal. Describe the Beaver Family. Give the Greek and Latin terms for
Beaver. Name the most striking peculiarities and habits of the B. Where
is the Musk-rat found? Why is it so called? Give some account
of it. Give the derivation of the term Hystrix. What is the family name ?
What is the distinguishing peculiarity of this family ? Describe its spines.
How does this animal defend itself? What is further said of it ?

Give the derivation of the term Muridce. What is said of this family ?
Into what groups does Dr. De Kay arrange them? What is said of the
Norway or Brown Rat ? Describe tne Common Mouse. Derive the term
Icucophm. Describe this animal. Why is it called the Jumping Mouse ?
Give some account of the Harvest Mouse. What is said of the species in-
cluded in the genus Arvicola? How do these differ from the Mice proper?
What is said of the Gtomys, or Pouched Rat ? What is said of the Cavies ?
What species are particularly named ? Describe the Water Hog of S. A.
What is said of the Guinea Pig? What of the Patagonian or Hare-like
Cavy? What of the Agouti, or yellow-nosed Cavy? What is the deriva-
tion* of the term Leporida? ? What is the chief difference between this
family and other Rodents ? What species are particularly named ? Give
some account of the Common Hare. What is said of the 'Rabbit? What
species of the genus Lcpus is referred to ? What is the derivation of the
term Lagomy* ? How many species does it include ? Does it differ from
the true Hares?

How would you trace the Beaver on the Chart? Ans. fiber IB the spe-
cies, Castor the genus, Rodentia, or Glires, the order, Unguiculata the sub-
class, Mammals the class, Warm-blooded the first division of the sub-king-
dom Vertebrates. Trace the Squirrel and Porcupine in the same way, giv-
ing the meaning of the terms at each step. What other gnawing animals
are mentioned on the Chart?

UNIVERSITY

OF

142 PACHYDERMATA.

SECTION XX.
SECOND SUB-CLASS. UNGULATA.

ORDER 7. PACHYDERMATA, (Gr. na^g, pachus, thick;
derma, skin.)

The animals included in this order are for the most part of
large size; some of them are of truly gigantic proportions, being
the largest of all land animals. They are called PACHYDERMATA,
on account of the massive thickness and solidity of the skin ; a
peculiarity which strikingly distinguishes the more prominent
species. These animals are thinly covered with bristly hairs,
or else almost entirely naked ; and their external appearance is
frequently rough and coarse. They inhabit the warm latitudes
of Asia, Africa and America. One genus. (Sus,) the Wild Boar,
is found wild in Europe; and two or three others, used for pur-
poses of economy, are now almost universally distributed by do-
mestication. The Pachydermata, for the larger part, live upon
vegetable food, such as grasses and watery herbage, and the suc-
culent plants of the tropics. Their molar teeth are compound,
often triple, with flattened crowns; in many there is a peculiar
development of the canines or the incisors into curved and pro-
jecting tusks. The muzzle is frequently produced into a probos-
cis, or trunk, as in the Elephants, Tapirs, and, in a less degree,
in the Hogs.

I. FAMILY PROBOSCIDAE, (Gr. nQo6o;xl$, proboscis, a trunk;)
including the Elephant Mammoth, and Mastodon. These are
MuUungulate, (many -hoofed.)

Elephas, (Gr. 'ettyas, elephas ) The ELEPHANT.

Of this magnificent animal there are two species, Elephas
Indicus, or Asiaticus, and E. Africus. Both species are distin-
guished by their enormous tusks, which project downwards from
the upper jaw of the male Elephants, of India, and of both males
and females, of the African Elephants ; also by the absence of
front teeth from the lower jaw; and by having five hoofs on each
fore foot. The enormously large tusks are seated in the bones,
from which the incisor teeth proceed in other quadrupeds, and
continue to grow while the animal lives. The grinders or molar
teeth strongly resemble those of many of the RODENTIA. These
are made up of a certain number of vertical laminae, each formed
of bone, covered with enamel, and held together by a third sub-
stance, called the cortical, (Lat. cortix, bark.) They are changed
six or eight times in the course of the Elephant's life. The

PACHYDERMATA. 143

manner in which they succeed each other is quite peculiar. The
old tooth is not pushed up by the new one, as is usually the case ;
but the new one appears behind the old one, urging it forward,
so that the latter wears away, and its place is finally taken by
the new comer. The teeth are of immense weight, and with the
tusk, are the most valuable part of the animal. (PI. IV. fig. 7. & 8.)
The tusk is hollow for a great part of its length ; the cavity con-
taining a vascular pulp, which supplies successive layers within,
as the tusk is worn down without. Blumenbach, (see his Compar-
ative Anatomy.) says that some modern naturalists consider the
tusks a species of horn; and that balls with which the animal has
been shot when young, have been found on sawing through the
tusks, imbedded in their substance, in a peculiar manner. These
organs, especially in the African species, are extremely large.
Cuvier has a table showing their great size. The largest recorded
in the table was a tusk sold at Amsterdam, which weighed 350 Ibs.
O.ie possessed by a merchant of Venice, was fourteen feet in
length. The largest in the Paris Museum is nearly seven feet
long, and about five and a half inches in diameter, at the largest
end. Professor Silliman, during his last lour in Europe, measur-
ed one in the British Museum, which was ten feet in length.
One described by Hartenfels, in his Elephantographia, (Gr. Ele-
phas, Elephant ; grapho, to write,) exceeded fourteen feet. Or-
dinarily, the tusk of the Indian Elephant does not weigh more
than from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The first or milk tusks,
never attain much size ; but are shed between the first and second
year ; and the permanent tusks of the female are very small, in
comparison with those of the male. The feet have five toes,
"encrusted," as Cuvier says, in the callous skin which covers
the foot, and appearing in the hoof by the nails alone The foot
is enclosed in a horny shoe or sock, which, when detached, pre-
sents a cavity that is quite tight, and used by orientalists as a ves-
sel to contain their food Professor Silliman measured the shoe
of an Elephant, in the British Museum, and found it five feet in
circumference. (Plate VI. fig. 9.)

The immense weight of the head, renders indispensable a pow-
erful muscular apparatus, and to that end a large surface for the
insertion of muscles is necessary. The extended surface of the
head gives full room for the attachment of the muscles of the
neck. These muscles are most powerful, not only supporting
the neck, but assisting the animal in digging or employing the
tusks as means of defence. The vertebrae of the neck are more
fully developed than in the Ruminantia, and the spinous processes
in the vertebrae of the back, are lengthened and strong. The

114 PACHYDERM ATA.

entire structure is well compared to the Cyclopean walls of some
ancient city, huge, shapeless, and piled over against each other as
if destined rather to sustain weight, than to permit motion. The
internal organization, as a whole, is more simple than that of the
Ruminants ; but still Elephants feed on nearly the same sort of
food. The stomach is of a very lengthened and narrow form, its
greatest diameter being only about one-fourth of its length.
There seems to be a receptacle, though less extensive than that
of the Camel, to enable the Elephant to retain or secrete water
that may be used for moistening its food, but at times is also used
to disturb the insects, which during a march, or in hot weather,
annoy or torment it.

^But the trunk is unquestionably the most remarkable part of
this animal's structure. This is properly a continuation of the
nose, and becomes more valuable as an organ of prehension, from
the unwieldy size of the head, and the shortness of the neck. It
is an organ of respiration, as well as prehension ; and it is also a
delicate organ of touch and smell. The short neck, made neces-
sary by the weight of the head and tusks, prevents the Elephant
from putting its head to the ground, or from stooping to the water's
edge ; but for this disability it is fully compensated in the advan-
tage of the trunk. This extraordinary organ has, according to
Cuvier, not much less than 40,000 muscles, which enable the
Elephant to shorten, lengthen, coil up, or move it in any direction.
Its structure is cartilaginous, and composed of numerous rings;
a partition runs from one end of it to the other, so that although
outwardly it appears like a single pipe, it is inwardly divided
into two. "Endowed with exquisite sensibility; nearly eight
feet in length, and stout in proportion to the massive size of the
whole animal, this organ, at the volition of the Elephant, will
uproot trees, or gather grass ; raise a piece of artillery, or pick
up a comfit ; kill a man, or brush off a fly. It conveys the food
to the mouth, and pumps up the enormous drafts of water, which
by its recurvature, are turned into it, and driven down the capa-
cious throat, or showered over the body." Through the trunk
the Elephant uses his trumpet-like voice ; the end has two open-
ings or nostrils, like those of a hog, and also a finger-like append-
age, with which he picks up small objects. His skin is usually
of a brownish gray color, sometimes slightly mottled with flesh
color ; generally it is full of scratches and scars, which it re-
ceives in its passage through thick woods and thorny places.
The form of the head varies with the animal's age ; and it in-
creases immensely in those of full growth. The tail is long, and
has a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the ground. The strength

PACHYDERMATA. 145

of the Elephant in union with its capacity, renders it a most effi-
cient aid, where extraordinary animal force is required, as in
dragging ships, heavy stores and ordnance. Its ordinary pace is
equal to that of the horse at an easy trot. A consideration of the
velocity of its motion, as compared with the mass of its body, may
help one to judge of its very great force. Many arduous and
difficult military operations in the East have been much indebted
to the sagacity, patience and strength of the Elephant. The
height varies considerably. The East India Company's standard
for serviceable Elephants is "seven feet and upwards, measured
at the shoulders, in the same manner as horses are.3' It has
been said, they reach the height of seventeen or twenty feet ; but
there is reason to believe they seldom exceed ten feet in height.
Those from Pegu and Siam are much larger than those of Hin-
dostan.

The Elephant has long been the companion of the Orientalist,
in great hunting parties, (see border of the chart.) and from a
very early period, has been made to minister to the wanton and
cruel pleasures of Eastern princes, by being stimulated to com-
bat, not only with other Elephants, but with various wild animals.
The ivory of these animals, which is now sought for useful pur-
poses, and also for minor ornaments, was in great request with the
ancient Greeks and Romans, for various domestic uses, as well
as for the Chrys-elephantine Statuary, (Gr. Chrusos, gold ; Ele-
pJias, elephant,) of Phidias, such as the Minerva of the Parthenon,
and the Olympian Jupiter.

The exports of the tusks from the East have been, and still
continue to be, large. In 1831-2, those to Great Britain alone,
amounted to 4,130 cwt. ; a weight of ivory, taking the average
of the tusks to be sixty Ibs. weight, involving the destruction of
from 4.500 to 5,000 Elephants. It is said 45,000 tusks are now
annually consumed in Sheffield, (England,) alone. The West-
ern and Eastern coasts of Africa ; the Cape of Good Hope ; Cey-
lon ; India ; and the countries to the east of the straits of Malacca,
are the marts whence the supplies of ivory are obtained. The
chief consumption of this article in England, is in the manufac-
ture of handles for knives; but it is extensively used for other
purposes. Ivory articles are manufactured to a greater extent at
Dieppe, on the French sea-coast, than in any other place in Eu-
rope. In preparations of ivory, the Chinese excel. No Europe-
an artist has, we believe, succeeded in cutting concentric balls
after the manner of the Chinese ; and their boxes and other ivory
articles are decidedly superior to any that are to be met with
elsewhere.

146 PACHYDERMATA.

Though captured in India, and reduced to servitude, and ex-
tensively hunted in Africa, on account of his tusks, the Elephant
is still found in great numbers in remote, secluded districts of the
East, where large streams or rivers running through a wide and
level region, are fringed by a luxuriant vegetation. A traveler
who accompanied some Elephant hunters in South Africa, was
told by an experienced hunter that he had seen as many as three
thousand in a troop, ranging along the banks of the Fish river.
" A herd of Elephants," says Pringle, " browsing in majestic tran-
quility amidst the wild magnificence of an African landscape, is
a very noble sight, and one of which I shall never forget the im-
pression." Sometimes they "tear up immense numbers of mi-
mosa trees, sprinkled over grassy meadows, which border the
river's margin." Of the soft and juicy roots of these and other
trees, they are very fond. In overturning the trees, they some-
times employ their tusks as we do a crowbar, thrusting them un-
der the roots to weaken their hold of the earth, and facilitate the
work of tearing up the trees with their proboscis.

The Elephant is known to have a strong relish for sweetmeats
and arrack, a spirituous liquor distilled from rice ; and by these
things is occasionally encouraged to perform tasks requiring
great skill and labor. In plantations of sugar cane, he revels
with great delight. Sometimes he adopts curious methods to grat-
ify his love of sweet things. "It chanced that a Cooley, laden
with jaggery, which is a coarse preparation of sugar, was sur-
prised in a narrow pass in the kingdom of Candy, by a wild Ele-
phant. The poor fellow, intent upon saving his life, threw down
the burthen, which the Elephant devoured; and being well
pleased with the repast, determined not to allow any person egress
or ingress who did not provide him with a similar banquet. The
pass formed one of the principal thoroughfares to the capital; and
the Elephant taking up a formidable position at the entrance,
obliged every passenger to pay tribute. It soon became known
that a donation of jaggery would ensure a safe conduct through
the guarded portal, and no one presumed to attempt the passage
without the expected offering."

The Elephant possesses all the senses in great perfection ; that
of smelling is in him exquisite. He is not often bred in captivity,
it being found more advantageous to take a well grown animal
from a wild herd, and discipline it for service. In captivity, it is
very docile and gentle, but when provoked will take full revenge.
This, some who visit menageries have found out to their sorrow.
All Elephants are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge
themselves, so far that nothing but the end of their trunk remains

PACHYDERM ATA. 147

above the surface. There are various modes of capturing these
animals. One of these is by decoy Elephants, which are well
trained to their work. With two of these decoys, the hunters
proceed into the woods. The females advance quietly, and by
their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate
male that they meet, that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs
together and fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions
then forsake him. At length he is subdued by hunger and the
fatigue of efforts to free himself from his bonds, and then the
hunters drive him home between their two tame Elephants.
When once captured, he is easily trained.

When in captivity, maternal affection does not seem strong in
the elephant; but in the wild state, the animal has given striking
illustrations of such affection, as well as of marital and filial
love. The young animal is exceedingly playful. It becomes
mature when between 18 and 24 years of age, and usually lives
to a great age; Aristotle says, "more than 200 years;" it has
sometimes lived even more than 400 years.

The Elephant appears deeply susceptible of influence from
kindness. The natives in the East are wont to address him with
persuasive and endearing epithets, which he seems to compre-
hend and by which he is stimulated to exertion. Sometimes his
actions and display of comprehension appear almost the result of
a reasoning process. An officer who served in India remarks,
"I have myself often seen the wife of a ?nohont, (for the officers
often take their families with them to the camp,) give a baby in
charge to an Elephant while she went on some business, and
have been highly interested in observing the sagacity and care
of the unwieldy nurse."

Memory, which, as well as instinct, is given to animals for
their well being, seems to have great strength in the Elephant.
An illustration of this remark is given by Mr. Corse, in the
Phil. Tran., and quoted by Swainson in his "Habits and In-
stincts of Animals," "An Elephant which had escaped, arid
which was subsequently captured in company with a herd of
wild Elephants, after an interval of eighteen months, was recog-
nized by one of the drivers. When any person approached the
animal, he appeared wild and outrageous as the other animals,
and attempted to strike the person approaching him with his trunk,
until an old hunter, riding boldly up to him on a tame Elephant,
ordered him to lie down, pulling him by the ear at the same time,
upon which the animal seemed quite taken by surprise, and in-
stantly obeyed the word of command with as much quickness as
the ropes with which he was tied permitted, uttering, at the same

7

143 PACHYDERM ATA.

time, a peculiar shrill squeak through his trunk, as he had for-
mer.ly been known to do. By this circumstance, he was imme-
diately recognized by every person who had been acquainted
with his peculiarity."

When bogged in swamps, the elephant shows a sagacity which
is remarkable. "The cylindrical form of his leg, which is
nearly of equal thickness, causes the animal to sink very deep
in heavy ground, especially in the muddy banks of small rivers.
When thus situated, the animal will endeavor to lie on his side,
so as to avoid sinking deeper ; and for this purpose will avail
himself of every means to obtain relief. The usual method of
extricating him is by supplying him liberally with straw, boughs,
grass, &c. These materials being thrown to the distressed ani-
mal, he forces them down with his trunk, till they are lodged
under his fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure.
Having thus formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious
animal next proceeds to thrust other bundles under his belly and
as far back under the flanks as he can reach ; when such a ba-
sis is formed as may be to him proper to proceed upon, he throws
his whole weight forward and gets his hind feet gradually upon
the straw, &c. Being once confirmed on a solid footing, he will
next place the succeeding bundles before him, pressing them well
with his trunk, so as to form a causeway by which to reach the
firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and probably the ex-
perience of his. past danger, actuate him not to bear any weight
definitely, until by trial both with his trunk and the next foot that
is to be planted, he has completely satisfied himself of the firm-
ness of the ground he is to tread upon." — (Swainson.)

The general characters and habits of the two species E. Asi-
aticus and E. Africus, are the same, and yet there are some
points of difference. The Elephant of India has a head or skull
almost pyramidal in form ; that of the African species is more
rounded in contour. The tusks and ears of the latter are the
larger. So enormously large are the ears that they cover the
animal's shoulders, and are often " used by the natives as a sort
of truck, upon which to draw various loads." The teeth, too,
are different in numbers, the African species having eight mo-
lars, whereas the Asiatic has but four, and they are in the for-
mer also differently marked ; the Asiatic is the larger in its frame
and its color is a paler brown, and it has four nails on each hind
foot, while the African has only three ; it is considered essential
to the perfection of the Asiatic Elephant that it have eighteen
nails, five on each fore foot, and four on each hind one. The

PACHYDERMATA. 149

Asiatic species is also deemed the superior of the two in point
of sagacity ; though Cuvier was of the opinion that even this
species does not in intelligence surpass the dog, an opinion that
finds corroboration in the size of the Elephant's brain, which is
estimated to be only jfa part of his body, while in man the
brain is -J^ part.

E. primigenius, (Lat. primus, first; gigno,to produce.) The
MAMMOTH.

This is the name of an extinct species of Proboscida, remains
of which have been discovered in the tertiary fresh water de-
posits of the Eastern and Western Continents. Abundant re-
mains of this species have been found in the frozen mud of Rus-
sian America ; they have also been traced in smaller quantities
as far south in the United States as Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri and
North and South Carolina. The Chart figures one of these ani-
mals dug up at Newburg, N. Y., twelve feet high and fourteen
feet long. Mammoth bones and tusks occur throughout Russia,
and particularly in Eastern Siberia. The skeleton of one six-
teen and one-half feet in length, obtained in Siberia, and having
the skin attached to the head and feet, is preserved in the muse-
um at St. Petersburg. The hair of this specimen consists of
two kinds, common hair and bristles ; showing in the arctic char-
acter of its clothing that it was capable of living in high northern
latitudes, like the Rein-Deer and Musk-Ox of the present day.
It is inferred from the teeth of these animals that their food did
not probably differ much from that now used by their survivors in
tropical countries.

E. AmericaniLs. AMERICAN ELEPHANT.

Dr. De Kay, (N. Y. S. N., 189,) designates a species under
this name from specimens of teeth found in a diluvial formation
near the Irondiquoit river, in Munroe County, ten miles east of
Rochester.

Mastodon, (Gr. fiaarog, mastos, a nipple or udder ; oSovg, odous>
a tooth.) (Plate IV. fig. 9.)

This is the name of an extinct genus of gigantic Pachyderms
whose remains are found abundantly in tertiary and sometimes in
secondary deposits. The animal must have equaled or exceeded the
elephant in bulk, and greatly resembled him in shape ; the tusks,
proboscis, and the general conformation of the body and the limbs
were similar. The principal distinction between the two genera
was formed by the molar teeth, the crown of which, unlike those
of the elephant, exhibited, on cutting the gum, large conical
points of a mammiform structure, whence the animal derived its
name. The whole number of teeth was twenty-six. The Mas-

150 PACHYDERM ATA.

todon was probably less exclusively herbivorous than the ele-
phant* "There is scarcely a state east and south of the Hudson
River which has not afforded specimens of the Mastodon." The
gen'is pjmbraces species which " have been found in almost every
partof the world, and in all latitudes." The term mammoth, which
wa& specially applied by the inhabitants of Siberia to a fossil
elephant, has sometimes been improperly given to this animal.

M. gigaitfeus, now one of the attractions of the British Muse-
um, was found near the banks of the river La Pomme de Terre,
a branch of the O.sage River, in Burton Co., Missouri, imbedded
in a brown sandy deposit, full of the remains of cypress, tropical
cane, swamp moss, stems of palmetto, &c. Five arrow heads
were found with the remains, which were 20 feet 2 inches long,
and 9 feet 6| inches high. These remains were exhibited in
London in 1842-3, under the name of the Missouri Leviathan.
At the Bi<j Bone Lick, in Kentucky, were discovered the re-
mains of 1*00 Mastodons and 20 Mammoths, with bones of the
Megalonyx Stag. The grinders have been dug up in the streets
of London. Mr. Woodward, in his Geology of Norfolk, Eng.,
suysthat "upwards of 2,000 have been dredged up by the fisher-
men, of Happisburgh in thirty years." On the Hudson River,
remains of the Mastodon have been repeatedly discovered. About
three years ago, a very fine specimen was discovered in the in-
clined side of a marshy declivity, a few miles from the city of
Poughkeepsie.

II. SUID.E, (Lat. sus, a swine or hog.) (Four hoofs.)

The SWINE FAMILY.

This is a family of the PACHYDERMS, highly valuable to man as
food. The animals of which it is composed are characterized
by having on each foot two large principal toes, shod with stout
hoofs, and two lateral toes which are snorter and hardly touch
the earth. "The incisor teeth are variable in number, but the
lower incisors are all leveled forwards; the canines are pro-
jected from the mouth and recurved upwards." The mu-zzle
terminates in a truncated snout adapted for turning up theground.
Ten species are enumerated as belonging to this family.

Sus scrqfa, (Lat. scrofa, an old sow.) The HOG, or WILD
BOAR.

The well known Hog is the domesticated descendant of the
Wild Boar, an animal still found in the larger forests of Europe,
Asia, and the Northern parts of Africa. The wild race may,
however, be distinguished from the domestic breed by the color,

PACHYDERM ATA. 151

which is a dark grizzled brown, by the longer limbs, the small,
erect ears, the greater development of the snout, and by a more
bony appearance.

In his native retreats, the Wild Boar is a truly formidable ani-
mal, and the hunt of it exciting and dangerous ; for this fierce
and powerful animal is armed with long, curved and sharp tusks,
capable of inflicting severe and fatal wounds. After he has
passed his fifth year, he becomes less dangerous, on account of
the increased size of his tusks, which so turn up as often to hin-
der rather than assist his design of wounding with them. In the
wooded regions of Europe, the. chase of the Wild Boar is still
continued, and it is also one of the most exciting sports of orien-
tal countries. It is not now found in its natural state in Great
Britain, but formerly it there rioted in the dense forests; and in
so high estimation was the chase of the animal held, that by a
forest law of William, the Conqueror, any who were found guilty
of killing a Wild Boar had their eyes put out ! The lair is gen-
erally in some wild, retired spot, not far from water, and com-
manding, by some devious path, an entrance to the open country.
The young, or Marcassins, as they are termed by the French
are striped with longitudinal bands.

The Domestic Hog, (Sus scrofa,) differs from the wild animal
principally in having smaller tusks and ears larger, somewhat
pendant, and of a more pointed form. It is known that it varies
considerably in color as well as in size, but the prevailing cast is
a dull yellowish white, marked or spotted irregularly with black ;
sometimes it is perfectly plain or unspotted, sometimes rufous, and
sometimes totally black.

The Hog is, of all quadrupeds, the most gross in his manners,
and is generally esteemed the very image of impurity. The
Jews were forbidden to eat his flesh, probably from the tendency
to cutaneous disease growing out of its use in the East ; and the
Mahometans follow the same prohibition. Late experiments
with this animal, as kept for domestic uses, go to show that some
injustice has been done and losses incurred, by the opinions
which have been long entertained as to its proclivity for dirt and
mud. If fairly treated, it is by no means a dirty animal, and
most judicious farmers find their account in reforming the pens
of hogs so that they be kept in a cleanly condition, instead of be-
ing saturated with filth. However fond of wallowing in the mire,
yet, " with plenty of dry litter, space and water, the hog will
keep himself scrupulously clean and will thrive all the better.
Even the trouble of washing and currying him frequently will
be well repaid. Wood's Natural History contains an imputa-

152 PACHYDERMATA.

lion against the Hog, which we do not remember to have seen or
heard of before. "I have," says he, "seen pigs suck the cows
in a farm yard, while they were lying down and chewing the
cud, nor did the cows attempt to repel them."

The Hog is remarkably prolific, bringing forth two litters in
the year, of from eight to twelve, and sometimes fifteen or twenty
each. It is plain, therefore, that they would soon become annoy -
ingly numerous were they not diminished by being used for the
support of man. Though perfectly useless during life, they are
among the most important of the animals which are reared for
the value of their flesh as human food. None convert a given
quantity of corn or other nutriment so soon into fat, or can be
made fat on so great a variety of food. "Their flesh," says
Linneeus, " is wholesome food for persons of athletic constitu-
tions, or those who habituate themselves to much exercise, but
improper for such as lead sedentary lives." It is an article of
great importance to us as a naval and commercial nation, as it
takes salt better than any other kind of flesh, and hence can be
longer preserved. " The largest animals are not the best.
Fertility, a capacity of fattening with rapidity and with the least
expense, the smallness of the bones, and the firmness and sweet-
ness of the flesh, with its readiness to receive salt, are objects
of higher importance than mere bulk." The introduction of
the Chinese Hog, it is said, has in some places made great
changes in the native breeds. This breed is remarkable for
productiveness. Cuvier believed it to be specifically differ-
ent from the wild Boar. It is of "small size, short and thick;
the belly deep, and when fat nearly reaching the ground ;
the legs short and fine; the head very short; the neck thick."
The pork of the Chinese animal is particularly delicate; but
the common breeds are said to "yield the best bacon and
hams."

The senses of the Hog are acute, especially that of smelling.
The broad snout ploughs up the herbage, and not a root, an in-
sect or a worm, escapes the olfactory sense. The animal is not
stupid as compared with many quadrupeds, and when treated
with kindness, sometimes evinces strong attachment. That it is
docile is proved by the number of "learned pigs," and by "the
famous sporting sow that went regularly out with the gun, and
stood her game as staunch as any pointer,"

& Bdbirussa, (native word, Hog deer.) The BABYROUSSA.

This animal is nearly the size of a common hog, but differs
from it in some marked respects. The form is longer and light-

PACHYDERM ATA. 153

er; the limbs more slender, and of greater length. The skin is
black, naked and warty, and when closely "examined found to be
sparingly set with short bristly hairs. It is remarkable for pos-
sessing four tusks The two recurved tusks of the upper jaw,
instead of passing out between the lips, pierce through the skin
half way between the eyes and the end of the snout, turning up-
wards towards the forehead, like the horns of the Ruminantia ;
the tusks of the lower jaw are also very long, sharp and curved;
but not of equal magnitude with those of the upper. The tusks
are very fine ivory, but neither so hard nor so durable as that of
the Elephant ; the eyes are small ; the ears erect and pointed ;
the tail rather long and slender, and tufted at the end with long
hairs. The food of the Babyroussa consists chiefly of vegeta-
bles, and the leaves of trees. When hunted closely, and in ap-
parent danger, this animal takes to the water, and by facility in
swimming, alternately diving and rising, is frequently able to
escape from its pursuers. It is said that it "crosses without diffi-
culty the straits that intervene between neighboring islands."
It is capable of being domesticated, and its flesh is palatable and
well adapted for food. The Indians ascribe these animals to a
union of the Hog and the Deer. The Babyroussas abound in the
Molucca islands, and are also found in a few other islands of the
Indian Archipelago.

Two of these animals, (one of each sex,) were brought to
France, some years since, and kept in the Paris Menagerie.
" The female was much younger, and more active than the male,
which was aged and very fat, and spent his short life in eating,
drinking and sleeping. The female bred once after her arrival
in Europe. When the male retired to rest, she would cover him
completely over with litter, and then creep in under the straw to
him, so that both were concealed from sight. They died of dis-
eased lungs, about three years after their arrival."

Phacochoerus, (Gr. qoax6g, phakos, lentil ; %oigos, choiros, hog.)
The WARTY HOG.

^his genus of the Pachydermata, found in Africa, is allied to
the Swine, and from the projecting appendages about the head,
called Warty-hog. Its feet are formed like those of the True
Hog. Some of them have but sixteen, others twenty-four teeth,
while the common hog has forty-four, and the Babyroussa thirty-
two. Of the two species, one has incisors, the other none; both
have tusks, lateral and directed upwards. Their system of den-
tition points them out as more herbivorous than omnivorous.

P, Aeliani, Aelian's Wart-Hog, is a native of the north of
Africa. This, at all ages, has incisor teeth in the upper and the

154 PACHYDERMATA.

lower jaw, which clearly distinguishes it from the Wart-Hog of
the Cape Colony. •

The skin of this animal is scantily bristled and of an earthy
color. A mane, commencing between the ears, runs abng the
neck and back, made up of long bristly hairs, some of them ten
inches long. These bristles and those found on the other parts
of the body, are light brown. With the exception of the back,
the body has a naked appearance. The head is broad along the
brow, which is rather depressed ; the eyes are small and very
high up on the head ; and two large warts appear, one on or near
the cheek, called the larger wart, and the smaller one along side
the cheek. These warts are formed of thickened skinny tissue;
are smaller in this species than in the Wart-Hog of the Cape.
The eyes are small; the tail thin, and nearly bare, with a tuft
of hair at the end. On the fore feet is a piece of thick, hard,
protuberant skin. These animals haunt low bushes, and forests,
creeping on their bent fore feet, in search of food, and in tin's
posture, digging up the roots of plants on which they feed with
their enormous canine teeth ; the hind legs pushing the body for-
ward as it moves in this position.

P. Aethiopicus, or Aethiopian Wart-Hog, has larger warts than
the preceding, and a more singularly formed head.

Dicotyles, (Gr. dig, dis, two ; xoruL/, kotule, hollow, or cavity.)
The PECCARIES.

These animals are native to South America ; of a short, com-
pact form, thickly covered on the upper parts of the body with
large and strong dark colored bristles, and marked by yellowish
white rings; and round the neck is usually a whitish band or col-
lar. By their general appearance and propensities, they are
closely allied to the True Swine; but they differ from them in
respect to their teeth, having four instead of six incisors in the
upper jaw, and six instead of seven molars on each side ; their
tusks also differ from those of the common hog, not turning up
and projecting out of the mouth, but having the usual direction as
in other animals; the hind feet have only three toes, the external
toe on each foot being absent; and the limbs are more slender,
the head shorter, and the snout longer than in the common hog.
The tail is merely rudimentary, and not visible. The most deci-
ded characteristic is its having a glandular opening on the loins,
which secretes a fetid and disgusting odor, infecting the flesh
when the animal is killed, unless immediately cut away; in that
case it is tolerable food. There are two species of the Peccary.

Dicotyles lorquatus, (Lat. torques, a collar.) The COLLARED
PECCARY, li has its name " Collared" from a line of white which

PACHYDERMATA. 155

passes from the fore part of the neck, obliquely upwards, to meet
over the shoulders ; is found in Mexico, as well as in the greater
part of South America. The food of this species consists of
acorns, roots, and earth worms, and similar creatures, bred in
moist and marshy places. The Collared Peccary has been do-
mesticated in South America, and some of the West India islands,
and in the domestic state is fed upon the same esculents as the
common hogs, but its flesh is far inferior to theirs, both in flavor
and fatness. "The comparative infertility of the Peccary, which
only produces two young at a birth, is a bar to its superseding
the domestic pig, which is equally fertile in all climates where it
has been introduced." The gland also, presents a strong objec-
tion to the Peccary, as a domestic animal, however " neat and
trim" it may be in its general habits and appearance. It is said
that D'Azara "revelled in its scent, as a perfume," and that oth-
ers have considered it "agreeable enough,'3 but to most persons it
proves extremely offensive. These animals haunt the thickest
and largest forests, dwelling in hollow trees, or holes in the earth
made by other animals. They go in pairs or small families,
laying waste the cultivated fields and plantations of maize or
sugar cane, if not driven from them ; but they are not common in
the vicinity of villages.

D. labiatus, (Lat. lipped.) The WHITE-LIPPED PECCARY.

This is larger, stronger and heavier than the Collared Peccary,
often measuring three and a half feet long, and sometimes weigh-
ing one hundred pounds, whereas the Collared species seldom ex-
ceed three feet in length, or weigh more than fifty pounds. The
prevailing color is brown ; the lips are white. The White-lipped
Peccaries are found in numerous bands, sometimes, as is said,
amounting to upwards of a thousand, spreading over a league of
ground, and directed, the natives say, by a leader who takes his
station in front of the troop. They cross rivers, and ravage
plantations on their march. "If they meet with any thing unu-
sual on their way, they make a terrific clattering with their teeth,
and stop and examine the object of their alarm. When they
have ascertained that there is no danger, they continue their route
without further delay."

Rliinoceros, (Gr. glv or gig, rin or ris, a nose ; xtgag, keras, a horn.)
THE RHINOCEROS.

This large uncouth looking creature is a native of the hotter
regions of the Eastern Continent, and next to the Elephant, the
most powerful of all quadrupeds. There are several species of

156 PACHYDERM ATA.

this animal, of which the chief peculiarity is the horn, consisting
of fibres matted together like those of whalebone.

R. unicorms, (one-horned,) or R. Indicus, the common E. In-
dian Rhinoceros, is usually about twelve feet long, and seven in
height, and the, circumference of the body is nearly equal to its
length. This species, as the name unicornis imports, has but one
horn, slightly curved, and sharpened to a point, not far from
three feet in length, and used as a most powerful and effective
weapon. The upper lip protrudes considerably, and from its ex-
treme pliability, answers the purpose of a small proboscis. The
skin is thick and coarse, and has a knotted or granulated surface ;
it is disposed in several folds, on the neck and shoulders. The
legs are very short, strong and thick ; and the feet divided into
three large hoofs. (Plate "VI. fig. 10.) The Rhinoceros of India
leads a quiet, indolent life, in the shady forests, or wallowing in the
marshy borders of lakes and rivers, in the waters of which it occa-
sionally bathes. Its movements are usually slow, and it carries its
head low like the hog, ploughing up the ground with its horn, and
forcing its way through jungles. Pennant and others are of the
opinion that this is the Unicorn of the Holy Scriptures. The female
brings forth one young at a time. The ordinary food of the In-
dian Rhinoceros consists of herbage, and the branches of trees.
The flesh is said to be not unpalatable. One of these animals,
which was taken to England, in 1790, ate twenty-eight pounds
of clover, the same quantity of ship biscuit, together with a great
quantity of greens, each day ; and twice or three times a day,
five pails of water were given to him. The Asiatic specimen in
the Zoological Gardens, London, is fed on clover, straw, rice and
bran. The skeleton of this animal approximates to that of the
Tapir and the Horse ; the stomach is more like that of a man or
a hog. It has thirty-six teeth, twenty-one of which are molar,
but none of them canines.

R. Javanacus. The Rhinoceros of Java. This has less rough
or prominent folds than those of the Indian Rhinoceros ; its range
extends from the level of the ocean to the summit of mountains
which are considerably elevated. Marsden, the Missionary, in
his "History of Sumatra," says, that "both the one and the two
horned Rhinoceros are natives of the woods;" and he denies the
stories which have been told "of the desperate encounters of these
two enormous beasts."

R. Sumatrensis, or Bicornis, (Lat. two-horned.) The Rhino-
ceros of Sumatra, has a skin covered with stiff brown hairs, and
almost altogether without folds, and it has a second horn behind
the ordinary one, in this respect resembling the African animal.

PACHYDERM ATA. IT) 7

The Rhinoceros is not uncommon in Sumatra, but is very shy,
and therefore rarely seen.

R. Africanus. The animals of this species range over a large
part of Africa. They were formerly common in the vicinity of
Cape Town, but their present limit on the South West coast is
the twenty-third degree of latitude. In the interior of the conti-
nent, the tribe is still very numerous, but less so than in Asia.
This species differs from the Asiatic in having a comparatively
smooth hide, while almost all the Asiatic species have a very
coarse one, which is covered with large folds, not unlike a coat
of mail. Four distinct varieties are said to exist in South Afri-
• ca, two of a dark, and two of a whitish hue, called the " black"
and the " white" Rhinoceros. The common Black Rhinoceros,
Rhinoceros bicornis, is called by the natives the "Boiele;" the
other, the "Keitloa," Rhinoceros keilloa.

The upper lip in both species of the black Rhinoceros is capa-
ble of extension, and is so pliable as to twist round a stick, collect
its food, or seize any thing which it would carry to its mouth.
These animals are very fierce, and except the Buffalo, perhaps,
the most dangerous of all the beasts of South Africa.

Of the white Rhinoceros, the two varieties are R. simus, the
common white Rhinoceros, called Monoohoo, by the natives, and
R. Oswellii, the KOBAABA, or long horned White Rhinoceros.
The chief difference between these two species, relates to the
horns, the front horn of the Monoohoo averages about two feet in
length ; that of the Kobaaba frequently is more than four feet.
The latter variety is least often found, and confined to the more
interior portions of Southern Africa.

The White Rhinoceros is of larger size than the black. The
head is so prolonged that it is nearly one-third part of the entire
length of the body, which is from fourteen to sixteen feet; the
nose is square; the anterior horn is longer; the disposition of the
animal milder, and the flesh better tasted than that of the black
species. Its food is grass. The black species are very sullen
and savage in their disposition. Their flesh is lean, and of an
acrid taste, given to it by the "Wait-a-bit" thorn bushes, on
which they feed, ploughing them up with their short horn.

The body of the R. Simus, (between fourteen and sixteen feet
long, and ten or twelve round,) is exceeded in size only by that
of the Elephant ; its belly is large and hangs near the ground ;
the legs are short, round arid very strong ; and the hoofs divided
into three parts, each pointing forward. The head is large; the
ears long and erect ; the eyes small and sunken, or deep set in
the head. The horns are not affixed to the skull, but attached to

158 PACHYDERM ATA.

the skin, resting, however, in some degree, on a bony protuber-
ance above the nostrils. They take a high polish, and are worth
half as much as Elephant's ivory, being much used for sword-
handles, drinking-cups, rifle-ramrods, etc. People of fashion at
the Cape, have the cups set in silver and gold. The Turks be-
lieve these cups will split asunder and fly into pieces, if poison
be put into them ! Even the chips and turnings of the horns are
carefully preserved, being esteemed of great benefit in convulsions,
faintings, and many other illnesses. The Rhinoceros is noctur-
nal in his habits, commencing his rambles at dusk, and visiting
the pools or fountains between the hours of nine and twelve
o'clock at night. Having wandered until sunrise, he spends the
day in sleep, under the shelter of some rock or tree. All the
beasts dread him — the lion avoids him — even the elephant, should
they meet, retreats, if possible, without hazarding a combat, and
he will also fight his own species. His hearing and smell are
acute, but his sight is not good. The Rhinoceros is not gregari-
ous, but yet of a social turn, and usually goes in pairs; some-
times browses and pastures in droves of a dozen.

The best time to shoot these animals is when they go to the
pools to quench their thirst and wallow in the mire, which they
always do once in twenty-four hours. Occasionally the Rhi-
noceros, like the Elephant, is taken in pitfalls. The mother is
affectionate and guards her offspring with tender care. The
young also show strong attachment to the mother, clinging to her
for days after she has been killed. The general appearance of
the African Rhinoceros is that of an immense hog, with the bris-
tles off, excepting a tuft at the extremity of the ears and tail ; it
has no hair whatever, and is the "very image of ugliness."
The full grown male of the common white species, weighs not
less than four or five thousand pounds, or as much as three good
sized oxen. The Rhinoceros is long lived, attaining, as is
thought, the age of one hundred years. Un wieldly as he ap-
pears, he is still swift of foot, at least this is true of the black
species. Gordon Gumming, in his "Adventures in Africa,"
says, "that a horse with a rider, can rarely manage to overtake
it." The food of this animal consists of vegetables, grasses,
shoots of trees, and all kinds of grain ; but it is not a voracious
feeder. The statement that the hide of the rhinoceros is " im-
penetrable to a bullet," is now regarded as pure myth ; for "a
common leaden ball will find its way through the hide with the
greatest facility." In consequence of the solid structure of the
head, and the great thickness of the hide in that part, and the
smallnessof the brain, a shot aimed at the head rarely proves fatal.

PACHYDERM ATA. 159

The cavity of the brain in this animal holds but one quart, while
that of the human skull will contain nearly three pints. How.
ever severely wounded, the Rhinoceros seldom bleeds externally ;
the hide being so thick and elastic and not firmly attached to the
body, but constantly moving, the hole made by a bullet almost
immediately closes up. Very many of these animals are an-
nually destroyed in South Africa. Anderson, from whom we
gathered many of the particulars here given, states, in bis "Lake
Ngami," that Messrs. Oswell and Vardon killed^ in one year,
eighty-nine of these animals, and that he himself, " single handed,
killed in the same time nearly two-thirds of that number. Gum-
ming, in his " Adventures," states that these animals are attended
by what are called " Rhinoceros-birds," which stick their bills in
the ear of the Rhinoceros, and uttering a harsh, grating cry,
warn him of impending danger. These birds feed upon the
ticks and other parasitic insects which swarm upon these animals.

Hippopotamus, (Gr. tunas, hippos, a horse ; noiafuos, polamos,
a river.) The RIVER HORSE. (Four- hoofed.)

This gigantic inhabitant of the African rivers is formidable in
his strength, and in bulk inferior only to the Elephant. The
ancients named him River- Horse, on account of the similarity
of his voice to that of a horse. The form of this animal is in
the highest degree uncouth ; the body being extremely large, fat
and round ; the legs very short and clumsy. So low, indeed, at
times is the animal in the body, that the belly almost brushes the
ground. The head is exceedingly large, the mouth of enormous
width, and the teeth of vast size and strength. (Plate IV. fig. 6.)
The canines or tusks of these animals, of which there are two in
each jaw, sometimes measure more than two feet in length, and
weigh upwards of six pounds each ; so hard and strong are they
that they strike fire with steel, which gave rise to the fable of the
ancients that the River-Horse vomits fire from his mouth. The
tusks of the lower jaw are always the hardest. The hoofs aredi-
vided into four parts, unconnected by membranes. The skin, nearly
an inch thick, is destitute of covering, except a few scattered
hairs on the muzzle, edges of the ears and tail. The color,
when on land, is of a purple brown ; but when seen at the bottom
of a pool, it appears to be of a dark blue, or as described by Dr.
Burchell, " of a light hue of Indian ink." As in the Croco-
dile, the upper mandible is said to be movable. The inside of
the nxouth has been described bv a recent writer, as resembling
" a mass of butcher's meat." lshe eyes, (which have been com-
pared to the gar ret- windows of a Dutch Cottage,) the nostrils, and
the ears are all on nearly the same plane. This gives the use of

160 PACHYDERM ATA.

three senses, and allows of respiration, with a very small portion
of the animal exposed, when it rises to the surface of the water.

Two species are found in Africa, viz. : H. amphibius, (Gr.
nfujpt^avnphif double ; /9to<y, Moo, to live,) and H. Liberiensis,
(some consider these, however, one and the same species ;) the
latter is much the smaller of the two. They range from the
Cape Colony to 22o or 23o N. Lat., being found in the lakes and
rivers, but in, no rivers which empty into the Mediteranean, ex-
cept the Nile, and that part of it which flows through Upper
Egypt, or in the fens and lakes of Ethiopia. They inhabit both
fresh and salt water, but are retiring before the advance of civil-
ization. This animal is believed to have once existed in Asia,
but on that continent has now become extinct.

The adult male of this species, H. amphibius, attains a length
of 11 or 12 feet, and is nearly the same number of feet in cir-
cumference. The height is seldom more than 4 J feet ; the
female is considerably smaller than the male. The water seems
the native element of the Hippopotamus, in which it swims and
dives like a duck, and taking into account its unwieldly bulk, in
a manner truly astonishing. When on land, with its dumpy
legs supporting so enormous a weight, its progress is anything
but rapid. Seldom does it wander far from water, to which it
immediately betakes itself when disturbed or alarmed.

It is nocturnal, rarely feeding except during the night, for that
purpose taking to the shore, it being an herbaceous animal. It
appears rather nice in the selection of its food, which consists of
grass, young reeds and bulbous succulent roots. When near
cultivated districts, it ravages plantations of rice and grain, des-
troying as much by the treading of its enormous feet as by its
voraciousness.

These animals are gregarious, being found in troops of from
six to thirty. It is said to be " amusing to watch them when con-
gregated ; to see them alternately rising and sinking, as if im-
pelled by some invisible agency, in the while snorting most tre-
mendously and blowing the water in every direction." Some-
times they continue perfectly motionless near the surface, with
the whole or part of the head out of the water. When in this
position, they are described as appearing, at a little distance,
"like so many rocks." By some zoologists, they are represented
as naturally mild and inoffensive. This may be true of them in
regions rarely visited by the foreign hunter and the firelock ;
but it is certain they have at times shown themselves to be most
ferocious and hurtful. Their memory seems good, and seldom
do they expose themselves to a second attack in the same place.

PACHYDERM ATA. 161

That they naturally are fond of the aquatic element, is shown
by the fact that if the mother be shot dead just after calving, the
young one will immediately make for the water. The natives har-
poon them in a manner similar to that adopted with the whale ;
if killed outright the animal sinks, but in half a day reappears.
The flesh is highly esteemed ; the tongue is regarded as a
great delicacy, and the fat of the animal forms a capital substi-
tute for butter.

The hides of these animals form no mean article of commerce in
the Cape Colony ; in Northern Africa they are made into whips for
the dromedary, and also for punishing refractory servants. The
ancient Egyptians used the hide largely in the manufacture of
shields, helmets, javelins, etc. But the teeth, (canine and inci-
sor,) are the most valuable part of this animal. They are con-
sidered much superior to Elephant's ivory, and when perfect and
heavy, (say from five tc eight pounds each,) have been known to
bring about five dollars a pound. They do not readily turn yel-
low, as is frequently the case with Elephant's ivory, and on that
account are more valuable for artificial teeth.

Medicinal qualities are attributed to certain portions of the
body of the River Horse. These animals are easily domesti-
cated but are very voracious. One of them now in the Regent's
Park Gardens, (London.) when first shipped at Alexandria,
Egypt, and yet comparatively a "baby," consumed daily the
milk of two cows and three goats. This portion, until supple-
mented with Indian corn, did not, however, suffice to satisfy his
enormous appetite. " On his arrival at the gardens, oat-meal
was substituted for Indian corn ; and the change, with an extra
supply of milk, seemed to give the gigantic infant great satisfac-
tion." Vegetable diet was by degrees administered in place of
milk •* fa the present time the animal is fed on clover, hay, corn,
chaff, bran, mangel wurtzel, carrots and white cabbage. The
three last named vegetables constitute his favorite food. On a
daily allowance of 100 Ibs. of this kind of food, he thrives aston-
ishingly well, as is proved by the fact that weighing 1,000 Ibs.
when he first arrived, he now weighs more than 3,000 Ibs. Not
less than six bushels of chewed grass was found in the stomach
of one examined by Mr. Burchell.

Tapirus. The 'TAPIR.

Of this genus of Pachydermatous quadrupeds there are three
species ; two of them found in South America, the other in Sum-
atra and Malacca. The general characters of this genus are the
following ; the molar teeth, which are seven on each side above
and six below, " have their crowns crossed by two transverse and

162 PACHYDERMATA.

straight ridges, at least, until worn down by attrition; the inci-
sors in each jaw are six ; the canines two, separated from the
molars by a wide interval ; the nose is elongated into a short
flexible trunk ; the feet have four toes before and three behind ;
the skin is dense and thinly covered with short, close hair." In
its general form and contour, this animal reminds the beholder
of a hog; but it is distinguished from the hog by its flexible
trunk, which answers partly the same purpose as that of the
elephant. (See Chart.) The trunk has not, however, any fin-
ger-like appendage like that of the latter animal. The eyes are
small and lateral, and the ears long and pointed.

The AMERICAN TAPIR, T. Americanus, is the largest animal
of South America. It is of a deep brown color throughout,
approaching to black ; between three and four feet in height,
and from five to six in length. The hair is short and very
scanty, so that it is scarcely discernible at a short distance.
The back of the neck is bristled with a thin mane of stiff black-
ish hairs. The inmost recesses of deep forests are the chosen
resorts of this species, which is not gregarious, and avoids
the society of man. For the most part, it is nocturnal in its
habits, sleeping, or remaining quiet during the day, and at
night seeking its food, which, in the natural state of the ani-
mal, consists of shoots of trees, birds, wild fruits, etc. It is,
however, when in confinement, an indiscriminate swallower of
every thing, filthy or clean. Its enormous muscular power and
the tough, thick hide which defends its body, enable it to tear its
way through the underwood in whatever direction it pleases.
Its ordinary pace is a sort of trot ; but it sometimes gallops,
though awkwardly, and with the head down. It is very fond of
the water, and often resorts to it, sometimes remaining below the
surface for a considerable time. Its disposition is peace ul and
quiet ; it will, however, defend itself vigorously, and inflict se-
vere wounds with its teeth, though it never attempts to attack
either man or beast, unless hard pressed. The Jaguar often
springs upon it, but is frequently dislodged by the activity of the
Tapir, who rushes through the bushes as soon as he feels the
claws of his enemy, and endeavors to brush him off against the
thick branches. In some parts of South America the. Tapir is
domesticated. M. Sonnini saw several of them " walking at lib-
erty about the streets of Cayenne, whence they were accustomed
to stroll into the neighboring woods, returning at night to their
home ; nor were they by any means destitute of intelligence, but
seemed fond of their masters, whom they not only recognized,
but acknowledged by various tokens of attachment." In his
opinion, the Tapir might, from its great strength and docility, be

PACHYDERM ATA. 163

advantageously used as a beast of burden. The sight, hearing
and smell of this animal are very acute. It is in much request
by the natives for its flesh, which, though coarse and dry, they
deem excellent food. The skin is also valuable, from its tough-
ness and density.

T. Midayanus, (or T. Indians.) The MALAY or ASIATIC TAPIR is
larger than the American, which it resembles in form and gen-
eral habits. Its back and sides are of a grayish white, abruptly
edging the brown of the other parts, which gives the animal an
appearance as if a white horse-cloth had been spread over it;
the neck is destitute of a mane. Its flesh is eaten by the natives
of Sumatra. In captivity, like the South American animal, it is
gentle and inoffensive, " becoming as tame and familiar as a dog,
feeding indiscriminately on all kinds of vegetables, and some-
times fond of attending at table to receive bread, cakes, or the
like." The young, as is the case with the American species,
differs in color from the adult, being, at the age of four or five
months, black, beautifully marked with spots and stripes of a
fawn color above, and white below.

A third spscies has been discovered in the Cordilleras of South
America, covered with thick black hair, and with a more elonga-
ted trunk.

Hyrax, (Gr. %£«£, hurax, frora°vc, Tins, a swine.) The animals
of this genus are small, and aptly described in the Holy Scriptures,
as " a feeble folk," but of great interest on account of the pecul-
iarity of their organization. " They are rhinoceroses in minia-
ture." Cuvier, by a recourse to the anatomy of the Hyrax,
proved it to be a true Pachyderm; and "notwithstanding the
smallness of its proportions," intermediate between the Rhinoce-
ros and the Tapir. This animal has twenty-one ribs on each
side, a number greater than that possessed by any other quadru-
ped, the Unau excepted, which has twenty-three. Its molar
teeth resemble those of the Rhinoceros, as it does also in the
characters of its stomach and alimentary canal. The body is
covered with thick hair, and "beset here and there with erinace-
ous bristles." It has a simple tubercle in lieu of a tail ; four
toes on each fore foot, and three on the hind ones.

H. Syriacus. The DAMAN of Syria, the CONEY of the Bible, is
of a brownish gray color above, and has the lower parts white;
these two colors being separated by a yellowish tint, and the head
and feet being more gray than the body. The skin, where it is
exposed, is of a blackish violet. The length is about two feet ; the
height eleven inches. It stands rather low on the legs, being par-
tially plantigrade ; its body is stout for its size, which is hardly equal

164 PACHYDERM ATA.

that of a hare. It skips about with great agility, and its actions
evince a sportive and playful disposition ; in captivity it becomes
docile and affectionate. The Conies make their houses among
the rocks. Proverbs xxx; 26. "The nature of their retreats
renders the capture of these animals very difficult. To behold
this creature among the craggy and broken mountain scenery of
the land of the Psalmist, where he noticed it himself, and recorded
the goodness of God in providing a refuge for a defenceless ani-
mal, surrounded with numerous enemies, the jackall, the hyaena,
and the eagle, cannot but raise in the mind that train of reflections
which led David to exclaim, "O Lord, how manifold are thy
works! in wisdom hast thou made them all !"

The Conies or Damans, associate in considerable numbers,
coming forth from their retreats during the day, but flee on
any alarm, to their holes in the rocks, or in the steep declivities
of mountains, there resting themselves in their nests prepared of
leaves and grasses. Their food consists of the roots and vegeta-
bles of mountain districts. In walking they steal along as if
frightened, with the belly almost on the ground, advancing a few
steps at a time, and then pausing. Their whole manner is mild,
feeble and timid ; they are easily tamed, though if roughly hand-
led at first* they will bite. It was classed among the unclean an-
imals of the Jews. Lev. xi : 5. In Abyssinia, its flesh is con-
sidered unclean, both by Christians and Mohammedans. The
Arabs, it is said, eat it and call it, perhaps in jest, "the sheep of
the children of Israel."

H. Capensis. The KLIPDAS, closely resembles the Syrian ani-
mal. In winter, it is fond of coming out of its hole and " sunning
itself on the lee-side of a rock," and in summer, of enjoying a
breeze on the top ; but in both instances, as well as when it feeds,
a sentinel, which is generally an old male, is on the look out, and
usually gives notice by a prolonged, shrill cry, of the approach
of danger. *

Palaeotherium, (Gr. Ttalaiog, palaios^ ancient, and Oyglov, the-
rion, a wild beast.)

This is the name given by Cuvier to an extinct genus of Pachy-
dermatous animals, discovered in the gypsum beds of Paris, in
company with Anoploiherium. Of this fossil genus, nearly fifty
species have been discovered. Remains of Pala&otheria have
been found in the tertiary formation near Rome, the department
of the Gironde, Provence, etc., and in the lower and marly beds
of Binstead, in the Isle of Wight. The zoological position of the
genus appears to be intermediate between the Rhinoceros, Horse
and Tapir. The habits of the animals which it included were

PACHYDERM ATA. 165

probably like those of the Tapirs. Dr. Buckland supposes that
they lived and died upon the margins of lakes and rivers. The
species varied greatly in size, some having been as large as a
Rhinoceros, and others having ranged from the size of a horse to
that of a dog. In relation to the discovery of this fossil genus,
Cuvier thus writes: "I found myself as if placed in a charnel
house, surrounded by mutilated fragments of many hundred
skeletons of more than twenty kinds of animals, piled confusedly
around me ; the task assigned me was to restore them all to their
original position. At the voice of Comparative Anatomy, every
•bone and fragment of bone resumed its place. I cannot find
words to express the pleasure I experienced in seeing, when I
discovered one character, how all the consequences which I pre-
dieted from it, were successively confirmed. The feet accorded
with the characters announced by the teeth ; the teeth were in
harmony with those previously indicated by the feet. The bones
of the legs and thighs, and every connecting portion of the ex-
tremities were found to be joined together precisely as I had
arranged them before my conjectures were verified by the dis-
covery of the parts entire. Each species was, in fact, recon-
structed from a single unit of its composing elements." The Pa-
laeoiheria were characterized by having twenty-eight complex
molar teeth, four canines, and twelve incisors; six in each jaw.

Anoplotkerium, (Gr. from ay, aw, neg ; onhov, hoplon, a weapon ; •
6i]Qiov therion, a wild beast.)

This name, signifying a beast without offensive arms or tusks,
was given to a genus of extinct Pachyderms, found by Cuvier in
company with the Palaeotheria, and named by him, ranging be-
tween the Pachydermata and Ruminantia.

III. FAMILY of the PACHYDERMATA. (PI. VI. fig. 8.)

Equidae, (Lat. Equus, a horse.) Solid- ungulous, or one-hoofed
Mammalia. These Pachyderms have but a single finger or toe,
terminating each extremity; and this finger or toe is enclosed in
a horny hoof or shoe. They include Horses, Asses, and the
Zebra. Of these the Horses are far the most valuable and most
widely distributed. Instead of the massive form and heavy tread
of the Elephant, these animals approach to slender forms, and
they (especially the horses,) resemble in their graceful propor-
tions, and their fleet movements, the Deer and the Antelope.
They are distinguished from other animals, not only by the un-
divided hoof, but by their stomach, which is simple and incapable
of rumination. Their intestines are much lengthened, and thus
adapted to their food, which consists entirely of herbage. "The
Asses and the Zebras," says Dr. Gray, " are always whitish and

166 FACHYDliRMATA.

more or less banded with blackish brown, and always have a dis-
tinct dorsal line, the tail only bristly at the end, and they have
warts only on the arms, (fore legs,) and none on the hind legs;
and have long hair on the tail, from its insertion to its extremity."

The number of teeth in this family is forty-two, viz. twelve
incisors or nippers, four canines and twenty-six molars. While
the animal is young, the incisors have their crowns furnished
with a groove; the molars have square crowns marked or edged
with four crescents of enamel. Between the canines (which
are developed in the male alone,) and the first molar, is a broad,
open space, which is capable of receiving the bit, (see Plate IV.
fig. 5,) with which these animals are governed when in a state of
domestication. The female ordinarily produces one young at a
time, which is called a foal, and suckled during six or seven
months. Africa and Asia are the native regions of the EQUIDJE.
They range in large herds over the extended plains and table
lands which are uncovered with forests. Two species, the
Horse and the Ass, have been domesticated and widely dispersed
over the earth.

E. calallus, (Lat. a Keffel or Saddle Horse,) The HORSE.

It has been well remarked that if custom had not dignified the
Lion with the title of "King of beasts," reason could no where
confer that honor more deservedly than on the horse. His cour-
age, strength, fleetness, his symmetrical form and grandeur of
deportment, are unalloyed by any quality injurious to other crea.
tures, or adapted to create the aversion of man, whose orders he
implicitly obeys, whose severest tasks he undertakes with a
cheerful alacrity, and to whose pleasures he contributes with an-
imation and delight. On the battle-field, he shows the most res-
olute fierceness and courageous ardor. In the poetical language
of the sacred writings, "His neck is clothed with thunder. The
glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth the valley and re-
joiceth in his strength. He goeth on to meet armed men. He
mocketh at danger and is not affrighted; neither turneth he
back from the sword." (Job, xxxix.)

Much discussion has existed concerning what region the Horse
originally inhabited, and to what nation we are indebted for his
first subjugation. It is well known this animal is found wild in
the Western as well as the Eastern Continent ; but there is
no doubt it was at first confined to the latter, where the wild spe-
cies, such as the Zebra, the Quagga, etc., still range in freedom.
The testimony of the sacred writings is decidedly in favor of the
eastern origin of the horse, making it quite evident that the
Egyptians first subdued it to obedience and servitude. The first
mention of the horse occurs during Joseph's wise administration

PACHYDERM ATA. 1G7

in Egypt, who, it is said, gave bread to the famishing in exchange
for horses ; and when the remains of the patriarch, Jacob, were
removed from Egypt to Canaan for burial, we read "there went
up with him both chariots and horsemen." This shows that
horses were used both for draught and burden 1650 years before
the birth of Christ, which is earlier than the date of any profane
history in relation to this subject. The Egyptian and Nubian
horses are still among the handsomest, but Arabia bears the palm
in producing the most beautiful breed of horses, and also the
most generous, swift, courageous and persevering. "The Arab
treats his horse as one of his family ; it lives in the same tent
with him, eats from his hand, and sleeps among his children, who
tumble about on it without the least fear. Few Arabs can be in-
duced to part with a favorite horse." It is related that " an Arab,
the net value of whose dress and accouterments might be calcu-
lated at under seven pence half penny, refused all offers made to
purchase a beautiful mare on which he rode, and declared that
he loved the animal better than his own life." The Arabian
horses are in height not often more than fourteen hands two
inches. They are found, though not in great numbers, in the
deserts of that country, and the natives make use of every strat-
agem to take them, reserving the most promising for breeding,
and instead of crossing, as is done in other countries, taking
every pains to keep the breed pure. Some have supposed that
to Arabia we are indebted for the primitive breed of this noble
animal and its subjugation to the use of man. Mr. Bell, how.
ever, who is high authority in this subject, says in his "History
of British Quadrupeds," "there is great reason to conclude that
it was only at a comparatively late period that they were em.
ployed by that people. While Solomon was receiving from
Arabia treasures of various kinds, it was from Egypt only that
Jiis horses were brought. There appears great probability in the
opinion that Egypt, or its neighborhood, is the original country,
and still more that this extraordinary people first rendered it sub.
servient to man, and subsequently distributed it to other coun.
tries."

In Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c., it is remarked that
" wild horses appear to be free from nearly all those diseases to
which the domestic breed are prone."

The wild horse is found in immense numbers in the vast
plains of Great Tartary, and also in South America in the rich
pampas extending from La Plata to Paraguay. The wild horses
of South America are undoubtedly descended from those of An-
dalusia, originally carried thither by the Spanish conquerors.

1C3 PACHYDERM ATA.

When caught, they are easily subjugated and valuable for their
speed, hardness and strength. The usual method of taking
them is by the lasso, a running noose at the end of a long
leathern thong, thrown with wonderful precision and capable of
bearing a sudden and violent strain.

The horse is a herbivorous animal, as its teeth indicate, and
is more scrupulous in the choice of its food than most other
quadrupeds, rejecting in the meadow several plants which the ox
devours with pleasure. By the peculiar structure of some of
the bones of his face, he is enabled to so move his jaws as to
comminute and grind down his corn. The best method of judg-
ing of a horse's age is from a careful investigation of its teeth.
" Five days after birth, the four teeth in front, called nippers,
begin to shoot ; these are cast off at the age of two years and a
half, but are soon renewed, and in the following year two above
and two below, namely one on each side of the nippers, are also
thrown off; at four years and a half, other four next those last
placed fall out and are succeeded by other four, which grow
much more slowly. From these last four corner teeth it is that
the animal's age is distinguished, for they are somewhat hollowed
in the middle and have a black mark in the cavities. At five
years old these teeth scarcely rise above the gums ; at six their
hollow pits begin to fill up and turn to a brown spot, and before
eight years the mark generally disappears. A horse's age is
also indicated by the canine teeth or tusks, for those in the under
jaw generally shoot at three years and a half, and the two in the
upper at four ; till six they continue sharp at the points, but at
ten they appear long and blunted. There are, however, many
circumstances which render a decision as to the age very diffi-
cult after the marks are defaced from the lower incisors; and it
should be observed that horses which are always kept in the sta-
ble have the marks much sooner worn out than those that are at
grass, to say nothing of the various artful tricks resorted to by
dealers and jockeys to deceive the inexperienced and unwary."
We must refer to other works for interesting particulars respect-
ing the various breeds of horses and the different kinds used, as
the Race Horses, supposed to have been originally of the Arabian
breed, the Hunter, the Roadster, the Carriage Horse, the Dray
Horse, the Cart Horse, &c., and the smaller varieties, such as
the Shetland Pony, Galloway, &c.

The Horse is capable of strong attachment toman and to other
animals. Among the numerous anecdotes illustrating this re-
mark are the following: "A horse and a cat were great friends,
and the latter generally slept in a manger. When the horse

PACHYDERMATA. 169

was going to have his oats, he always took up the cat gently
by the skin of her neck and dropped her into the next stall, that
she might not be in his way while he was feeding. At all other
times he seemed pleased to have her near him."

Two Hanoverian horses had long served together during the
Peninsular war, in the German brigade of artillery. They had
assisted in drawing the same gun and had been inseparable com-
panions in many battles. One of them was at last killed, and
after the engagement the survivor was picqueted as usual and
his food brought to him. He refused, however, to eat, and was
constantly turning round his head to look for his companion,
sometimes neighing as if to call him. All the care that was
bestowed on him was of no avail. He was surrounded by other
horses, but he did not notice them ; and he shortly afterwards
died, not having once tasted food from the time his former associate
was killed. A gentleman who witnessed the circumstance as-
sured me that nothing could be more affecting than the whole
demeanor of this poor horse."*

Of the age to which the horse would naturally arrive, it is
difficult to speak with certainty. The animal sometimes exceeds
thirty or forty years, and it has even exceeded fifty years in age,
but from ill usage and over exertion the majority come to their
end before they have seen nine or ten years. The horse is now
spread over every part of the Western Continent. The natives
of Terra del Fuego are well stocked with horses, each man hav-
ing six or seven., and all the women and even the children have
their own horses. With the horses are found herds of wild oxen.
The rtumber of mustangs or wild horses found in South Amer-
ica may be judged of from the fact that from 1838 to 1842,
90,000,000 Ibs. of oxen and horses' hides, and 9,500,000 Ibs. of
horse hair were obtained within the limits of Monte Video and
Buenos Ayres. In his "Fauna Boreali Americana," Sir John
Richardson says that the horse is found amongst the wandering
Indians who frequent the. prairies of Saskatchewan and the Mis-
souri, and who use it for chasing the Buffalo as well as a beast
ot burden. Among the Indians as well as the Guachos, the
horss is eaten. It is also eaten by the Calmuck Tartars ; and in
many parts of Asia, mare's milk is taken as an article of diet.
It is converted into butter and cheese, and a favorite beverage
amongst the Tartars is made by fermenting it.

Equus Asinus, (Lat. Ass.) THE Ass.

The ass was anciently employed by the Orientals for common

— — —

* "Gleanings in Nat. Hist."

170 PACHYDERMATA.

purposes more than the horse. They seem to have looked upon
the horse as rather fitted for war and scenes of pomp and state.
The ancients were ignorant of the art of shoeing the horse's hoof
with iron, and found it more easily injured by travel on hard
roads and by long journeys than the harder hoof of the Ass. The
hoofs of horses were usually protected fry sandals of thick close
felt. From time immemorial, the ass has, in Oriental countries,
been the servant of man, and its introduction into Europe and
this country must be regarded as comparatively recent. Though
out of its native climes, it seems strong, patient and hardy, still
it is much different from the animal of the East. Here it is dull
and slow, small and clumsy; there it is larger, well made, light,
footed with a sprightly pace, and carries its head high. White
asses were in ancient times highly valued. Upon them those
rode who sat in judgment, Judges, v. 10; and our Saviour, too,
appears to have honored this animal by riding " upon the foal of
an ass upon which never man sat." Mark, xi. 3. Asses made
no inconsiderable part of the wealth of the Hebrew patriarchs.
The MULE is a mixed breed between the horse and the ass, an
animal not much sought after among us, but extensively used in
the East for riding, and in Spain is the chief beast of burden.
It is very strong and sure footed, and is for that reason employed
in the Andes of South America instead of the Llama, and also
used in other mountainous countries.

E. asinus onager, or onagga. The KOTJLAN or WILD Ass is
of a pale reddish color in the warmer season, in the winter gray,
ish. It is found abundantly in Mesopotamia and Persia, and on
the shores of the Indus. Bishop Hebersaysno attempt has ever
been made to break in the wild Ass for riding. The ears are
two inches longer in the male than in the female. In the tame
species the ears are elongated and acute, but in this and the
other wild species are moderately short and rounded.
E. asinus hemionus. The DIZIGGUETAI.

The name Dizigguetai, given to this species, has been spelled
in seven or eight different ways. It is said to refer, in the Mon-
gpl language, to the large ears of this animal, which exceed in
size those of a horse. This species are found in Oriental Tar-
tary, and the wild regions of China and Persia. This is the
wild ass of Scripture. ** Who hath sent out the wild ass free ?
or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass ? Whose house I
have made the wilderness and the barren land his dwellings.
The range of the mcmtains is his pasture, and he searcheth af.
ter every green thing." Job, xxxix chnpt.

The Dizigguetai, or Dziggtai, is in size intermediate between

PACHYDERM ATA. 171

the horse and the ass, and in disposition extremely wild and un-
tamable. Its limbs are finely proportioned, showing the lightness
and elegance of the stag, combined with the power of great mus-
cular exertion. It runs with great rapidity, carrying its head
erect, snuffing up the wind and defying the speed of the fleetest
coursers. Sir R. Ker Porter gives an amusing account of an
unsuccessful chase of one of these animals, which he was un-
able to overtake, though mounted on a very swift Arabian horse.
This roamer in the "wilderness " and " barren land," lives in
troops, like the wild horse, being guided by a leader or chief, on
which the movements of the rest depend. The flesh is esteemed
a delicacy by the Mongols, who occasionally manage to shoot
the leader and thus throw the troop into confusion, so that several
fall before they take their flight. The fur is short, smooth, and of a
bright red bay, the legs of a straw color. The males are the more
deeply colored and larger, often standing 14 hands high. These
animals live partly on the plains and partly on the mountains,
and from this fact perhaps, the lower surface of the hoof shows
considerable variation in form and concavity. They are found
in a climate where the temperature is below the freezing point
in the middle of summer, yet they throw off their pale woolly
coat during that season and become bright bay.

Equus montanus, (or Asinus Zebra.) The ZEBRA.

This species is native to Africa, confined to the mountains, for
traversing which their hoofs are expressly formed. The ground
color is white, with black bands on the head, body and legs to the
hoofs , the nose is reddish ; the belly and inside of the thighs
not banded ; the end of the tail is blackish ; the hoofs narrow
and deeply concave beneath. The Zebra has scarcely ever
been flV'-»ught under the bit. Sometimes, however, in spite
of i'?~^.5ious habits, it has been trained to draw a Carriage.
It is fierce and strong and universally admired for its fleetness
and beauty. The voice of the Zebra is very peculiar and can-
not be described. We have said above that the ground color is
white ; this is true of the female, but in the male the ground
color is yellowish fawn. It is often a prey to the lion, and also
to the untutored natives, by whom its flesh is regarded as a great
delicacy.

The Equus BurcheHi, or the PEECHI, is a native of the plains,
inhabiting, in small companies, the flat country lying north of the
Cape of Good Hope and stretching into the interior. This is a
strong, muscular animal, and might be used as a beast of bur-
den. The head, neck, shoulders and back are covered with al-
ternate stripes of white and black ; the nose is white, with faint

8

172 PACHYDERMATA.

black markings ; the black stripes of the body become fainter on
the haunches and disappear on the under parts.

E. Quagga, or A. Quagga. The name, (Quagga,) of this ani-
mal, expresses the sound of its voice, which, in some degree, is
like the barking of a dog. It is now sometimes tamed by the
natives and used for purposes of draught, and occasionally a half
domesticated specimen is offered for sale at Cape Town with a
rider on its back ; but in the most tractable state to which it has
hitherto been reduced, it is regarded as vicious, obstinate and
fickle.

ORDER PACHYDERMATA.

Give the derivation of the term PACHYDERMATA. Why are the animals
of this order so called ? Where are they found ? What genus appears
wild in Europe ? What is the nature of their food ? What peculiarity
have the canine or incisor teeth ? How is the muzzle prolonged ? What
is said of the size and strength of these animals ?

From what is the family name PROBOSCIDKA derived ? What does it in-
clude ? How many species of the Elephant ? By what are both species
distinguished ? How do they compare as to general characters and habits ?
In what respects do they differ? What is said of the molar teeth ? What
peculiarity in the manner in which they succeed each other? In \vbat
bones are the tusks seated. Describe the tusks. What is said respecting
their length and weight ? How is the foot enclosed ? What is required by
the immense weight of the head ? What is said of the muscles of the
neck? To what is the entire structure compared? What is said of the
internal organization? Which is the most remarkable part of the Ele-
phant? What are its uses? How many muscles has it? Describe it.
What is found at its extremity ? What is said of the skin, head, tail and
general appearance of the Elephant ? What indicates its very great force ?
What is the East India Company's standard as to height for a serviceable
Elephant? Where are the largest found? What use has been made of
them by Eastern princes ? What use was made of ivory in ancient times ?
What weight of it was exported to Great Britain in 1831,2. HotfGreat
a destruction of Elephants did* this involve? Mention the chief marts
whence ivory is obtained. For what purpose is it most used in England ?
Where in Europe are ivory articles manufactured most extensively ? What
people excel in preparing ivory articles ? Where are Elephants still found
in great numbers ? Of what roots are they especially fond ? What ingen-
ious use do they make of, their tusks ? How is this animal stimulated to
extra effort ? Repeat the story showing his love of sweet things. What is
said of his senses ? What of his fondness for certain flowers and plants ?
Why is he not often bred in captivity ? For what is he trained in India ?
What is said of his fondness for water ? How is he captured ? What allu-
sions to the Elephant are found in the Holy Scriptures ? What is said of
their affections ? How illustrated ? How are they influenced by kindness ?
Give examples showing their sagacity and power of memory. Derive the
specific -name of the Mammoth. What is said of their remains? Give the
derivation of the term Mastodon. Is this a living or extinct genus ? In
what deposits are its remains found ? How is it principally distinguished

PACHYDERMATA. 173

from the Elephant? What more is said of it? To what is the term Mam-
moth properly applied ? Where have numerous remains of the Mastodon
been discovered?

From what is the term SUID.E derived? How many species does it in-
clude ? What is the origin of the common Hog ? Where is the wild ani-
mal still found ? How distinguished from the domestic Hog ? What is
next said of him ? What other differences between the domestic and the
wild animal ? What is said of the variety of color in the common Hog ?
What of its habits ? What people were forbidden to eat its flesh ? What
do late experiments show ? From what may it be inferred that this animal
was designed to be food for man ? Give the opinion of Linnaeus. Why is
the flesh of great importance to commercial people ? Does the value de-

Eend chiefly upon the size ? What is said of the Chinese breed ? What
irther is said of the Hog ?

What is the meaning of the word Babirussa ? How does this animal
compare with the common Hog ? What is said of its tusks ? Upon what
does it chiefly subsist ? How does it elude pursuit ? In what countries
does it abound ? What is said of a pair taken to France ? What is the
derivation of Pacochoerus? Where are the animals of this genus found?
Why is it called Warty-Hog ? What is said of its teeth ? What is indi-
cated by its structure ?

Give the derivation of the term Dicotyles. Where are PECCARIES found ?
By what are they allied to the true swine ? How do they differ ? What
is their most decided characteristic ? How many species ? Why is the
COLLARED PECCARY so called and where found ? What objection to it as a
domestic animal? What is said of the WHITE-LIPPED PECCARY? Are
they found in great numbers ?

What is the derivation of the term Rhinoceros ? In what regions is this
animal found ? What is its rank ? How many species ? What is their
chief peculiarity ? What is the meaning of the specific term unicornis ?
Why is this name given to the Common East Indian Rhinoceros ? Describe
this animal and give its habits. What did Pennant suppose it to be?
What is its ordinary food ? Illustrate its capacity for food ? What more
is said of it ? How does the R. of India differ from that of Java ? What
is its range ? What does Marsden say ? What is said of the R. of Suma-
tra? How extensive is the range of the R. of Africa? How does the
African species differ from the Asiatic ? How many varieties or species
are found in South Africa ? Describe the Black variety ? What is the
chief difference between the two varieties ? How do the white and black
R. differ ? Describe the R. simus. What use is made of its horn ? What
account is given of the Rhinoceros?

Give the derivation of the term Hippopotamus. Describe the character-
istics of this animal. How many species and what is their range ? Is it
found in Asia ? What is the size of the adult male of the H. amphibius ?
What seems its native element ? What is said of it on land ? When and
what does it eat ? How do troops of them appear when in water ? What
fact shows their fondness for that element ? How are they harpooned ?
What is said of their flesh and hides ? What is the most valuable part of
the animal ? In what respects is their ivory superior to that of the Ele-
phant ? Are they easily domesticated ? What is said of one in the Re-
gent's Park, London ?

How many species of the TAPIR ? Where is it found ? Give the general
character of the genus. What animal does it resemble ? How does it

174 PACHYDERMATA.

differ from it ? Describe the Tapir of South America. What animal often
springs upon it ? What is said respecting its domestication ? What are its
uses? How does the Asiatic compare with the AMERICAN TAPIR in size?
What appearance has this animal ? How is it in captivity ? Where has
the third species been discovered ? What Scripture animal is the Hyrax ?
How is it described ? Who proved it to be a true Pachyderm ? How many
ribs ha,s it? What larger animal does it resemble ? Describe the Daman
or Hyrax of Syria. Is it easily captured? On what does it feed? How
was it classed among the Jews ? What is said of the CAPE HYRAX ?

Give the derivation of the term Palaeotherium. To what animal is it
applied? How many species have been discovered? Where have the re-
mains been found ? What is the Zoological position of this genus ? What
were the habits ? What does Buckland suppose ? What does Cuvier say
respecting the discovery of this fossil genus ? How is it characterized ?
Give the derivation of the term anoplotherium. What does it mean ? In
what connection is it found ?

Give the derivation of EQUID^E. What animals belong to the ONE-HOOFED
Mammalia, or solipedes ? Mention the UNEVEN-HOOFED animals, and the
MULTUNGULATE, or many hoofed ? What does the HORSE FAMILY include ?
Which are most valuable and widely distributed? How are the EQUID.E
distinguished from other animals ? What is said of the Ass ? What of the
Zebra ? What is said of the teeth of the Equida ? What are their native
regions? Which species have become domesticated? What does the term
caballus mean ? What is said of the qualities of the horse ? What of his
native regions? What of his first subjugation? What countries produce
the most beautiful breed of horses? How does the Arab treat his horse?
Give Mr. Bell's remarks respecting the native country of the horse. Where
is it now found? How usually captured ? What is said of its food? How
is its age determined ? What is said of its attachments ? Give examples.
How long does it live ? How widely diffused ? What is said concerning
the use of the Ass in Oriental countries? What of its introduction into
other countries ? What is remarked respecting WHITE ASSES? What of
the breed of the MULE ? Give some account of the ONAGGER or ONAGGA.
To what does the name DIZIGGUETAI refer ? Where is this animal found ?
Describe it. Where is the Asinus Zebra found ? Give some account of
it. Of what country is the Equus Burchellii a native? What is said of
it ? What is said of the Asinus Quagga ? Trace the horse from the spe-
cies, (caballus,) through the higher divisions.

Name the three families of the order Pachydermata from the chart.
Mention the animals named in each, giving both the common and scientific
names. Give the characteristics and peculiarities of each family, genus
and species. Which is the largest animal of this order mentioned? Which
the smallest figured on the Chart ?

RUMINANTIA. 175

SECTION XXI.

EIGHTH ORDER. — RUMINANTIA. (Lat. rumen, a stomach or

paunch.)

RUMINATING, or CUD-CHEWING ANIMALS.

This pre-eminently useful order includes the oxen, sheep and
goats, deer, giraffes and camels. They were very anciently
recognized as a separate group, and taken as a whole are ex-
tremely compact and well defined. The camels alone present
some slight exceptions to the general character. Each foot ends in
two toes, covered with two sharp pointed horny hoofs, fitting each
other as though a single round hoof had been cleft in the middle.
Behind these are two small spurs, or rudiments of lateral toes.
Hence they are called animals with " divided, or bifurcate hoofs."
The RUMINANTS are well known as herbivorous. Their name
indicates the singular faculty which they have of masticating or
chewing their food a second time, and by which they are special-
ly distinguished from all other animals. For this purpose they
are furnished with four stomachs, or one divided into four dis-
tinct chambers or cavities, each having a distinct office to per-
form. The first is the rumen, or paunch, in full grown animals
the largest of all, and covered with papilla, or flattened warts.
Into this passes the hard and coarsely masticated food from the
beginning of the muscular canal, which is at the end of the seso-
phagus or gullet. From the rumen, the rudely bruised herbage
is transmitted into the second stomach, called the reticulum, or
hood, which is beautifully divided into hexagonal cells, like a
honeycomb. Water is received from the mouth into this second
cavity. The food is here moistened and moulded into small
balls or pellets, and by a rapid and inverted action of the muscles
of the gullet is propelled into the mouth, where it is more per-
fectly masticated, mixed with fluid and again swallowed, passing
now into the psalterium, omasus, or manyplies, the third stomach.
The inner coat of this division is set with parallel longitudinal
lamina, or folds, resembling the leaves of a book. In the sheep
it has forty, in the ox as many as a hundred of these folds. In
these plates the superfluous fluid, which might otherwise have too
much diluted the gastric juice, is absorbed ; and the sub-divided
cud passes gradually into the fourth and last, or red stomach,
(abomasus,) which is large and pear shaped, and wrinkled and
hairy, as to its inner surface. This is the true digesting stom-
ach, and in the young, while sucking, is the largest of the four.

176 RUMINANTIA.

For the purpose of assi-sting the reader to form a correct iden
of this wisely arranged internal mechanism, ive give a section
of a stomach, as in Plate VI. fi-g. 13, with the following

EXPLANATION.

In the stomach of the Ruminants, (fig. 13,) the gullet or seso-
phagus (A) which is opened, expands into the paunch or Rumen
(B) which is divided by a muscular wall ; the valve (C) allows
the food only to pass gradually, by the action of the paunch, into
the Reticulum or hood, (D,) which is opened to show the folds
and cells called the honeycomb, and from which the food, moist-
ened and compressed, is passed back to the mouth a-nd chewed
again. When swallowed the second time, it passes to the oma-
sus, or third stomach, (E.) The gullet has a fold running down
and walling in the orifice of the o?nasus, (F.) The fibres sur-
rounding this orifice contract on the application of crude veget-
able matter ; but when this matter has been elaborated in the
reticulum, and chewed the second time, the orifice expands, and
by the action of the muscular fibres of the stomach, is brought
higher up into the gullet to receive the then welcome mass.
The laminated or leaf-like structure of the omasus, sometimes
called the leaflet, is shown in the figure. From this the food
passes to the fourth stomach, (abomasus, G,) which has digestive
powers similar to that of the simpler stomach in other animals.
The third stomach is the least essential to ruminants capable of
enduring long thirst and of living upon dry shrubs, like the
Camel and Llama. It cannot properly be said to exist in them,
and the opening leads directly into the abomasus. It is remark-
able that the milk upon which young animals of this kind are
fed, requiring no process of rumination, passes directly from the
gullet into the fourth stomach.

Another character of the Ruminants is the possession of inci-
sor or cutting teeth in the lower jaw only. Cuvier makes them
consist of two divisions ; first, those without horns, and secondly,
those with horns. The larger part have horns, particularly the
males. The few species which want these organs have the
tusks, or cutting teeth, which are deficient in the others. The
vegetable nature of their food renders the flesh of these animals
wholesome and agreeable. Their milk furnishes butter and
cheese ; their skins, leather ; their horns, combs ; their wool,
cloth and yarn ; their hair is used in the 'making of matresses,
sofas, etc. The fat has the property of hardening as it cools,
and is distinguished by the name of suet. Their tallow is made

RUMINANTIA. 177

into candles and soap, and their bones are in great request for
manure. Indeed, they seem to have been formed with the ex-
press design of ministering to man's comfort and welfare. They
inhabit the known world, with the exception of Australia.

Define the term Ruminantia. What animals does the order include ? Is
the group well defined ? What exception is made ? Why are the hoofs of
this order termed bifurcate or bisulcate ? Upon what do these animals sub-
sist, and what peculiarly distinguishes them from all other animals ? De-
scribe in full the stomacR of a ruminant, pointing out the parts as you pro-
ceed, on plate VI. fig. 13. How does Cuvier divide the Ruminants? To
what species are the larger incisors confined ? What is the nature of their
food ? What their uses ? Where are they found ?

Name the seven families of Cud-chewing animals on the Chart. Which
are without horns? Which have solid horns? Which hollow horns?
Which is the tallest? Which most useful for food? Which for clothing?
Which wild? Which domesticated?

SECTION XXII.

Camelida, (Gr. xafiylos, kamelos, a camel.) The CAMEL
TRIBE.

This family of the Ruminants differ, in some respects, from
the others, forming a connecting link between them and the
Pachyderms, or thick skinned animals. They are without
horns; the hair inclines to be woolly; there are fleshy bosses,
or humps on the back ' These humps are of a firm, fatty con-
sistence, seeming like reservoirs of nutriment, being observed to
diminish from absorption, during long abstinence, but to increase
again when food becomes abundant." The eyes are large and
projecting ; the ears small. The Camels have canine teeth in
both jaws, and two incisors in the upper jaw, which are
wanting in other Ruminants. The lower incisor teeth are
six in number ; there are six molars on each side in the upper
jaw, and five in the lower. The anterior one takes the form of
an additional canine. This, however, is wanting in the Llamas.
The upper lip is swollen and cleft in the center, and has a power
of motion. It is used for feeling or examining the dry shrubby
food on which these animals mostly live, before it is conveyed to
the mouth. When in the midst of abundant pasture, they usu-
ally browse as much in an hour as serves them for ruminating
all night, and for supporting them during the next day. But
such pasturage they do not often find, and they are even thought
to prefer nettles, thistles, cassia and other prickly vegetables to
the softest herbage. •» They have seven callosities, or firm pads,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE YI.

FEET AND STOMACHS.

1. Foot of an ox. Bisulcated foot, or bifurcated hoof ; cloven-footed 5
two-hoofed.

2. Camel's foot, showing the pad or cushion which prevents its sinking in
the sand.

3. Llama's foot, showing the sharp hoof for climbing rocky hills.

4. Mole's foot, formed for digging or scooping out the earth.

5. Sloth's sharp, strong, crooked claws, for clinging to the branches of
trees, on the under side of which they live suspended.

6. Foot of the Armadillo, Dasypus, fitted for rapid burrowing,

7. Lion's toe. A, represents the toe with claw sheathed. B, shows the
retractile apparatus, with claw in same position. C, claw unsheathed.
D, claw in same position, with tendons exposed.

8. Horse's foot ; solipedes, hoofs whole, not cloven or divided. Solidun-
gulate, one-hoofed.

9. Elephant's foot, showing the horny shoe enclosing all the toes.

10. Rhinoceros' foot ; three toes on each foot incased in hoofs.

11. The fore foot or hand of a Seal, used as a fin for swimming.

12. A Dolphin's fore fin, nipper or paddle for swimming.

13. Stomach of a ruminant or cud-chewing animal.

A. ^Esophagus or Gullet, expanding into the rumen or paunch.

B. Rumen or Paunch. It is the first stomach and much the largest in the

adult animal, but small in the young.

C. Yalve allowing the food to pass from the rumen into the reticulum.

D. Hood, Honey-comb-bag, Bonnet, or Reticulum. The second stomach.

E. Omasus, Manyplies, or Psalterium. This third and smallest stomach does

not properly exist in the Camel or Llama.

F. Orifice of the Omasus.

G. Abomasus, the fourth stomach, the true organ of digestion, is next in

size to the rumen or paunch. In calves it is the largest stomach, the
milk passing from the gullet immediately into it. When salted and
cured, this stomach of the calf is called rennet, and used for making
cheese.

14. Cells of the reticulum or second stomach of the camel. These cells
can be dilated so as to contain an unusual quantity of water.

PL .VI.

RUMINANTIA.

181

for the support of their burden ; one on the breast, two on each
of the fore legs and one on each of the hind ones. The toes do
not present the true cloven figure, but are united underneath by
an elastic pad, or cushion, connecting them together, but leaving
the points free and separable, so that a larger surface thus comes
into contact with the sandy earth. (Plate VI. fig. 2.) This, in
connection with the elastic nature of the sole or cushion, enables
the animal to tread with equal comfort over the yielding desert
and the hard and arid plain.

The Camel has great difficulty in moving upon a soft and
muddy soil, as it slips at every step. So great is its aversion to
treading upon such soil, it is said, that its drivers "have been
obliged to spread their tent coverings over the obnoxious ground
in order to conceal its appearance and induce the animal to pro-
ceed." The step of the Camel is noiseless. " What always
struck me," says the writer of a work on Constantinople, " as
something extremely romantic and mysterious, was the noiseless
tread of the Camel, from the spongy nature of his foot. What-
ever be the nature of the ground, sand, or rock, or turf, or paved
stones, you hear no foot-fall ; you see an immense animal ap-
proaching you stilly, as a cloud floating in the air ; and unless
he wear a bell, your sense of hearing, acute as it may be, will
give you no intimation of his presence.^,'

The sense of hearing, in this animal, is very delicate. It
seems greatly pleased with the sound of bells, and with the
cheering song of its driver; its sense of smell, also, is remarka-
bly acute. When the traveler across the desert is suffering
from thirst, the camel, snuffing the gale, first indicates, by its
dumb show, that the water is near of which the exhausted pil-
grim must soon "drink or die."

The third stomach, or laminated omasus, of the Ruminants, is
wanting in the Camels. The paunch or pannel is provided with
a large number of cells, in order that water may be retained to
serve the wants of the animal in case of extreme necessity. A
longitudinal ridge of muscular fibres divides the paunch into two
portions, the left containing a row of cells, which, (in the Ara-
bian Camel,) holds four or five quarts of water ; the right has a
smaller series, holding about a quart. (See Plate VI. fig. 14.)

When the cells are filled, the fluid is kept from mixing with
the food by the contraction of the orifice of each cell, and it can j
be forced out at pleasure by the action of a muscular expansion
covering the bottom of the cellular apparatus. The deep cells
of the reticulum are arranged in twelve rows, and are formed by
muscular bands intersecting each other transversely. This

182 RIJMINANTIA.

compartment in the Camel appears destined exclusively as a
reservoir of water, never receiving solid food, as in the ox and
sheep. Sir E. Home is of the opinion that "Camels accustomed
to journey for an unusual number of days without water, acquire
the power of dilating their cells so as to make them contain a
more than ordinary supply for their journey." When pressed
with thirst, the Camel, by the contraction of the muscles, throws
up water into the other stomachs, which serves to macerate
its dry and simple food. As it drinks but seldom, it takes
in a large quantity of water at a time ; and travelers, when
straitened for that article, have been often known to kill their
camels for the water which they expected to find in them.

The large and- prominent eye of the Camel enables it to take
in a very extensive range ; its vision is very keen, but the ani-
mal cannot look upward ; in the horizontal position in which the
head is carried, the brow overhangs the orb so as to shield it from
the glare of the sun in a burning sky. The Camel has been
called "the ship of the desert." Here the Simoon, or hot wind,
blowing from the south-east, carries along with it dense yellow
clouds of sand, which impede respiration, and are often suffocat-
ing to travelers. Even when the lighter winds blow, the fine
particles of sand, driven along in volumes, and loading the atmos-
phere, would, to animals with wide and open nostrils, occasion
the greatest suffering ; but the nostrils of the camel being in the
form of narrow oblique slits, which it can open or close at pleas-
ure, it is, by breathing gently and gradually, enabled to exclude
the suffocating mass. The Camel is full grown at the age of
eight years. It generally lives forty years, sometimes much
longer. It is said that instances have been known of Camels
which have reached the age of one hundred years. The female
has one young at a time which is suckled for a year. Her milk
is described as rich, thick, and abundant, but rather strong in
taste, though when mixed with water, it is a very nutritious
diet.

The entire structure of this animal is wonderfully adapted to
the region of its abode, and to the habits and uses of man.
" The pad or sole cushion of the spreading foot dividing it into
two toes, without being externally separated, which buoy up, as
it were, the whole bulk, with their expansive elasticity, from
sinking in the sand, on which it advances with silent step ; the
nostrils, so formed that the animal can close them at will, to ex-
clude the drift-sand of the parching simoon ; the powerful upper
incisor teeth, for assisting in the division of the tough prickly
shrubs and dry stunted herbage of the desert; and above all,

RUMINANTIA.

183

the cellular structure of the stomach, which is capable of being
converted into an assemblage of water tanks," must be included
among the plainest and most striking evidences of the Creator's
wise and benevolent care, as presented in the "Animal King,
dom."

The Camel combines within itself qualities^ the possession of
any one of which serves to render other quadrupeds absolutely nec-
essary to human welfare. " Like the Elephant, it is manageable
and tame ; like the horse, it gives the rider security ; it carries
greater burdens than the ox and the mule ; and its milk is fur-
nished in as great abundance as that of the cow : the flesh of
the young one is supposed to be as delicate as veal ; the hair is
more beautiful and in more request than wool ; nay, there is
scarcely a part of their frame of which it can be said, it is use-
less."

C. Arabicus. The ARABIAN CAMEL.

Of the two species, this is the best known, and sometimes is
called the Dromedary, or runner, (C. dromedarius.) Plate II.
fig. 3. The term dromedary is, however, more strictly ap-
plicable to a lighter variety, El-Heirie, which is unfit for
burdens, but employed when despatch is required. The
Arabian Camel is more extensively used than the Bactrian;
and from its constitution, appears able to endure, for a greater
length of time, the fatigues and deprivations to which these ani-
mals are subjected. It ie the wealth of the Arab, and nearly
the only beast of burden in Turkey, Persia and the north of Af-
rica. Having only a single hump, placed nearly in the center
of the back, it is at once distinguished from the other species,
which has two ; it is also of a size and stature somewhat smaller,
being from five to seven feet high at the shoulders. The muz-
zle is less swollen than that of the other species ; the hair soft,
woolly and very unequal, longest on the neck, the throat, and
the hump. The color is always lighter than that of the Bactrian
Camel, being, while the animal is young, of a dull, dirty white,
but becoming, with age, of a reddish gray. The long woolly
hair is woven into garments and tents, and the finer hair is im-
ported into Europe for the manufacture of artists' pencils. The
best is obtained from Persia. Of the varieties of this Camel,
the Turkish and Arabian is the strongest and most hardy. In
China there is a swift breed to which is given the poetical
name of "the Camel with the feet of the wind."

The Arabian Camel is carefully trained, when young, to kneel
and receive burdens. In temper, it is mild, submissive, docile

184

RUMINANTIA.

and patient; but is said to be very obstinate when over-loaded,
often refusing to rise if the burden is felt to be beyond its
strength. Numerous caravans of these animals, each with a
load of five or six hundred weight, and arranged iff^long rows,
patiently pursue their toilsome way beneath a scorching sun, at
the rate of aJbout twenty-four miles a day ; in some- instances,
fifty miles have been traversed in that time, but this could not be
continued for successive days. Clapperton's Journal of Travels
in the fiast, (continued by Lander,) after mentioning the arrival
of five hundred Camels, with salt, from the borders of the Great
Desert, says : " They were preceded by a party of twenty
merchants, whose appearance was grand and imposing. They
wore black cotton robes and trowsers, and white caps with black
turbans, which hid every part of the face, except the nose and
eyes. In their right hand they held a long and light polished
spear, while with their left, they held their shields and retained
the reins of the Camels. Their shields were made of white
leather, with a piece of silver in the center. As they passed me,
their spears glittering in the sun and their whole bearing
bold and warlike, they had a novel and singular effect which de-
lighted me. They stopped suddenly before the residence of the
chief, and at the word, (• choir,') each of the Camels dropped on
its knees, as if by instinct, while the riders dismounted to pay
their respects." Sometimes, while attending caravans across
the deserts, these animals of the swifter breeds perform the office
of scouts, keeping a look-out for danger from wandering tribes
and for the approach of the water stations. They will then
travel from seventy to one hundred and twenty miles in twenty-
four hours. The swift Dromedary has been known to perform a
journey of six hundred and thirty miles in five days. It will
continue at a long trot of eight or nine miles an hour for many
hours together. A modern traveler, (see Morgan's Algeria,)
says, it was often affirmed to him by the Arabs and the Moors
that the express Dromedary " makes nothing of holding its rapid
pace, which is a most violent hard trot, Yor four and twenty
hours upon a stretch, without showing the least symptoms of
weariness or inclination to bait ; and that having swallowed a
ball or two of paste made up of barley, and perhaps a little pow-
der of dates among it, with a bowl of water or Camel's milk, if
to be had, and which the courier seldom fails to be provided
with, in skins, as well for the sustenance of himself as his Pega-
sus, the indefatigible animal will seem as fresh as at first setting
out, and ready to continue at the same scarce credible rate for as

RUMINANTIA. 185

many hours longer, and so on, from one extremity of the Afri-
can desert to another." We know nothing of this animal in a
wild condition, but in a domesticated state it has existed from the
earliest times, in Egypt, Arabia, Palestine and the neighboring
countries. Herds of Camels formed no small portion of the
wealth of the scriptural patriarchs, (Job, xliii., 12.) and they are
mentioned among the acquisitions of Abram on his first visit to
Egypt, (Geri. xii., 16.)

The Camel was well known to Aristotle, and described by him
in his " Natural History." Its native country extends from Mau-
ritania to China, within a zone of one thousand miles in breadth.
The Arabian Camel is found throughout the entire length of this
zone, on its southern side, as far as Africa and India. It is nu-
merous in the Canary Islands, to which it has been introduced,
and found also in Pisa, Italy. After the conquest of Spanish
America, an attempt was made to introduce Camels into that
country; but the project was looked upon with disfavor by the
" ruling Spaniards," and the animals gradually dwindled away.

Camelus Bractianus. The BACTRIAN CAMEL.

This species is found in the northern side of the zone above
referred to, including the central portions of Asia and China and
Thibet ; occasionally it is seen in other countries. As already
stated, it is easily known from the Arabian by its having two
humps, one near the shoulders, the other near the croup. This
is a stronger and heavier animal than the other species, and nev-
er used when dispatch is needed. It is larger than the Drome-
dary, being twelve feet in length and eight feet in height, be-
tween the humps. The hair is shaggy, particularly under the
throat ; the color generally dark brown, though variations occur
in this respect, and also in respect to size, strength and fleetness,
according to the breed and climate. The Bactrian Camel can
carry a weight of twelve hundred pounds, but from five to eight
hundred pounds is the usual burthen.

The Camels not long since purchased by the United States
government, with a view of testing their utility in crossing the
wide extended plains lying between the Mississippi valley and
the Pacific ocean, are described by one of their superintendents
"as very superior ones, presenting a far more sightly appearance
than the miserable creatures which have been exhibited to crowds
in the strolling menageries." He says, "their stride is about
3 feet in length, and with steady traveling they will average 3£
miles per hour. They do not kneel to receive their loads, as has

186 RUMINANTIA.

been stated, at the word of command, but with a Kir-r-r, Kir-r-r,
and a gentle pressure upon the neck, or a pull upon the halters,
they assume the kneeling position." (Their not doing so, at
the word of command, to receive their loads, may be owing to a
defect in their early training.) The same writer -remarks,
"their cries are uttered to express their distress or dissatisfaction
at all times. When half suppressed, they are the same as the
lazy grunt of a hog whose repose is rudely disturbed ; but when
enraged, it is much more wild and greatly like that of a Bengal
tiger when his keeper 'stirs him up with a long pole.' We had
about 600 pounds of corn on each of them for the first day after
leaving Howard's Ranch ; but each day reduces it by feeding
until we lay in another supply. They have worked admirably
well so far, and promise to fulfill our most sanguine expectations
in regard to the experiment."

Give the derivation of Camelidce ? What orders does this family link ?
What is said of their teeth ? Which is wanting in the Llama ? What is
peculiar in the upper lip ? For what used ? What is said of their brow-
sing ? How many callosities ? Where situated ? What is said of the cush-
ion on the foot, (see Plate VI. fig. 2.) and the aversion of the animal to
mud ? What results from the spongy nature of its foot ? What is said of
its senses of hearing and smell ? Give some account of the cells of the
stomach and their uses, (Plate VI. fig. 14.) In what direction does it look?
How is the Camel protected against the effects of the simoon ? How long
does it live ? In what respects does it show the wise and benevolent care
of the Creator ? What qualities does it combine ? Wnich of the two spe-
cies is best known ? What is it called ? What is said of its powers of en-
durance ? How is it distinguished from the other species ? Where is the
Bactrian Camel found, and how does it differ from the Arabian C. ? How
large a burden does it usually carry ? What is the habitat of the C. ?
What is said of the Camels purchased by the U. States ?

Trace the genera of the Camel family upon the Chart, giving their spe-
cific names and a synopsis of each animal.

RUMTNAXTIA. 1ST

SECTION XXIII.

Auchenia. (Gr. '«v/r^, auchen, a neck.)
THE LLAMA.

We have in this genus the Camels of the Western Continent,
inhabiting the Cordilleras of the Andes below the line of perpetual
snow. They are found principally in Peru and Chili, though
in much fewer numbers than formerly. Sometimes they have
been taken into Mexico, but rather as curiosities than for any
other purpose. The Llamas were first noticed at Rio Bamba,
about ninety miles south-west of Quito, and not far from the
snow-capped mountain of Chimborazo; and at this very spot,
they are now seen in considerable numbers. Rio Bamba is
11,670 feet above the sea-level, and the temperature of the air
corresponds to this elevation. But these animals, as many as
five hundred in a herd, are found at elevations still higher, — say
from 13 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, and where the
mercury falls every night below the freezing point. They do
not, however, advance so high as the line of perpetual snow,
preferring rather a middle region affording congenial tempera-
ture and food. As a protection against the cold of their elevated
abodes, they are clothed with a long and woolly fur. The name
Auchenia refers to the long slender neck of these animals, in
which they resemble the Camels proper. They are also like
them in the great cellular development of the second stomach ;
the cellular apparatus of the paunch ; the absence of the third
or plicated stomach, and the concomitant power of enduring
thirst, or rather abstaining from water altogether; in the large,
full, over-hung eye ; the division and mobility of the upper lip ;
and the fissured form of the nostrils, and the meagre limbs. Con-
trasting the location of these animals with that of the Camels, we
naturally look for a deviation in the structure of the foot. The
pad which connects the toes of the Camel beneath, would have
afforded no very sure footing for an animal destined to climb the
precipices of the Andes. We accordingly find in the Llamas toes
which are armed with strong nail-like hoofs, (Plate VI. fig. 3,)
completely separated from each other, and each defended with its
own pad or cushion, — thus admirably adapted to firm progression
either in ascent or descent ; while there is nothing in the structure
to hinder great rapidity upon comparatively smooth and level
ground. The humps of the true Camels are not found on the
backs of the Llamas, yet there is said to be in the latter a con-

]Q8 RUMINANTIA.

formation resembling those excrescences, and "consisting of an
excess of nutritious matter, in the shape of a thick coat of fat
under the skin, which is absorbed as a compensation for want of
occasional food."

The genus Auchenia is now generally considered to include
three species, viz., the Auchenia Llama, or Guanaco, which is
used for burdens, and the Auchenia Alpaca and the Vicugna,
which are raised for their flesh and wool. Cuvier regards
the Paco or Alpaca, as a variety of the Llama, with the wool
more amply developed, but the Vicugna as a distinct species.

Llama is the common term with which the Peruvians designate
their sheep. The wild Llama is usually of a deep rich fawn,
verging to white on the under parts. The wool is long and
shaggy, but shorter on the neck and limbs than on the body.
The long slender neck is "held erect and swan-like;" the head
is small; the lips are thick; the eye large and brilliant. On
the breast, there is a bunch which constantly exudes a yellowish
oily matter. The length of this animal is six feet ; the height at
the shoulders about four. The reclaimed Guanaco or domes-
ticated Llama, is greater in size than the wild animal; the body
is slender, and the limbs more muscular; the wool smoother and
closer; — the physiognomy is no longer wild and independent,
and it's air betokens mildness and subjection. The color is white,
brown, black, and sometimes mixed or piebald. Its step is slow
and regular, and it has not the strength or energy of the wild
Guanaco, — carrying at the most but one hundred and fifty pounds.
Under this load, however, it will travel with firm and sure step
fourteen or fifteen miles a day, along rugged mountain-passes
and the narrow ledges of precipitous rocks ; but if loaded too
heavily, or urged beyond its wonted pace, — camel-like, it lies
down and refuses to move another step. All that the conductor
can do, in such a case, is to sit down by the animal and wait
until " by his blandishments, he prevails on it to rise spontane-
ously." The difference in weight and speed between this animal
and the Camel, the Peruvians make up in the great numbers
which they use of these beasts of burden, — one drove sometimes
including more than five hundred that subsist in traveling as
they are able. Formerly these animals were used in bringing
down the products of the mines, and 300,000, it is said, were
once employed in the mines of Potosi alone. Mules, however,
are now chiefly used for that purpose; though the Llama is still
employed to some extent ; its labor involving less expense. The
white Llama is said to have been the presiding divinity of the
natives of Callas before that province was annexed to the empire

RUMINANTIA. 189

of the Incas ; the " priests of the sun " sacrificed it, at stated sea.
sons, to the orb of day. Frequently the Llama, but preferably the
Alpaca, was a pet in the Indian's cabin. In intelligence these
animals rank high among the ruminants. As regards patience
and resignation, they are said to equal the ox, while in point of
sensibility, they are unsurpassed by any other quadrupeds.
The size and shape of the eye indicate a strong and quick sight
as well as a peculiar capacity for bearing the reflection of the
sun's rays in the same manner as the Camel resists that glare of
the sands which in man so often produces ophthalmia. (Gr.
blearedness of the eyes.)

Auchenia Llama. The GUANACO.

The animals of this species are rather larger than sheep, but
smaller than heifers. Their compact bodies, their long legs,
and their feet having toes armed with nail-like hoofs, fit them for
dwelling in their wild state, among crags and precipices, where
the hunter would be foiled if he dared to venture. Vast herds
of wild Guanacos associate, during the summer, free as the
air, — feeding upon the herbage of their elevated abode, and the
grass or rush called icho, which covers the mountain slopes.
As long as green and succulent vegetables can be procured, the
animal never drinks. The cells of the stomach in this animal
probably retain the moisture of the masticated vegetables for the
necessities of the system, perhaps even adding to it by a liquid
secretion of their own. It is a proof of Divine Providence
that formed to dwell in such regions, the Guanacos are not only
able to live without water, but if they can obtain their natural
food, do not even require it.

Auchenia Alpaca. PAGO, or ALPACA LLAMA.

The great peculiarity of this species is its long, fine and silky
wool, covering the neck as well as the other parts of the body.
The staple of our common wools is not more than six inches
long; but that of the Alpaca averages from eight to twelve, and
sometimes reaches twenty inches ; acquiring strength without
being accompanied by coarseness, — the reverse of which occurs
in other woolly tribes. Each filament, or thread, appears straight,
well formed, and free from crispness; and the quality is more
uniform throughout the fleece. There is also a glittering bright-
ness upon the surface, which gives it the glossiness of silk, espe-
cially, when it comes out of the dye-vats. It is distinguished by
softness, an essential property in the manufacture of fine stuff;
and being exempt from spiral, curly and shaggy portions, —
when not too long, it spins easily, and yields an even and true
thread. It is, besides, less liable than other wool to form knots

190

RUMINANTIA.

difficult to unravel ; it is not injured by keeping, nor does it lose
in weight; and it is less subject to injury from moths, as the fol-
lowing fact will show. A small bundle of Alpaca wool, with a
few locks of other wool mixed with it, was accidentally thrown
into a closet and forgotten. At the end of twelve months, the
closet was opened, when it appeared that the rnoths had nearly
eaten up the common, without injuring, at all, the Alpaca wool.
The fleeces of Alpaca wool range, in Peru, from ten to twelve
pounds each, whereas, "those of our full sized sheep seldom go
beyond eight pounds, and the small species four pounds." As far
back as the days of Philip II., efforts were made to introduce
these animals into Spain ; but failed through the intervention of
war. They were taken to France, in the days of Napoleon I.,
where they have found a congenial climate ; and they have
lived to their full period in the low lands of Spain. They have
also been bred in Hamburg and in England, where the wool
seems to improve. The staple of some Alpaca wool from the
Earl of Derby's flock, was exhibited in England some ten or
twelve years since. This appeared about a foot long, and it
was estimated the animal had seventeen pounds of it on his
back.

The meat of the Alpaca has been compared to "venison, and
even heath-fed mutton." Its quality could hardly fail to be
good as the animal eats nothing but the purest vegetable sub-
stance, and in habitual cleanliness, is said to surpass every other
animal. The Alpaca is also far less subject to disease than
sheep; and as it seldom perspires, the fleece does not require
washing before it is taken from the back.

It has extraordinary foresight of storms, and power to contend
with them, so that, in its native climes, seldom is one missing
after a tempest.

The first marketable fabric made from the wool of this animal,
was presented at Greetland, near Halifax, (Eng.,) about twenty-
five years ago. It was there sold, at a very high price, in the
form of ladies' carriage shawls and cloakings, as curiosities.
The quantity manufactured and used since that time, has steadily
and greatly increased. From Alpaca wool, plain and figured stuffs
are produced, which have a beautiful luster. The difficulty which
was at first found in dying it, being now overcome, the most deli-
cate colors are obtained, such as royal blue, scarlet, green and
orange, as seen in the mousseHnes de laines, and other ladies'
dresses now in use. The blacks are superior, and the damask
patterns very showy in their appearance. In some instances, Al-
paca takes the place of Angola, or goat's hair wool ; and in France,

RUMINANTIA. jgj

it has been used for cashmeres and merinoes. English capitalists
have introduced the animal into the colony at the Cape of Good
Hope, where it has succeeded well, the shearing yielding eight and
a half pounds a sheep. Alpaca goods are, to some extent, man-
ufactured, and largely imported, and used in the United States.

Alpaca Vicugna, or Auchenia Vicuna. THE VICUNA.

This is a much hardier animal than the Guanaco. It inhabits
ranges nearer the line of perpetual snow, where the cold is in-
tense, and is rather pleased than annoyed by snow or frost. In
size, it is less than the Guanaco. The wool is of a pale yellow-
ish fawn color, and exquisitely fine, having a texture which may
be termed silken. It is used for manufacturing expensive shawls
and other articles of dress. For the sake of it, eighty thousand
of these animals, it is said, are killed every year. They are
not unlike goats, except that they are larger, and have more
horns. The Vicunas are found in flocks, appear timid, and flee
at the sight of men and of wild beasts.

What is the habitat of the Llama ? Where was it first noticed ? To
what does the name Auchenia refer? In what particulars do they resem-
ble the Camels proper? What deviation is there in the structure of the
foot? (PL VI, fig. 3.) Has it the humps of the Camel? How many
species are included in the genus Auchenia? What are their respective
uses? How did Cuvier regard the Alpaca and Vicugna? How do the
Peruvians use the term Llama? Describe the wild Llama? What is
the size ? What is said of the reclaimed Guanaco as compared with
the wild Llama? What of its uses as a beast of burden? What of the
White Llama? How do these animals rank in intelligence? What is
the. size of the Guanaco? Upon what does it feed? What proof of
divine providence is referred to? What is the great peculiarity of the
Alpaca Llama? What is said of its wool? How early were attempts
made to introduce it into Spain ? When were they taken to France ? In what
other countries have they been bred ? What is said of the cleanliness of the
Alpaca? When and where was the first marketable fabric made from the
Alpr,,^ wool? Where is most of the spinning and weaving of this wool now
perfon/ed? What is further said of its manufacture? How does the
Vicugna compare with the Guanaco in hardiness and size ? What is said
of its wool ? What animal does it resemble ?

What Llamas are named upon the chart? What is said of them?
Trace them ?

] 92 RUM1NANTIA.

SECTION XXIV.

CAMELOPARDAE. (Gr. x&pifio$, kamelos, a camel ;
pardalis, a leopard.)

THE CAMELOPARDS.

These singular and beautiful ruminants, in their general struct-
ure, most nearly approach the Deer, but have points of resem-
blance also to the Antelopes and Camels, besides striking pecu-
liarities of their own. They have persistent horns, common to
both sexes, and are the tallest of all known quadrupeds; fre-
quenting the wooded plains and hills that skirt the arid deserts,
or the verge of mighty forests where groves of mimosa trees
beautify the scenery.

Camelopardalis Giraffe is the sole species, including two
varieties, — the ona native to Nubia, Abyssinia, and the regions
adjacent, and ranked by Swainson as a distinct species, — the
other, found in Southern Africa.* (See Chart.)

The general characters of the Giraffe are the following, viz.,
"Lip not grooved, entirely covered with hair, much produced
before the nostril ; tongue very extensile ; neck very long, and
having a short thick mane; body short; hind legs short; false
hoof none; tail elongate, with a tuft of thick hair at the end."
This animal at once impresses the beholder with its towering
height, varying from fifteen to twenty feet. The males are
generally fifteen or sixteen, and the females thirteen or fourteen
feet in height, and their young at birth, six feet. Its thickness
is not what might, perhaps, be expected from the height. In
order to support its very long neck, (but having only the
number of bones found in the human neck,) the withers are ele-
vated; the spinal processes of the vertebrae are proloteped to
meet the elastic ligament which runs along the neck, ariu assist
to keep it in its natural position. It is said above, — "the hind
legs are short." This describes them as they appear ; but in
reality the front and hind legs are about the same length ; the

* The Commentator on the "Pictorial Bible," where a good cut of the
Giraffe is given, says, with reference to the word Chamois, used, Genesis
iii., 21, " The Arabic version understood that the word Giraffe is meant
here, which is very likely to have been the case, for the Chamois is not met
with so far to the Southward as Egypt and Palestine." The Jews had,
probably, many opportunities of becoming acquainted with the animal while
in Egypt, as had also the seventy (translators of the Septuagint) who
resided there, and who indicate their knowledge of it in their translation
of the Hebrew name.'

RUMINANTI A,

193

thighs in front are so long in comparison with those behind, that
the back of the animal seems inclined like the roof of a house;
and this gives to it an appearance of unwieldiness and unfitness
for active movements. But the seeming drawbacks related to its
structure and condition, are balanced by marked and peculiar
advantages. A man on horseback can, without stooping, ride
under the body of the animal, — the height to the tip of the
shoulder being ten feet. Why that neck of prodigious length?
Why the disproportioned height of the fore and the hind parts of
the body, giving to the animal its appearance of unwieldiness
and clumsiness? The answer is, — the animal derives a large
part of its food from the leaves of trees, particularly the mimosa, —
a species of acacia, called acacia giraffe. The peculiarity of the
Giraffe's form enables it to reach the high branches which are
uncropped, because above the reach of ordinary animals; and a
shorter neck, on the other hand, would not have allowed it to
reach the earth in districts where woods are less common. In
reaching the high branches, it is also aided by the tongue, which
has the power of motion in such a degree, accompanied with the
faculty of extension, that it performs "the office of the proboscis
of an elephant in miniature." This organ may be extended sev-
enteen inches after death, but in the living animal, can lie so
diminished in size as to be inclosed within its mouth. Ac-
cording to Sir Everard Home, its actions depend on the com-
bined powers of muscular contraction and elasticity ; its increase
and diminution of size arising from the blood vessels being at
one time loaded with blood, and at another empty. The Cam-
elopard seizes the foliage with its long and narrow tongue,
using it as a prehensile organ, and a beautiful accessary to the
other parts of the structure, — rolling it around the object with
considerable pliability.

The tongue is used as an organ of examination, for the power
of prehension is so great, that when extended to the utmost, it
can grasp an ordinary lump of sugar, of which the animal seems
very fond. He retroverts the tongue for the purpose of cleansing
the nostrils, — an office which its flexibility enables him to per-
form in the most perfect manner. The tongue, it is said, can be
so tapered as to enter the ring of a very small key. The eyes
are large and prominent, and soft and gentle in their expression;
the ears large and spreading ; the lips, especially the lower one,
being movable ; the head is small, but elegantly modeled, taper-
ing to the singularly narrow muzzle, with a well-formed mouth.

Both the male and female Camelopard have horns, — not such
as are periodically shed and renewed; nor yet true and promi-

iQl RUMINANT1A.

nent horns, like those of the Antelope, but consisting of two
porous, bony substances, about three inches long, with which
the top of the head is armed, placed just above the ears, and
crowned with a thick tuft of stiff upright hairs; a considerable
protuberance also rises in the middle of the forehead, between
the eyes. By some, these horns muffled with skin and hair, are
said to be "useless as instruments of defence,"— others say, —
" We have seen them wielded by the males against each other
with fearful and reckless force." The Giraffe does not butt by
depressing and suddenly elevating the head ; but strikes the cal-
lous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack
with a sidelong sweep of the neck. The imperfection of the horns
has been plausibly ascribed "to the state of the circulation of the
blood in the arteries of the skull." The long neck is supposed
to impede the circulation, so that the vital stream ascends with
difficulty, — it rises slowly, in more moderate quantity, and is
" inadequate for a supply of osseous matter, remarkable either for
its abundance, or its rapid elaboration." Who does not see the
wisdom of this ordering? What could the long-necked Cam-
elopard do with the ponderous horns of the Moose, or the Wa-
pite ? " It is not for nothing that the neck is elongated, that the
head is light, and the tongue made flexible; — it is not without
design that the horns are rudimentary ; for such modifications
the instincts and the habits of the creature demand ; the one part
involves the other." Professor Owen has noticed a further
beautiful provision in this animal, which is, that its nostrils are
provided with cutaneous sphincter (Gr. aqr^yw, sphingo, to con-
strain ) muscles, and can be shut at will, like the eyes. He
supposes that the object of this mechanism, is to keep out the
sand when the storms of the desert arise.

The hair of the Giraffe is short and close; the ground color
of a light grayish fawn, marked with numerous triangular spots,
with a darker hue, less regularly shaped on the sides than on
the neck and shoulders. The Northern variety of the animal is
of a paler color than the Southern.

The eyes of the Giraffe are so placed that he can see much of
what is passing on all sides, and even behind, without turning the
head. Hence it is difficult to approach him ; and when surprised
or run down, he directs most accurately the rapid storm of kicks
with which his defence is made. Ordinarily, however, this ani-
mal seeks safety in flight. Its motion is extremely rapid, espe-
cially along rising ground ; but cannot be maintained for a
sufficient time to enable it to escape from the Arab mounted on
his long-winded steed. The pace is an amble; the animal

RUMINANTIA. 195

moves two legs on each side at the same time, but when put in
motion, it can, for a while, keep a horse at a pretty smart gallop.
The lamented Anderson says, in his "Lake Ngami," — "It is a
curious sight, a troop of Giraffes at full speed, balancing them-
selves to and fro in a manner not easily described ; and whisking,
at regular intervals, from side to side, their tails, tufted at the
end, while their long and tapering necks, swaying backward
and forward, follow the motion of their bodies. They are so
long-winded, that a swift horse seldom overtakes them under less
than two or three miles." The author of the "Menageries"
remarks, — "Until the year 1827, when a Giraffe appeared in
England, and one in France, the animal had not been seen in
Europe since the 15th century, when the Soldan of Egypt sent
one to Lorenzo De Medici, which was familiar to the inhabit-
ants of Florence, where it was accustomed to walk at ease about
the streets, stretching its long neck to the balconies, and first
floors, for apples and other fruits, upon which it delighted to
feed." In 1836, four Giraffes were introduced into England by
the Zoological Society, at an expense of between eleven and
twelve thousand dollars. One of them soon died ; but the others
lived, and one of the females had several young ones, which
were sold and taken to different parts of the world. In our own
country, the Camelopard is often exhibited. The animal, it is
said, is often seen in a tame state, it Grand Cairo, in Egypt, and
is found figured in the sculptured remains of that country.
Pompey the Great exhibited in the theatre, ten of these ani-
mals, which he had brought from the scenes of his military
enterprise. His rival, Julius Caesar, also exhibited them. After
him, several Roman Emperors showed them in the public games
and processions. All these were probably obtained from the
northern or north-eastern part of the African Continent, and by
way of Egypt.

What is said of the structure of the Camelopards? How many varieties
and where found? What are the general characters of this animal ? What
its size? How is its long neck supported? Are its hind legs really shorter
than its fore legs ? What compensation is referred to ? What aids it to
reach high branches? What is said of the tongue? Has this animal
horns? Why are they imperfect? What provision is noticed by Professor
Owen? How do the varieties differ in color? How do the eyes of the
Giraffe assist him in self-defence? What is the remark of Anderson?
What more is said?

What is said on the chart of its size ?

195 RUMINANTIA.

SECTION XXV.

MOSCHIDAE, or MUSK DEER. (Gr. /woo^o?, moschos, a Musk.)

These are so called, from the fact, that one species yields the
well-known perfume, called musk. According to Cuvier, "they
are much less anomalous than the Camels, and only differ from the
other Ruminants in the absence of horns, in having a long canine
tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which comes out of the
mouth in the males, and, finally, in having in their skeleton, a
slight fibula, (clasp, or connecting link,) which has no existence
in the Camels."

The distinction of the othe.r canine tooth noticed by Cuvier, is
not, however, confined to the Musks, — as some of the males of
other deer, the Muntjak, for example, show a similar forma-
tion ; that of the Moschus moschiferus, (Lat. musk-bearing,) is
three inches long. In general form, the Musk deer differ only
a little from other Deer ; but the body is rounded and stouter,
and the neck shorter, — the head is not carried erect, and the
bearing not so bold ; the limbs are more tapering, and the hind
quarters considerably elevated ; the face is narrow and length-
ened, and they are destitute of horns. None of them have tear
openings, or tufts of bushy hair on their legs, like the other deer.
They have large, dark and brilliant eyes, rather small ears, and
short tails; they have also front and hind hoofs, — the front hoofs
being long, narrow and pointed, the hind ones high set, small and
conical. In the true musks, however, the hoofs are broad and
expanded; the hind ones large, almost touching ihe ground.
Besides the true and celebrated Musk Deer, the family includes
four other species, one found in Ceylon, and three in Java, in-
cluding the smallest, and according to some, the most elegant of
the Ruminants.

Moschus moschiferus. The THIBET MUSK. (Plate VII. fig. 1.)

This is a mountain animal, — timid, shy, and a lover of soli-
tude, having somewhat the form of a roebuck, but thicker and
more clumsy. It is six inches higher behind than at the shoulder,
where it measures about two feet three inches. The ears are
long, and rather narrow; in the inside, pale yellow, and dark
brown, outside. The hair is long, coarse and harsh, and mixed
with brown yellow, and whitish, which produces a dark red
tinge on the back, fading off to whitish beneath, — the tail is nearly
rudimentary, and covered by the hair ; a tuft hangs on each side
from the lower jaw. This animal being extremely cautious, and

UNIVERSITY

OF

PL. VII.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

DEER.

1. The Musk-Deer, Afoschus Moschiferus.

2. The Common Stag, or European Red Deer, Cervus Elephas.

3. The Moose, Flat-Horned Elk, or Black Elk, O. alces.

4. The American Elk, Round-Horned Elk, or Wapiti Deer, Elephas Cana-
den.ws.

5. The Caribou, or American Reindeer, C. rangifer or R. Tarandus.

6. The Fallow Deer, C. Dama or Dama vulgaris.

7. The Roe-buck, C. Capreolus or Capreolus Dorcas.

8. The Muntjak, C. vaginalis.

ox.

9. The Musk Ox, Ovibos Moschatus, Little Bison of the Chipewyans and
Copper Indians.

10. The Moufflon, Ovis musimon or Caprovis musimon, Wild Sheep or
Siberian Goat of Pennant.

11. The Argali, or Wild Sheep, Caprovis Argalis.

12. The Many-Horned Sheep, Ovis polycerata.

GOATS.

13. The Syrian Goat, Capra Syriaca. Its large pendulous ears are from
one to two feet long, and at times so troublesome that the owners are
obliged to trim them. Amos iii. 12.

14. The Ibex, Capra Ibex.

ANTELOPES.

15. The Kudoo, Antilope strepsicoros.

16. The Blessbok, A. albifrons.

17. The Prong-Horned Antelope, A. Americana or Antilocapra A.

18. The Common Antelope, or Sasin, A. cervicapra.

19. The Dorcas Gazelle, A. Dorcas, or Gazella Dorcas.

20. The Oryx, A. Oryx, or Oryx Gazella.

21. The Chamois, or Gems, A. rupricapra, or R. Tragus.

22. The Mhorr, Gazella Mhorr, or A. Mhorr.

23. The Gnu, or Gnoo, A. Gnu, or Catoblepas Gnu.

24. The Bekker-el-Wash, or Wild-Ox of the Arabs, A. Bubalis, or Alcepha*

lus Bubalis.

200 RUMINANTIA.

residing among broken crags and precipices covered with pines,
is yet eagerly, and often with peril of life, hunted for its perfume,
peculiar to the male alone. Its habits are similar to those of ihe
Chamois, — it climbs and bounds over the Alpine ridges of Cen-
tral Asia with astonishing activity, assembling in herds, and
sometimes in considerable numbers. Occasionally, it is killed
with a cross-bow, a string having been set in the path of the
animal. The bag containing the perfume, is kidney-shaped, and
about the size of a hen's egg. It has two openings, the larger
one oblong, the smaller round, and covered with hair. The
musk, on the application of pressure, may be driven through the
openings, — it is an unctuous, dusky red substance, and when dry,
is more or less granulated. The hunters cut. off the bag and tie
it up for sale ; but like many other articles of commerce, it is
often adulterated by the addition of blood and other matter, and
pieces of lead have sometimes been found enveloped in it for the
purpose of increasing the weight. The quality and quantity of
the musk in a given bag vary, according to the age of the ani-
mal. To the taste, it is bitter, and somewhat acrid. No sub-
stance is known to have a stronger, or more subtle and perma-
nent smell. It strikingly illustrates the extreme divisibility of
matter, for a single grain of it will perfume a whole room, and
its odor continue for days without any diminution. When once
introduced, it is exceedingly difficult to destroy its perfume.
Vessels of silver do not for a long time part with the scent of
musk that has been placed in them. When exposed in large
quantity, its eflect is really violent upon the nervous system ;
blood has been forced from the nose, eyes and ears of those who
have imprudently inhaled a large amount of the vapor. Pur-
chasers of the article sometimes secure themselves from the sud-
den effects of the smell by covering the face with a handkerchief
several times folded. For nervous diseases and convulsions, it
has been used as a medicine. Orientalists make warm winter
dresses for themselves out of this animal's skin, with the fur
preserved ; they also prepare from it a soft and shining leather.
The Romans and Tartars even eat the flesh, though that of the
male is highly flavored with musk.
\ Moschus Meminna. The MEMINNA.

This beautiful little Musk, about seventeen inches in length,
and weighing only five and a half pounds, is a 'native of Ceylon,
frequenting woods and groves, but never found in the plains. It
has large dark eyes, and smooth shining hair, of art olive color,
clouded with reddish about the limbs. The sides are dappled
with interrupted lines and irregular dots of white ; the throat

RUMINANTIA. 201

and chest are also white, and from the former, two lines of the
same color on each side radiate backwards, the lower one ex-
tending to the shoulders. (This peculiar marking specifically
varied in a slight degree, characterises the remaining species of
this genus.)

Moschus Napu. The NAPU, or CHEVROTAIN.

This Musk Deer is a native of Java, and is about the size of a
rabbit, — the legs are scarcely as thick as a common quill ; the
general color is a uniform ferruginous brown, clouded with
black; and the animal has throat marks as above referred to.

To this species, Sir Stamford Raffles has given the specific
name Javanicus. He remarks, that it " frequents thickets near
the sea-shore ; and feeds principally upon the berries of a species
of Ardisia ; can be easily trained when take» young, and will
become quite familiar."

Moschus Kanchil. KANCHIL MUSK DEER.

This is by some regarded as the most elegant, as it is one of
the smallest of the Ruminantia, — and is also found in Java and
Sumatra. Its height is about nme inches; its length, four-
teen. The color is a deep yellow brown, approaching to
black on the back, a bright bay on the sides, and on the under
parts white. The markings of the throat have the upper line of
white extending from the face to the shoulder, differing in this
respect from those of the Napu. It has long canine teeth, and
a tail tufted and white at the tip. Berries and wild fruit consti-
tute its food. Among the Javanese, it is said to have a reputa-
tion for strategy similar to that of the fox. A Malay proverb
doscribes a great rogue as being "as cunning as a Kanchil."
"If taken in a noose laid for it, the Kanchil, when the hunter
arrives, will stretch itself out motionless, and feign to be dead ;
and if, deceived by this manoeuvre, he disengage the animal, it
seizes the moment to start on its legs, and disappears in an in-
stant." A still more singular expedient is mentioned, viz., "that
when closely pursued by the dogs, the Kanchil will sometimes
make a bound upwards, hook itself on the branch of a tree by
means of its bent tusks, and there remain suspended, until the
dogs have passed beneath."

Linnseus placed the Musk Deer between the Camels and Deer.
Swainson places them between the Camelopards and Deer.

Why are the MuskDeer so called ? What is Cuvier's remark respecting
them? What is said of their general form, &c. ? How many species does
the family include ? What is said of the size of these animals ? Describe
the Thibet Musk ? What is its great peculiarity ? What shows the powerful
nature of the Musk ? What property of matter does this illustrate ? To

202 RUMINANTIA.

what medicinal use has it been applied? Give some account of the Me-
minna? What peculiarity has it in common with the remaining species of
this genus? Where is the Napu found ? What does Sir Stamford Raffles say
of it? Where is the Kanchil found? What is its size? What reputation
has it among the Javanese? What Malay proverb is mentioned? How is
its cunning illustrated? Where did Linnaeus and Swainson place Musk
Deer? Where are they placed on the Chart?

SECTION XXVI.

SOLID-HORNED RUMINANTS.

CERVIDAE. (Lat. Cervus, a stag.) The DEER FAMILY.

We come now to a group of animals which have been ever
greatly admired. They seem, many of them, to have been
formed to embellish the forest, and impart animation to the sol-
itudes of nature. In their internal structure, they closely
resemble the ox, but they are " without the gall-bladder; the
kidneys are formed differently; and the spleen is larger in pro-
portion to the size of the animals." Of the genus Cervus, the
general characters are simple. Incisor teeth are found, eight in
number, in the lower jaw alone ; the grinders are six on each
side above and below; the canine teeth are generally wanting.
The pupils of the eye are elongated, and below the inner angle
of the eye, there is a deep fossa, or opening, generally known as
the lachrymal sinus. In some, this opening, called by the
French, larmiers, (from Fr. larme, a tear,) is of considerable
size. It has been supposed "to communicate with the nostrils,
and assist them in maintaining respiration, during great exertion
or swiftness; " but its use is not fully ascertained. The cavity
secretes a wax-like substance, which sends forth a strong odor.
The ears are large and pointed; the tail short; the legs slender;
and the feet bisulcated. The horns, or antlers, — excepting in the
case of the Rein Deer, found alone in the males, — are solid, and
in a large part of these animals, annually shed and renewed.
"The form of the horns is various. Sometimes they spread into
broad palms, which send out sharp snags around their outer
edges ; sometimes they divide fantastically into branches, some
\ of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared up-
ward in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the
animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect
posture ; yet, in whatever way they grow, they appear to give
an air of grandeur to the animal." The geographical range of
the Deer includes the entire globe, with the exception of Austra-
lia and Southern Africa. The species found in the colder

RUMINANTIA. 203

regions, are generally marked by superior size, and a greater
development of the horns ; and by having a broad muzzle cov-
ered with hair.

The production, loss and renewal of the antlers of this family
of quadrupeds, are among the most remarkable phenomena of
animal physiology. The subject is treated with great ability
and clearness in W. C. L. Martin's work on the Mammalia, from
which we extract the following :

"The horns are seated upon an osseous peduncle, or footstalk,
rising from each frontal bone at its central point of ossification, —
thes3 peduncles are enveloped in skin. It is not until in the spring,
or beginning of the second year, that the first pair of horns begin
to make their appearance. At this epoch, a new process com-
mences, the skin enveloping the peduncle swells, its arteries
enlarge, tides of blood rush to the head, and the whole system
experiences a fresh stimulus. The antlers are now budding,"
for, on the top of their footstalks, the arteries are depositing lay-
ers of osseous matter, particle by particle, with great rapidity.
As they increase, the skin increases in an equal ratio, still cov-
ering the budding antlers, and continues so to do until they have
acquired their due development and solidity. This skin is a
tissue of blood vessels, and the courses of the large arteries from
the head to the end of the antlers are imprinted in the latter in
long furrows, which are never obliterated. In ordinary lan-
guage, the skin, investing the antlers, is termed velvet, being
covered with a fine pile of close short hair. Suppose then, the
antlers of the young deer, now duly grown, and still invested
with this vascular tissue ; but the process is not yet complete.
While this tender velvet remains, the deer can make no use of
his newly acquired weapons, which are destined to bear the
brunt of many a conflict with his compeers; it must, therefore,
be removed ; but without giving a sudden check to the current
of blood rolling through this extent of skin, lest, by directing the
tide to the brain, or some internal organ, death be the result.
The process then is this : — As soon as the antlers complete, (ac-
cording to the age of the animal,) the footstalk, always covered
with skin, they begin to deposit round it a bone, or rough ring of
bone, with notches, through which the great arteries still pass.
Gradually, however, the diameter of these openings is contracted
by the deposition of additional matter ; till, at length, the great
arteries are compressed as by a ligature, and the circulation is
effectually stopped. The velvet now dies for the want of the
vital fluid ; it shrivels, dries and peels off in shreds, the animal

204 RUMINANTIA.

assisting in getting rid of it by rubbing his antlers against the
trees. They are now firm, hard and white ; and the stag bears
them proudly, and brandishes them in defiance of his rivals.
From the burr upwards, these antlers are no longer part and
parcel of the system, — they are extraneous, and held only by
their mechanical continuity with the footstalk on which they
were placed ; hence their deciduous character ; for it is a vital
law, that the system shall throw off all parts no longer intrinsic-
ally entering into the integrity of the whole, — an absorption
process soon begins to take place just beneath the burr, removing
particle after particle, till at length the antlers are separated and
fall by their own' weight, or by the slightest touch, leaving the
living end of the footstalk exposed and slightly bleeding. This
is immediately covered with a pellicle of skin which soon thick-
ens, and all is well. The return of spring brings with it a re-
newal of the whole process, and a finer pair of antlers branch
forth."

The rapidity with which this firm mass of bone is secreted, is
worthy of particular notice. The budding horns of a male
Wapite, are several inches high in ten days from their first ap-
pearance ; a month afterwards there is an interval of two feet
between them, measuring from branch to branch. When the
process is ended that completes the horn, the deer seems con-
scious of his strength, and goes forth prepared to encounter any
creature, even man himself, that may dare to invade his haunts.
Thus he continues for a season, — but when he again sheds his
horns, betakes himself to the recesses of the forest until they are
replaced. The Common Stag sheds his horns about the end of
February, or in the month of March ; the Fallow Deer from the
middle of April to the first week of May. In the Stag, the horns
do not appear until the second year. The first shed, is straight, or
single, like a small thrust sword or dagger, — whence the young
male is termed Daguet, (Fr. dague, a dagger,) by the French;
the next horn has commonly but one antler ; the third has two,
and sometimes three ; the fourth has three or four, sometimes
five or six. Up to this time, the animal is called a Young
Stag, — the fifth horn has five or six antlers; the, sixth is shed
when the animal is about seven years of age. In addition to
the growth of antlers, the horns become larger, have the fur-
rows more marked, the burr more projecting; and the supports
of the horns become, every year, shorter and wider. By these
signs, the age of the animal, from eight years and upwards, is
determined. After the seventh year, there is no fixed rule as to
the antlers. They are multiplied towards the summit of the

RUMINANTIA. 205

beam, where they are united into a sort of crown, and are said
to be palmated. The oldest have not usually more than ten or
twelve antlers; though it is said some have borne the enormous
number of thirty-three. (See Plate VII. fig. 2.)

Deer are remarkable for the acuteness of their hearing and
smelling, and it is therefore very difficult for the hunter to ap-
proach them when he follows the course of the wind. They
are very nice in choosing their food, and will not eat that which
has been handled or touched by any foreign substance. The
flesh of many of these animals, as is well known, is used for
food, and familiarly known under the name of venison. Strong
and lasting leather is made from their skins. According to Dr.
De Kay, (N. H. S. N. Y.,) this family "comprises forty-five
real or nominal species, distributed, according to the ideas of sys-
tematic writers, into eight or ten genera. But six species are
found within the United States, and of these three only exist in
the State of New York."

Elaphus Canadensis, or C. Canadensis. The AMERICAN
STAG, or WAPITI, or ROUND-HORNED ELK.

This animal, which is frequently called the Canada Stag, is
of a much larger and stronger make than the Stags of Europe ;
and in fact is one of the most gigantic of the deer tribe, being
from four to five feet in height and from seven to eight feet in
length. Their horns are shed annually ; tKey are round and very
large, branching into serpentine curves, but never palmated, and
measuring six feet from tip to tip. (Plate VII. fig. 4.) Under the
throat of the male is a dewlap composed of black hair from four
to six inches long ; the tail, in both sexes is very short. Most of the
upper parts of the Wapiti are of a lively yellowish brown color ; the
neck is mixed red and black ; the rump yellowish, bounded by a
dark, circular marginal line ; the limbs on the front are deep
brown ; the tail yellowish. The Wapiti feeds on grass and
young shoots of trees ; is easily tamed and has been trained to
the harness. It is said to make a shrill, quivering noise, " not
very unlike the braying of an ass." The flesh is somewhat
coarse, and not highly valued ; but its hide, when made into
leather is said not to turn hard in drying after having been wet,
a quality which places it in high estimation. The Wapiti is
found, not only in the northern parts of this continent, but on the
western prairies, and in California, Oregon, and New Mexico.
C. axis. The Axis. (So named by Pliny.)
Of this beautiful deer there are two varieties. The common
Axis, in its size and general form, nearly resembles the fallow
deer, being, at the shoulder, about two and a half feet in height.

2Q6 RUMINANTIA.

It has a rich fawn-colored skin, spotted with white, and hence
sometimes receives the specific name maculosa, (spotted.) Along
the back the ground-color changes to nearly black ; . but the un-
der parts are snow white. A broad dusky spot appears upon the
forehead, and a line of the same color extends along the middle
of the nose. The Axis is a native of India, and is particularly
numerous on the banks of the Ganges. It roams among the
thick jungles, near streams of water, and is hunted under the
name of the Spotted Hog-Deer. This animal feeds in the night,
is timid, mild and inactive, excepting when the females have
young, at which time the male is bold and fierce. It has been
kept with success in menageries and parks, to which, from its
form and color, it is highly ornamental. The larger variety, A.
major, (Lat. greater,) a native of Borneo and Ceylon, is about
the height of a horse, and has horns which are three-forked,
thick and rugged, and nearly three feet long.

Capreolus Dorcas, (Gr. dogx&g, dorkas, a gazelle,) or C. capre-
olus, (Lat. Roebuck or Chamois.) The ROEBUCK.

This species of deer, once common in England, is now con-
fined chiefly or entirely to the Highlands of Scotland. They are
of less size than the fallow deer, being only two feet four inches
in height, and three feet six inches in length. The color is reddish
brown on the back, the chest and under parts of the body are yel-
lowish, and the croup white ; the horns are round, divided into three
branches, and about nine inches long. (Plate VII. fig. 7.) The
Roebuck does not live in herds, but singly and in pairs, amongst the
shady thickets and rising slopes. This deer is very cunning, when
pursued, sometimes baffling the dogs by making a few enormous
leaps, waiting until the dogs have passed and then resuming its
former track. It is said to be very fond of the Rubus saxatus,
called in the Highlands, the Roebuck-berry. In winter, when
the ground is covered with snow, these animals browse on the
tender branches of the fir and birch. The flesh is delicate food,
and the horns are used for carving-knives. By the old Welsh
laws, a Roebuck was valued at the same price as a she-goat. It
can be easily subdued, but never perfectly tamed, always retain-
ing some portion of its natural wildness.

C. leucurus. (Gr. kevxbg, leukos, white; ovga, oura, a tail.)
The WHITE-TAILED DEER.

This resembles the European roebuck. On the Columbia
river it is the most common deer; the tip and under part of the
tail are of a cream white.

C. macrotis. (Gr. fiaxgbg, makros, long; ol$, ous, ear.) The
MULE DEER.

RUMINANTIA. 207

This takes its name from its long ears, which are half the
length of the whole antler. The hair is waved or crimped like
that of the elk ; upon the thighs near the croup it looks like white
thread cut off abruptly.

C. elaphus. (Gr. shoKpog, elaphos, a stag.) The RED DEER,
or STAG.

This noble species is found native in the European forests and
in those of Asia where the climate is temperate. It is the
largest of the English Deer, associated with the forest laws, so
oppressive that they affixed a less value to the life of a man than
that of a stag ; and it is blended with the legends of deadly feud,
as in the celebrated ballad of "Chevy Chase." The Red Deer
is distinguished by its brown color, and a pale spot on the rump,
and sometimes attains a great size. Pennant speaks of one that
weighed 314 Ibs., exclusive of the entrails, head and skin. Ac-
cording to Buffon, the small size of some* of these animals is ow-
ing to a deficiency of nourishment, as in rich pastures its size be-
comes greatly increased. The horns are round, having the antlers
turned towards the front, the summit terminating in a fork, or snags
from a common center. (Plate VII. fig. 2.) It is very common in
France, and is supposed to have been originally introduced from
that country into England. In the latter country it is now largely
superseded by the common or Fallow Deer, which is of a more
manageable and placid disposition and affords far superior venison.
The Red Deer has a fine eye, an acute smell and a good ear ;
when listening, raises his head and erects his ears ; when going
into a coppice, or other half-covered place, stops to look around
him on all sides, and scents the wind to discover if any object be
near that might disturb him. He eats slowly, and after his stom-
ach is full, lies down and leisurely ruminates.

The pursuit of this deer is a very favorite amusement in Eng-
land, summoning into action all the energy of youth and man-
hood. The animal in stalking is generally shot ; but when
wounded and yet able to fly, the dogs are let loose in the chase.
In olden times, the dogs were mainly relied on for taking and
killing deer, so that fleet and courageous hounds became the
pride of nobles and princes. It is said he is particularly de-
lighted with the sound of the shepherd's pipe, and is by that instru-
ment sometimes lured to his own destruction. In winter and
spring, this animal rarely drinks, the dews and herbage being suffi-
cient to satisfy his thirst ; but during the parching heats of summer,
he not only frequents the brooks and springs, but searches for deep
water wherein to bathe and refresh himself. He swims with great
ease and strength, particularly when he is in good condition, his

208 RUMINANTIA.

fat contributing to his buoyancy. The female bears one younnr,
seldom more, in or near the month of May. The fawn, or calf,
as it is called, the first year, does not quit the dam during the
entire summer. The female is most assiduous in concealing and
tending the young one, which is needful to secure it against as-
saults, not only from the cat and dog tribes, but even from the
stag himself, who is not overstocked with paternal affection.

C. Dama, (Lai. a Fallow Deer.) The FALLOW DEER.

This has the same general form, aspect and manners as the
Stag, with a more gentle disposition. The size is smaller, but
the chief difference between the Fallow Deer and the Stag re-
lates to the horns, (Plate VII. figs. 2 and 6,) which, in the former,
are broad and palmated, at their extremities pointing a little for-
ward, and branched on their hinder sides. It is less delicate
than the stag in its choice of food, and browses much closer ; is at
full maturity when three years old.

There are two varieties of this animal in England, where it
adorns the modern parks. The beautiful dappled variety is sup-
posed to have been brought from the south of Europe, or the
western parts of Asia ; the other very deep brown variety is
said by Pennant to have been introduced by James I., from Nor-
way. On the continent of Europe, as well as in England, they
are confined in parks ; but they are found wild in Moldavia as
well as Lithuania. The venison of this Deer is of the richest
and most delicate kind ; the skins of the buck arid doe. are unri-
valed for durability and softness; the horns, like those of the
stag, are manufactured into knife handles and other articles,
while from the refuse, ammonia or hartshorn is extracted. This
species is represented in the sculptures of Nineveh.

C. Virginianus. The AMERICAN DEER.

This species resembles the English Fallow Deer, and is so
named by Professor Emmons, (Mass. Report.) The color is
bluish gray in the autumn and winter, dusky reddish in the
spring, changing to bluish in the summer; the young animal is
spotted with white. The horns are of moderate size, curving
forward, having the concave part in front, " with from one to six
points occasionally palmated." In the adult males the horns
show a great variety, which is regulated by their age, the season
of the year, and the abundance or scarcity of their food. These
animals range from Canada to Mexico. In some places, the
united attacks of men and wolves are largely diminishing their
number. Their horns are usually cast in the winter. Dr. De
Kay says the reason so few of the horns are found, is that as
soon as they are shed they are eaten up by the Rodents or gnaw-

RUMINANTIA. 209

ing animals. In frontier countries these animals are exceedingly
useful, not only for the food which they furnish, but for their
skins, which form an important article of commerce. They live
upon twigs of trees, shrubs, berries and grasses ; for the buds
and flowers of the pond-lily, they are said to show a peculiar
fondness. The female has one, sometimes two fawns at a birth,
in the latter part of spring or early in the summer.

C. alces. The ELK or MOOSE. Flat-Horned Elk, Black
Moose or Elk. (See Plate VII. fig. 3.)

This animal, surpassing all the true deer in size and strength, is
found in the northern parts of Europe and America. The name
which it bears is of Celtic origin, coming from "Elch," whence
is derived the latter word alee or alces, which is the Celtic trans-
ferred to the Roman language. In America, it is known under
the various names of Flat-Horned Elk, Black Elk, or Moose.
The latter, which is the more common term, is a corruption of
the Indian appellation, Moosoa or Musee, wood eater.

The Elk is six or seven feet in length, and from four to five
and a half feet high at the withers ; the head is large and elon-
gated, and is, including the upper lip, covered with short pro-
jecting and flexible hair, something like that of the Tapir ; the
eyes are moderately large, and placed near the base of the
horns ; the ears long and asinine ; the neck very short and strong
and furnished with a mane ; the lachrymal pit is small ; horns
are found in the male only. The hair of the lips and throat, in
connection with its very long and flexible tongue, serves to direct
food to the mouth. The food consists of shoots and twigs 'of
trees, particularly of striped maple; the Elk also feeds upon
high coarse grasses, but when wishing to graze, reaches the
ground with difficulty, and sometimes feeds leaning on its knees.
It likewise peels old trees and feeds upon the bark. During the
summer, Elks frequent the neighborhood of lakes and streams,
often resorting to the water as a refuge from tormenting musqui-
toes, and feeding upon aquatic plants; like the C. Virginianus,
they are said to be particularly fond of the roots of the pond-
lily. In winter, they betake themselves to the wooded hills.
The Elk can hardly be said to be gregarious, but two or three
being seen together, except at particular seasons. Some natu-
ralists consider the Moose of this country to be a different species
from the Elk of Europe, asserting that in the heavy palmated
horns of both, there is a difference which indicate a diversity
of species ; but according to DeKay, this difference is not uni-
form, and the animals should be considered of the same species.
The horns, perfected in the fifth year, are from ten to twelve feet

210 EUMINANTIA.

apart, and weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. The snags or
branches sometimes amount to twenty-eight. The body of the
Elk is round and compact, supported by legs of disproportionate
length ; the hair is full and coarse, longest upon the head and
withers ; it is black at the tips, gray in the middle, and white at
the roots. The dress of summer is of a browner tint than that
of the winter. (See the figure above the Camelopard on the
Chart.)

In its ungainly form and awkward movements, this animal ex-
hibits a strong contrast to the others of the same family. The
shoulders being rather higher than the croup, it does not bound
like the deer, nor gallop like the horse, but shuffles or ambles
along, its joints or hoofs cracking at every step. Like those of
the Rein Deer, the hoofs are broad and divided so that they di-
verge on pressing the ground, thus giving the animal a sort of
natural snow-shoes. When each part is brought smartly together
by the sudden raising of the limbs, the cracking noise above
mentioned is produced and may be heard at a considerable dis-
tance. When increasing its speed, the animal straddles his
hind legs to avoid treading on its fore heels, tossing about the
head and shoulders when breaking from a trot into a gallop. In
its progress, it holds up its nape so as to lay the horns horizon-
tally back, and prevent their entanglement among trees. The
Moose is a timorous and wary animal, and as its senses of hear-
ing and smell are acute, must be approached with great caution.

When it notices the coming of the hunter, it at once endeav-
ors-to escape, trotting off with great rapidity; at this gait, it soon
leaves the hunter far in the rear, stepping with ease over fallen
timber of the largest size. When hard pressed by the hunters
wearing snow shoes, if it breaks into a gallop they soon overtake
it; though in the winter it may sink at every step, it still keeps
on its way, the sharp ice wounding its feet, and its lofty horns
becoming entangled in the branches of the forest as it passes
along. The trees are broken with ease, and wherever the
Moose runs, the hunter perceives it by the snapping off of
branches of trees as thick as a man's thigh with its horns. The
chase may last in this manner for a whole day, sometimes for
two or three days together; for the pursuers are often "not less
excited by famine than the pursued by fear." The poor animal
"at last quite tired and spent with loss of blood, sinks like a
ruined building, and makes the earth shake beneath his fall."
The flesh is highly esteemed ; the nose and tongue in particular
are thought to be great dainties. The Elk can be easily domes-
ticated, and has been used for draught. The male sometimes

EUMINANTIA. 211

becomes very large, attaining the weight of eleven hundred
pounds. Elks were formerly used in Europe for conveying
couriers, and could accomplish 36 Swedish, or 234 English
miles in a day, when attached to a sledge. Dorelli, a Swedish
gentleman, recommended that they should be used in time of war
as flying artillery, to reconnoitre and carry dispatches. The
skin is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished with
waistcoats made of Elk's hide, which could hardly be penetrated
by a ball.

C. rangifer, or Rangifer tarandus. The REIN DEER.

The Deer of this species have received many names. They
are found throughout the arctic regions of Europe, Asia and
America ; but those of Lapland and Spitzbergen are said to be
the finest. Their general height is about four and a half feet;
their horns are long and slender, having round, branched and
recurved antlers, the summits of which are palmated ; (Plate VII.
fig. 5 ;) the body is of a thick and square form ; the legs are stouter
in proportion than those of the Stag ; the size differs with the cli-
mate, those in regions farthest north being the largest ; the color
is brown above, varying, however, with the age of the animal and
the season of the year. As the Rein Deer grows older, it often be-
comes of a grayish white beneath, and -sometimes almost entirely
white; the space about the eyes is always black. Both sexes
have canine teeth; both also have horns, but those of the male
are larger, longer, and more branched than those of the female.

The male sheds his horns about the last of November ; the fe-
male retains hers until she brings forth ; if barren, she drops
them in the beginning of November. The horns, during the
early part of their growth, are extremely sensitive, and the ani-
mal experiences much suffering from the gnats and musquitoes.
The hoofs are long, large and black, as also are the false or sec-
ondary hoofs behind. While the animal is running, the latter
hoofs, as in the Elk, make, by their striking together, a remark-
able clattering noise, which may be heard at a considerable dis-
tance. Richardson, who has given many particulars respecting
this Deer, thinks that in the fur countries of this continent, at
least two varieties exist, called by him the " Barren Ground
Caribou," and the " Woodland Caribou." The Woodland animal
goes south in the spring, and is confined to wooded districts ; the
Barren Ground animal goes northward, retiring to the woods
only in the winter, a«d passing the summer on barren grounds,
or on the borders of the Arctic Seas. Bucks of this latter vari-
ety, when in good condition, weigh, according to Richardson,
from 90 to 130 Ibs., without the offal. Sir John Franklin states

212

RUMINANTIA.

the weight of the Woodland Caribou to be from 200 to 240 Ibs.
It has been asserted that some Rein Deer have weighed as much
as 400 Ibs., though the correctness of this is questioned. The
Rein Deer of Norway and Sweden are small when compared
with those Df Finland and Lapland, which; in their turn, yield
to those of Spitzbergen, and these again fall short of the Polar
races. The Barren Ground Caribous feed, in summer, upon the
shoots of grasses growing in the valleys of the north, returning
to the woods in September; they there feed upon the tree lichens
and mosses found on the rocks and ground. They root for the
lichen like swine in a pasture. The forehead, nose, and feet,
are covered with a hard skin closely attached to those parts, and
are thus guarded against injury by the icy crust which covers
the surface of the snow. The Rein Deer of the Eastern conti-
nent are sustained by the same kind of food as the American
animal. The Caribou is not less necessary for the support of
our northern native tribes, than the Rein Deer of the Eastern
Continent for that of the Laplander and other people of the north.
Of the Caribou horns the Indians make their fish spears ; the
hide, dressed with close and compact fur and remarkably imperv-
ious to cold, forms their winter clothing, and from it is made a
soft and pliable leather for moccasins and summer garments.
When sixty or seventy skins are sewed together, they make a
tent sufficient in size for the residence of a large family. By
pouring one third part of melted fat over the pounded meat, and
incorporating them well together, a composition called pemmican
is made. This, if kept dry, may be preserved for three or four
years, and containing much nourishment in small bulk, is well
fitted for use in extensive journeys, as is abundantly proved by
the experience of traders and others traversing the northern lati-
tudes. Another mixture, called thucchawgan, made of pounded
deer's meat and fish, is either eaten raw or made into soup.

The Caribous travel in herds varying in number from eight or
ten to two or three hundred ; their daily excursions being gener-
ally towards the quarter from which the wind blows. They are
approached with more ease than any other deer found on this
continent. A single family of Indians have sometimes destroyed
two or three hundred in the course of a few weeks. To the In-
dians this animal is solely a beast of chase, not, as among the
Laplanders, being used for purposes of draught. It is hunted or
taken in traps or pounds, or lured to its fate by other artifice.
Sometimes the hunter takes advantage of the animal's inquisi-
tiveness, by creeping behind an object affording him partial con-
cealment, where he imitates the bellowing of the animal, at the

RUMINANTIA. 213

same time having his deer skin coat and hood drawn over his
head. In this attempt he seldom fails to shoot down the animal
before he comes within a distance of twelve paces. The rude
inhabitants of the whole of northern Asia use the Rein Deer as
a beast of burden ; but in Lapland, where it is essential to meet
the wants of a pastoral people, it is most highly appreciated. In
that country the horse and ox could not exist ; but the Rein Deer
supplies their place, furnishing, as it does, food and clothing, and
submissively and patiently yielding its labor. The movements
of the Laplander and his habits of life are, in fact, controlled by
his deer. He must go where they go in search of lichens and
mosses, and is obliged to make periodical journeys involving
much labor and fatigue, in order to keep them from being an-
noyed by the gadfly (Oestrus Tarandi,) which not only torments
them with its sting, but even deposits its eggs in the wound which
it makes in their hides. Often the hides are pierced in a hun-
dred places, like a sieve, by this insect ; and some deer die in
the third year from this cause. The Laplander flees with his
deer to the mountains in .order to escape this insect, not only, but
the scarcely less dreaded musquitoes, which are more ferocious
in the cold climates than in the tropics. His deer are the Lap-
lander's wealth. When in good circumstances he has three or
four hundred of them, and can live in comfort. He who has
\ only one hundred is thought to be in a condition somewhat pre-
', carious, while he who has but fifty commonly joins his animals
• with the herd of some richer man, and himself performs the neces-
sary menial service. The civilization of Lapland, which is on
[ the advance and promoted by intercourse with other nations,
depends upon the Rein Deer as the only beast of burden and
conveyance. When a traveler crosses the border line of Lap-
land, he must, for further progress, like Bayard Taylor, step
into the sledge drawn by the rapid Rein Deer. The sledge is a
light vehicle, running, not on wheels, but on its flat boards, which
are covered with leather. The Rein Deer is yoked to it by a
collar, and guided by reins attached to its horns.

" Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe
Yield to the sledge their necks, and whirl them swift
O'er hill and dale, heap'd into one expanse
Of marbled snow, far as the eye can sweep,
With a blue crust of ice unbounded, glazed."

With the usual load of from two to three hundred pounds,
they will trot over the glazed snow at the rate of ten miles an
hour. Journeys, by these animals, of one hundred and fifty

0|4 RUM1NANTIA.

miles in nineteen hours are not uncommon. In truth, some sto-
ries of their swiftness would appear incredible, if not so fully at-
tested. Pictet, with three deer, went in 1769 to the north of Lap-
land, in order to observe the 'transit of Venus. "The first per-
formed 3089 feet, 8 inches and T9^ in two minutes, making a
rate of nearly nineteen English miles an hour; the second went
over the same ground in three minutes, and the last in three
minutes and twenty-six seconds." One is recorded to have
"drawn, in 1699, an officer, with important dispatches, eight
hundred English miles in forty-eight hours; and the portrait of
the poor deer, which fell dead at the end of its remarkable
journey, is still preserved at the palace of Drottingholm, Sweden."
C. muntjac, or Cervulus (Lat. dim.) vaginahs. (Lat. sheathed.)
The MUNTJAC or KIJANG, of India. (PI. VII. fig. 8.)

This animal is a little larger than the Roebuck ; has a pointed
head and rather large ears ; its eyes are large with lachrymal
sinuses ; the tail is short and flattened ; the male has large ca-
nine teeth in the upper jaw ; the female has none, and is without
horns. The horns in the male are short and simple, " rising
from a footstalk apparently beneath the skin, and running ob-
liquely upwards, one on each side of the forehead, beginning as
low down as the inner angle of the eye." On the face, two
rough folds of the skin, following the direction of the prominent
part of the forehead, unite so as to mark the face with the letter
V. The general color is a reddish brown above ; the under
parts and front of the thighs, pure white. The Chinese Muntjak
is of a grayish brown color, with pale ringed hair. The Munt-
jak is one of the most elegant and beautiful of the deer kind.
It possesses "a great portion of craftiness, combined with much
indolence." As it gives forth a strong scent, dogs easily follow
its path. In its flight, it is at first very swift; but it soon slack,
ens its speed, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot
from which it started. After making several such circuits, if
still followed, it thrusts its head into a thicket, and thus remains
fixed, as in a secure place, unmindful of the approach of the
sportsman. The male animal has a great share of courage, and
when the dogs are at bay with him, he makes, with his tusks, a
most vigorous defence, and many dogs are wounded in the attack.
Dr. Horsefield, whose account of this animal is the most satis-
factory, states that the Muntjak "selects for its retreat certain dis-
tricts which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these dis-
tricts are known as the favorite resort of the animal for several
generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, di-
versified by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities

RUMINANTIA. 215

of the more considerable mountains, or approaching the con-
fines of extensive forests." These districts, common in Java, are
" covered with long grass, and shrubs, and trees of moderate
size, growing in groups or sm-M thickets." The long grass,
saccharum spicatum, and a plant called Phyllanthus Emblica,
constitute the principal food of the Muntjak. The flesh is said
to afford excellent venison, and is often found on the tables of
European residents. Among the Mahrattas, this animal iscalled
Baikar. It uses its long sinuses apparently for the purpose of
smelling, "dilating them to a great extent, and applying them to
various objects."

The SOUTH AMERICAN DEER form a beautiful group. Of
these we can notice only 1st, C. nemorivagus, (Lat. nemus, a
wood; vagus, wandering,) — the GAUZU-VIVA, a delicate little
deer, which is but twenty-six inches in length, approaching, in
its aspect, that of the sheep. In this species, the lachrymal si-
nus, or, tear pit, is scarcely perceptible. The lower part of the
head and legs is whitish ; about the eyes, on the inside of the
fore legs and under part of the body, the color is a palish cinna-
mon ; the neck and other parts brownish. The horns are very
short. It is found in Brazil.

2. C. rufus, (Lat. red.) The PITA.

This is about twenty-nine inches in height; in its general
color reddish brown, but in some parts whiter. It lives in the
low marshy grounds of South America ; is found in large herds,
and " as ten females are seen for one male," and as the former
are without horns, the existence of deer on this continent, with-
out horns, has by some been incorrectly reported. The Pita
shows little power of endurance when pursued, being soon run
down by dogs; sometimes it is captured by the lasso and balls.

FOSSIL CERVID^E have been discovered, the most remarkable of
which is the Megaceros (great horned) Hibernicus, the gigantic
Irish Deer, larger in size than the Moose ; the antlers over five
feet in length, from 'the burr to the tip, in a straight line, and
nearly eleven feet apart, reckoning from the extreme tip of the
right to that of the left antler.

QUESTIONS.

What is said of the internal structure of the DEER FAMILY ? Give their
general characters. Are the horns found in both sexes ? What is said of
their form ? How extensive is the range of the Deer ? What is remarked
of the loss and renewal of the antlers? Briefly describe the process. At
what time does the Common Stag shed his horns ? How soon, in the young
animal, do the horns appear? What determines the age of the Stag?

218 RUMINANTIA.

How many antlers have the oldest? What is said of their hearing and
smell? How many species does the family include ? How does the If -'//'-
ti compare with the European Stag? What is said of his horns? What
other characteristics are given? Upon what does it feed? Is its flesh
highly valued ? Where is it found? How many varieties of the Axis?
Describe the Common Axis. Where found? What do the huntei's call it?
What is said of the larger variety? Where is the Roebuck now found?
Give its size and other particulars. What is said of the White-tailed Deer ?
What of the Mule or Long-eared Deer ? Where is the Red Deer, or Stag
found? With what is this associated ? How is this distinguished ? What is
said of its size or weight ? What species has largely superseded this in
England, and why ? What is said of the chase of the Deer ? Give other
particulars. How does the Fallow Deer compare with the Stag ? When is
it mature ? How many varieties in England ? Where is it found wild ?
What is said of its venison ? From what part of the animal is hartshorn
obtained ? Which English sp. does the American or Virginia D. resemble ?
Describe it. What is its range ? Why are so few of its horns found ?
How is it useful in frontier countries? What is said of the size of the Elk?
What is the origin of its name ? What is the animal called in this country ?
Explain the term Moose. Name its characteristics. Of what roots and
twigs is it particularly fond ? Does the Am. differ from the Eur. sp. ?
What is said of its horns, hair, &c. ? How does it contrast with other
Deer ? What is peculiar in its hoofs ? What of its efforts to escape from
hunters ? For what purpose were Elks formerly used in Europe ? Of what
regions is the Rein Deer a native ? Give its size and other characteristics.
How many varieties, according to Richardson, are found on this continent?
Give the weight of each ? Which Rein D. are the largest ? On what doi's
the Caribou feed ? What is said of its uses ? What is pemmican ? What
is thucchawgan? How does the Caribou travel? For what do the In-
dians use it ? How is it hunted ? What are the uses of the Rein D. on
the Eastern Continent ? How does it affect the character and condition of
the Laplander ? What is said of the size of the Muntjac? Give some ac-
count of its disposition and habits. What S. American Deer are mentioned ?
Give some account of them. Which is the most remarkable of the fossil
Deer?

Compare the description of the Flat-horned Elk with the figure above
Camelopard, on the chart. Give the genera, species, &c., of the Round-
horned Elk or Wapiti. What else is it called ? Trace the Rein D. and
compare the description in the book with the figure on the chart.

SECTION XXVII.

BOVIDAE. (Lat. Bos, an ox.) The OXEN. — Bisulcated. (Lat.
Bis, two; sutcus, furrow, two hoofed or furrowed. )(P1. VI. fig. 1.)

The animals of this family have characteristics easily recog-
nized and generally familiar. Both sexes have horns which are
permanent, hollow and smooth, except at their base, where they
are ringed ; also rounded and tapering to a point, so as to form
a crescent. The horns are supported by bony cores, having
cavities, or cells communicating with the interior of the skull ;

RUMINANTIA. 217

the muzzle is large ; the. neck thick, deep and compressed, — its
skin forming a pendulous dewlap ; the body is heavy and mas-
sive ; the limbs stout ; there is a distinct ridge upon the back,
which is sometimes produced into a dorsal hump ; the expression
of the countenance is often, particularly in the males, malignant
and threatening, betokening the ferocity that belongs to several
of the species; — the Cow and Ox, however, exhibit a quiet,
decided gentleness of physiognomy. The oxen are social in
their habits ; and some are gregarious, associating in immense
herds, as the Bison or Buffalo. The organs of digestion in this
family are after the same plan as those of the other ruminant, or
cud-chewing animals, and need not be here particularly de-
scribed. The main food of the Ox family is herbivorous ; for
although they do browse upon shrubs and trees, yet grass and
herbage they prefer. (For the kind of teeth in this family, see
Plate IV. fig. 10.) When hungry, they have been known to feed
on plants not designed for their use, and by which they have been
injured. Meadow-Saffron, (colchicum autumnalej) for instance, is
deleterious to them if taken in any large quantity ; and Hellebore,
(Helleborus,) is said to be poisonous to them ; Yew, (i,axus bac-
cata,) is fatal to them, as it is to herbivorous animals generally. In
a state of "domesticated nature," — that is, when not stall-fed, or at
all using artificial grasses, but roaming at large, oxen are said
to eat two hundred and seventy-six plants, and to reject two
hundred and eighteen. Heifers waste away in enclosures where
the Meadow-Sweet, (spiraea ulmaria,) grows in abundance, and
covers the ground ; but to the GOAT this is nourishing food. The
present races of wild cattle are probably all descended from
those which were, at some period, subservient to man. The an-
cient Urus, or Wild Ox, was a savage, untamable animal, with
large spreading horns, and of great size.

Bos taurus. (Lat. a Bull.) This animal, with flat forehead,
and the withers not humped, was properly regarded as the type of
the entire tribe. This species includes the Common Ox which is so
widely diffused, and of such extended and varied utility ; — of
which more than forty synonyms have been given. The horns dif-
fer much as to their form and direction, from the influence of
domestication; the colors are various, as reddish, white, gray,
brown and black. "The male is called a lull; the female, a
cow; and the young, a calf ; the name Ox is given to the gelded
male ; and he is called an ox-calf, or bull-calf, until he is twelve
months old ; a steer until he is four years old. and after that an
ox or bullock."

The Ox is less used for farming purposes than formerly ; the

218 RUMINANTIA.

horse and improved agricultural implements taking its place ; it
reaches its full vigor in three years, and its term of life is about
fourteen. The breeds of the animal are numerous, and gener-
ally distinguished by the length or shape of the horns. The
" Durham," or short-horned breed, is "perhaps most valuable for
the dairy, as well as for a tendency to fatten rapidly, and at an
early age." The "long-horned," the " middle:horned," and the
" polled," or hornless breeds, have each their particular values.
The "Alderney Cow," with "crumpled horn," has long been
celebrated for the richness of its milk. Within the last half
century, many and successful efforts have been made to improve
the breed of cattle both in England and in this country.* Con-
siderable benefit has resulted from the labors of Agricultural
Societies, and, in particular, from the stimulus which, by the
offer of premiums, they have given to the raising of cattle for
exhibition at the annual COUNTY and STATE FAIRS. The uses
of the Ox are well known, and we need not describe them ; every
part of the animal is of value. Formerly, the cruel sport of bull-
baiting was much practiced ; and in some countries, particularly
Spain, it is still a popular diversion.

Bos Indicus. The ZEBU, or BRAHMIN BULL, of India. (See
Chart.)

This is distinguished for a more lengthened form of the head,
with a decidedly concave line of profile ; an arched neck ; a
lump of fatty substance rising from the withers ; an arched back,
sinking and rounded qfF on the hinder part ; an enormous dew-
lap dangling down in folds ; long, pendulous ears ; a mild
and sleepy eye ; and long and tapering limbs. The size varies
from that of a large mastiff to that of a full grown buffalo. Over
the whole of Southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipela-
go, and the eastern coast of Africa, the Zebu supplies the place
of the Ox. In some places, it is saddled and ridden, or harnessed
in a carriage ; traveling from twenty to thirty miles in a day.
Its beef is inferior to that of the Ox. The hump is deemed the
most delicate part. This sometimes becomes greatly increased
in size, and has even been known to reach " the enormous weight
of 50 Ibs." Among the Hindoos, the Zebu has a "charmed
life." They venerate this animal, and hold its slaughter to be
a sin ; though they do not object to work it. In the streets of
Calcutta, "some particularly sanctified" Zebus may be seen
wandering at their ease in the public streets, and taking their
food where they list. The utmost a native does when he sees
them honoring his goods too much, is to "urge them by the

* See "American Herd Book," and other Agricultural works..

RUMINANTIA. 219

gentlest hints, to taste some of the good things in his neighbor's
stall." If lying down in some narrow way, a person must not
disturb them ; but he must either proceed by another road, or
wait until the sacred animals are pleased to rise !

B. Dante. THE DANTE. This is an Egyptian species, re-
sembling the preceding, figures of which are found on ancient
tombs of Egypt.

BISON. (Gr. Bicrwv. named from the Thracian Blaroveg, Bis-
tones.) The BISON.

This generic name first used by Pliny, applies to two living
species, — one of them European, and now almost extinct; the
other American, and still found in great numbers. AUDUBON
enumerates five species, three of which, however, are more gen-
erally arranged either with the genus Bds, or the genus Bubabus.
The European Bison is now found living in the Moldavian and
Wallachian districts, and in some parts of the Caucasus ; the
other species at one time " ranged over nearly the whole of
North America;" it is now found in vast herds in some of the
Western prairies, and is thinly scattered along the valleys
which border upon the Rocky Mountains. The districts which
these animals inhabit, are described very graphically in Washing-
ton Irving's "Tour in the Prairies." They delight in level
prairies, covered with luxuriant vegetation, bordering the hills of
limestone formation, where saline springs or marshes abundantly
occur. The American species, B. Americanus, has fifteen pairs of
ribs ; the European has fourteen, (one more than the common ox.)
This points out the main difference between the two species.

The Bison is marked by its broad and slightly arched fore-
head, and the long and wavy hair upon it, forming on the chin
and breast a kind of beard ; by the elevation of the withers, aris-
ing from the lengthened spmous processes for the attachment of
the ligament and enormous muscles of the neck, serving to sup-
port the large and ponderous head ; and by a continuous fatty
deposition, or sort of hunch, — from which the back* gradually
declines, the hind quarters appearing disproportionably weak
and small ; and by its short but amazingly powerful limbs.
The horns are short, tapering and erect; the general color dark
umber brown, becoming in winter tinged with a grayish white.
The aspect of ihis animil is fierce, wild and malicious; the
eyes being small, fiery, and half hid in the shaggy hair inter-
mingled with wool, which copiously overspreads its head and
shoulders. The height at the shoulders is upwards of six feet;
the length (exclusive of the tail, which is twenty inches) is eight
and a half feet; the weight of a fat bull is generally near two

220 RUMINANTIA.

thousand pounds ; that of a fat cow, nearly twelve hundred, which
is considered a good weight in the fur countries. The Indians
have long been hunters of this animal, which they call the Buffalo ;
using bows and arrows, which, wielded by their skillful hands,
strike the huge creature to the ground. The female is beyond
all comparison swifter than the male, and is the constant object
of the hunter, from the superior quality of her flesh. The Bison
is a shy and wary animal; usually it flies before its pursuers;
but sometimes, led by an infuriated individual, the whole herd
will turn, and rushing towards the hunters, trample them down
in their headlong course. Next to man, the enemies which
these animals most greatly dread, are the grizzly bear and the
wolf, by which many of them are destroyed ; the wolves assail-
ing them in packs and making great havoc, especially among
the smaller animals.

While feeding, they are frequently scattered over a vast
surface ; but when they move onwards in a mass, they form a
dense, impenetrable column, which once fairly in motion, is
scarcely to be turned. They swim large rivers in nearly the
same order in which they traverse the plains ; and when flying
from pursuit, it is vain for those in front to halt suddenly, as the
rearward throng rush madly forward and force their leaders on.
The Indians sometimes avail themselves of this habit. Driving
a herd of these animals to the vicinity of a precipice, and setting
the whole in rapid motion, they, by shouting and other artifices,
impel the affrighted animals onward to their own destruction.
The herds of these animals found together, sometimes number
"countless thousands." Lewis and Clark say, that "20,000
would be no exaggerated number" for a herd which they saw,
and which '• darkened the whole plain." To Catlin's account of
his travels among the North American Indians, reference may
be had for many interesting accounts of "buffalo hunts." The
risk of this chase is considerable, but its rewards are great; few
animals minister more largely to the wants, and even to the
comforts of man, than the Bison. The flesh is said to be juicy,
bearing "the same relation to common beef that venison does to
mutton/' The tongue, well cured, is thought to surpass, as a
relish, that of the common ox, — the hump also is esteemed pecul-
iarly rich and delicate. Much of the pemmican used by iNforth-
ern voyagers, or by those attached to the fur companies, is made
of bison meat, — one bison furnishing meat and fat enough ro
make 90 Ibs. of the article. The Indian tribes make every part
of the animal subservient to their necessities and comfort, — the
"Buffalo robes," — the skin dressed with the hair on, — defending

RUMINANTIA. 221

them against the cold ; the horns are converted into powder-flasks ;
and the ribs of the animal, strengthened by some of the stronger
fibres, are made to furnish the bow, by which others of the spe-
cies are to be destroyed. Catlin says, that "there are, by a fair
calculation, more than 300,000 Indians who are now subsisting
on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by these animals supplied with
all the luxuries of life which they desire, as they know no
others." The advance of white population over the regions of
the West, bearing with 'them the institutions of civilization is,
however, modifying this statement, and gradually contracting
the range of the Bison.

Bubalus Bitffalus, or Bos Bubalus. The BUFFALO of Asia.

This animal, in its general aspect and carriage, resembles the
Bison, or perhaps the Domestic Ox, though larger and stronger, —
but differs from the Bison in its horns, which are enormously
large, bent down and recurved at the tip ; in its ears, which are
half the length of the head, and slightly covered with hair; and
in the fur, which is rough, irregular and bristly. Of this
species, there are two varieties, the B. Arnee, (Shaw,) and the
B. Rhainsa. The Arnee is the wild Buffalo of India, found on
the margins of old and thick forests; and, like the Rhinoceros,
confining itself to the most swampy parts of the region where
it dwells. Its horns are often five feet in length, and so in-
clined together at the points, as to form a figure somewhat lyre-
shaped. It is also remarkable for the shortness of its tail, which
reaches no lower than the hock. It is one third larger than the
Rhainsa, or tame Buffalo, being ten and a half feet long, and
six to six and a half feet high at the shoulders. Its strength is so
great, it is a formidable enemy even to the tiger, who shuns an
encounter with him ; and such is the power of his charge, that
he frequently prostrates a well-sized elephant. The Rhainsa is
universal in India and adjacent countries, and was formerly, as
now, used as a beast of burden in Egypt, Greece and Italy. In
the latter country, it is, on account of its great strength, very use-
ful for carrying purposes, especially in marshy and swampy dis-
tricts, where the roads are two or three feet deep with mud.
The hide of the Asiatic Buffalo is peculiarly thick and strong,
and in great request for making harness.

Bos Gaums, the Gowr, or Gaur, of mountainous parts of Central
India.

This has the hind hoof only half the size of the fore one, —
the general color is brown, but the legs are white ; the horns are
bent downwards at the front ; "the limbs have more of the form
of the deer than any other of the bovine genus." It is asserted

222 RUMINANTIA.

that the tiger has no chance in a combat with a full grown Gour.
This animal does not, like the Buffalo, wallow in swamp and
mire. The large quantity of milk given by the cow, is said
to be occasionally so rich as to cause the calf's death.

Poephagus. (Gr. noi^ poe, grass ; qod/w, phago, I eat,) or .Bos
grunniens, (of Linnaeus.) The YAK.

Of this genus, there is but one species, P.grunniens, found in
the woods and recesses of the Thibet mountains. It has fourteen
or fifteen pair of ribs, and resembles the Buffalo in its form, but
is smaller. Both sexes grunt like a pig, whence the specific
name, grunniens, (Lat. grunting.) The tail has full flowing
hair like that of a horse, and is used in India as a fan or whisk
to keep off the musquitoes, — when fixed into an ivory or metal
handle, it is called a chowrie. Elephants are sometimes taught
to carry a chowrie, and waive it about in the air. The neck
and back are surmounted by a sort of mane ; the hair of the
body is black, — smooth and short in summer, but thick and harsh
in winter; the back and tail are often white. The Yaks dislike
the heat of summer, and hide themselves in the shade and water.
The hair is applied to various purposes by the Tartars. They
weave it into cloth, of which they not only make articles of dress,
but also tents and the ropes which sustain them. There are two
varieties, — those used for the plough, and those used for riding.
The former are ugly and short-legged, and guided by the nose,
carry their heads very low; the latter much handsomer, having
twisted horns, a noble bearing, and an erect head ; also a stately
hump, and a rich silky tail reaching nearly to the ground.

Bos moschatus. (Lat. musky,) or Ovibos moschatus. The
MUSK Ox. (Plate VII. fig. 9.)

This animal has sometimes been removed from the genus Bos,
in consequence of the absence of the naked muzzle which is
possessed by others of the bovine groups, and ranked as a con-
necting, or intermediate link between the ox and the sheep ;
hence the generic term ovibos, (Lat. ovis, a sheep; and bos,
ox.) It may be doubted, however, whether, on this account, it
should be separated from the bovines. The full-grown male is
about the size of a small two year old cow ; the female is con-
siderably smaller; the horns are united at the top of the head, —
flat, broad, and bent down against the cheeks, but become round
and tapering, and turning up, end in a sharp point about the
level of the eyes. The animal is covered with long bushy hair,
which reaches almost to the ground. The general color of the
hair is brown, or brownish black, except a portion in the middle
of the back, which is dirty gray ; in the female, the general

RUMINANTIA. 223

color is black; the head is large and square; the eyes mod-
erately large; the ears short, and scarcely visible through the
surrounding long hair. Under the hair of the body, is an admir.
able second coat, consisting of brown, or ash-colored wool ; the
legs are short and thick, covered with close hair, unmixed with
wool; the tail very short ; the hoofs are small compared with
the size of the animal, — resembling those of the Rein Deer. It
is said "none but an experienced hunter can distinguish the dif-
ference of the impressions made by the toes on the snow." Its
food is also like that of the Rein Deer, — lichens in winter ; — grass
in summer. The length of the Musk Ox from the nose to the
root of the tail, is ahout five and a half feet ; and its weight, ac-
cording to Parry, about 700 Ibs. It is gregarious, being found
in herds, twenty or thirty in number. The home of these ani-
mals is in the barren lands of North America, in regions above
the 60th degree of latitude. They are hunted by the Esquimaux,
but not without danger, as when provoked or wounded, they are
apt to turn upon the pursuer. The poor creatures seem to fancy
that the report of guns is thunder, and crowd together in a mass,
so that they afford a good mark. If, however, they get sight of
one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and then they
are very dangerous enemies. Sometimes the Esquimaux turn
the animals' irritation to good account; — for, after the adroit
hunter has provoked the animal, and induced it to attack him, he
wheels around it more quickly than it can turn ; and by re-
peated stabs, puts an end to its life. The speed of the Musk Ox
in running, is great, and it climbs rocky paths and broken and
uneven sides of hills, with great agility. Sir John Richardson
says, the wool of this animal "resembles that of the Bison, but is
perhaps finer, and would be highly useful in the arts, if it could
be procured in sufficient quantity." The same author informs
us, that " when the animal is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and re-
sembles that of the Caribou, but has a coarser grain." When
lean, these animals " smell strongly of musk, their flesh, at the
same time, being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior
to that of any other ruminant animal in North America."

QUESTIONS UPON THE BOVIDAE, (OX FAMILY.)

How is Bovidae derived ? What is said of the general character of this
family? What of the horns in particular? What of the appearance and
habits of these animals ? What kind of food do they use ? What plants
are hurtful to them ? How many plants do oxen eat ? How many do they
reject? Which species furnishes the type of the entire tribe ? How many
synonyms have been given ? Give the different names appropriated to this
animal ? How are the breeds of this animal usually distinguished ? What

10

224 RUMINANTIA.

is said of the Durham breed? What other breeds are mentioned? By
what means has the breed of cattle been improved? How is the Zebu dis-
tinguished ? How extensively does it supply the place of the ox ? What
uses are made of it ? How is it regarded by the Hindoos ? What is said
of the Egyptian species ? How many species of Bison are there ? Where
is the European species now found ? What has probably prevented its en-
tire extinction ? In what part of North America is the other species found ?
What is the main difference between the European and the American
species ? How many ribs has the common ox ? Give the distinctive marks
of the Bison? Describe its disposition and habits. What enemies does it
most dread ? How do the Indians avail themselves of the habits of this
animal ? What is said of the largeness of the herds ? Mention the uses
made of the different parts of the Bison. How many Indians does Catlin
estimate are daily supported by its flesh ? How does the Asiatic Buffalo
differ from the Bison ? How many varieties of this species ? What is said
of them ? In what countries is the animal used ? Where is it especially
useful? What is said of the Gour? How does it differ from the Buffalo?
Give the derivation of the term Poephagus ? How many species of the
Yak ? What renders the specific name appropriate ? What use is made of
its tail? What of its hair? How many varieties of this animal ? Why is
the generic Ovibos applied to the Musk Ox ? What is the composition of
that term ? What characteristics are given ? Where is the home of this
animal ? What more is said of it ?

Name the genera and species of the Ox Family found upon the chart,
tracing and giving some account of each as you proceed.

SECTION XXVIII.

Ovidae. (Lat. ovis, a sheep.) The SHEEP.

These differ so slightly from the Goat in anatomical struct-
ure that both genera are by some naturalists united.

The chief distinctive characters consist " in the sheep having
no beard ; in the horns being directed backwards, and then in-
clining spirally more or less forwards ; in having a convex fore-
head ; and in the existence of a sac, or fossa, situated at the
base of the toes, lined with hair, and furnished with sebaceous
follicles." The males also differ from the goat in being inodo-
rous. The age of sheep is reckoned from the first shearing.
Their value, both for food and clothing, is well known, and is in-
calculably great, while they are reared upon soils where other
animals could not obtain sufficient for their support. The fila-
ments of wool taken from a healthy sheep, present a polished,
glittering appearance; those of a sickly, or half-starved animal,
exhibit a paler hue. The dressed skin is largely used for the
binding of books, and for different kinds of apparel. The bones,
when calcined, are employed as tests in refining processes ; from
the entrails are prepared strings for musical instruments. Sheep
furnish milk which is thicker than that of cows, and yields a

RUMINANTIA. 225

greater quantity of butter and cheese. In some cases, water
must be added in order to produce whey. The history of these
animals is intermingled with poetical descriptions and national
customs and enactments. They are mentioned in the earliest
scripture records, and formed the chief wealth of the ancient
patriarchs. Among the Jews, under the economy of Moses, the
lamb was offered in sacrifice,— pointing to "Christ, the Heav-
enly Lamb;" and in the New Testament these animals are the
subjects of many beautiful and touching parables.

(M& aries. The COMMON SHEEP.

This exhibits numerous varieties, and many of its form have
been raised to the rank of species. The Ovis Hispanicus, the
Spanish, or Merino Sheep, is among the most celebrated. These
sheep, it is said, are the regenerated stock of the sheep of Boeotia,
and survived the conquest of Spain by the Goths and Vandals.
They have been transferred to Great Britain, Germany and the
United States ; and are remarkable for the fineness of their
wool. In Germany, the wool has been brought to the highest
perfection. Merino Sheep were introduced into Great Britain in
1787. The original stock in this State, (N. Y.,*) was derived
from Holland; the Merino variety was first introduced in 1801 ;
though their importance was not fully appreciated until seven or
eight years after that period ; when the excitement respecting
them became very great, and they were sold at enormous prices.

Of the Merino Sheep, there are three varieties, viz., the
Paular, the Negretti, and the Gaudaloupe breeds. The quality
of the wool has been improved by the introduction of Saxony
Sheep, (originally of the same Merino race,)

The breeds of sheep are distinguished by the comparative
length of the fibres, which compose their fleece. They are de-
signated as short- wooled, middle- wooled, and long-wooled sheep.
To the short- wooled division belong the " Merino, Saxony and
Australian breeds, whose short, fine and silky wool is used in
the manufacture of broadcloths. The middle-wooled breeds,
such as the English South-down, Suffolk and Cheviot, furnish
material for the coarser cloths, flannels and similar fabrics.
The Leicester breed, and some others, are long-wooled. The
fibre of the wool in these sheep is strong and transparent, but is
deficient in the powei offelling, on which the compactness of
cloth depends. This wool is used for merinoes, moussehnes de
fame, hosiery, etc. Welsh sheep are noted for the superior flavor
of their flesh, and "in the London market Welsh mutton is always
in demand."

* DeKay.

226 RUM1NANTIA.

O. Ammon Argalis, or Siberian Sheep. The ARGALI.

This is one of the varieties of wild sheep, native to Siberia,
and ranging over the mountains of Asia, — a strong, muscular, and
active animal, about as large as a small fallow deer, and having
thick, roughly ringed horns. (Plate VII. fig. 12.) In summer,
its hair is smooth, and of yellowish gray color ; but in winter,
it becomes thick, harsh and reddish ; the muzzle, throat and under
parts, continuing white at all seasons. The whole form of this
animal appears better adapted for agility than that of the com-
mon sheep.

O. Canadensis. The TAYE, or BIG HORN SHEEP, of Canada.

This is identical with the O. Montanus, of Geoffrey, and a
variety is the O. California, of Douglas, which Dr. Gray says is
probably the same as the Ammon, of Siberia.

O. Musimon, or Musmon. The MOUFFLON, of Cyprus, Can-
dia, and Corsica. (Plate VII. fig. 10.)

This differs from the Argali, only in being rather smaller,
and in ine horns being very small, .,r altogether absent in the
female. Like the Argali, it makes its home upon the mountains.
It has been supposed that the primitive stock may be traced either
to this, or the preceding species, — the hair of both species possess-
ing the essential character of wool, — an imbricating scaly sur.
face, — which gives to the covering of the domestic breeds the re-
markable/H/mg- property upon which its utility so much depends.

O- polycerata. (Gr. no^vg, polus, many ; xt^ng, keras, horn.)
The MANY-HORNED SHEEP.

This species found in Iceland and the most northern parts of
the Russian dominions, resembles the common sheep in its body
and tail, but has three, four, five or more horns. (See Plate VII.
fig. 13.) The wool is long, smooth, hairy, and of a dark brown
color. Under its outer coat, is a fine, short and soft kind of
wool, or fur.

O. laticauda. (Lat. latus, broad ; ciuda, tail.) The BRQAD-
TAILED SHEEP, — is common in Tartary, Arabia, Persia, Barbary,
Syria arid Egypt. This sheep is chiefly noted for its large,
heavy tail, often so loaded with fat as to weigh from ten to twelve
pounds, and according to some, double that weight, and a foot
broad; sometimes it is necessary to support it artificially. The
upper part is covered with wool, but it is bare underneath, and
the fat, of which it consists, is regarded as a great delicacy.

O. strepsiceros. (Gr. or^qow, strepho, to twist ; XSQVCS, keras,
horn.) THE CRETAN SHEEP.

This is chiefly found in the Island of Crete, but is kppt in
several parts of Europe on account of its singular appearance ;

RUMINANTIA. 227

the horns being very large, long and spiral, those of the male
upright. — of the female, at right angles with the head.

O. Guineensis. The AFRICAN, or GUINEA SHEEP, — found in
all the tropical climates of Africa. It is large, with rough, hairy
skin, short horns and pendulous ears, a kind of dewlap under the
chin, and a long mane reaching below the neck. It is stronger,
larger and more fleet than other sheep, and better suited to a
forest life ; but the flesh is quite indifferent food.

SHEEP.

"What are the distinctive characters of the Sheep ? How does the wool
of the healthy sheep appear ? What are the uses of this animal ? With
what is it associated ? What Scripture references are given ? What is said
of the varieties of the Common Sheep? Which is the most celebrated?
What is said of their origin ? Where is their wool brought to the highest
perfection ? When was this variety first introduced into the State of New
York? How has the quality of the wool been improved? How are the
breeds of sheep distinguished, and how designated? What breeds are
included in the Short- Wooled division ? What in the Middle- Wooled, and
what in the Long- Wooled? In what respect is the fibre of the Long-
Wooled Sheep deficient ? For what is the wool much used ? What is said
of the Welsh variety? Where is the Argali found? What is said of it?
How does the Moufflon differ from the Argali ? In what respects does it
resemble it? What is said of the Many-Horned Sheep? Where is the
Broad-Tailed Sheep? What is said of its tail? Where is the Cretan
Sheep found? What is said of its horns? Where is the Guinea Sheep
found, and what is said of it ?

Trace the varieties mentioned on the chart, — tell where they are found,
and their peculiarities.

SECTION XXIX.

Capridae, (Lat. capra, a goat.) The GOAT FAMILY.

The distinguishing characteristics of the Goat family are that
they have hollow horns turned upwards and ringed ; that they
have eight cutting teeth on the lower jaw and none in the upper;
and that the male has a beard. The muzzle is comparatively
narrow, with no naked space about the nostrils ; the tail is short ;
there are no fissures, or tear-pits, beneath the eyes, nor tufts of
hair upon the knees. Either " native or naturalized," this ani-
mal appears in almost every part of the world. It is capable of
enduring all kinds of weather, being found in high northern lati-
tudes, and also thriving in the hottest parts of Africa and India.
The internal organization of the animal is almost entirely simi-
lar to that of the sheep, (Ovida.) "He is, however, stronger,
lighter, and more agile, and less timid than the sheep. The sup-
pleness of his organs, and the strength and nervousness of his

228 EUMINANTIA.

frame, are hardly sufficient to support the petulance and rapidity
of his natural movements." (BufFon.)

The milk of the Goat "is sweet, nutritious, and medicinal, ow.
ing to the character of its food, which consists chiefly of what is
obtained from high hills, or from pastures where aromatic shrubs
r, abound. Anciently the skin was deemed valuable for clothing ;
the best Turkey or Morocco leather is made from it, and from
the skin of the kid is prepared the softest and handsomest leather
for gloves. The strong odor of the Goat is well known, and it is
said to be "refreshing" to horses. The female bears, generally
in the last of February, usually two, sometimes three and even
four young. Among the Greeks and Romans the Goat, because
an enemy to the vine, was sacrificed to Bacchus. This animal
is remarkably sure footed. Pennant says, "two yoked together,
as they often are, as if by consent, take large and hazardous
leaps, and yet so time their mutual efforts as rarely to miscarry
in the attempt." The Goat butts, raising himself on the hind
legs, and then coming down sidewise against his enemies. The
varieties are numerous, and some of them have been exalted to
the rank of species.

Hircus (or Copra) Aegagrus. The WILD GOAT. This is re-
garded by Cuvier and others, as the parent stock of the Domes-
tic Goat in all its varieties.

It is found in herds, freely ranging in the great mountain
chains of Asia. In Persia it is called the Paseng. The size is
rather larger than that of the domestic breed ; the horns also
usually exceed those of the common Goat ; the color is a brown-
ish gray above and white beneath. The male has a large brown-
ish beard ; the female neither beard nor horns.

Capra hircus. The DOMESTIC GOAT. (Lat. hircus, a he-goat.)

This animal, like others reclaimed and subject to man, exhib-
its great varieties in respect to size, color, the quality of the hair,
and even the largeness and number of the horns.

C. Angorensis. The ANGORA GOAT. (See Chart.)

This is a native of Angora, in Asia Minor ; generally is of a
milk-white color, short legged, with black, spreading, and spi-
rally twisted horns and pendulous ears; its silk-like wool, which
is its chief excellence, covers the entire body in long, hanging
and spiral ringlets, and from it the finest camlets are made.

The CASHMERE GOAT, which is found in Thibet and roams the
pastures of the Himalaya mountains, has an undercoat of wool,
exquisitely delicate and fine. From this are manufactured the
Cashmere shawls so highly valued by the fashionables of both
hemispheres. It is remarked that the lower the temperature

RUMINANTIA. 229

where the animal pastures, the heavier and finer is its wool.
The Goats which feed in the highest vales of Thibet are- of a
bright ocre color ; in lower ground the color changes to a yel-
lowish white, and still lower down to entirely white. The high-
est parts of the Himalaya mountains inhabitable by man have a
kind of black Goats, which yield wool from which are made
shawls that in India command the highest price. The fine curled
wool of these Goats lies close to the skin, just as the under hair
of the common Goat lies below the coarse upper hair. The flesh
of the Himalaya Goats is said to taste as well and its milk to be
as rich as that of the common Goat.

The Angora Goat loses the delicacy of its hairy covering
when exposed to a change of climate and pasture. It is said the
people of Cashmere constantly work 16,000 looms, each loom
giving employment to three men, the annual sale being calcu-
lated at 30,000 shawls.

The "NATURALISTS' LIBRARY," (RUMINANTIA, part II. by
Sir William Jardine,) says that "a fine shawl, with a pattern all
over it, takes nearly a year in making. The persons employed
sit on a bench at the frame, sometimes four people at each, but
if the shawl is a plain one, only two. The borders are marked
with wooden needles, there being a separate needle for each color,
and the rough part of the shawl is uppermost while it is in a
process of manufacture. The Cashmeres which are obtained
from the kingdom of that name are most sought after. India,
however, produces several Goats besides the true Cashmere breed
which yield wool from which shawls are made. Twenty-four
pounds" weight of the best wool of Thibet, sells at Cashmere for
twenty rupees."

C. Jaela,orC. Nubiana. The ABYSSINIAN GOATS, found in the
mountains of Abyssinia and Upper Egypt, and also on Mount
Sinai, differ from the Goats of Thibet, in having close smooth
hair, a convex forehead, and a projecting lower jaw.

The SYRIAN GOAT, (Capra Syriaca,) is distinguished by its
large pendulous ears, (see Plate VII. fig. 14,) which are usually
from one to two feet in length, and sometimes so annoying to the
animal that the owners are obliged to trim them to enable it to
feed with more ease. It has black horns which bend a little for-
wards, and are only about two inches long. The hair is colored
like that of a fox, and it has two fleshy protuberances under its
throat. It is very numerous in Syria, where it finds pastures
specially adapted to its wants. Pennant says that "it supplies
Aleppo with milk." It is no unimportant part of the wealth
of a pastoral people, its flesh being used for food and its hair

230

EUMINANTIA.

wrought into cloth. This was one of the animals offered in sac-
rifice by the ancient Hebrews ; it was this Goat over which the
Jewish High Priest, putting his hands on the Goat's head, " con-
fessed the iniquities of the children of Israel," and then "sent
him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness." The
long ears of this animal illustrate those words of scripture,
Amos iii. 12, "As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the
lion .... a piece of an ear." So large and thick are the ears
of this Goat that they make a considerable mouthful even for a
lion.

C. Ibex. The IBEX.

Of this species there are several varieties in the mountain
ranges of Europe, Asia and Africa, but more especially those
of Asia and the bordering parts of Europe, all, however, resem-
bling each other in their structure and general habits. This ani-
mal is much larger and stronger than the common domestic
Goat. " The color is a deep hoary brown, the under parts of
the body and insidesof the limbs are of a much paler and whitish
hue ; the body is thick, short and strong ; it has a small head,
large eyes, and strong legs; very short hoofs ; a short tail ; and
extremely large and long arched, brown colored horns, with knobs
on the upper surface." (Plate VII. fig. 15.) The fore legs are
considerably shorter than the hind, which enables the animal
to ascend more easily than he can descend lofty mountain heights.
In manners and voice the Ibex is much like the Chamois. It
is found in small flocks consisting of ten or fifteen individuals.
When hard pressed, these animals sometimes turn upon the
hunter, hurling him down the most frightful declivity. It is a
native of the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains and of the Alps.
C. Americana. ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT.
These animals inhabit the lofty chain of mountains whence
they' derive their name, ranging from 40oto 65o North Latitude-
They resort to grassy knolls begirt with craggy rocks as afford-
ing them places of refuge against the onsets of dogs and wolves ,
visiting, daily, caves in the mountains said to be encrusted with
an effervescence of salt, of which they are fond ; they are of
larger size than the common Goat, have black horns, which are
^ smooth and polished at the tips, and curved backwards, and ob-
'* scurely ringed at the base, where they are sometimes a foot in
circumference. On account of the great size of the horns, this
animal is called by the hunters, the " Big-horn." The muzzi*
is extremely small ; the color white ; the hair long and straight;
the skin very thick and spongy, and principally used in making
moccasins. The flesh, when it is in season, is said to exceed m

RUMINANTIA. 231

flavor the venison obtained in the same region, and the fleece is
also highly valued, being next to that of the Cashmere Goat in
fineness.

Give the chief characteristics of the Goat Family. What is Buffon's re-
mark ? What are the uses of the Goat ? What remark is quoted from
Pennant ? Has this family many varieties ? Which species is regarded as
the purest stock? Where is it found? How does it compare in size, &c.,
with the domestic breed ? In what respects does the Domestic Goat vary ?
Describe the Angora Goat. Where is the Cashmere Goat found ? What
articles are manufactured from its wool ? What shawls command the high-
est price in India ? What is said of the wool of which they are made ?
Has change of climate any effect upon the wool of the Angora Goat?
What is said of the manufacture and sale of the Cashmere shawls ? How
do the Abysaii.i iti Goats differ from those of Thibet? For what is the Syri-
an Goat distinguished ? What is said of its hair, &c. ? What use was
made of it by the Ancient Hebrews ? What words of Scripture do the ears
of this animal illustrate? What is the habitat of the Ibex? What is said-
of its varieties? How do they compare with the Domestic Goat? Give
the character of this animal. Does it ascend or descend most easily? What
animal is it much like? What is the range of the Rocky Mountain Goat?
What are their particular resorts? What do the hunters call this animal?
For what are its skin and flesh used?

Name, trace and characterize the species on the chart.

SECTION XXX.

Antelopida. "Bright eyed." (Gr. uvOog, anthos, a flower or
beautiful ornament ; wy, ops, eye.)

ANTELOPES. (Bisulcated or Cloven-footed.)

This beautiful family of Ruminants is by some considered a
connecting, link between the Goat and Deer families. Like the
Goats, they never shed their horns ; in size and general struc-
ture, the nature and color of their hair, and their swiftness of
foot, they resemble the Deer. The hind limbs, like those of the
hare, are much longer than the fore ones. This not only helps
them to be more fleet, but increases their security in climbing
precipices, which they are delighted in doing. The larger part
of the species are brown on the back, and white on the under
part of the body, with a black stripe between the brown and
white. The tail is of various lengths, but always covered with
pretty long hair ; the ears, which are beautiful and well placed,
terminate in a point. The hoof is cloven like that of a sheep ;
the perennial horns are conical, bent back, and ringed at the
base, never showing the angles and ridges which distinguish
those of the sheep and goats. This last is, perhaps, the most general

232 RT7MINANTIA.

character of the family. The case of the horns is thin, and as a
group, the Antelopes are numbered among the HOLLOW-HORNED
ANIMALS. A large part of them have lachrymal sinuses or
*' tear-pits," as seen in the Deer, and which can be opened at the
will of the animal. These are furnished at the bottom with a
gland that secretes an oily, viscous substance of the color and
consistency of ear-wax, and turning black upon exposure to the
air. The common Indian Antelope, and the Gazelle, according
to observations of them away from their native climes, use this
organ when any strange substance is brought to their notice, par-
ticularly if it be odoriferous ; and they appear to derive great
pleasure from protruding the sinus and rubbing it against the
odorous body. The possession of sinuses distinguishes the An-
telopes from the Goats and the Sheep ; and this, connected with
the absence of horns in the females of many species, also makes
this family an intermediate link between the rest of the Hollow-
Horned Ruminants and the Cervine, or Solid-Horned Animals.
A few species of Antelopes have an additional gland running
lengthwise between the sub-orbital sinus and the mouth, but hav-
ing no internal opening, and secreting an oily substance. An-
other and more general character of this family than even the
lachrymal sinuses, is the inguinal pores or folds opening inwards
and secreting a substance similar to that of the other glands to
which we have now referred.

The form of the upper lip is quite various In some species
it forms a broad naked muzzle, as in the ox ; in ethers it is hairy
and attenuated, as in the goat , and in still others it shows a mod-
ification of both these characters. The hair of the Antelope is
usually short and smooth, and of an equal length on every part
of the body ; some, however, have bristly manes along the neck
and shoulders, and a very few species, like the Gnu, have a
beard on the chin and throat. Generally these animals are
found in large herds, but some species reside in pairs or families.
Africa may be regarded as the " head quarters " of the Ante-
lopes. The nature of their habitat varies in different species.

This family has been arranged into two grand divisions, the
ANTELOPES OF THE FIELDS, and the ANTELOPES OF THE DES-
?ERT, between which the most obvious distinction is that in the
Antelopes of the Fields "the nostrils are free from hairs, whilst
in the Antelopes of the Desert, the nostrils are beaded within, or
covered with bristles. " (English Cyclopedia.)

L ANTELOPES OF THE FIELDS. These are arranged into three
groups.

1st. True Antelopes, "which have a light, elegant body; slen-

RUMINANTIA. 233

der limbs ; small hoofs ; a short or moderate tail, covered with
elongated hairs at the base ; lyrate or conical horns, placed over
the eye brows."

2d. Cervine Antelopes, " approaching the Deer in character.
They have a rather heavy, large body ; strong, slender*limbs ;
a long tail, cylindrical at the base, with the hair longer at the
end, often forming a compressed ridge." The muffle resembles
that of the Deer.

3d. Goal-like Antelopes, having 4< a heavy body ; strong legs ;
large hoofs and false hoofs; very short tail, flat and hairy above ;
recurved, conical horns."

The species in each of these groups are quite numerous; but
though all are handsome creatures, we must content ourselves
with noticing the more prominent.

TRUE ANTELOPES.

A. Dorcas. (Gr. dtyxofiat,, derkomai, to see.) The GAZELLE,
or the CORINNE. (Plate VII. fig. 19.)

This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Antelopes. Its
large, mild, and black eyes beam with lustre, and its light and
graceful figure has made it a favorite with Oriental poets. In
the sacred writings it is alluded to under the name of the Roe,
"swift upon the mountains." The Gazelle is common in the
northern parts of Africa, where large troops of them bound along
with such amazing fleetness that they seem bird-like. The Ariel
(A, Arabica\ a variety of this species, abounds in Arabia and
Syria.

" The wild Gazelle o'er Judah's hills

Exulting still may bound ;
And drink from all the living rills - . -

That gush on holy ground."

So swift is this animal that the greyhound is generally unable
to overtake it, unless aided by falcons which fly at its head, and
thus check its speed until the dogs regain their lost distance. In
some parts of Syria, the gazelle is taken by driving a herd into
an extended enclosure surrounded by a deep ditch. A few open-
ings are made through which the affrighted animals leap and fall
into the ditch, when they are easily taken. If pursued in the
open field, it flies to some distance, then stops to gaze a mo-
ment at the hunters, and again renews its flight. A flock
when attacked in a body, disperse in all directions, but soon
come together again, and when brought to bay, defend themselves

234 RUMINANTIA.

with courage and obstinacy, uniting in a close circle, with the
females and fawns in the center, and presenting their horns at
all points to their enemies; yet notwithstanding their courage,
they are "the common prey of the lion and panther, and are
hunted with great courage by the Arabs and Bedouins of the des-
ert." When taken young, the Gazelle is easily domesticated ;
and it is frequently seen at large in the court-yards of the houses
in Syria, the exquisiteness of its form, and its great beauty and
playfulness rendering it a special favorite.

The size of the Gazelle's body, (3£ feet long,) about equals
that of the Roebuck, but the legs are considerably longer, and
the entire form is lighter and more elegant; the fur is short and
close pressed ; the color a dark fawn above, and white beneath,
the upper parts being divided from the lower by a deep dark
band along the flanks. The horns are black, lyre-shaped, and
have twelve or fourteen rings. Upon the monuments of Egypt
and Nubia, this animal is frequently found sculptured. A cir-
cumstance of this creature's extreme affection, and which ended
fatally, occurred not very long since in the island of Malta. A
female gazelle having suddenly died from something it had eaten,
the male stood over the dead body of his mate, butting every one
who attempted to touch it ; then suddenly making a spring, struck
his head against the wall, and fell dead by the side of his com-
panion.

A. (or G.} mhorr. The MOHR. (Plate VII. fig. 22.)

This Gazelle is 4 feet 2 inches long, and 2J feet high at the
shoulder, (8 inches taller than the preceding,) found in Western
Africa, and much sought after by the Arabs on account of pro-
ducing the bezoar stones, called Mohr's eggs in Morocco, and
valued in eastern medicine. The Mohr is said to live in pairs,
not in flocks like the other species.

A. euchore. (Gr. ei), eu, well ; xogbg, choros, dance.) The
SPRINGBOK, or the SPRING-BUCK.

This animal of Southern Africa, in the gracefulness of its
proportions and the beautiful variety of its colors, is scarcely
surpassed by any other of the Antelope tribe. It is nearly a
third larger than the Gazelle ; its horns are black, irregularly
lyrated, and of moderate length. The most marked peculiarity
of this species is a line of long white hairs arising from two lon-
gitudinal foldings of the skin, commencing about the middle of
the back and extending to the tail. In their ordinary state, the
edges of these foldings approach each other, and are so near to-
gether as to conceal, in a great measure, the stripe of white.
But when the animal leaps, as it sometimes does, perpendicularly

RUMINANTIA. 235

to the height of six or seven feet, the folds are expanded and
form a broad circular mark of the purest white extending over
the whole croup and hips, producing a very remarkable and
pleasing effect. Immensely large herds of these animals are
found on arid plains of the interior of South Africa; but when
the pools and pastures to which it has been wont to resort, are
dried and burnt up by the excessive heat, it migrates to the cul-
tivated districts of the Cape. Travelers who have witnessed
these marches estimate the numbers that unite in their migra-
tions at from 10,000 to 50,000. "Cumming's Adventures" give
some graphic views of these " grand migrations." Before the
migration is closed, it is said, those which happen to get in the
rear of the troop are lean and half starved, being left nearly
destitute of food in consequence of the cropping of the scanty
pastures almost bare by the preceding ranks ; but when the troop
begin to retrace their steps northward, those which formed the
van during the advance, are necessarily in the rear returning ;
hence they soon lose their plump condition, and, in their turn,
are subjected to want and starvation. In their approaches to the
settlements of men, thousands of these animals are killed for
food. Great numbers of them are also destroyed by panthers,
hysenas and wild dogs. On the return of the rainy season, they
retrace their steps to the plains of the interior, and in a brief pe-
riod not a Spring-Buck is to be seen. So fearful is this animal
of man, it is said, that "if it has to cross a path over which a
man has passed before, it does not walk over, but takes a leap
ten or twelve feet high and about fifteen feet long, at the same time
curving its back in the most extraordinary manner." It is from
this habit of leaping, the dwellers at the Cape have given it the
name of Spring -Buck.

A. cervicapra. (Lat. stag-goat.) The COMMON ANTELOPE,
or SASIN, of India.

This species is spread in large families, over every part of In-
dia's rocky and open plains. It is remarkable for the form and
beauty of its horns, which are ringed and spirally convoluted,
(Plate VII. fig. 18,) having two or more turns, according to the age
of the animal. When full grown, it is four feet long and two and
a half feet high ; almost black above and white beneath ; on the
knees are tufts of long bristles, forming small knee brushes; the
other parts have the hair short and close. The Sasins are soswift
that except when taken by surprise, greyhounds are slipped after
them in vain ; the dogs are more likely to be injured than the
game. Capt. Williamson, in his " Wild Sports of the East,"
says he has seen an old buck Antelope lead a herd of females

236 RUMINANTIA.

over a net at least eleven feet high ; and that these animals fre-
quently vault to the height of twelve or thirteen feet, passing
over ten or twelve yards at a single bound. They are usually
hunted by the Cheetah, which "creeps cat-like towards the herd
and bounding upon a selected victim, dashes it to the ground
with a blow." In size they equal the fallow deer. They are
bold and familiar in captivity, and would be graceful ornaments
to public parks. The fakirs and dervishes of the East polish
their horns and wear them at their girdles instead of swords and
daggers, which their religious vocation prevents them from using.

A. tragulus. (Lat. dim. goat.) The STEIN-BOCK, or STONE-
BUCK. (3 ft. 4 in. long, 1 ft. 7 in. high.)

This ranks as one of the most elegant and graceful of the
Antelope tribe. The legs are longer and smaller in proportion to
its bulk than in any other species. A remarkable distinction in
this species, (existing also in the Spring or Prong Buck,) is the to-
tal absence of spurious hoofs, both on the fore and hind feet, a
character which " no other ruminating animals of the hollow-
horned family possess." The Stein-Buck resides in pairs on the
stony plains and mountain valleys of South Africa. When
closely pressed, and without power to escape, it will hide its
head in the first hole or corner it meets with, and thus patiently
resign itself to its fate.

A. oreotragus. (Gr, ogog, oros, mountain ; tQ&yog, tragos, goat.
Mountain -goat.) The KAINSI, or KLIPPSPRINGER. (3 ft. 2 in. long.)

This is an antelope which inhabits the most barren and inacces-
sible mountains of the Cape, and appears to supply, in South Af-
rica, the place of the Chamois and Ibex ; the general color of
the hair above is a lively mixture of yellow and green, and light
sandy yellow tinged with red beneath ; the texture of the hair in
this, as in the Spring or Prong Bock, is so fragile that it breaks
with the slightest touch, crushing like straw between the fingers,
and it is so wanting in elasticity that it never regains its original
form. The legs are more robust than in most other species ;
and the hoofs, instead of being pointed and flat beneath, are en-
tirely round and cylindrical, being worn only at the tips, upon
which alone the animal treads. This, with other peculiarities of
structure enables the Klippspringer to bound with very surprising
agility among the most dangerous rocks and precipices.

A, saltiana. (Lat. leaping or bounding.) The MADOQUA. (2
ft. long, 14 in. high.)

This antelope is found in all parts of Abyssinia, where it was
first discovered by Bruce, and lives in pairs in mountainous dis-
tricts. It is well nigh the smallest of all horned animals, be-

BUMINANTIA.. 237

ing " scarcely the size of a good English hare ; " the color is like
that of the American Gray Squirrel, intermixed with deep red-
dish brown above, and pure unmixed white beneath ; the tail is a
mere stump ; the legs very long in proportion to the weight of
the body, and so small that they scarcely equal the little finger
in thickness.

A. perpusilla. (Lat. very small.) KLEENE.BOC.

This is an exceedingly small species, about a foot high with
horns only an inch and a half long ; found at the Cape of South
Africa, and called by the Dutch Colonists, Kleene-Boc, (Little
Goat-) When domesticated, it soon becomes familiar, and learns
to answer to its name.

CERVINE ANTELOPES.

A. oryx. (Gr. "o£u£, orux, a gazelle.) The GEMS-Boc or
ORYX.)

This strong cervine animal is about five feet long, and from
three to four feet high, found in the southern and central parts
of Southern Africa, and once common but now rare in the Cape
Colony. It possesses many of the beautiful peculiarities of the
antelopes, but in form it is somewhat anomalous. The horns are
black and almost perfectly straight, and situated in the plane of
the forehead, about 2^ feet long, blunt in the male, but very sharp-
pointed in thtf female ; (Plate VII. fig. 20.) the general color cf
the body is dark rusty iron gray above, but the head and under
parts are white. There are beautifully black bands on the head
and flanks, producing a contrast of colors which has a singular
effect upon the animal's appearance. In coloring and height,
the Gerris-Boc resembles the Ass ; but in its erect mane and its
long sweeping tail it is like the horse, while its head and hoofs
are those of the antelope. It always keeps to the open field,
living in small families.

Anderson says "it is the swiftest quadruped he met in South
Africa, and lives on grass, succulent plants, (often of a very ac-
rid taste,) shrubs, &c. It rarely if ever attacks man, but can
defend itself with its formidable horns, even against the lion."
Others say that even " the lion himself is afraid to attack this
powerful and courageous animal, and that sometimes when
pressed by famine, he has ventured to do so, he has been beaten
off* with disgrace, or even paid for his temerity with his life."
The Oryx has been said to live without water, but Anderson re-
marks that "troops" of this animal "have been found dead or
dying near pools purposely poisoned by the natives to capture wild
animals."

238 RUMINANTIA.

A. leucoryx. (Gr. Isvxbg, leukos ; oou£, orux, the gazelle.)
The WHITE ORYX.

This species, called by some the " Milk-White Antelope," is
perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelope genus, it being
the one that gave rise to the fabulous unicorn of the ancients.
The horns are more distinctly ringed for about half their length
than in the preceding species, gradually curved throughout the
whole course, and in a side view appearing to be one and the
same. The neck, throat, and some portions of the face are
brown; but the other parts are milk-white. This species is
found represented on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia ; '' in
the inner chamber of the great pyramid at Memphis, a whole
group may be seen, (with one exception,) shown in profile, so
that but one horn appears " The White Oryx is gregarious; its
range is more northern thanthatof the Gems-Boc, including Nu-
bia and Senegal ; its food consists of different species of acacias.

GOAT-LIKE ANTELOPES.

A rupicapra. (Lat. Rock-Goat,) The CHAMOIS, or GEMS.

This interesting animal is the only Antelope of Europe, being
found in all the high mountain-chains of that region, and also those
of Western Asia. The horns of the Chamois are usually but six
or seven inches long, nearly parallel in their whole extent,— and
bent backwards like hooks at their tip. (Plate VII. fig. 21.) Its
length is about three feet three inches ; and its height at the
shoulders, a little more than two feet ; the face is straight and goat-
like; the ears are small, erect, and pointed , the long hair of the body
hangs down over the sides, and is of a deep brown color in winter,
a brownish fawn in summer, and in spring, slightly mixed with
gray ; the pale yellow of the head is banded with dark brown on
each side. Beneath the external covering, is a short thick coat
of fine wool, which lies close to the skin, and protects the animal
from the severe weather of cold mountainous regions, and the
bruises to which, from its habitat, it is liable. The hoofs are
admirably adapted for security, enabling it to avail itself of every
little roughness and projection, either from the naked granite, or
from, the icy glaciers.

In its elevated home, the Chamois displays all the vivacity,
restlessness and agility of tne Common Goat. It does not bear
heat, and is, therefore, in summer found on the tops of the highest
mountains, or in deep glens where the snow lies during the year ;
in winter, it descends to lower ridges, and then only is it hunted
with any prospect of success. All its senses are exceedingly
acute ; and these, combined with its agility, are it« means of

EUMINANTIA. 239

security. Its sense of smell, it is said, will enable it to perceive
an aggressor at the distance of one and a half miles. It is rest-
less, a'nd very much alarmed until it gets a sight of the object
of its terror, leaping upon the highest rocks at hand, in order
to obtain a more extensive prospect. When undisturbed, its
voice is a low kind of bleating ; if excited by the approach of
a hunter, it utters a suppressed whistle, or hissing sound, and all
the while, shows much agitation ; but when the hunter comes
near, it flies with its utmost speed, — bounding from ledge to ledge,
where the eye can mark no footing, -«-and from crag to crag, and
point to point — sweeping over the glacier, — throwing itself down
precipices of fearful depth, and pitching, almost by miracle, upon
the slightest projection. " It does not descend at a single bound,
nor in a vertical direction, but by projecting itself obliquely or
diagonally forwards, striking the face of the rock three or four
times with its feet for the purpose of renewing its force, or
directing it more steadily to the point it aims at ; and in this
manner, it will descend a rock almost perpendicular, of twenty
or thirty feet in height, without the smallest projection upon
which to rest its feet."

The hunting of the Chamois, is among the most perilous of
human undertakings, and involves "a perversion of mental ener-
gies capable of better things." It has been remarked; "no
Chamois hunter ever dreams of any other death than that of fall-
ing from the brink of a precipice, or being buried in some chasm
beneath the treacherous snow ; " yet urged on by a sort of fas-
cination, "he pursues his course of life with feelings allied to
those of the gambler, alternating with hopes and fears."

The Chamois seldom drinks. Its food consists of mountain
herbs, flowers, and the tender roots of trees and shrubs. This gives
a richness and a fine flavor to the flesh, which is much esteemed
as a venison. For this and the skins, the Chamois hunters jeopard
their lives. The animal can seldom be captured alive, and
rarely thrives in captivity. "Like the Swiss, its congenial
home is among its native mountains, and in its native liberty."

A. furcifer. (Lat. Prong-bearer ;Jor Antilocapra Americana.
The PRONG- HORNED ANTELOPE.

The absence in this animal of inguinal and lachrymal openings,
and 6f accessary hoofs, together with the fact that it has branch-
ing horns, (Plate VII. fig. 17,) of which no instance occurs among
the other species of Antelopes, led Audubon to refer it to the
genus Antilocapra, derived from the two genera, Antilope and
Capra, Goat- Antelope. This Antelope is confined to the Western
portions of North America, and is never seen East of the Missis-

240 RUMINANTIA.

sippi, but ranges as far South as California and New Mexico,
feeding on moss, buds, &c.

It is shortly, but more compactly built than the Virginia
Deer, but in its elegant and stately form, resembles more the
Antelope than the Deer family. The horns of the male are curved
upwards and backwards, with a short triangular prong about
the centre. In winter a ridge of coarse hairs, resembling a
short mane, appears on the back of the neck, of which, in sum-
mer, only a black stripe remains, — the color is a reddish dun,
with the throat and the clink on the hinder parts white. The
head, ears and legs are covered with short close hair of the com-
mon description, but that of the body is long and padded, and of
a texture altogether different from that of other animals ; it being
hollow like the feather of a bird, brittle, and when bent, not
returning to the original straight form. The animals are grega-
rious, sometimes several hundreds being found together, and
they migrate from North to South according to the season.
When the ground is clear, their speed surpasses that of most
other animals, but a good horse easily outstrips them after a
slight fall of snow. They are sly, but extremely curious ; and
the Indians, and even the wolves, it is said, know how to take
advantage of their curiosity to get within reach of them, by
crouching down and moving forwards, or stopping, alternately.
These Antelopes will wheel round and round the object of their
attention, decreasing the distance at every turn, till at last they
approach sufficiently near to be shot or captured. Sometimes
they are caught in pens,v in nearly the same manner as the
bison ; but in the deep snow of winter, when they are suffering
for want of food, they are generally dispatched with clubs, —
Audubon says, "principally by the women." They are fattest
in autumn. "Their liver is much prized as a delicacy, and we
have heard that many of these animals a-re killed simply to pro-
cure this choice morsel." (Anderson.) Their flesh, however,
is not highly esteemed by the Indians, who hunt them only in
times of scarcity.

II. GROUP. — ANTELOPES OF THE %DESERT.

A. Gnu. The GNOO, or HORNED- HORSE.

This equine Antelope is sometimes called Catoblepas, (Gr.
xaTafiMnMv, Katabtepon, looking down.) a name well expressive
of its sinister aspect, shaded as its face is by overgrown horns,
bent down and outwards, on the sides, broad at the base, and bent
up at the tip. (Plate VII. fig. 23.) It has a wide and bristly nose,

RUMINANTIA. 241

with large covered nostrils ; and in size about equals a well grown
ass. The neck, body and tail, precisely resemblo those of a small
horse, and the pace also, which is a species of light gallop, is so
perfectly similar, that a herd of Gnoos, when seen at a distance,
flying over the plains of South Africa, " might be readily mis-
taken for a troop of the wild zebras, or quaggas, which inhabit
the same locality, if their dark and uniform color did not distin-
guish them." They are naturally wild and difficult to approach,
and when provoked very dangerous if wounded, turning upon
the hunter and pursuing him, dropping on their knees before
making an attack, and then darting forward with amazing force
and velocity. " When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they
commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric
manner; then springing suddenly into the air, they begin pranc-
ing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost
speed. Suddenly, they all pull up together, to overhaul the
intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence fighting in
the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ;
then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whisk
their tnils, with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain
enveloped in a cloud of dust." (Cumming's South Africa.)
They are said to be subject to a cutaneous eruption at particular
seasons of the year, which they sometimes communicate to do-
mestic cattle, and which invariably ends in death. Their flesh
is in good repute both among the natives and colonists.

A. Caama. The LECAMA, or HARTE-BEEST.

This species of Bovine Antelopes inhabit the plains of South
Africa, and are the most common of all the large Antelopes in that
country. They are of a gray-brown color; reside in large
herds ; and are much hunted by the natives and colonists. Their
pace resembles a heavy gallop, but yet is tolerably quick. In
their manners, they are mild and tractable ; but when put upon
their defence, they make good use of their powerful lyrate horns,
like the Gnoo, dropping upon their knees before charging, and
after advancing some distance in this position, suddenly darting
with great force against the hunter. The flesh is much esteemed,
being more like ox-beef than that of any other Antelope, except,
perhaps, the Eland.

The Strepsicerae (twisted horns) is another small group refer-
red to in the " Penny Cyclopaedia," under the name of Antelopes,
and including some very interesting Ruminants. They are
named from the subspiral, or twisted form of their horns; and
distinguished among the "Hollow-Horned Bovine Ruminants,"
by being marked with white stripes and spots. Agassiz has

242 RUMINANTIA.

remarked, that the horns of the Strepsicerae and the sheep are
twisted in opposite directions.

A. Stepsiceros. The KUDOO.

This magnificent animal is found in South Africa. It is one
of the largest of the Antelopes, being upwards of eight feet long,
and four feet high at the shoulder. The horns of the Kudoo, for
which it is most remarkable, are nearly four feet long, and beau-
tifully twisted into a large spiral form, of about two turns and a
half. A bold ridge runs over the horns and fbllowstheircurvature.
(Plate VII. fig. 15.) The leading color is a bright fallow-brown,
with a narrow white stripe along the spine. In its external aspect,
the animal more nearly resembles the ox than the Antelope.
Although large and heavy, it can leap with wonderful activity.
The weight of the horns is considerable, and in part to relieve
itself from that weight, and in part also to keep the spreading horns
from entanglement in the bushes on which it lives and feeds, the
Kudoo usually bends its head back and rests its horns upon its
shoulders. When closely pursued, it takes to the water, and
seeks to escape by its power of swimming.

A. oreas.. (Gr.oQEtdg, oreias, of the mountain.) The ELAND,
or the BOSELAPHUS, (ox-stag.) of the ancients.

We have in this animal the largest of the Antelopes, — measur-
ing eight feet two inches in length, and full five feet in height at
the shoulder — being quite as large as a good sized horse. It has
very thick, nearly straight horns, about a foot and a half long,
and covered, for the most part, with a thick spiral wreath. The
ears are large. A protuberance, of the size of a man's fist,
appears on the larynx ; from this organ, the animal probably de-
rived the name of Eland, (as it is called at the Cape Colony.)
When full grown, it weighs from seven to nine cwt. ; and, contrary
to the usual rule observed among Antelopes, is commonly ex-
tremely fat. The flesh is more highly prized than that of any other
animal in South Africa. The Eland is mild and inoffensive in its
disposition, so that a man may penetrate into the very midst of a
herd without alarming them. Being quite heavy, the great ob-
ject in hunting this animal, is to turn the game in such a direc-
tion as to drive it close to the residence of the hunter before it is
killed; and the Cape farmers, it is said, "very frequently succeed
in accomplishing this masterpiece of South African field sports."

A. picta, (painted.) The NYL-GHAU.

This large and magnificent Antelope is about the same size as
the GnoOj standing about four feet high at the shoulder. It is
found in the forests of N. W. India, ranging thence as far as
Persia. The face of this species is long and narrow, surmounted

OF THE

UNIVERSri i J

/F 243

with short, smooth, and nearly parallel horns. The fore-quarters
are considerably raised, and there is a slight elevation upon the
withers; the neck is long and horse-like; from the throat and
shoulders hangs a dense bunch of hair ; the haunch is small and
low, so that the hinder limbs are short. The Nyl-Ghau is less
graceful in its proportions than the Stag, but more muscular and
powerful. The color of this animal is a slaty blue ; it has, how-
ever, several white spots which, contrasting with the slaty blue,
or dark brown of the other parts, suggested the specific name of
picta. It is extremely vicious, and cannot be approached with-
out danger. In making an attack, it first falls upon its knees,
like the Gnoo, and then springs violently forward. It is the
common prey of the tiger ; and hunters erect their platforms near
the mangled remains of this animal, well knowing that the
tiger will return to glut himself with the remainder of his prey.
During the day, the Nyl-Ghau conceals itself in the forests, and
at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing harm to adjacent
cultivated fields. It has been often taken to England, where it
breeds, and is not an uncommon animal.

QUESTIONS ON ANTELOPES.

What is the derivation of the word Antelopidae ? What families are the
Antelopes thought to connect ? In what respect are they like the goats ? In
what like the deer ? What advantages do their hind limbs give them ?
State the color of the larger part of them. What is said of the tail, ears
and hoofs ? What is the most general character of the family ? Are their
horns solid or hollow ? What is said of their tear-pits ? From what do
these distinguish them? What makes this family an intermediate link be-
tween the two kinds of horned animals? What additional glands are
spoken of? What is said of the form of the upper lip ? What of the hair ?
Are they gregarious ? What two grand divisions do the Antelopes em-
brace? What is the most obvious distinction between the two? Name
the groups of Antelopes of the Field, with their characters. Where is the
Gazelle found ? Give some account of its peculiarities and habits. Where
is the Mohr ? Why is it sought after by the Arabs? What is the locality
of the Springbok ? Is it larger or smaller than the Gazelle ? What is its
most marked peculiarity? What is said of its leaps? What of its migra-
tions? How widely is the Common Antelope diffused? What is said of its
horns ? Illustrate its swiftness. What animals are used in hunting it ?
How large is it? What Antelope is next mentioned? What is said of it?
Where is the Klipspringer found ? What is peculiar in its hair? What
enables it to bound with very great agility? Who first discovered the
Madoqual What is said of its size, color, &c. ? Where is the Kleenbok
found? What is said of it? To which division of the Antelopes of the
Field do the preceding ones belong? Where is the Oryx found? What
is. its size ? Give some description of it ? What is said of it by Anderson
and others ? Which is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelopes ?
To what fabulous animal did it give rise ? How ? Where is it found sculp-

244 CETACEA.

tured? What is its range? To what division do the two preceding Ante-
lopes belong ? Which is the only Antelope of Europe ? What characteris-
tics are mentioned ? Further describe it. What is said of the hunt of this
animal? How is its flesh esteemed? To what genus is the Prong-Horned
Antelope referred ? Name its characteristics and habits. To what division
do the two last named species belong? What are Antelopes of the
second group called? Which of these is first mentioned? Name its dis-
tinctive traits and habits. Give some account of the Lecama. What other
small group of Antelopes is mentioned ? Why are they so named ? What
distinguishes them ? What has Agassiz remarked? What is said of the
Kudoo? For what is it most remarkable? What animal does it most re-
semble ? Which is the largest of the Antelopes ? What gave it the name
Eyland? What is said of it? Where is the Nyl-Gkau found? Give a
description of it.

Name the species on the Chart. Trace them. Give the most prominent
characteristics of each as a general review.

SECTION XXXI,

NINTH ORDER. CETACEA. (Gr. x^ro?, a whale.) WHALES,
DOLPHINS, ETC.

MARINE-MAMMALS.

This is an order of mammiferous animals inhabiting the sea ;
surpassing all others in size, though lower in organization than
those living upon the land. Moving in the water by means of
fin-flippers, or paddles, "the earlier naturalists placed them
among the fishes; but all now unite in placing them among the
mammals." Like them, they are viviparous, (born alive,) suckle
their young, have warm blood, and breathe by means of lungs.
The contour of the body, is fish-like, no neck being distinguisha-
ble, and the whole tapering down gradually from the head to the
tail. The tail, however, terminates, not vertically as in fishes,
but horizontally, in a cartilaginous fin, and is moved upwards and
downwards by muscles of enormous force and volume. In
length, it is only five or six feet ; but in width, from eighteen to
twenty-six. So powerful is it in the largest varieties, that they
frequently force themselves out of water. The greatest velocity
is given by the upward and downward strokes ; a slower motion
is obtained by cutting the water sidewise, and obliquely down-
wards, as a boat is forced along by a single oar in the operation
of skulling. So rapid are the movements of the Cetacea, they
have been called the "birds of the sea." The flippers, or pad-
dles, the anterior limbs, are generally stretched out in a horizon-
tal position. When dissected, the bones of the paddles are found

CETACEA. 245

to be short and flattened, yet distinct and handlike ; but the whole
of this osseous frame- work is enveloped in a cartilaginous cover.
1 ing, so as to form an undivided oar. The chief use of the pad-
dles seems to be that of balancing the animal, for as soon as life-
is extinct, it falls over upon its back ; they are also employed in
turning and giving direction to the velocity produced by the tail.
The Cetacea regularly resort to the surface to take in a fresh
supply of air. They also descend into the remotest depths of the
ocean ; in the case of the larger animals sometimes encountering
a pressure which has been estimated at two hundred thousand
tons, or one hundred and fifty times as great as that of the atmos-
phere, and sufficient to force water through the hardest wood,
causing it to sink like so much lead. For sustaining so vast a
pressure, their structure is most wisely adapted.

The body is covered with a coat of peculiar elasticity. The
naked skin is itself much thickened ; but by an open texture of
its interwoven fibres, it is made to contain within itself, a thick
layer of oil or blubber, and thus the animal can endure, without
injury, the greatest weight of water. "A soft wrapper of fat,
though double the thickness of that usually found in the Cetacea,
could not have resisted the superincumbent pressure; whereas,
by its being a modification of the skin, always firm and elastic,
and in this case, being never less than several inches, and some-
times between one and two feet thick, it operates like so much
india-rubber, possessing a density and resistance which, the more
it is pressed, resists the more."* As the blubber is specifically
lighter than water, it also makes the animal more buoyant. A
dead whale floats ; but the body, when stripped of its fat, sinks
immediately. Another important use of the blubber, is to pre-
serve the vital heat of the body in a cold medium, which has a
constant tendency to abstract caloric. Without this layer of
blubber, which is one of the worst conductors of heat, the whale
would be unable to resist the low temperature of the Arctic Seas,
and must perish from cold. The eyes of the Cetacea are admi-
rably adapted to the dense medium in which the animals dwell.
As compared with the size of the body, the eyes are small, —
generally not larger than those of an ox ; in the Beluga, or
White Whale, they are smaller than the human eye; in the Por-
I poise, not so large as those of a sheep. In the Cetacea, "the
I humours of the eye are so adjusted in their form, density and
I refractive power, as to prevent any dispersion, or decomposition
of the rays." The refractive power of the aqueous humor,

* Naturalist's Library. Mammalia, VII., 48.

248 CETACEA.

which is great in respect to land animals, would, in water, be
comparatively weak ; this defect is, in the case of the Cetacea,
supplied by the spherical form and great refractive power of the
lens of the eye. The outer, or sclerotic coat is, in these animals,
remarkably thick and tough, it being as dense as tanned leather,
serving both to preserve its spherical form, and to defend the ani-
mal from injury. This coat increases in thickness towards the
back part, and is full five times the thickness behind, that it is
on the front part. To this, Dr. Paley (see Nat. Theol.) has
well referred, as strikingly evincing Divine contrivance. The
front part sustains the pressure from without, and needs no addi-
tional support; but were the back part to yield, the globe of the
eye would be distended in that direction, and the whole interior
of the eye suffer derangement. As a safe-guard, the sclerotic
coat is, therefore, remarkably strengthened behind.

One of the most extraordinary things in the economy of the
Cetacea, is the length of time during which they can suspend
respiration. While, in most animals, it can be suspended only
for a few minutes, in some of the larger whales it may be sus-
pended from one to nearly two hours, they remaining under
water for that time. This fact points to the peculiarity of their
breathing apparatus. The whale has a reservoir wherein there
is an overplus of oxygenized blood which, on occasion, is emptied
into the general circulation ; it is thus able to continue longer
under water, and less frequently resorts to the surface in order
to inhale oxygen from the atmosphere. Whales have no nostrils,
properly so called, and their mouths are seldom opened in the
free air. The process of breathing is therefore carried on
through tubes, called blow-holes, or spiracles, opening on the top
of the head, and allowing a free passage to and from the lungs.
These openings are called blow-holes, because the expulsion of
the long-confined and heated air, as the animal rises to the sur-
face, is attended with considerable noise, and the casting forth of
water or steam. The " spoutings " are heard as far as two miles,
and sometimes reach the height of twenty or thirty feet. They
are most conspicuous in the larger genera ; quite marked in the
intermediate dimensions; but in the smaller, seldom or never vis-
ible. After the "spoutings are out," as the whalers say. most
of the Cetacea descend into the depths of the ocean. The lungs
are guarded from injury that might hence arise, by the conical
stopper which, like the cork of a bottle, fits itself to the blow-
hole so perfectly, as to exclude every drop of water. Habitually,
the whales take their sustenance under water; but, "by a slight
alteration in a few cartilages at the top of the windpipe, and in

CETACEA. 247

the direction of the air tubes, they feed as safely in the deep
ocean as others do in the most balmy atmosphere."

The external opening of the ear is minute, and in some species,
hardly discoverable. This can be closed at pleasure. The
hearing, as well as sight, is quick beneath water, — whales have
the sense of smell in some degree; showing themselves sensible
of the noxious smell of bilge-water, pumped from the hold of
vessels. The senses of taste and touch they possess, but in a less
degree than other animals.

The stomach of the whale is divided into five, and sometimes
seven distinct sacs, or pouches; instead of a single spleen, they
have several, which are small and globular. The teguments of
the tongue are soft and smooth. Those of the Cetacea which are
possessed of teeth, have them all of conical shape, and all alike.

The brain in these animals is small, though the size of it
varies in different genera. In a young Greenland whale it was
found to be ^oVtf Pai*t of the whole animal. The proportion in
the Dolphin is much greater, the brain being -^ part of the
whole, and approaching quite near to that of man.

The degrees of intelligence manifested by the Cetacea, are
various, and so are their dispositions; but all agree in the mutual
regard which they entertain, — the mother for her young, the
cub for its parents; _and members of the same family, or shoal,
for one another. The female has but one young at a time, in
the early spring, which is about ten or twelve feet long at birth ;
the mammae are two in number, and situated near the vent.

The Catacea may be divided into four families, viz : I. The
DSLPHINIDAE, including Dolphins, Porpoises, etc. ; II. CATADON-
TIDAE, or PHYSETERIDAE, Spermaceti Whales; III. BALAENIDAE,
True Whales, Common, Right or Whale-Bone Whales; IV.
HERBIVOROUS CETACEA, including the Manatees, Dugongs, etc.

I. DELPHJNIDAE. (Gr. Jekcplg,, Delpliis, a dolphin.)

This is tire Dolphin tribe, characterized by the moderate size
of the head, and usually by the presence of teeth in both jaws.
They are voracious feeders ; their flesh is, for the most part,
rank, oily, and unwholesome. They include seventeen genera,
and sixty-four species, and are the most numerous family of the
Cetacea; are scattered in all seas, and frequently ascend rivers.
One genus (Inia) is found in the mountain lakes of Peru, — the
fountains of the Amazon, and a thousand miles from the ocean.
" They are the Carnassiers of the waters, preying upon the
fishing tribes, which they chase in all directions; and their teeth
are modified accordingly."

OJiq CETACEA.

Delphinus. (25 species.)

Deiphinus Delphis. The COMMON DOLPHIN. (Plate VIII.
fig. 4. and PL VJ. fig. 12.)

The animals of the genus Delpliinus, have more teeth than any
other of the Mammalia, the number averaging ninety in each
jaw ; in form, simple and conical, but adapted for seizing only.
The jaws of these animals project so as to be like a slender beak,
separated from the forehead by a groove, or furrow, that resem-
bles the bill of a goose. (Plate IV. fig. 11.) There is a fin
upon the back. The Common Dolphin is usually six or seven
feet long, sometimes nine or ten feet. Its form is admirably
adapted for swimming. The tail is large and powerful. This
animal is familiar to fishermen and mariners, and cannot but be
regarded with interest, on account of its beautiful and graceful
form, the fleetness with which it darts through the waters, its
gambols and leaps, and its social habits.

So smooth are the bodies of Dolphins, that "their sportive gam-
bols create surprisingly little disturbance of the water." To
the ancients, the manners of the Dolphin were well known, and
to them, its playful, social disposition, made it a great favorite.
It is accurately figured on many of their coins. Among the
Greeks, it was sacred to Apollo, who was worshiped at Delphi
with Dolphins for his symbols. It early appeared on the shield
of some of the princes of France, gave name to a province of
that empire, and a tiUe to the heir-apparent of the crown.

The brilliancy and variety of many of the Dolphins found in
the Southern and Equatorial seas, cannot be adequately repre-
sented by pictures, or exhibited in words. The Dolphin, "with
its many dying colors," of which poets have sung, is, however,
not the true animal, but a scomberoid fish, Coryphaena hippurus,
the Dorado, of the Portuguese; though, as Dr. J. E. Gray re-
marks, "to this fish, which changes color in dying, most mari-
time persons generally confine the name of Dolphin." But,
however it may be celebrated in story and in song, the Dolphin
appears quite wolfish in its habits, — in troops, hunting down its
prey, — in its rapid course, forcing the flying fishes to take refuge
in the air; but continuing the chase until the exhausted victims
are taken. Of the many wonderful stories related by ancient
naturalists respecting the Dolphin, we have room for only the
following. Pliny says that, "in Barbary, near the town of
Hippo, a Dolphin used to frequent the shore, and receive food
from any hand that supplied it, — that it would mix with persons
bathing, allow them to mount its back, and obey their direction,
with all celerity and precision." The ancients speak of the

CETACEA. 249

Dolphin as peculiarly partial to children; and here we quote a
further incident from Pliny, which has pathos, whatever may be
thought of its truth. A Dolphin, which he says had penetrated
the Lake of Lucrinus, in Campania, every day received bread
from the hand of a child, answering to his call, and transporting
him on its back to school on the other side of the lake. This
intimacy continued for several years, when the boy dying, the
affectionate Dolphin, overwhelmed with grief, soon sunk under
its bereavement.

Monodon. (Gr. <w(W?, monos, solitary ; odovs, odous, a tooth.)

Monoceros, the specific name is from Gr. fiovog, (monos,) and
s, (keras,)horn.

This is the Narwhal. (Nar, signifies in Icelandish, a horn;
whal or wale is synonymous with our word, whale, and derived
from the same Teutonic root.) It is also called the Sea Uni-
corn, or Unicorn Whale. This Whale has no teeth, prop-
erly so called ; it has, however, two tusks, one on each side the
head. Only the left tusk projects, (from the upper jaw of the
male,) the other remaining within the head, whence the name
Monoceros, or Unicorn. This horn, or tusk, is eight or ten feet
long, tapering, with a rope-like twist, to a point, and harder and
whiter than ivory. Formerly, the tusks brought a high price.
Many medicinal virtues were attributed to them. They are still
of value as an article of trade. The kings of Denmark are said
to have a magnificent throne made of these tusks, which is pre-
served with great care, in the castle of Rosenburg. The length
of the Narwhal is from twenty to thirty feet, and, including the
tusk, between thirty and forty. It is thought the animal uses
the tusk to pierce the ice for the purpose of breathing, and also
in capturing the fishes on which it feeds. It usually precedes
the Mystieetus, both using the same kind of food. Hence, when
Greenlanders see unicorns, they prepare for fishing in earnest.
It is on record that the thick oak timbers of a ship have been
pierced by the horn. Sometimes the Narwhal drives it into the
sides of the huge whale, and greedily receives the oily blubber
which oozes from the wounds thus inflicted.

Dr. Scoresby describes the Narwhals as active and inoffen-
sive,— often sporting about his ship, sometimes in bands of about
twenty together, raising up their long tusks, and crossing them
with each other as if fencing. Our own lamented Kane says,
"the play of a group of Narwhals is graceful, striking and
beautiful." The blubber yields a superior oil. This and the
ffosh also are highly valued by the Esquimaux and Greenlander.
Their tusks afford them wtupuud of defence, and even the intes-
tines thry use for lines.

250 CETACEA.

Beluga. The WHITE WHALE.

Of this genus there are two species, viz. : the Northern Belu-
ga, (B. catodon.) the Australian Beluga, (J5. Ringii.) The shape
of the Beluga is that of a double cone, one end of which is con-
siderably shorter than the other, and extremely well adapted to
motion in the water. It is known by its white color. The
length varies from twelve to twenty feet. The tail is powerful,
bent under the body in swimming, and impels it forward with
the velocity of an arrow. The eye is scarcely larger than that
of a man ; the iris is blue. It has no olfactory nerve, no exter-
nal ear, and the mouth is small when compared with the bulk of
the animal. Its food is codfish, haddocks, and other fish. The
favorite resorts of the Northern Beluga are the higher latitudes
of the Arctic regions, Hudson's Bay, Davis' Straits, and the
northern coasts of Asia and of this continent, where they fre.
quent large rivers. They are found in the Gulf of St. Law.
rence, and go with the tide as far as Quebec; and there are
fisheries for them as well as for porpoises in the river St. Lawrence.
They yield a considerable quantity of oil which is said to be of
the finest quality. Of their skins a sort of morocco leather is
made, which, though thin, is strong enough to resist a musket
ball. They are not shy, but often follow ships and tumble about
the boats in herds of thirty or forty, bespangling the surface with
their sparkling whiteness. The whaler seldom disturbs these
beautiful creatures; they being very active, it is difficult to strike
them ; the harpoon often gives way, and they are of compara-
tively little value when killed. They are said to visit the west
coast of Greenland about the end of November, and are then very
useful to the natives as their provisions fall short. In taking them,
harpoons and strong nets are employed. The internal membranes
are used for windows and bsd-curtaind, and the sinews for
thread. The flesh resembles beef, but is to some extent oily.

Phoc&na. (Gr. qpcjx<uj/a, phokaina, a porpoise.)

The characteristics of this genus are as follows: "Head
rounded, not much elevated ; mouth terminal ; snout, short and
rounded ; a dorsal eminence, (as in the Globicephalus.) usually
of a small size; gregarious; piscivorus." (N. H. S. N. Y.)
i Phocosna communis. The COMMON PORPOISE, or PORPESSE.
(French, Porcpoisson.) (PI. IV. fig. 11.)

Of all the Cetacea, this and the allied varieties are most com-
mon, being found in almost all the seas of Europe, and in large
numbers on the coast of the American continent. It is common
in our rivers and bays. It was formerly " so abundant on the
shores of Long Island as to have induced the inhabitants to form

CETACEA. 251

establishments for its capture." The Common Porpoise, like the
Common Dolphin, is the smallest of the varieties. Between the
two there is a general resemblance in color, shape and disposi-
tion. The scarf skin of the porpoise is very soft to the touch,
and easily detached. The eye has the iris of a yellowish hue,
and the pupil in the form of V reversed. The opening of the
ear is not larger than the prick of a pin; that of the blow-hole
is on the top of the head, between the eyes. The dorsal fin, o>*
eminence, is not bony, but composed entirely of fat, and incapzx
ble of separate movement ; and the tail is without any osseous
part within. The fat, or blubber is white, from one to two inches
thick, and when heated yields an oil that is fine and much val-
ued. It is "cut through on the back and belly and is peeled off
in halves; it is scraped off with an instrument resembling a
currier's knife, and the skin is then sent to the tanner. The
leather made from thisskin is said to be the strongest known, and
is used more particularly for the upper leather of boots and shoes.'*
(N. H. S. N. Y.) The deep bluish color of the Porpoise fades
away on the sides, till it acquires a silvery whiteness. It has
ninety-two teeth, cutting and somewhat rounded at the edge.
The brain is large and has deep convolutions lying over the cere-
bellum. The porpoise, the dolphin, and the monkey are the only
animals that in this respect resemble man. The food of por-
poises is chiefly fish, and they occasionally pursue shoals of her-
ring and mackerel, which they drive into the bays in very great
apparent terror. They are great enemies of salmon, which,
when pursued by the porpoise, often spring several yards out of
the water ; but from the quickness of their foe, are unable *
escape. The flesh of the porpoise was once esteemed a volu
tuous kind of food, and is said to have been found on the table,
of the old English nobility as late as the time of Queen Eliza-
beth. Later than, this it was extensively used in some countries,
especially during the time of Lent.

GRAMPUS. (Phoccena orca.) The term Grampus is a corrup-
tion of the French, Grand-poisson, great fish, pronounced by the
Normans, Grapois, whence came the English word GRAMPUS.
American sailors have given it the names of "Killer and Thrash-
er." By some, (see Cat. of British Museum in Eng. Cyc.,) a por-
tion of the animals once included under the genus Grampus,
has been formed into a new genus, "Orca," which includes the J
KILLERS proper, and has four species.

The body is thick in proportion to its length, and of oval shape.
The snout short and roundish , the lower jaw somewhat bent
upwards, broader, but not so long as the upper. The teeth are

25*2 CETACEA.

forty-four in number, eleven on each side above and below, va-
rying in number with age, sometimes are as many as sixty, and
interlocking when the jaws are shut. The dorsal elevation, im-
properly called a fin, is from four to six feet high; the pectoral
or swimming fins are large and oval, and it has a strong tail.
The color is glossy black above, white beneath ; occasionally
there is a large white patch behind the eye, resembling an eye-
lid. The length is from twenty to thirty feet ; the circumference
from ten to twelve. The favorite abode of the Grampus is the
coast of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Davis' straits ; it is also found
in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. It was formerly numerous on
the coast of New York State. It is a very powerful and vora-
cious animal, devouring great numbers of fishes, large ones es-
pecially, such as the cod, haddock, and turbot, and even seals
and porpoises have been found in their stomachs. *' They go in
company by dozens, will attack a young whale, and bait him
like so man)' bull-dogs." The oil which they yield is of
excellent quality. Fishermen sometimes call them Finners,
or Black-fish Whales. Stories are told of their attacking
whales, joining in herds for that purpose ; but these perhaps
need confirmation. Sir Joseph Banks says of one that was
captured in the Thames, (Eng.,) "It pulled the attached boat
twice from Black wall to Greenwich, and once as far as Dept-
ford, at the rate of eight miles an hour, and it was for a long
time unimpeded by the lance wounds which were inflicted
on it when it came to the surface. So long as it was alive,
no boat would venture to approach it ; and the dying efforts
of this formidable creature were terrible. It was finally killed
opposite the Greenwich Hospital."

G. Cuvieri, or Phoccena grisea, (of Lesson,) is a handsome
species inhabiting the North Sea ; has been taken on the West
coast of France ; is ten or eleven feet long ; has only eight teeth,
and these in the lower jaw. It is famous for uttering loud cries
like the Deductor (or Howling) whale, and associating in groups
like that whale.

Delphinapterus. This genus includes two species, D. Peronii,
Peron's Dolphin, and D. Borealis. The head is rather convex
in front, nose depressed, forming a slender beak, and there is no
dorsal fin. The form and proportions are elegant. The snout,
as far as the eye, and the under parts of the body and the tail
are of silvery whiteness; a bluish black covers the upper parts
of the body, giving it the appearance of having on a black cloak.
The iris is of an emerald green color. The D. Peronii is the
Right- Whale Porpoise of the Whalers, found in the higher

CETACEA.

253

southern latitudes. The D. Borealis inhabits the North Pacific.
(See Peale's description in the U. S. Exploring Expedition.)

GloUceplialus. (Globe-headed.) This contains five species,
viz. : G. Swineval, Pilot- Whale, (North Sea;) G. intermedius,
the Black Fish, (N. America ;) G. affinis, Smaller Pilot- Whale,
(locality unknown;) G. Sieboldii, Naiso Gota, (coast of Japan;)
G. macrorhync hus, South Sea Black Fish. They are character-
ized by the absence of a snout, by having a globular head, an
eminence resembling a fin on the back, and a single spiracle, sit-
uated near the back of the head. The length varies from six-
teen to twenty-four feet; the pectoral fins are from six to eight
feet, and the tail five feet in length. The second species resem-
bles the Grampus in size, and is probably often confounded with
it. The teeth am from twenty to twenty-eight in number in each
jaw, and when the mouth is closed, they " shut together like a rat-
trap." It is called the Deductor. With blind confidence, these
animals follow one as a leader, the main body keeping close to him,
" as sheep follow the wether." Efforts are therefore made to en-
trap the leaders, and then many others are taken. They are in-
offensive, and so timid that men in boats, with ineffective weapons,
and with shouts and noise in the water, drive them in great num-
bers to the shore, to their own destruction. When any one
strikes the ground, it is said that it sets up a howling' cry, and
immediately others crowd to the spot as if for its relief. This
circumstance has given it the name of theca'ing (calling) whale.
It is also called the Black Whale Fish, (species G. inlermedius,
or melas,) and Bottle-head. Of all the Cetacea it is the most so-
ciable, vast numbers being found together, whence it is named
the Social Whale. Large herds *of these whales are fre-
quently stranded and perish on the coast, particularly in high
northern latitudes. "At Wellfleet, near Cape Cod, in 1822, a
herd of one hundred, varying in length from ten to fifteen feet,
were stranded and captured. In 1823, one was taken in Salern
harbor, Mass. ; in 1832, one at Fairfield Beach, Conn. ; in 1834,
two on the east end of Long Island." (Nat. His. S. N. Y.)

II. CATODONTID^E. (Gr. H«T«, kata, under ; odovg, odous, a tooth ;)
or PHYSETERID^E, (Gr. cpvcnjTfy, Phuseter, a blow-pipe, or
bellows.) TOOTHED WHALES.

This family of the Cetacea are distinguished by the enormous
size of the head, which occupies more than one-third of the whole
bulk of the animal, and ends in a broad muzzle, appearing as
though it had been abruptly cut off. The lower jaw is narrow,

';.« : •'• 1 "' :.».

254 CETACEA.

9

slender and pointed, and has numerous stout conical teeth, while
the upper jaw contains either none or a few which do not per-
fjrate the gums. Hence the name Catodontida. The blow-holes
have but one orifice, situated at the top of the muzzle. The
three genera constituting the family, agree in their essential char-
acteristics; we therefore omit a detailed and 'separate description
and confine our remarks to the Calodon, or Physeter macrocepha-
lus, (juax^oj, long; xsqpaAy, a head,) the Northern Sperm-Whale.
It is sometimes called the Cachalot, a term derived from Cachon,
a tooth, in the Basque (Spanish) language. The Sperm-Whale
(Plate VIII. fig. 3,) is of enormous size, being between seventy
and eighty feet in length, and from thirty to thirty-five in circum-
ference. From its frequent paroxysms of fury it is one of the
most dangerous monsters of the deep. Jt is found in all latitudes,
but is a native of the Arctic and Antarctic Seas, where it is seen
attended by its young. Sperm- Whales usually appear in parties
of from two to five hundred, guarded by one or two males of the
largest size. In the upper part of the head there is an immense
cavity, divided into compartments and smaller cells, filled with
oil which is fluid when the animal is alive, but hardens when cooled
or after the animal is dead, and is known under the name of sperm-
aceti. A hole is made in the head as soon as the whale is killed
and the spermaceti is. baled out with buckets. When the first
process of squeezing and draining the oil is over, the yellow,
unctuous and impure mass of cetine is put into bags made of
hair or woolen, and further pressed between plates of iron in a
screw press until it becomes hard and brittle ; it is then broken
into small pieces and thrown into boiling water, where it melts
and the impurities are separated from it. After being cooled
and taken from the first water, it is put into a boiler of clean
water and a weak solution of potash is gradually added. This
is thrice repeated, after which the whole is poured into coolers,
where it crystalizes, and on being cut, exhibits the beautiful flaky
appearance belonging to the spermaceti of commerce. An ordi-
nary sized whale will yield from ten to twelve barrels of crude
spermaceti. Ambergris, which is used as a perfume, and often
found floating on the surface of the sea, is a fatty concretion
formed by disease in the intestines. Upon the ivory teeth of
the Sperm-Whales, sailors often show their taste in carving fig-
ures of various kinds. These whales produce but one young at
a time, about fourteen feet in length, and having a skin much
thicker than that of the old ones. The milk by which the young
are nourished resembles that of quadrupeds. The throat of the
Sperm-Whale is capacious enough to give passage to the body

CETACEA. 255

of a man, presenting a strong contrast to the contracted gullet of
the mysticctus, or Greenland Whale. The mouth is lined with
a pearly white membrane. The eyes are small in proportion to
the size of the animal, and furnished with eye-lids ; the skin is
usually smooth, but in old whales sometimes wrinkled. At each
breathing time, the Cachalot makes from sixty to seventy expira-
tions, remaining at the surface of the water ten or eleven min-
utes. It continues below the surface for periods of from an hour to
an hour and twenty minutes, consuming about one-seventh of its
time in respiration. The Sperm- Whale feeds upon seal and
fishes, which it pursues with great pertinacity ; but a large species
of cuttle fish, (Octopus,) is said to constitute its principal food.
Its forty-eight huge teeth, which it sometimes employs in biting
boats, make it formidable to whalers. Sometimes it swims off
to a distance, and then rushes at the boat with its head, thereby
knocking it to pieces. One of these whales sunk a ship by three
or four blows from its head. The Sperm-Whale fishery is a
principal branch of the industry of the United States, hundreds
of ships being engaged in this important branch of the fisheries.

The names of the genera as given in the Catalogue of the
British Museum, are Genus I. Catodon, 3 species; C. macroce-
phalus, Northern Sperm-Whale ; C. colueti, Mexican Sperm-
Whale ; C. polycyplius, South Sea Sperm-Whale. Genus II.
Kogia, one species ; K. breviceps, Short-Headed Whale. Genus
III. Physeter. P. tursio, the Black Fish.

III. BALAENID.E. (Gr. fibluivat, balaina, a whale.) TRUE
or WHALE-BONE WHALES.

These include but a limited number of species, comprised in
four, or according to Dr. J. E. Gray, three genera. They equal
the Sperm-Whale in size. The head is very large, but does not,
like theirs, terminate in a broad, abrupt muzzle. They have two
nostrils, separate and longitudinal. The jaws are toothless; the
blow-holes distinct, situated on the top of the head and each a
foot long. The absence of teeth specially distinguishes these
from other whales ; their place in the upper jaw, which is ex-
tremely narrow, is supplied by baleen, or whalebone, consisting of
pendent, horny plates, or lamina (see Chart,) each fringed so closely
as to fill up the cavity of the mouth and form a strainer retaining
the Clio Borealis. minute crustaceans, and other small tenants of
the sea. These are carried by thousands into the vast spoon-shaped
lower jaw. The laminae or plates are three or four hundred in

256 CETACEA.

number on each side, the longest often fifteen feet long ; the
Baleen of the Balaena alone is designated as Whalebone, or
Whalefin, as it is called in commerce. That of the other genera,
(Bal&noptera and Megaptera.) is called Finner-Fin, or Hump-
back-Fin ; the tongue is very large, thick and fleshy, fat, soft
and spongy, not unfrequently twenty feet long, and nine or ten
wide. The blubber obtained from these whales is extremely
abundant, a single whale often yielding forty tuns, or three
hundred and twenty barrels of thirty-one and a half gallons
each ; much more than this is frequently yielded. The Arctic
and Antarctic Seas are the principal, but not the exclusive re-
sorts of the True Whales. See "Note" at the end of the "Cetacea."

Balaena mysticetus. (Gr. (*vaTu%, mustax, a moustache ; xijroj,
a whale.)

This is the Common Greenland Whale, sometimes called the
Black Whale and Right Whale. Though not the largest of the
tribe, it is, in a commercial point of view, most valuable for its
oil and other products. It is without a fin on the back. The
two pectoral fins are about two feet beyond the angle of the
mouth, about nine feet long and five broad. It is thirty feet in
height, and from sixty to eighty feet long ; in weight, from sixty
to one hundred tons, or as heavy as three hundred fat oxen. The
enormously large and fat tongue is very soft and delicate, giving
it the appearance of white satin ; it is entirely incapable of pro-
trusion, being fixed from the root to the tip. The front extrem-
ity of both jaws is surmounted by a few scattered hairs, to which
the name Mysticetus has reference. The back, most of the up-
per jaw and part of the lower jaw, together with the fins, are
black; the other parts gray and white, with a tinge of yellow.
The older the animals the more they contain of white and gray,
and some are all over piebald. When of the largest size they
yield a ton of baleen. The blubber resembles the substance of
salmon ; in the younger whales is yellowish white, from eight to
twenty inches thick, and when fresh, free from all unpleasant
smell. A Greenland whale, sixty feet in length, will frequently
yield more than twenty tuns of pure oil.

The flesh of a young Mysticetus is of a red color, and if
cleared of fat, broiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, is said to
have a relish not unlike that of coarse beef. That of the old
whale becomes blackish and is exceedingly coarse. The tail is
very fibrous and sinewy, and extensively used in the manufac-
ture of glue. The bones are quite porous and contain large
quantities of fine oil, and the jaw bones, from twenty to twenty-
five feet in length, are often preserved, chiefly on account of the

CETACEA. 257

•

oil which drains out of them. The external surface, even of the
most porous bones, is, however, compact and solid. The Green-
land Whale remains at the surface to breathe for about two min-
utes, " blows " eight or nine times, then descends for five or ten,
sometimes when feeding, for fifteen or twenty minutes. It blows
most strongly and densely when alarmed, or when coming to the
surface after having been a long time down. When harpooned,
it has been drawn up by the attached line, and found to have
broken its jaws, and sometimes the crown bone, by the blow
which in its descent was struck against the bottom. Having no
teeth, the Mysticetus cannot prey on its own kind, or on the larger
fishes. Its throat is exceedingly straight and narrow, not more
than an inch and a half in width. So very small is it that it
could not dispose of a morsel which might be swallowed by an
ox ! In this respect it differs widely from some others of the
Cetacea. Divine beneficence has, however, abundantly provided
for its sustenance. A considerable proportion of the limits
within which this whale is found, is occupied by what is called
green water. This forms about one-fourth part of the Greenland
Sea, between 74o and 60o N. Lat., equal to about 20,000 square
miles. This body of water is colored by immense numbers
of animalcules, for the most part invisible except with the
aid of the microscope. These afford sustenance to multitudes
of minute crabs, lobsters and sea snails by which the Mysticetus
is nourished. This whale seems to attain its full growth at the
age of twenty or twenty -five years. It is thought to attain a
great age. Our limits do not allow us to enter into details of the
perils and hardships connected with the chase and capture of the
whale. We may say here, however, the instinctive attachment
between the parent and its offspring, is a circumstance of which
whalemen often ayail themselves in order to secure their prize.
The young cub, reckless of danger and easily harpooned, is
often struck as a snare to the mother. Says the well known
Capt. Scoresby, " at such a time, she joins her young one at the
surface of the water whenever it has occasion to rise for respi-
ration ; encourages it to swim off; assists its flight by taking it
under her fin, and seldom deserts it while life remains. One
of my harpooners struck a sucker with the hope of its leading to
the capture of the mother. Presently she arose close by the
* fast boat,' and seizing the young one, dragged about a hundred
fathoms of line out of the boat with remarkable force and veloc-
ity. Again she rose to the surface^ darted furiously to and fro;
frequently stopped short or suddenly changed her direction, and
gave every possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length

258 CETACEA.

of time she continued thus to act, though closely pursued by the
boats; and inspired with courage and resolution by her concern
for her offspring, seemed regardless of the danger which sur-
rounded her. At length one of the boats approached so near
that a harpoon was hove at her; it hit, but did not attach itself.
A second harpoon was struck ; this also failed to penetrate, but
a third was more effectual and held. Still she did not attempt to
escape, but allowed other boats to approach, so that, in a few min-
utes, three more harpoons were fastened, and in the course of an
hour afterwards, she was killed."

The Right Whale was formerly found in great numbers along
our own coast. The whale fishery, including this and the
Sperm- Whale, is prosecuted largely and with great success by
individuals and companies of men, subject however to great fluc-
tuations. "The first vessel constructed expressly for this fishery
was built at Nantucket in 1690."

Of this genus, the other species are the B. marginata, Western
Australian Whale, Cape Whale; B. Japanica, Japan Whale;
B. antarctica, New Zealand Whale ; B. gibbosa, Scrag Whale ;
and the B. austrahs.

Balaena Australis is the Cape or Southern Whale, inhabiting the
South Seas and of a uniform black color, measuring from thirty-five
to fifty feet. Its baleen, owing to the great curve of the upper
jaw, appears relatively longer than in the Northern Balaena,
usually reaching to about nine feet in a whale of forty feet. The
head is frequently covered with barnacles, layer above layer,
which, concealing its true color, give it a whitish appearance
quite unlike that of its northern relative. The pectoral fins are
longer and more pointed, while the lobes of the tail are less
marked than in the former species.

II. GENUS. MEGAPTERA. (Large-finned.)

This genus includes the Hump-Backed Whales, easily known
from the "Finners" by "being shorter and more robust, in hav-
ing the skull nearly one-fourth the entire length, the head wide
between the eyes, the mouth larger, the lip warty, and the nose
large and rounded. The plaits of the belly andthroat are broad.
The skull is intermediate between that of the Balaena and the Ba-
laenoptera. Four species are enumerated : M. longimana, found
in the North Sea, described by Dr. Johnson from a specimen cast
ashore at Newcastle, Eng., a*cl called Johnson's Hump-Backed
Whale ; M. Poeskop, the Poeskop, or Cape Hump-Back ; it is
the Roqual du Cap, of Cuvier, the Hump-Backed Whale of Ross'

CETACEA. 259

"Antarctic Voyage," and an inhabitant of the Seas of the Cape
of Good Hope ; M. Kuzira, the Kuzira, inhabiting the Japanese
Seas; M. Americana, the Bermuda Hump-Back, is of a black
color with a white belly, and has its head covered with tubercles.
It is found at Bermuda from March to the end of May, when it
departs. The baleen of this whale is extensively imported from
Bermuda.

Balaenoptera Rorqualus. The RORQUALS.

These include several species closely allied to those of the ge-
nus Balaena, but which have been separated from it, and formed
into a distinct genus. Among them are the largest of the Whale
tribe, and probably the largest and most powerful animals found
on our globe. They are often from a hundred to one hundred
and twenty feet in length ; the head is about one-fourth part of
the length. These whales differ from the Mysticelus, in having
bodies which are longer and in their form more slender and cy-
lindrical ; in possessing a dorsal fin ; in having blubber which is
thinner, being generally not more than six inches thick, and yield-
ing an oil of inferior quality and less in quantity ; in theirgreater
speed, quicker action and bolder conduct; in their more violent
blowing ; and in having shorter and less valuable baleen. Hence
they are avoided by whalers as not repaying for the hazard of
their capture. The upper jaw of the Mysticetus is relatively
longer and more curved ; consequently, the plates of baleen are
long in the Mysticetus and short in the Rorquals. In the latter,
the longest laminae measure only three or four feet; the smallest
are reduced to mere bristles, so that the animal has not fewer than
four or five thousand distinct plates of whalebone. The poste-
rior arch of the palate is so large that it could easily admit some
modern Jonah, forming a great vestibule to the wind-pipe and
gullet. This last is somewhat larger than a man's fist. The
Rorquals feed not only upon the small medusae, shrimps, etc.,
which form the food of the Mysticetus, but upon medusas of a
larger size, and such fish as herring, haddock, salmon, etc.
This could not be unless the baleen were coarser and the swallow
larger than in the Mysticetus. The Rorquals are sure to be in
the track of the fish just referred to, and they devour them in
quantities almost beyond imagination. M. Desmoulins states that
six hundred great cod, and immense quantities of pilchards have
been found in the stomach of one of these whales. Unlike the
Common Greenland Whale, the animals of this genus often leave
their native seas and stray far away to other waters and shores.

N. B. In the Catalogue of the British Museum, the genus
Balaenoptera has but one species, — the B. rostrata, Pike Wbale —

£60 CETACEA.

the Rorqualus restrains, of DeKay. It is of a black color, un-
derneath of a reddish white ; inhabiting the North Sea, and has
been found at Volognes, in France, in the Thames, at Deptford,
Eng., and in the bay of New York. The other species, eight in
number, are included in a fourth genus, Physalus. The names of
the species, as given in the catalogue above referred to, are P. an-
tiquorum, the Razor Back, or Great Northern Rorqual; P. Boops,
of which a specimen, thirty-eight feet in length, is in the British
Museum. This is probably one of the smaller Rorquals, and was
taken in 1846. P. Sibbaldi, another Rorqual, of which a speci-
men is found in the Museum at Hull, Eng., forty feet long; P.
fasciatus, the Peruvian Firmer, found on the coasts of Peru ; P.
Iwasi, the Japan Finner. It is very rare. A specimen, taken
nearly a century ago, was twenty-five feet long ; — P. antarcticus,
so named by Dr. I. E. Gray, from the baleen of a New Zealand
species; P. Brasiliensis, the Bahia Finner, named from baleen,
brought from Bahia. P. austratis, the Southern Finner, found
in the seas of the Falkland Islands.

The genus Balaenoptera, is divided into two sections, — one
distinguished by the smoothness of the skin, of the throat and
under parts, of which there is one species, Balaenoptera physalus,
called the Finfish. The other section is characterised by the deep
longitudinal regular folds into which the skin of the throat and
under parts is thrown, and which are supposed to be capable of
great dilatation. Of this there are several species. The name
Rorqual, which they bear, is of Norwegian origin, meaning " whale
with folds." The Rorquals have sometimes been arranged into
greater and lesser Roi'qua]s,(majores et minores.) Twenty-five
feet is said to be the limit, as to length, of the smaller division.
Their baleen is white and short; the folds are of a rosy tint.
They frequent the rocky bays of Greenland, (especially during
summer,) and the coasts of Iceland and Norway, rarely descend-
ing into lower latitudes. They are very active in their habits,
so that, although valued in northern climates for the extreme
delicacy of their flesh, yet the natives do not attempt to harpoon
them, but wound them with their darts and spears, and after a
fortunate hunt, hope to discover them dead and stranded. The
smaller Rorquals yield an oil peculiarly delicate, and esteemed by
the Icelanders as an article of their materia medica. The Rorqual
of the Southern Seas, B. Australis, resembles the Northern
Rorqual. Its great power and velocity make it difficult of cap-
ture, and its products by no means repay the risk and labor of
taking it. It is sometimes called the Black Whale, and has been
found in considerable numbers on the shores of California.

CETACEA. 261

These Southern Whales are fond of placing themselves in a per-
pendicular position, for the purpose of surveying more easily the
expanse of waters ; at a distance, resembling large black rocks
in the midst of the ocean. Fossil Rorquals have been found in
Britain and other parts of Europe.

IV. HERBIVOROUS CETACEA, or AQUATIC PACHYDERMS.

This family of the Cetacea have teeth with flattened surfaces,
and adapted to the herbivorous nature of their food ; the skin is
thick, and more or less horny; the stomach divided into four
cavities. They have stiff moustaches on their lips, and pectoral
mammae,— peculiarities which, when their bodies are partly
raised out of the water, give them a somewhat human look, and
probably are connected with the fanciful stories which have been
often told about "Mermaids." They are frequently called "Sea
Cows, Sea Calves/' etc. The favorite haunts of these animals,
are the mouths of rivers or straits, where the water is only three
or four fathoms deep. Here, where the sea-weeds grow luxu-
riantly, they feed in troops,, rising frequently to the surface, in
order to take breath. This group includes three genera, and
about twice as many species.

Manatus or Lamanline. The MANATEE, or SEA Cow. (Plate
VIII. fig. 2.)

The animals of this genus, are confined to three or four spe-
cies, having oblong bodies, which are from ten to fifteen, and
sometimes twenty feet long; long, rounded tails, and eight grind-
ers in each jaw. They are gregarious, and strongly attached to
each other, as well as their young, which the female defends,
regardless of her own danger. Their flesh resembles fatted
pork, and when salted, makes excellent sea-store. They are
much sought after, being captured with a harpoon attached to a
stout cord. The skin is of a blackish color, very tough and
hard, full of inequalities, and sprinkled with a few bristly hairs
about an inch in length. The Manatus Americanus is found at
the rnouth of the Amazon, Oronoco, and other rivers of South
America, and one species is still hunted among the lagoons and
keys of Florida. Its exhibits rudimentary nails upon its nippers,
and by their aid, sometimes drags its unwieldy body on shore to
bask in the sun, or seek for herbage growing on apd near the
banks.

Halicore Dugong.

This genus is similar to the preceding one ; has one species,
(Dugong,) and is found in the waters of the East Indies, and

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1st. Common Seal, or Sea-Dog, Phoca vitulina. It has five or six rows
of white whiskers, short fore feet, with webbed toes, serving as oars
for swimming, but upon land only available for creeping or shuffling
along as it comes out to bask in the sun. The hind feet have short
flattened claws, of which the three middle ones are smallest, giving the
feet a forked appearance.

Fig. 2d. Manatee, Sea Cow, Siren, or Mermaid of the ancients, Manatus
Americanus. The nostrils are in the skin, near the end of the muzzle.
It has flippers or pectoral fins, or fin-like forearms, having their five fin-
gers enveloped in a membrane or skin, with nails, or rudiments of nails,
which terminate four of the fingers.

Fig. 3d. Sperm- Whale, Physeter, or Cachalot macrocephalus. The head
forms one-third of its bulk ; the nostril, spiracle, or spout-hole, is a slit
a foot long and shaped like the letter /. The case above the brain con-
tains the sperm oil. In a large whale the cavity will contain a tun, or
more than ten barrels. The portion just above the mouth, called the
Junk, is formed of elastic, strong fibres, permeated with fine sperm oil
and spermaceti. The eyes are small, and the two are said to be unequal in
size. The ear-openings are behind the eyes, and only large enough to
admit a small quill. On the neck is the Bunch, (Bunch of the neck,)
and on the back the Hump. Although this animal is of enormous size,
the Small, near the Flukes or Tail is not thicker than a man's body.

Fig. 4th. The True Dolphin of the ancients, Delphinus delphis, has a spira-
cle or blow-hole on the summit of the head, above the eyes, which are
small and low down, near the angle of the mouth. The beak is of the
same length as the head, with from forty to forty-eight teeth on each
side, above and below, interlocking with each other. The swimming paws
are placed low and half way between the end of the beak and the dor-
sal eminence.

EL.Vffl.

f>eal,T)hoca vitulJna

Man a.tee , Man ahis, America nus .

Sperm "Whale Fhys eter TnacroceplialiLS

D olphin , I) elpJii nu s D elplri s

CETACEA. 265

those of the Northern line of Australia. The most conspic-
uous difference between this and the Manatus is, that it has
no traces of nails. The tail is truncated, or two- lobed, and
there are five grinders in each jaw; the body is round and
tapering. To aid it in browsing upon fuci and submarine
vegetables, the front part of the jaw is bent downwards, so as to
bring the mouth in nearly a vertical position. A great peculiar-
ity of the animal is, that the ventricles of the heart are detached
from each other, being connected at their base only. The body
is seven or eight feet long ; the flesh tender and not unlike beef.

Halicore Tabernacuti, the Dugong of the Red Sea, is consid-
ered a distinct species by Rupel, who gave it the specific name,
supposing, that with its skin, the Jews were required to veil the
tabernacle.

Stellerus. This third genus is found in the Polar regions, and
especially in the vicinity of Behring's Straits, where, in great
numbers, the animal frequents the shallow parts of the shore, and
the estuaries of rivers. The skin is remarkably thick and hard.
The head and mouth are small ; the lips appear to be double,
i. e., inner and outer. The space between them is filled with
strong bristles, (one and a half inches long, and as thick as
pigeons' quills,) — which are, to this animal, what the whale-bone
is to the largest Cetacea. It has no teeth ; but in place of them,
has two horny substances adhering, the one to the palate, the
otr^er to the lower jaw. The length of the body is twenty-
eight feet; the weight of a large one, eight thousand pounds.
The skin is used by the natives for covering their boats. They
esteem the blubber of the animal as good as (* May butter." The
flesh of an old Stellerus, when well boiled, resembles beef; that
of the young one is like veal.

Zeuglodon. This is an American fossil, whose name was
suggested by the back molar teeth, which resemble two teeth
yoked together, — as the generic name signifies. Remains of this
extinct animal have been found in Maryland, Alabama and Ar-
kansas, (U. S.) Professor Owen supposes it to be allied to the
Dugong and Manatee.

NOTE.

According to Lieut. Maury, (see Phys. Geog. of the Sea,) " the tropical
regions of the ocean are to the Right or True Whale, as a sea of fire,
through which he cannot pass, and into which he never enters ; " but
"whales, with harpoons jn them bearing the stamp of ships known to
cruise on the Baffin's Bay side of the American Continent, have repeatedly
been taken near the Behring's Strait side ; — and as, in one or two instances
a very short time had elapsed between the date of the capture in the Pacific

260 CETACEA.

and the date when the fish must have been struck on the Atlantic side, it
was therefore agreed that there is a north-west passage by which whales
passed from one side to the other, since the stricken animal could not have
had the harpoon in him long enough to admit of a passage around either
Cape Horn, or the Cape of Good Hope." He adds, "It is found also that
the Right Whale, of the Northern Hemisphere, is a different animal from
that of the Southern."

QUESTIONS UPON MARINE MAMMALS.

What is said of the size, organization and movements of Marine Mammals ?
What have they been called ? How do the paddles appear when dissected ?
What is their chief use ? Why must the Whale resort to the surface ? How
great a pressure does it sometimes encounter? How is it guarded from
injury which might thence arise ? Describe the uses of the blubber. Give
particulars respecting the eyes of the Cetacea. What author has referred to
them as showing Divine contrivance? What is one of the most remarkable
things in the economy of the Whale ? How are they able to remain so long
under water? In what manner do they breathe? Why are these called
blow-holes? What is said of their sportings? How do the Whales usually
take their food? What is said of their hearing? Have they the sense of
smell? What is said of their stomach and other organs? What more is
said of them ? Into what families may the Cetacea be divided ? Give a
general view of the Dolphin tribe? How many species does thi? family
include? What is said of the "number of the teeth in the Common Dolphin?
What of their form and use? How long is it? What gives interest to this
animal? How was it regarded by the ancients? What is said of the colors
of the Dolphin? Does its color change while dying? What are its habits?
How are these illustrated by Ancient naturalists? What is the meaning of
the term Monodon ? What of Narwhal ? What other names are given to
it ? Has it teeth ? What is said of its tusks ? What virtues have been
attributed to them? What use does the animal make of them? What
other species of Whales does this precede ? Does Dr. Scoresby describe the
Narwhal ? What is said of them by Dr. Kane ? Name the sp. of the
Beluga, or White Whale ? Give some account of this W. What are their
favorite resorts ? Why are they not more often pursued by whalers ? At
what season are they very useful to the Greenlander ? Give the character-
istics of the Porpoise. What is said respecting the wide diffusion of the
Common P. ? What of its resemblance to the Dolphin ? What is said of
the leather made from its skin ? What is said of the brain and teeth of the
P. ? What of the word Grampus ? Upon what do they feed ? How was
its flesh formerly regarded ? What is the meaning of the term Grampus ?
What is it called by American sailors ? Describe it. Where is its favorite
abode? What is said of its voracity? What incident is related by Sir
Joseph Banks? Name the sp. found on the coast of France. For what is it
famous ? Give the sp. included in the gen. Delphinapterus, and describe
it? What do whalers call it? Where is it found? How many sp. do the
gen. Globicephalus include ? How are they characterized ? How do the
teeth shut into one another ? What is this W. called ? By what method
are they taken ? What additional names are given to this W. ? How are the
second fam. of Cetacea distinguished? Why is the name CATODONTIDAK
given to it? What names are applied to the Sperm W. ? Describe it. What
peculiar substance does it yield ? Describe the process for obtaining the
pure Spermaceti of commerce. What is Ambergris ? What is said of the

CETACEA.

throat of the Sperm Whale? What other peculiarities of structure are
mentioned ? On what does it feed How does it sometimes use its huge
teeth ? What is said of the Sperm W. Fishery ? What is said of the size
of the True W. ? How are they specially distinguished from other W. ?
What supplies the place of teeth in the upper jaw ? Describe the Baleen
and its uses. How much blubber is yielded by one of these W. ? What
are their principal resorts ? Which of the W. is most valuable in a com-
mercial point of view ? Give the derivation of its specific name. What
renders it appropriate ? What is said respecting the quantity of baleen and
oil yielded by a Greenland W. ? Of what use are the bones ? What is said
of their blowing ? In what respects do they differ from other W. ? How-
extensive is the area of the green water ? What occasions its peculiar color ?
What is said of the age Of these W. ? How are their instinctive attachments
illustrated ? When was the first American whale-ship built ? What is said
of the Humped-backed W. ? How many •sp. are enumerated ? To what
are the Rorquals allied? What is said of their size and strength? How do
they differ from 'the Mysticetus ? Why are they avoided by sailors ? What
is said of the arch of the palate? On what does the animal feed? Illus-
trate its voracity. Name the two sections of the genus Balaenoptera ?
What is the meaning of the term Rorqual ? How large are they ? What
waters do they frequent ? What is said of the oil which they yield ? Are
they easily captured? In what position are the Southern Rorquals found?

Give the peculiarities of the Herbivorous Cetacea. What are they fre-
quently called ? Where are their favorite resorts? How many sp. does this
group include ? Describe the Manatee, or Sea Cow. Where is the M. Amer-
icana found ? Where is the Dugong found ? What is the chief difference
betwen this and the Manatus? In what respect is it very peculiar ? Where
is the Stellerus found? Describe it. Mention the name and localities of the
A erican fossil sp. What species of Whale is figured on the Chart? Trace
and describe it. What other Cetaceans are named upon the Chart? Refer
to the figures and species of this order, tracing each, giving their charac-
teristics and habits, size, &c., &c.

ORNITHOLOGY.

SECOND BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

SECTION I.

ORNITHOLOGY. (Gr. 6^^t?, ornis, a bird ; Ao/og, logos, a dis-
course.) BIRDS, (Aves,) — 2d Division of the WARM BLOODED
ANIMALS.

The numerous class of vertebrated animals which this term
includes, are prominently distinguished from the Mammalia by
their general form and feathery covering, and by producing their
young from eggs. They fall below quadrupeds in the scale of
nature,* but they far surpass fishes and insects in point of saga-
city, and in the structure of their bodies. Though called bipeds,
they nearly approach to quadrupeds, as may be seen by looking
at a plucked pigeon, and observing how, in respect to limbs, it
resembles a skinned rabbit, except that the forelegs have no feet
or toes at their tips.

Birds are formed for flight ; they have been, not unaptly,
styled, "the Insects of the vertebrated series." The organiza-
tion of the greater part is wisely adapted both for suspension in
the air, and for motion through it. Their activity in so subtle a
medium, required various conditions and adaptations of structure
which an attentive examination clearly presents, as combined in
their organization by the all-wise Creator.

The shape of the body is sharp before, to pierce and make
way far itself through the air ; it rises by gentle swelling, and
falls off by an expansive tail, that helps to keep it buoyant, while
the foreparts are cleaving the air by their sharpness. Hence,
they may be compared to a bark making its way through the
water ; — the trunk of the body answering to the hold ; the head
to the prow ; the tail to the rudder ; and the wings to the oars.

* The following scale is given, showing the size of the brain as com-
pared with that of the body: — Eagle, l-260th of the body; Sparrow,
l-25th; Chaffinch, l-27th ; Redbreast, l-32d; Blackbird, l-68th; Canary-
bird, l-14th ; Cock, l-25th ; Duck, 1-257 th ; Goose, l-360th.

ORNITHOLOGY. 2 09

The rapidity and variety of motion of which Birds show them-
selves capable, may well excite admiration. The Swallow arid the
Eagle can dart through the air at the rate of sixty miles an hour;
the Falcon at the rate of forty or fifty miles in the same time ;
the Passenger Pigeon outstrips the wind, which, when most vio-
lent, traverses only sixty miles an hour; the Curlew traverses
three elements with ease, — running rapidly upon the ground ;
perfectly at home on the ocean wave, and borne in the air as it
flies swiftly from one continent to another.

For this fleetness of motion, the skeleton of a bird is strikingly
adapted. (Plate XII. fig. 2.) It unites lightness with firmness;
the great bones of the limbs, and many of those of the body, are
hollow reservoirs of air, communicating with the lungs. Sacs,
or bladder-like receptacles, which can be filled with air, are dis-
tributed about the body ; some of them internally ; others be-
tween the muscles and the skin, down the throat and chest, or along
the tendons of the shoulder ; and these communicate with eacii
other and with the lungs. The last named organs adhere closely
to the ribs, occupying (Plate XII. fig. 2, E.) the hollows between
them and on each side of the spine ; the lungs are very large,
but can be very little expanded or contracted. To compensate
for this incapacity, which might impede their breathing, the ends
of the branches of the wind pipe open into them ; but these again
communicate with the membranous sacs, or buoyant air cells,
that run along the whole length of the body, — so that a probe
thrust into the lungs of a fowl, easily finds a passage into the in-
ternal parts of the frame ; and air blown into the wind-pipe, will
be seen to distend the bird's body like air blown into a bladder.
By the great development of ^the breathing apparatus, the blood
is more rapidly and effectually oxygenized, and muscular energy
accumulated for the action of flight; while, by the animal heat
which is thus given out, the air contained in -the complex respir-
atory apparatus is rarified ; and thus the body is increased in bulk,
but rendered specifically lighter.

The wings of a bird correspond to the arms and hands of man ;
but the hand in the bird consists of only two fingers, (Plate XII.
fig. 2d, N.,) and a thumb, all of which are rudimentary. From
the bones of the bird's hand (M) arise the primaries, or great
quill-feathers of the wings, — ten in number, and by their form,
stiffness, and relative strength, indicating the character and the
power of the flight. The secondaries spring from the principal
bone of the forearm, (K. L. ;) the number of these varies in dif-
ferent species ; they are generally stouter, longer, and more flex-
ible than the primaries, and differ less in form from the general

270 ORNITHOLOGY.

covering of the body. The bone of the upper arm (humerus, I.)
gives rise to another series of feathers, called tertiaries, which,
in such birds as the Plovers, Curlew, etc., .are greatly lengthened ;
but in their structure are yet weaker than the secondaries.
Fastened to the little bone which represents the thumb, are two or
three short and stiff feathers, called the winglel, (or bastard-wing ;)
they lie upon the base of the first primaries, at the edge of the
wing. Corresponding with the series of feathers, there are both
on the outer and inner surface of the wing, several rows of
smaller ones, called coverts, from their office of protecting the
basal part of the quills; the feathers covering the shoulder-blade,
or scapula, are called scapulars.

If we examine each feather separately, we find it composed of
two parts ; (1) a light but firm shaft, hollowed below for strength
and lightness, into a horny tube, containing the blood-ves-
sels by which it is sustained ; (2) the vane, or beard of the
feather, composed of a double series of layers, or thin parallel
plates on each side of the shaft, and set at an angle to it. Towards
the shaft of the feather, these layers are broad, and of a semi-cir-
cular form, to serve for strength, and for the closer grafting them
one against the other, when in action. Towards the outer part
of the vane, the layers grow slender and taper, to be more light.
On their wider side, they are thin and smooth ; but their upper
outer edgs is parted into two hairy edges, each side having a dif-
ferent set of hairs, broad at the bottom, and slender and bearded
above. By this means, the hooked beards of one layer always
lie next the straight beards oC.the next, and lock and hold each
other. No resistance is offer^l to the flight of birds by this ar-
rangement; while beneath thes^Jkere is a layer of soft down,
which preserves them from coldBjfthe effects of which, but for
this provision, they would have beenNmuch exposed.

The wings are usually placed at that part of the body which
serves to poise the whole and to support it. The feathers oftfie
wing overlap each other, and present a continuous surface of
great breadth, by repeated strokes of which upon the air, the bird
performs its flight. (Plate X. fig. 2.)

"Each feather is concave, whether we regard it transversely
or longitudinally ; its stem, or middle, is remarkably strong,
though very light, and the beards which present their edges in
the direction of the stroke, are linked to each other by a series of
minute hooks." These arrangements add to the power of the
wings in their downward strokes upon the air.

Every part of a bird, except the beak and the lower, or poste-
rior extremities, is, in general, clothed with feathers. Tne feet

ORNITHOLOGY. 271

are protected by a naked, scaly skin which, in some cases, ex-
tends above the tarsus, and partly up the leg. The soles of the
toes are covered with a granulated and callous modification of
this skin. (Plates IX. and X.)

In Birds, particularly those of extended and powerful flight,
the greatest part of the muscular force centers in the wings.
The muscles which produce the downward stroke of the wing,
are enormous; for their attachment, the breast-bone is greatly
enlarged, and its surface is also increased by having its middle
portion raised into a perpendicular ridge, the two faces of which,
from their direction, afford an advantageous point of resistance,
or purchase. A bird can move its wings with a degree of
strength which, when compared with the animal's size, is almost
incredible. The flap of a Swan's wing has power sufficient to
break a man's leg ; and a similar blow from an eagle has been
known to produce instant death.

The powerful muscular action involved in flight, would nat-
urally tend to draw the shoulders together; b it this tendency is
resisted by the insertion between the two bones (coracoids) to
which the shoulder bones (H) are joined, — of a singular arched
bone, called the wish-bone or merrythought, (G.) In the domes-
tic fowl, the bone is feeble; but in birds of powerful flight, as
the Hawks, the Swallows, and the Humming-Birds, it is very
strong and elastic. On the other hand, when the bird never rises
upon the wing, as in the case of the Ostrich and Emu, this bone
is reduced to a mere rudiment. The bones of the lower, or pos-
terior extremities also differ materially in structure from those
of quadrupeds. These consist of (1) a thigh-bone, (or femur,) R. ;
leg. bones, (tibia and fibula,) S. ; (these leg-bones are really two,
but the fibula is very small, and becomes anchylosed to the
tibia; i. e., immovably fixed by a continuation of bony secre-
tion ;) (2) the metatarsal,or shank-bones, U. U., at the lower end of
which there are as many processes as there are toes, each pro-
cess being furnished with a pulley for moving its corresponding
toe ; (3) the toes, of which the usual number is four, — a number
never exceeded ; while a few birds have only three ; and the
Ostrich only two. The three toes are directed forwards, and
one, answering to the great toe, backwards. This, at least, is the
general rule. The back, or great toe, is wanting in some birds.
In the Swallows it is directed forwards ; but in the Climbing
Birds, as the Parrots and Woodpeckers, the outer toe and back
toe are both directed backwards; while the Swifts have all the
four toes directed forwards.

As the upper limbs, or anterior extremities, are exclusively for

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

BEAKS AND HEADS OF BIRDS.

1. Owl's head, showing the egrets or tufts of feathers on each side, close

to the ears.

2. Head of an Eagle, showing the strong curved beak of a raptorial bird.

Order Raveners, (birds of prey.)

3. Falcon's beak, showing the notches and teeth near the tip of each man-

dible, for holding its prey.

4. Recurved beak of the Avoset, Stilt Plover, &c.

5. Merganser's bill, with serrated margins and abruptly hooked tip.

6. Long, slender, curved bill of the Curlew, formed for penetrating the
mud on the sea-shore, ki search of insects, slugs and small testaceans.

7. Bill of the Humming Bird, formed for searching out insects in flowers

and sipping the honey dew. Order Tenuirostres, (slender bills.)

8. Beak of the Crossbill, the crossed points of which it inserts to open the

cones of pines and fir trees, upon the seeds of which it feeds.

9. Beak of Parrots, Mackaws, Lories, &c., having the upper mandible
greatly curved over the lower, which is considerably shorter.

10. Beak of the Petrel, so furrowed as to appear of distinct pieces.

11. Puffin's beak, transversely furrowed on both sides, appears as though a
sheath had been slipped over both mandibles.

12. Duck's bill, broad, long and soft, with plaits on each side for straining
insects, worms, &c., out of the mud.

13. Beak of the Hornbill, of a light honeycomb structure ; the horn or hel-
met is hollow, and by some supposed to act as a sounding board.

14. Beak of- the Whip-poor- Will, deeply cleft; the mouth fringed with
strong, stiff hairs, (vibrissae.) Order Fissirostres, (split bills.)

TAILS OF BIRDS.

15. Fan shaped or rounded tail.

18. A forked tail, indicating a swift flyer, as in fly-catchers, (Muscicapidae.)
17 and 18. Lyre shaped tails, as in the Chatterers, (Ampelidae.)

19. Doubly forked tail, as in Psalurus bifurcatus, a species of night-jar
found in Brazil ; very rare.

FEET OF BIRDS.

20. Foot of the Golden Eagle, showing its feathered tarsi, and the power-

ful talons of a rapacious bird.

21. Foot of a scratching bird, showing the three front toes united by a mem-
brane up to the first joint, the hind toe articulated upon the tarsus, and
the horny spur in the male bird. Order Rasores, (scratchers.)

22. Foot of the Ptarmagin, covered with hairlike feathers as far as the claws.

23. Woodpecker's foot, with toes in pairs, (yoke-footed, or Zygodactylus.)
Order Scansores, (climbers.)

24. Webbed foot of a swimming bird. Order Natatores, (swimmers.)

25. Foot of a Phalarope, with lobate membranes or festoons on the toes

sufficiently broad to assist them in swimming.

26. Grebes' foot, not webbed as in most water birds, but each toe flattened

so as to serve as a separate paddle.

27. Foot of the Sacred Ibis, a wading, shore, or stilt bird. Order Gralla-

tores, (waders.)

28. Claw of Heron, showing the comb-like divisions of its inner edge.

mix.

BEAKS AND HEADS OF BIRDS

FAILS OF BIRDS

FEET OF BIRDS

ORNITHOLOGY. 275

flight^ and the bird depends principally on its bill for gathering
its food, it became necessary, as the bones of the back have
scarcely any motion, that the neck should be as it is, long and
flexible. Hence, while in the mammals, the vertebras of the
neck are seven, — there being no more even in the Camelopard, —
the deficiency of motion in the back is made up in birds by an
increase in the vertebras of the neck, (B.) proportioned to their
wants Thus the Raven has twelve neck bones, the Domestic
Cock thirteen, the Ostrich eighteen, the Stork nineteen, and the
Swan twenty-three, which is the largest number yet ascertained,
while the smallest is ten. These are so joined together, that the
head can be turned completely around, (the position which the
bird takes when at rest,) or moved in any direction, so that the
bird can touch every point of its body with its bill.

The trunk is sustained on the thighs by very powerful mus-
cles ; another set of which passes from the lower part of the
thighs to the toes, turning over the knee and heel, in such a
way that the flexion or bending of these joints shall shorten them.
Hence, the simple weight of the body flexes the toes, so that birds
are enabled to sleep perched on one foot. But the pectoral mus-
cles, as a general rule, show the greatest development. The
breast bone, or sternum, is made to project forwards with an ele-
vated ridge or keel. To this, the powerful muscles which
depress the wings, are attached, The depth of the keel is a partial
criterion as to the power of flight; in the Harrier it is deep; in
the Ostrich, where the wings are not sufficiently developed to
raise the bird from the ground, it is quite flat.

The jaws of the bird are not furnished with teeth, but the
place of these organs is supplied by a casing of horn, termina-
ting in a point at the tip, and brought to an edge on the side of
the jaw. This horny casing is known as the beak or bill ; the
name mandibles is given to the upper and lower divisions. In
Birds of Prey, \see Plate of Birds' Beaks and Heads,) the beak
is like a carving or dissecting knife ; in the Woodpeckers it is an
effective chisel ; in the Snipe and Woodcock, it is a long and
slender probe, furnished at the tip with copious nerves of sensa-
tion for feeling in the deep earth of bogs and marshes ; in the
Parrots, it is a climbing hook, or a fruit knife ; in the Swallows
and Goat Suckers, it is a fly-trap; in the Swans, Geese and
Ducks, it is a flattened strainer, with nerves on the inside for the
detection of the food remaining after that particular operation
which almost every one must have observed a duck perform in
muddy water ; in the Storks and Herons, it is like a fish-spear;
in the Cross-Bills, or Seed-eating Birds, it forms a pair of Seed-

12

276 ORNITHOLOGY.

crackers for extricating the kernel from the husk which cov-
ers it.*

Varying as the beak does in different kinds of birds, it in no
instance performs a proper masticating function ; though it may
divide flesh, crack a nut, and with the assistance of the tongue,
shell it ; and though it may separate the grain from the husk, as
is constantly seen in the Goldfinch and Canary. A nearer ap-
proach to mastication, is the bruising down of hard seeds by
means of a knob in the middle of the palate, as is seen in the
Buntings.

The stomach in Birds, consists of three parts, (not always,
however, distinctly developed,) viz., the crop or craw, the mem-
branous stomach, and the gizzard. From the want of masti-
cating power in the bird, it, of course, swallows its food entire.
When the food is flesh, the process of digestion is sufficiently
simple, and so rapid as to need no preparation. To prepare for
the digestion of hard grains and seeds, which are the food of so
large a number of species, a sort of internal grinding mill is fur-
nished by the gizzard.

This organ, which is seen to most advantage in grain-eating
birds, is made up almost entirely of two semi-globular masses
of dense muscle, whose flat faces, covered with a thick leathery
skin, work over each other like a pair of millstones, and by the
aid of small angular stones, sand, etc., swallowed for the pur-
pose, very quickly grind down the hardest substances. In the
Museum of the College of Surgeons, (London,) is a large glass
bottle entirely filled with pebbles, &c., taken from the stomach
of an ostrich. The experiment has been made, without injury,
of conveying bullets beset with needles, and even lancets into
the stomachs of granivorous birds, with the effect of the total
destruction of those sharp instruments in a short period.

The organs of the voice in birds bear a striking resem-
blance to certain musical wind instruments. The larynx is
made up of two parts ; the second part, or lower larynx, contains
a second rima glottidis, (cleft or opening of the throat,) furnished
with tense membranes which perform, in many birds, the same
office that a reed does in a clarionet, or hautboy, while the first
tor upper rima, (cleft or opening,) of the throat, like the ventage
or hole of the instrument, gives utterance to the note. None of
the endowments of this interesting class more minister to the
pleasure and delight of man than their powers of song.

The development of the senses of birds varies in the different

* See Penny Cyclopedia ; Art. Birds.

ORNITHOLOGY. 277

tribes, according to the mode in which they are adapted to take
their prey. Of the five senses, sight, smell and hearing are
most acute in birds. The crystalline humor of the eye is
flat in birds; the vitreous humor is very small. The color of
the iris varies in different species, and in many cases is very
brilliant. Birds have three eyelids, two of which, the upper
and lower, are closed in most of the race by the elevation of the
lower one, as may be seen in our domestic poultry. But the
third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, forms the most curious
apparatus. When at rest it lies in the corner of the eye ; but
by the combined action of two muscles which are attached to the
back of the sclerotic cjat, (the white,) of the eye, it can be
drawn out so as to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, like a
curtain, and its own elasticity restores it to its resting place.
This, it is said, enables the eagle to look at the sun.

The rapacious birds seem most remarkable for their length of
sight; others, as the swallow tribe, which fly with extraordinary
swiftness, have an almost inconceivable quickness of sight.

The sense of hearing in birds appears to be in general tolera-
bly acute, especially in the nocturnal birds of prey, which have
what other birds are without, an external cartilaginous ear.

The sense of smell does not seem to be very highly devel-
oped in the birds as a class, but is strong in the vultures.

Few of them have a tongue which serves as an organ of taste,
but some of the swimmers and the parrots generally have one
that is soft, thick and covered with papillae, and there can be no
doubt that these taste food of a soft or fluid nature, and select
that which they like best ; for the most part, however, the tongue
is an organ for taking food rather than of taste. The sense of
touch is in birds generally very obtuse.

The dress or plumage of birds is admirable for its fitness to
the ends for which it was designed ; for its softness, smooth-
ness, compactness, and various hues. The most brilliant col-
ors are lavished upon the " winged denizens of the air." This
is particularly true of birds of the torrid zones. Those of the
temperate zones are not so remarkable for the elegance of their
plumage ; but the smaller kinds make up for this defect by the
melody of their voices. While the birds of the warmer regions
are very bright and gorgeous in their colors, they have scream-
ing voices, or are totally silent. The frigid zones, where the
seas abound in fish, are stocked with £>irds of the aquatic kind far
more than any other regions. These usually have a warmer
coat of feathers, or they have large quantities of fat lying under-
neath the skin, which serves to defend them from the rigors of
the climate.

278

ORNITHOLOGY.

Birds are oviparous; in other words, are produced from eggs
consisting of a living point attached to a globular sac of nutri-
ment called the yelk, surrounded by a layer of albumen, the
glair or white part, and enclosed in two series of membrane and
a hard calcareous shell. The egg is developed into a living, ac-
tive chick, by the warmth which the parent supplies while sitting
upon the nest wherein the eggs are deposited ; or it may be
hatched in a breeding machine, by means of artificial heat of
about 96o Fahrenheit. The instinct of birds is wonderfully ex-
hibited in constructing and locating their nests as places of com-
fort and concealment, and in the exquisite workmanship displayed
in some of them.

The process of incubation lasts a few weeks, when the young
is ready for exclusion. By means of a horny pointed scale at-
tached temporarily to the tip of its beak, it succeeds in breaking
the egg-shell and forcing its way to freedom. "At the end of
the second day, the first moving of the heart is perceptible, and
on the fifth, the whole frame of the little creature can be dis-
tinctly seen in motion. The feathers make their appearance in
a fortnight. At the commencement of the fifteenth day, the
chicken begins to breathe, and on the nineteenth it is able to
peep." The gallinaceous and swimming birds can run about
and pick up their own food as soon as they escape from the egg ;
but more commonly the young are, for several days, unable to
quit the nest, and as is well known, are anxiously fed and cared
for by the parent birds.

Few things have attracted more attention than the migration
of birds. The immediate cause of this is doubtless to be traced
to temperature and to food, particularly that which is adapted to the
sustenance of the young; and the instinct of the bird accord-
ingly leads it from one climate to another.

The change of plumage, termed moulting, takes place in all
birds at least once a year, and sometimes oftener. Apart from
the ailment connected with this change, birds are subject to very
few diseases. In all countries they are said to be more long
lived than the quadrupeds of the same climate.

Fowls sometimes live 20 years. Linnets and other little birds shut

Pigeons, longer. up in cages often live 15 years.

Canaries, 25 years. Robins, 17 do.

Parrots, 30 do. Eagles, over 100 do.

Pelicans, 80 do. Cockatoos, reach 120 do.

Geese, 80 or 90 do. Swans, from 300 to 360 do.

The fossil remains of birds, though not numerous, are entitled

ORNITHOLOGY. 279

to attention. Considerable interest was awakened by the discov-
ery, by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst College, of many large
bird tracks in the new red argillaceous sand-stones of the valley
of the Connecticut river. Remains of. colossal birds of the Os-
trich type have also been obtained from Australia, which possess
peculiar value from their relation to such birds as the DODO,
known to have existed at a former period, but now no longer to
be found.

The classification of birds into orders is founded upon charac-
ters derived from the beak and feet. The subordinate divisions
take their rise chiefly from the form of the beak, and run into
each other by almost imperceptible gradations. The number of
species has been estimated at six thousand. These have been
arranged into two grand divisions, viz. : LAND and WATER, or
TERRESTRIAL and AQUATIC BIRDS, the former being divided into
five, the latter into two orders, making the whole number seven.

RAPTORES, (Raveners,)
INSESSORES, (Perchers.)
SCANSOKES, (Climbers,) }• LAND BIRDS.
ORDERS. <! RASORBS, (Scratchers,)
CURSORES, (Runners,)

GRALLATORES, (Stilts or Waders,) > w B

L NATATORES, (Swimmers,) J V

What is the second branch of Zoology called ? Give the derivation of
the word. To what division of animals do birds belong? How are they
distinguished from the Mammalia or first division of warm blooded animals ?
Are they Bipeds or Quadrupeds ? What have they been styled ? What
does their formation for flight involve ? Explain or show how their struc-
ture is adapted to it. What is said of the rapidity and variety of their
motions ? Explain the skeleton of the bird as given on Plate XII. Name
the different kinds of feathers and their situation, as illustrated in Plate
X. Name the parts of which each feather is composed. In what doea
the greatest part of the birds' muscular force center? Illustrate its
power. Show the use of the wish-bone or merrythought. Give some
account of the bones of the lower extremities as illustrated in Plate XII.
State the variations as to the number and direction of the toes in different
birds. Show the benefit accruing from the numerous joints or vertebras in
a bird's neck. State the number found in different birds. Give some ac-
count of the muscles of a bird and their action. Strictly or properly speak-
ing, have birds any teeth ? What supplies their place ? What are its up-
per and lower divisions called ? Describe the different kinds of beaks.
Do birds really masticate their food ? What approach to mastication is
seen in the Bunting? Of how many parts does the stomach consist? What
are their uses? What facts show the power of the gizzard? What do the
birds' organs of voice resemble ? Illustrate this. What senses are most
acute in birds ? What is said of the eye and its appendages ? What birds
are most remarkable for their length of sight? What for quickness?
What is said of their senses? What of their plumage? How are their

280 RAPTORES.

young produced ? What is said of their nests ? Describe the different
stages of the incubated egg. What is said of the migration of birds?
What does the term moulting mean? How often does it occur? Are birds
long lived? What facts show it? What is said of their fossil remains?
Upon what is the classification of birds based ? What is the estimated num-
ber of species? What are the Grand Divisions of birds? In how many
orders are they respectively included ? Name them.

SECTION II.

LAND-BIRDS. (FIRST DIVISION.) FIVE ORDERS.

1. ORDER. — RAPTORES. (Lat. rapio, to seize.) BIRDS OF

PREY, or RAVENERS.

This order is sometimes named ACCIPITRES, (Lat. Hawks,) and
divided into two sub-orders: 1. Acclpilres diurni, (Lat. Hawks
of the Day,) 2. Accipitres nocturni, (Hawks of the Night.)

The BIRDS OF PREY are among the largest and the most mus-
cular and powerful of all the feathered tribes. They are easily
known by their strong hooked beak, and large acute talons or
claws. (Plate IX. fig. 20.) By the claws the first blow is given
to the prey, which, when grasped by the feet, is torn open by the
bill. For aid in this operation, the typical Raptores, (the Fal-
cons proper,) have a strong and sharp tooth-like projection from
one or both of the mandibles ; (Plate IX. fig. 3 ;) but in those of
this order that feed upon carrion or small animals, this projection
is nearly or entirely deficient. The base of the beak is covered
with a naked skin called the cere, in which the nostrils are
pierced ; the stomach consists of a membranous sac, without a
muscular gizzard.

The flight of these birds is lofty, vigorous and long-sustained.
Their increase is slow, and they are comparatively few in num.
ber. They annually produce not more than two or three eggs,
generally pure white. The females of the order, contrary to the
general rule in birds, are one-third larger than the males. The
Birds of Prey are found in all parts of the world. They include
three distinctly marked families, viz. : 1. Falconida, the Falcons ;

2. Vulturinida, the Vultures ; 3. Strigida, the Owls.

FIRST FAMILY. — THE FALCONS.
Falconidce, (Lat falco, a falcon.)

This family is arranged by Swainson into five sub-families,
viz. ; (1) Aquilina, Eagles; (2) Milvina, Kites; (3) Buteonince,
Buzzards; (4) Falconina, Falcons; (5) Accipitrina, Hawks.

RAPTORES. 281

The Falcons, as a family, exhibit, in their structure and habits,
the highest development of the destructive faculty. In these the
head is wholly covered with feathers, except the cere at the base
of the beak ; and the leading genera have, in the beak, the sharp
projecting tooth referred to above. (See Plate IX. fig. 3.) The
eyebrows usually overhang the eye, giving a stern expression
to the countenance. The points of the strong and highly curved
talons are kept from injury by a mechanism for raising them
from the surface on which the bird rests ; a process analogous
to the sheathing of the claws in the Cat Family of the Mam-
malia.

The falcons are widely diffused ; some species have been re-
claimed and trained for the pursuit of game.

NOTE. — It would be interesting and might be instructive to give minutely
the characteristics and habits of all the genera and species included in this
and in the other orders and families of the Birds ; but from the restricted
limits of the present volume, and the great number of species, (6000,) in
the feathered tribe, our notices, when given, will necessarily be brief, while
very many species must be passed by altogether.

1st SUB-FAMILY. Aquilince. (Lat. aquila, an eagle.)

The first place is given to the EAGLE, (in treating of the Fal-
con tribe,) riot because it presents most distinctly the family traits,
but on account of its great size and strength, the grandeur of its
aspect, and the dignity of its movements. This bird was honored
by being in the Holy of Holies of the ancient Jewish temple,
and every tyro in classical study knows that the old Romans re-
garded it as the " Bird of Jove."

Eagles are birds of high and powerful, but not of rapid flight.
Usually they prefer to strike their prey upon the ground. They
breed in solitude on the inaccessible crags of lofty mountains.
In these birds, the notch or tooth of the upper mandible is almost
obliterated ; the claws are remarkably strong and curved ; the
under surface is grooved ; the hind and outer claws are the
longest. (See Plate IX. figs 2. of Beaks, and 20 of Feet.)

The GOLDEN EAGLE, Aquilachrysaetus,(Gr.chfusaetus, golden
eagle,) is a truly magnificent bird, about three feet in length,
having plumage of a deep and rich umber brown, glossed on the
back and wings with purple reflections ; the feathers of the head
and neck are of an orange-brown hue, and when under the rays
of the sun, have an almost golden appearance ; the tail is striped
with gray and obscure brown, but in the young bird is, in the
under part, white. (This variation in the plumage of the young
bird has led some to describe it as a distinct species, by the name
of the Ring-tailed Eagle.)

282 RAPTORES.

The longevity of the Golden Eagle is almost proverbial. One
that died in Vienna, (Austria,) is said to have lived in confine-
ment one hundred and four years. This species is found
throughout the middle and north of Europe, and in North Amer-
ica.

'The BALD or WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, Haliaetos, (Gr.hals, the
sea; aetos, an eagle;) leucocephalus, (Gr. white-headed,) is,
when full grown, three feet long, and more than seven feet across
at the expanse of wings. The general color of the upper parts
is a deep, dark brown ; the head, chief part of the neck, and the
lower parts are white. The wing is admirably adapted for the
support of so large a bird, measuring two feet in breadth on the
greater quills, and sixteen inches on the smaller.

The Bald Eagle is an occasional visitant to the Northern Hem-
isphere of the old world ; on this continent it is common, breed-
ing, according to Audubon, as far south as Virginia, though its
nests are most frequent in the fur countries.

The ardor and energy of this bird might awaken deep interest
were they not associated with so much of robbery and wanton
exercise of power ; for it habitually spoils the Osprey or Fish-
Hawk, (Plate X. fig. 3, a,) of his watery prey, and will even, in
"hard times," steal from the vultures the carrion on which they
are feeding. The falls of Niagara are one of its favorite haunts
on account of the fish caught there, and the attraction presented
by the numerous remains of squirrels, deer and other animals
which perish in attempting to cross the river above the cataract.
The nest of the Bald Eagle is usually placed on a very tall tree
that is destitute of branches to a considerable height ; it is never
seen on rocks. Dr. Franklin thus speaks of this eagle, the em-
blem of our national union :

" For my part, I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen as
the representative of our country. He is a bird of a bad moral
character ; he does not get his living honestly. You may have
seen him perched upon some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish
for himself, he watches for the labors of the fishing- hawk ; and
when that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing
it to its nest for the support of his mate and young ones, the
f Bald Eagle pursues him, and takes it from him. With all this
injustice he is never in good case, but like those among men who
live by sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and very oft-
en lousy. Besides, he is a rank coward ; the little King-bird,
not bigger than a sparrow, attacks him boldly and drives him
out of the district. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem
for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America, who have driven

RAPTORES. 233

out all the King-Birds from our country, though exactly fitted
for that order of knights which the French call Chevaliers
d' Industrie."

WASHINGTON SEA-EAGLE, H. WasJiingtonii, is a new species
first observed by Audubon in 1814, who named this " magnificent
bird," the largest of the eagles, after Washington, the "father of
his country."

The HARPY EAGLE, Harpuia, (Gr. harpuia, from harpazo, to
seize,) destructor, (Lat. destroyer,) is one of the " Short- Winged "
Eagles found in New Mexico, New Granada, and Guiana. In
size and powers of body it equals the Golden Eagle. (See Chart.)
The beak above is convex ; the upper mandible is slightly notched,
somewhat like the True Falcons ; the tarsi are lengthened, very
strong and feathered at the base. When full grown, this bird's
head has a thick downy plumage, of a light slaty-gray color.
On the back part of the head, there is a crest of dull black
feathers, which ordinarily is slightly raised above the level of
the feathers on the back of the neck, but on any sudden excite-
ment is elevated at right angles to them ; the back and wings
are black ; the under surface is pure white ; the tail has four
transverse black bands, alternated with whitish, or ash-colored
spaces. (See fig. on Chart.) In the nakedness of its legs, it
approaches the Sea-Eagles.

The Harpy is a solitary bird, frequenting the thickest forests,
where it feeds upon the sloths ; it also preys upon fawns and
young quadrupedvS. One of these birds, taken near the mouth
of the river Amazon, while on its passage to England, is said to
have destroyed and eaten a King of the Vultures. After its ar-
rival, a cat was put into its cage, and the eagle, with one blow
of its immense foot, broke its back.

The BRAZILIAN CARACARA EAGLE, Poly'borus or Aquila Bra-
ziliensis, differs from the Harpy Eagle in having more slender
and lengthened tarsi, and in the comparative weakness of its
toes. It is of the size of the common Kite, and has a tail nine
inches long. It is all over covered with dusky and blackish
feathers ; hence is called by some morphnus, (Gr. morpTinos, ob-
scure, or dark.) For its food it seems content with any animal
substance ; it is by no means shy, but is seldom attacked, as it
rarely molests domestic poultry.

The FISH HAWK, or BALD BUZZARD, Pandion, (Gr. proper
name,) halietus, has very long and curved talons, the outermost
versatile, or capable of being revolved. These are well adapted
for holding this bird's slippery fishy food. As already said,
it has, in the Bald Eagle, a persecutor that often snatches from it
;f~ hard-earned prey. (Plate X, fig. 3, b.) The nlum— -*

2S4 RAPTORES.

Fish-Hawk is much like that of water fowl, white below, with a
few brown streaks or speckles on the throat. This bird is spread
over Europe and part of Asia ; it is found in North America from
Labrador to Florida.

The HARRIER, CIRCUS, (Gr. kirkos, a circle,) has the sides of
the head furnished with a circle of feathers much like the disk
of the Owl's head.

The COMMON HARRIER, C. cyaneus, (Gr. kuaneos, dark blue,)
ranges from Labrador to Texas, and sometimes is seen in the
Western prairies in flocks of thirty or even forty in number.
The notes of this bird, while on the wing, " sound like the sylla-
bles, pee, PEE, PEE, the first slightly pronounced, the last louder,
much prolonged, and ending plaintively." The Common Harrier
feeds on insects, small lizards, frogs, &c., but occasionally will
attack partridges and plovers.

SECOND SUB-FAMILY. KITES.
Milvina. (Lat. milvus, a kite.)

The length of the wings and the forked tail are the characters
which most separate the Kites from the rest of the Birds of Prey.

The COMMON KITE, or GLEDE, M. ictinus, (Gr. iktinos, a kite,)
or M. regatis, (Lat. royal.) is found in various parts of Europe.
According to Charles Lucien Buonaparte, it is very common near
Rome, (Italy,) especially about herds of cattle. Formerly, more
numerous than now, it was a great scourge to the poultry yard.
In falconry, the Glede was very docile, being used both as pur-
suer and pursued.

THE SWALLOW-TAILED HAWK, or FORK-TAIL, Nauclerus, (Gr.
naukleros, a ship master,) furcatus, (Lat. forked,) differs from the
true kite, (mifous,) in having a more largely forked tail. The
Fork-tail, in steering its course through the air, reminds one of the
helmsman who is guiding some noble bark amidst the waves. Its
flight is graceful and long protracted. It has been seen as far north
as Pennsylvania; in Mississippi and Louisiana it is abundant. The
Swallow-tailed Hawks always feed upon the wing. In calm and
warm weather they are seen soaring very high, and pursuing the
large insects called " Musquito Hawks." The upper plumage is
black with reflections of purple ; the head and under parts white.

The genus Elanus has several species, among which are E.
melanopterus, (Gr. black-winged.) the BLACK- WINGED SWALLOW-
HAWK, of Africa; E. dispar, (Lat. dissimilar.) the BLACK-SHOUL-
DERED HAWK, a beautiful bird found from Texas to South Caro-
lina.

RAPTORES. 285

The genus Ictinia, (Gr. iktin, a kite.) is characterized by its
strong and short bill, the upper mandible of which is "somewhat
angularly festooned," and the lower distinctly notched.

The MISSISSIPPI KITE, /. plumbeus, (Lat. leaden or dull,) is
by some naturalists ranked among the Buzzards. Twenty or
more of these birds are sometimes seen together, sweeping around
some tree, and catching the locusts which are numerous early in
the season. The back and wings of this bird are of a slate blue ;
the head and under parts whitish, spotted with brown. This
Kite is said to fly to a great height, where it remains for a while
poised ; it cleaves the air rapidly, in order to seize the insects
which are its prey, added to reptiles and birds.

THIRD SUB-FAMILY. The BUZZARDS.
Buteonina. (Lat. buteo, a buzzard.) Buteo, sub-genus of Falco.

The Buzzards are, as a group, distinguished by their short
beaks, expanded wings, and squared tails. They are com-
mon in most of the wooded districts of Europe, and the adjacent
parts of Asia, and have been met with in the fur countries of
North America. They are indolent, sluggish birds, often remain-
ing perched on the same bough the greatest part of the day ; and
generally feed upon small quadrupeds, reptiles, and various spe-
cies of insects. The skins of the Buzzards are covered with
fine down. In Cairo, (Egypt,) and in some other places in the
East, the skins, after the feathers are removed, are tanned with
the down upon them ; as thus prepared, they are used by wealthy
Turks and Persians for lining their silk robes.

The COMMON BUZZARD, B. vulgaris, has a general plumage
of chocolate brown ; the primary feathers are black with the in-
ner webs white, barred with brownish black ; the tail has ten
dusky bars on a reddish brown ground ; the under parts are yel-
lowish white. This bird builds its nest on high trees, though it
has been known to construct it upon rocks. It often seizes upon
the nest of a crow, which it enlarges and lines with wool and
other soft materials. The female lays from three to five eggs of
a whitish cast, spotted with pale brown, and almost without any
of the tinge of red which is peculiar to diurnal birds of prey.
The length of the Common Buzzard is about twenty-nine inches;
the expanse of the wings about fifty inches.

The RED-TAILED BUZZARD, B. Borealis, (Lat. northern,) pe-
culiar to the American Continent, is found throughout the United
States. This is a very wary bird, and hard to be approached by
any one bearing a gun. In common with some other Falcons, it

286 RAPTORES.

is much annoyed by parasitic fly-ticks. Unlike the eagles, pairs
of these birds, after rearing their young, "become as shy to each
other as if they had never met, and will " chase and rob each other
of their prey on all occasions." Farmers, to whom this bird is
known as the Hen-hawk, usually regard it with anything but com-
placency.

Other species of the genus Buleo found in the United States,
are the RED-SHOULDERED BUZZARD, B. lineatus, (Lat. marked
with lines,) of the Western and Southern sections of the Union ;
the Rough-legged Buzzard, B. lagopus, (Gr. hare-footed.") found
east of the Alleghanies, also in the north of Europe, and noted
as a great destroyer of meadow mice.

The HONEY BUZZARD, Pernis, (Norman, perner, to take,) apt-
vorous, (Lat. bee-eating.) is distinguished by having a feathered
band about the eyes. This bird is found in the warmer parts of
Europe and of Asia. Its food does not consist of honey, as its
specific name seems to indicate, but of bee.s, wasps, and their lar-
vae. It is a bird of passage, leaving Europe in the beginning of
winter. Its length is about two feet ; expanse of the wings
fifty -two inches.

FOURTH SUB-FAMILY. The FALCONS, Proper.

Fakonina. (Lat. /aZco, a falcon.)

(Falco is the typical genus of the Falconidce, and includes the
greater portion of this sub-family.)

The PEREGRINE or SULTAN FALCON, JP. peregrinus, (Lat. wan-
dering,) is one of the most remarkable members of the Falcon
family. It ranges over Europe, the north of Asia, America and
New Holland. When full grown it is a foot and a half in
length. We have already referred to the Falcon's strongly
notched beak. The beak is of a blue color, approaching to black
at the point; the back and upper surface of the bird is of a
bluish slate color ; the breast reddish white, with dark brown
transverse bars. On account of the large size of this bird's feet,
it is called the Great- footed Hawk ; from -its successful chase of
ducks, it is sometimes named the Duck-Havvk. The flight of the
Peregrine Falcon is amazingly rapid. It does not merely dash
at its prey and grasp it with his claws, but strikes its victim with
its breast, and actually stuns it with the violence of the blow be-
fore seizing it with its claws.

Peculiar interest attaches to the "Sultan" bird from its connec-
tion with falconry, an art of great antiquity and extensively prac-
ticed by English nobles from the period of the Heptarchy to the

RAPTORES. 287

days of Charles II. Indeed, a person of rank in England would
at one period of her history scarcely be seen out of doors unless
he had upon his hand a hawking bird. This in old illuminations
and ancient seals is the criterion of nobility. At the present day
hawking is still practised in some Oriental countries.

So bold is the Falcon, it was generally employed to take the
formidable Heron. When used anciently for hawking, the fal-
cons were taken into the field with hoods over their eyes, and
with little bells on their legs; the sportsman carried a lure to
which the bird had been trained to fly by being fed regularly
upon or near it with fresh killed meat. When the falcon closed
with its prey, they both came to the ground together, and it was
the sportsman's business to reach the place of conflict as soon as
possible, and assist the falcon in vanquishing its prey.

This bird constructs its nest on ledges of rocks, laying four
eggs of a reddish brown color.

The GYRFALCON, or JERFALCON, F. gyrfalcon. The name Jer-
falcon is a corruption of Hierofakon, Sacred Falcon. This bird
is by some regarded as the boldest and most beautiful of the tribe,
approaching in size nearly to the Osprey. It is a native of Ice-
land. In the days of falconry, the Jerfalcon was highly esteemed,
and used for the larger game, such as cranes and herons. Its
plumage is white with dusky lines.

"^The MERLIN or STONE FALCON, .F. cesalon, (Gr. aisalon,) is
the smallest of the European species, being not much larger than
a black-bird ; in olden times it was considered as the " lady-
bird," and used for taking partridges, which it would kill by a
single stroke of the neck. It is not uncommon both in Europe
and America, and is a migratory bird.

The KESTRAL, or WINDHOVER, F. tinnunculus, (Lat. akestral,)
inhabits Asia and Africa, as well as Europe. Its length is from
fourteen to fifteen inches. Farmers often mistake it for the Spar-
row-Hawk, and take every opportunity to destroy it ; but as its
natural food is field-mice, they ought to look upon it as a bene-
factor, and protect, instead of remorselessly killing it. Its nest
is usually built in some deserted one of a crow or magpie.

FIFTH SUB-FAMILY. HAWKS.
Accipitrina. (Lat. accipiter, a hawk.)

The Hawks have short beaks, hooked from the base; and
short wings, reaching no farther than two-thirds of the extent
of the tail. The upper mandible has & festoon, or prominence
in place of the notches of the true Falcons.

283 RAPTORES.

Of the genera, we name Astur, (proper name,) characterized
by its short beak, its somewhat oval nostrils, and the scutellated
acrotarsia, or highest parts of the tarsi.

The GOSHAWK, (or Goosehawk,) A. palumbarius, (Lat. from
Palumbes, a wood-pigeon,) receives its name palumbarius, from
its preying upon pigeons. These, together with pheasants, par-
tridges and grouse, constitute its food. Hares and rabbits, also,
it sometimes devours. A full grown female is about twenty-four
inches in length ; the male bird is one-fourth, and sometimes
one-third less. The upper surface of the wings and tail feathers
is black; the throat and under parts nearly white, with spots and
bars of black. The Goshawk flies low, pursuing its prey in a
line after it, or in a manner which falconers call "raking." It
abounds in the forests of Continental Europe, and is found in the
temperate regions of Asia and America. It has been seen in the
neighborhood of Philadelphia, (Penn.)

The Goshawk was also one of the falconry- birds ; the female
generally " flown " at the large- winged bird ; the male at par-
tridges.

Birds of the genus decipher have smooth and elongated tarsi.

The SPARROW-HAWK, A. fringiUarius, (Lat. fringilla, a chaf-
finch,) is the type-bird cf this Sub-family. It is widely spread
throughout Europe ; found also in Japan and Southern Africa.
The adult male is about twelve inches, the female fifteen inches
long. The individuals of this species show considerable diver-
sity of color.

The Sparrow-Hawk is a great enemy of quadrupeds and small
birds, and is often very destructive to poultry. When taken
young, it is easily tamed, and then will " associate with quite in-
congruous companions." "A gentleman had a Sparrow-Hawk
which used to live in his dove-cote among his pigeons ; would ac-
company them in their flights, and be uneasy if separated from
its strange friends."

It builds its nests upon high trees, laying four or five eggs of
bluish white, marked with dark brown.

The CHANTING-HAWK, Melierax, (Gr. meh, honey ; hierax, a
hawk,) is the only known bird of prey whose voice has any
sweetness, or is at all pleasant to the ear. It is a native of Af-
rica. This Hawk chants every morning and evening ; sometimes
it continues its notes the whole night long. In size it equals a
Goshawk.

RAPTORES. 289

SECOND FAMILY. THE VULTURES.
Vulturidae. (Lat. vultur, a vulture.)

This Family of the Raptorial Birds, feed on the flesh of ani-
mals already dead. Decomposition is not, however, a necessary
condition of their food, as is shown by the fact that they may fre-
quently be seen regaling themselves on -the flesh of an animal
within half an hour after it has been killed. Their geographical
distribution is confined to warm climates, where they act as
scavengers to purify the earth from the putrid substances with
which it otherwise would be encumbered. They are generally
protected by the natives of the countries which they inhabit, on
account of their utility in disposing of decayed animal remains.

It has been a disputed point, whether Vultures are directed to
their fetid food by the sight, or the smell. Audubon was in
favor of the former, as the directing power ; and their lofty
flight and telescopic eye, are extremely well adapted to assist
these birds in detecting any dying or dead animal ; but many
facts mignt be adduced, tending to show that these birds are
guided to their food by the action of both sight and smell.

The Vulture tribe are, on the whole, considerably larger than
the Falcon birds, but they are much less courageous. The
beak is lengthened, curved downward at the point, and not in
the least notched ; the talons are comparatively weak, by no
means corresponding with the stature of these birds, and used by
them far less than the beak. In order that the parts of the bird
which come in contact with its offensive food might not become
soiled or matted, as feathers, of course, would be by such con-
tact, the head, and sometimes the neck, in a greater or less de-
gree, are naked, or else covered only with a thin down ; the legs,
also, at the lowest part, are covered with scales, and not with
feathers, as in the Eagle. The wings are strong and large, and
the general plumage uncommonly thick and coarse.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE, Vultur fulvus, (Lat. tawny,) is
found throughout a large extent of the Eastern Continent. This
Vulture has its head and neck covered with close set, short and
white downy feathers. The general color is yellow brown; the
length more than four feet.

CATHARTES. (Gr. Kathartes, a purifier.) The Vultures of
this genus have a stout beak, but not the fleshy crest which these
birds sometimes exhibit ; and the head and neck are plumeless.

THE TURKEY VULTURE, or TURKEY BUZZARD, C. Aura, (Gr.
aura, air,) is a species that inhabits a vast range of territory in

290 RAPTORES.

the warmer parts of this continent. In the Northern and Middle
States of the American Union, it is partially migratory, the
greater part returning to the South on the approach of cold
weather. When full grown, it is not far from three feet long ;
and the wings expand six and one-third feet. The Turkey Buz-
zards live upon all sorts of foodj "they suck the eggs and
devour the young of many species of birds, and even eat birds
of their own species when they find them dead. They are
daily seen in the streets of the Southern cities, along with their
relatives, and often roost with them on the same trees." (And.)
In Jamaica, this bird is protected by a fine of five pounds ster-
ling inflicted upon any one who destroys it within a prescribed
distance from the principal towns.

THE BLACK VULTURE, or CARRION CROW, C. atratus, (Lat.
clothed in black,) — is smaller than the preceding; — less elegant
in form, and less graceful in flight. It is a constant resident of
all the Southern States, and is seen, during the whole day, in the
principal Southern cities, flying or walking about the streets.
Those of Charleston resort at night to a swampy wood across the
Ashley river. Audubon, and "his friend John Bachman, vis-
ited this roosting place together." They estimated the number
of these vultures which they saw, at several thousands, spread
over an extent of two acres.

THE CALIFORNIA VULTURE, C. Calif or nianus, is found in the
valleys and plains of the Western Slope of this Continent, and in
size bears the same proportion to the other species as a Golden
Eagle to a Goshawk. The length of this Vulture is fifty-five
inches. It builds its nest upon the loftiest trees ; the eggs are
two, nearly spherical, and jet Mack.

THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, Neophron percnopterus, (Gr. perknos,
black ; pteron, wing ;) sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, or
Hen, has a pure white plumage, except the great quill-feathers,
which are black ; the length is a little more than two feet.

Sarcoramphus. (Gr. sarx, flesh; rhamphos, beak.) The
Vultures of this genus, have a fleshy tuft growing on their beaks,
somewhat like the wattles, or fleshy excrescences of the Turkey ;
they have also the Turkey's naked neck and long and oval
nostrils.

THE CONDOR, S. gryphus, (Gr. grups, a griffon,) — is a bird
respecting whose magnitude exaggerated statements have been
often made. It may, indeed, be ranked among the largest birds
which have the power of flight ; but the greatest authentic meas-
urement makes its length not more than five feet, and its expanse
of wings not more than fourteen.

RAPTORES. 291

The beak of the Condor is four inches long, and straight at the
base, but the upper mandible becomes arched to a point, and
terminates in a strong, well covered hook, — so strong as to be
able to pierce the body of a bullock. Around the lower part of
the neck in the male and female birds, there is a broad white
ruffof downy feathers, which forms the line of separation between
the naked skin above, and the true feathers covering the body
below it ; on the head is a species of comb. (See figure of Con-
dor on the Chart.)

The Condor is found in the Andes from one end of South
America to the other; but is most numerous in Peru and Chili,
and is frequently met with at an elevation of from 10,000 to
15.000 feet above the level of the sea. Here, amidst perpetual
snow, Condors may be seen in groups of three or four, but never in
larger companies, like the true Vultures. The Condor descends
to the plains only when driven by the demands of appetite ; but
soon leaves them again for a lighter atmosphere. " The pecul-
iarities of structure," says Dr. Roget, "have probably a relation
to the capability we see them possess, of bearing with impunity,
very quick and violent changes of atmospheric pressure. The
Condor of the Andes is often seen to descend rapidly, from a
height of above twenty thousand feet, to the edge of the sea,
where the air is more than twice the density of that which the
bird has been breathing, thus encountering, in its descent, varia-
tions of barometrical pressure extending from twelve to twenty-
nine inches."

The general color of the Condor is brownish ; the feathers on
the back, however, are sometimes perfectly black. This bird
does not build any nest, but, after the manner of many sea-birds,
lays two white eggs, somewhat larger than those of a Turkey,
on the bare lofty rock. It is very strong, and highly tenacious
of life. Two Condors will attack and kill the Llama, or even
the Puma; by their repeated buffeting and pecking, wearying it
so completely that it finally yields to their power. So destruc-
tive is the Condor, that various methods are employed by the
natives in S. A. to capture it. Sometimes a person clothed in
the skin of a newly killed animal, goes out, and entices the
Condor to attack him ; while companions, who have secreted
themselves, rush out from their hiding places, and seize it.

THE KING VULTURE, S. papa, is much smaller than the Con-
dor, but of a brighter plumage, and among the handsomest of the
Vultures. When pressed with hunger, he will, in the absence
of his favorite carrion, feed upon snakes and lizards. He is said
to be called the KING Vulture, because he keeps some smaller

292 RAPTORES.

Vultures under subjection, and " does not suffer them to approach
a dead body until he has completely satisfied his own appetite,
which is certainly none of the smallest." This Vulture is a
native of South America ; near the central portions of which it
is abundant, and it is occasionally seen in Florida, U. S.

Gypaetus. (Gr. gups, a vulture ; aetos, an eagle.) The
birds of this genus, are included by Gmelin, under the genus
Falco. On the Chart, these are accordingly arranged with the
Falconida, but they perhaps approach most nearly to the Vul-
tures in habits and conformation, and we have thought best to
place them with the Vulture Family, as is done by Prince Buona-
parte and Mr. Gray. They have the weaker talons of the
True or Griffon Vultures; the head and neck, however, are
feathered, like the Eagles, and they reject putrid matter unless
hard pressed by hunger.

THE LAMMERGEYER, (German, Lamtfs Eagle,) or BEARDED
VULTURE, G. barbatus, (Lat. bearded,) is a celebrated bird, — not,
however, strictly a true Vulture, as its head and neck are feath-
ered, and it rejects putrid flesh, except when pressed with hunger.

The term bearded is applied to this bird on account of the long
tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed. It destroys
hares, and young or sickly sheep and goats ; when emboldened
by hunger, it does not fear even to attack man himself. The
young Chamois, the Mountain Hare, and various kinds of birds
fall victims to its appetite. The head and neck of this Vulture,
are a dirty white ; the lower parts of the neck, breast, and belly,
orange red ; the back, and wing-coverts, deep gray brown. The
Bearded Vulture, the largest bird of Europe, is a little more than
four and a half feet in length; the expansion of its wings is from
nine to ten feet. This Vulture inhabits the highest mountains of
Europe and Asia, and is also found in the lofty mountains of
Central Africa.

THE SECRETARY- VULTURE, or SERPENT-EATER, Gypogeranus.
(Gr. gups, a vulture ; geranos, a bird,) has, in regard to its true
position, been a puzzle to naturalists. This very remarkable
bird has long legs like a wading bird, but, in other respects,
seems to rank between the Vulture and the Eagle. It feeds
exclusively upon reptiles and serpents. A pendent crest appears
on the back of the head, reminding the beholder of the pen stuck
behind the ear by writing clerks, — hence, the name " Secretary."
It chiefly inhabits the arid plains in the neighborhood of the
Cape of Good Hope. Attempts have been ma.de to introduce
this bird into the Antilles with a view to diminish the Yellow
Serpent, Trigonocephalus, (triangular-head,) which is six or seven
feet long, poisonous, and in those islands, very abundant.

RAPTORES. 293

THIRD FAMILY. OWLS.
Strigida. (Gr. or^'s, strix, a screech-owl.)

The family of Strigida comprise the Hawks of the night,
(Accipitres nocturni.) They have the head very large, with great,
dilated and projecting eyes, looking forwards, and capable of
taking in every ray of light. The power of vision is increased
by the manner in which the eye is fixed in a bony socket, just like '
the watch-makers glass. The pupil is so long that the bird is daz-
zled in full day, and hence in part arises the stupid appearance
which Owls exhibit in the sun-light. Each eye is encircled by
a concave disk, or circular fringe, formed of singularly diverg-
ing feathers, and assisting these birds to concentrate their whole
faculty of sight upon the object directly before them, just as we
use a tube in looking at a painting, or some object which we wish
to see more distinctly. In those Owls which are partly diurnal
in their habits, this circular fringe is scarcely discernible. When
the feathers which form the hinder part of the disk are separated,
the great ear is seen, enclosed between two valves of thin skin,
from whose edges these feathers grow, and which are capable of
being widely opened, at the bird's will, so as to catch every
sound that may give notice of its prey amidst the silence and
darkness. The plumage is loose and downy, — a character
which reaches even to the wing-quills; hence the flight of
the Owl is almost, or entirely noiseless. The downy feathers
present various tints of dull yellow, and brown and white ;
often they are spotted minutely, and very delicately penciled.
The Owls have the strong hooked beaks and acute claws of
the raptorial birds.

In some species of this family, there is a series of feathers
more or less lengthened, on each side of the top of the head, and
which can be erected at pleasure ; when raised, they have some
little resemblance to horns, or to the erect ears of a cat. These
are called HORNED, or EARED OWLS. (PL IX. fig. 1.)

The geographical distribution of the Owl family is very wide,
species being found in Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Aus-
tralia. They feed on birds and quadrupeds, and some species
on fish. The large-horned Owls, of Europe and America, at-
tack hares, partridges, grouse, and even the turkey ; but mice,
shrews, small birds, snakes and crabs, suffice for the inferior
strength of the smaller Owls.

THE OWL FAMILY may be arranged into three divisions: (1.)
the BARN OWLS; (2.) the TUFTLESS OWLS ; and (3.) the HORNED

294 RAPRODES.

OWLS. The species are exceedingly numerous, and our notices
of them must be few and general.

(1.) BARN OWLS.

Strix. (Gr. from strizo, to screech.) This genus includes the
Barn, or typical group of Owls, having great ears, covered with
a large operculum, or ear-flap. The beak is lengthened, and
covered only towards the point ; the tarsi are rather long and
feathered, and the toes clothed with hair. The Barn Owls are
eminently nocturnal ; they are without egrets, or tufts of feathers
upon the head ; their colors are generally white and pale buff,
marked and speckled with bluish gray ; their voices loud and
discordant.

The Barn, or Screech Owl, S. flammea, (Lat. flaming,) is
common in the temperate and warmer regions of Europe. It
hides during the day "in deep recesses, among ivy-clad ruins, in
antique church towers, in the hollows of old trees, in barn-lofts,
and in similar places of seclusion." At night it sallies forth for
prey, which consists of mice, rats, moles, and shrews. The
length of this Owl is about thirteen inches.

THE AMERICAN BARN OWL, S. -Americana, is closely allied to
the European Barn Owl ; the color is of a darker brown, with
the ruff red, and the length from seventeen to eighteen inches.
It is much more abundant in the Southern section of the Union
than in the other parts, and is also found quite plentifully in
Cuba.

(2.) TUFT LESS OWLS.

These differ from the rest of the family, (excepting the Barn
Owl.) in the extraordinary extension of the fringes of feathers
about the eye ; and also differ among each other in their adapta-
tion to diurnal or nocturnal habits. Like the Barn Owls, they
are widely diffused over the globe.

Surnium. (Gr. owl, or inauspicious bird.) THE HOOTING
OWLS. The Owls of this genus hoot, and are of very large size.
The legs are rather short, with the toes feathered. The plumage
is very soft and downy ; ^the facial disks are complete ; the
wings, very large and much rounded.

THE GREAT CINEREOUS OWL, S. cinereum, (Lat. ash-colored.)
is very large, the female being about two and a half feet long.
They range from the North-East coast of the United States to
the Columbia river. The comparatively small size of their eyes
seems to indicate that they hunt by day, as Audubon suggests ;

RAPTORES. ^ 295

the unusually small feet and claws also indicate that they do
not prey on large animals. They are not found in any great
numbers.

Surnia. (Gr. owls.) This is a genus of Owls having small
heads, feathered claws, and wedged tails. Unlike the Barn Owl,
they seek their food during the day. Among the species is the

BURROWING OWL, <S. cunicularia. (Lat. from cuniculus, a
rabbit,) found on the plains near Columbia river, and through-
out the whole extent of the Rocky Mountains. It resides in the
forsaken burrows of the Badgers and Marmots, (see Prairie Dogs
in our account of the Rodentia;) it does not, however, appear to
live on terms of intimacy with those animals. The burrow
selected by this bird, is usually found at the foot of the worm- wood
bush, (artemisia absinthium,) upon the summit of which, this Owl
often perches. The plumage, as Mr. Townsend states, swarms
with fleas, probably left in their burrows by the Marmots and
Badger. "I know," says Mr. T., "of no other bird infested by
that kind of vermin." The eggs of this Owl are about as large
as those of the common House-Pigeon. The length of the male
is ten inches, of the female, eleven inches.

THE GREAT SNOWY OWL, S. nyctea,(Gr. from nux,) is nearly
as large as the Eagle Owl, and on account of its snowy white-
ness, one of the most beautiful of the tribe. It is found in the
high mountain latitudes of both continents.

(3.) HORNED OWLS.

These are so called, from having the head furnished with a
pair of tufts of feathers longer than the rest, which are placed
above the ears. The tufts are termed egrets, and in many spe-
cies, can be raised or lowered at will. Of this division, is the
genus Bubo, (Lat. Horned Owl,) in which the ear-opening is
small.

THE GREAT HORNED OWL, EAGLE OWL, B. maximus, (Lat.
greatest,) is one of the largest of the nocturnal birds, being not
much inferior in size to the Golden Eagle. It is very destruc-
tive to grouse, hares, and even fawns. Formerly, this bird was
sometimes used by falconers to entrap the Kite. It inhabits the
great forests of Europe ; but is seldom seen in England. Pliny
refers to it as an ill-omened bird, on account of whose visits
ancient Rome twice underwent lustration.

THE VIRGINIA HORNED OWL, B. Virginianus, is a native of
North America, being found in almost every part of the United
States, and in the fur countries where the timber is of large size.
Audubon represents it to be quite equal to the Eagle Owl in

296 RAPTORES.

size. "It sails," says Wilson, "with apparent ease, in large cir-
cles, and rises and descends without the least difficulty, by
merely inclining the wings or its tail as it passes through the
air." Even when "not more than fifty yards distant, it utters
its mournful Aoo, hoo, hoo-e, in so peculiar an under tone, that
to those not acquainted with the bird, it might seem they were
produced by an Owl more than a mile distant." This Owl is
very powerful and daring, attacking half-grown Turkeys with
success, and making large havoc among other fowls.

THE LITTLE SCREECH OWL, B. Asio, sometimes called the
MOTTLED OWL, and when young, the RED OWL of Wilson, — is
only about ten inches long; and usually found about farm-
houses, orchards, and gardens. Audubon "carried one of the
young birds in his coat-pocket from Philadelphia to New York,
traveling alternately by water and by land. It remained gener-
ally quiet, fed from the hand, and never attempted to escape."
The Little Screech Owl is found in the Eastern States, and in
Virginia and Maryland.

Otus. (Gr. ous, an ear.) In this genus, the conch of the ear
is of enormous size.

THE EARED OWL is common to the Eastern and Western
Continents; in Pennsylvania, it is much more numerous than
the White or Barn Owl. (Wilson.) Of this genus, there are two
species, — the O. vulgaris, the Long-Eared Owl, and O. brachyo-
tus, (Gr. brachus, short,) the Short-Eared Owl. In the latter,
the head tufts are inconspicuous. The size excepted, these
Owls resemble the Great Horned Owl.

What is the first order of LAND BIRDS ? What other name is sometimes
given to it ? Into what sub-orders is it divided ? Give the general charac-
ters of the Birds of Prey. What is the comparative size of the females of
this order ? How many families do they include ? Into what SUB-FAMI-
LIES does Swainson divide the FALCONS ? What is said of the Falcons as a
family ? Why in treating of the Falcon Tribe is the first place given to the
Eagle ? Have Eagles a distinct notch or tooth in the upper mandible ?
What is said of the Golden Eagle ? Why is it called Golden ? Is the Ring-
tailed Eagle a distinct species ? What fact is given showing the longevity
of the Golden E. ? What is said of the size, plumage, &c. of the Bald or
White-Headed E. ? What is one of its favorite haunts? What does Dr.
Franklin say of it ? When was the Washington Sea E. first observed ?
What is said of the Harpy Eagle ? What of the Caracara Eagle ? What is
said of the Fish-Hawk or Bald-Buzzard ? What of the Harrier ?

What characters separate the Kites or Second Family from the other
Birds of Prey ? What is said of the Common Kite or Glede ? What of
the Swallow or Forked-tailed Hawk ? What of the genus Elanus and its

RAPTORES. 297

species ? What of the genus Ictinea 1 What species is mentioned, and
what is said of it?

Give some account of the Third Sub-Family. What is said of the Com-
mon Buzzard ? What of the Red-tailed B. ? What other species of the
genus Buteo is mentioned? What is said of the Honey Buzzard ?

What is the Fourth Sub-Family? Which is the typical genus of the
FALCONID^E? What is said of the plumage and flight of the Peregrine
Falcon ? What gives peculiar interest to this bird ? What is meant by
Falconry? State some particulars respecting it? What is said of the Jer-
Falcon ? What of the Merlin and Kestrel ?

What is the Fifth Sub-Family? Mention their characters. Give an
account of the Gos-hawk ? Which is the type bird of this Sub-Family ?
What is said of it ? Where is the Chanting Hawk found ? Why is it so
named ?

Which is the SECOND FAMILY of the Birds of Prey? On what do they
feed ? To what climates are they confined ? How are they treated by the
inhabitants ? What has been a disputed point ? How do they compare
with the Falcons ? What characteristics are given ? What is said of the
Griffon Vulture ? What of the Turkey V. or Buzzard? What of the
Black V. or Carrion Crow? What of the Egyptian V.? To what genus
does the Condor belong ? Give particulars respecting it. What is said of
the King V. ? To what genus does the Lammergeyer or Bearded V. be-
long? What is said of it? What of the Secretary Vulture or Serpent
Eater?

Which is the THIRD and last FAMILY of the Birds of Prey ? Give the
characteristics and habits of the Owl Family. What is their Geographical
distribution? Into what divisions are they arranged? What species of
the Barn Owls are mentioned? What is said of them? How do the Tuft-
less 0. differ from the Barn 0. ? What is said of the Gr^at Cinerous 0. ?
What of the Burrowing Owl ? What of the Great Snowy 0. ? Why are
the Horned Owls so called? What is said of the Great Horned 0. ? What
of the Virginia 0. ? What of the Little Screech 0. ? What Eared Owls are
mentioned of the genus Otus ? Trace thus every bird of this Family men-
tioned on the Chart. The HARPY.EAGLE is of the species destructor, genus
Harpyia, sub-family AQUILINE, family FALCONID^E, order RAPTORES, sub-
class, LAND Birds, class BIRDS, division of WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS, sub-
kingdom, VERTEBRATES. Give the derivation of these several terms.

298 INSESSORES.

SECTION II.

ORDER II.— INSESSORES, OR PASSERES. PERCHING
.. .: BIRDS.

These birds are of smaller size than those of the other orders.
Naturalists regard them as exhibiting, in the highest degree, those
properties by which, as a class, birds are distinguished.

So many are the variations of form and structure which are
found in this group, (about equaling in number that of all the
other orders taken together,) that but few positive characters" can
be assigned, which are common alike to the whole group and to a
particular division. Its distinctions are mostly negative ; for the
group includes neither swimmers, waders, nor climbers, neither
rapacious nor gallinaceous birds ; and yet, by comparing the va-
rious tribes which it includes, a general resemblance of struc-
ture becomes apparent.

These birds have the power of grasping the branches and twigs of
trees with their feet, and are accustomed to rest upon them ; hence
they are called Perchers ; (Plate X. fig. 4.) the hind toe is al-
ways present and placed on the same level or plane as those in front ;
and the claws are incapable of being raised as in the Birds of
Prey. The larger portion of the species usually dwell in woods
and thickets. All have the faculty of flight in full perfection,
and in the Swifts and Humming Birds it may be regarded as at
its highest development. The beak in the Perchers differs
greatly in form, but its common shape is that of a cone, more or
less lengthened. In some of the genera a notch appears near
the tip of the upper mandible, indicating some affinity for the
habits of the Falcon tribe ; but. this gradually disappears in the
others.

The food of these birds is various in its kinds ; but by far the
larger part feed either upon insects or the seeds of vegeta-
bles, which they almost always procure by the beak alone.

This order has peculiar interest as including the sweet song-
sters whose soothing influence is so widely felt and acknowledged.

The larynx, or organ of voice, is in these birds always of
complex structure, so that there are few of them that do not, du-
ring the pairing season, either sing or utter some peculiar note or
chatter analogous to song.

The instinct of birds in building their nests, is in those of this
order most strikingly displayed. Admirable indeed are the com-
pact felted nests of the Humming-bird, of the GolHfmoli or Voi

PLX

Haptores

LAND BIROS. Insessores

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

%KL- -. . . .~

Fig. 1. The DUNLIN or PURRE, (Tringa, variabilis,) showing the principal
parts of the plumage, particularly those most conducive to flight ; a,
the front; b, the throat; c, the occiput; d, the cheek; e, auri-
cle, or auditory conch ; f, breast ; g, back ; h, scapularies ; i, i.
lesser coverts; k, k. winglet or spurious wing; 1, 1. greater coverts;
m, m. the primaries or greater quill feathers of wing, which are suc-
ceeded by n, n. the secondaries, and these by o, o. the tertials;
p, the upper tail coverts; q, the under tail coverts; r, the tail
feathers, (rectrices.)

Fig. 2. The wing of common Buzzard, (Buteo vulgaris,) stripped of all its
feathers excepting those which give it power and expansibility, and
which are those arising from the hand and ulna, termed quill feathers.
They form two sets; the first set, (m,) consists of those arising from
the hand, (metacarpus and phalanges,) constituting the most important
of the series, being mainly instrumental, by their length and shape,
their stiffness or flexibility, in determining the character or the power
of flight. They are termed the pinions or primary quill-feathers, and
are ten in number, but they differ in form, as in relative length. The
second set arises exclusively from the ulna, and are termed the second-
aries or secondary quill-feathers, (n.) They are usually shorter, broader,
and less rigid than the former. Their number varies. From the small
bone which represents the thumb, arise certain stiff feathers, lying
close upon the quills of the primaries, and constituting the spurious
wing or winglet, (k.) Besides these, there is a group of feathers termed
tertiaries, arising from the humeral joint of the fore-arm, and which in
many birds, as the curlews, plovers, lapwings, &c., are very long, form-
ing a sort of pointed appendage, very apparent during flight ; in most
birds, however, they are very short, or not to be discriminated from
the rest of the greater coverts, of which, in fact, they are a continua-
tion ; hence they cannot be strictly reckoned among the quill-feathers.
The same observation applies to the feathers (o,) attached to the upper
part of the humerus and termed scapularies; these lie along the sides
of the back, and in many birds are of great length.

LAND BIRDS.
ORDER 1st. BIRDS OF PREY, RAPTORES OR ACCIPITRES.

Fig. 3. a, White-headed, Sea, or Bald Eagle, seizing the fish just obtained
by b, the Fish-hawk or common Osprey.

ORDER 2nd. PERCHING BIRDS, INSESSORES OR PASSERS.
Fig. 4. a, Long-eared Podargus; b, Ruby-throated Humming-bird; c, Blue-
jay ; d, Green Tody ; e, Black-cap Titmouse ; f, Wagtail.

ORDER 3rd. CLIMBERS, SCANSORES.
Fig. 5. a, Cockatoo; b, Green Woodpeckers.

ORDER 4th. SCRATCHERS, RASORES.
Fig. 6. a, Ruffed Grouse ; b, California Partridge or Quail.

ORDER 5th. RUNNERS OR TRAVELERS, CURSOKES.
Fig. 7. Cassowary or Asiatic Ostrich.

WATER BIRDS.

ORDER 6th. WADERS, STILTS, OR SHORE BIRDS, GRALLATORES.
Fig. 8. a, Crowned Crane ; b, Virginia Rail ; c, Little Sand-piper.

ORDER Tth. SWIMMERS, NATATORES OR PALMIPEDES.
Fig. 9. a, Northern Diver; b, Futngoinan Penguin.

302 INSESSORES.

low-bird, and of the Bottle-tit or Penduline Tit- mouse, and the
woven, purse-like nests of the Oriole and the Starlings. (Plate
XI.)

The Perchers always live in pairs ; in general, the female is
smaller and less brilliant in her plumage than the male. The
young leave the egg in a blind and naked state, and for a while
are entirely dependent upon parental care for their subsistence.

For convenience, this large order has been arranged into four
tribes or sub-divisions, founded on the varying form of the beak,
viz.: (1) Fissirostres, (Split-bills;) (2) Dentirostres, (Toothed-
bills;) (3) Conirostres, (Cone-shaped bills;) and (4) Tenuiros-
tres, (Slender- bills.)

FIRST DIVISION OF THE PERCHERS. SPLIT-BILLED BIRDS
Fissirostres, (Lat. jissura, a slit ; rostrum a beak.)

This division of the INSESSORES is a comparatively small one,
but is readily distinguished from all the others by the beak.
This is short but broad, and more or less flattened horizontally,
often hooked at the tip, and very deeply cleft, so that the open-
ing of the mouth, (or gape,) is extremely wide. (Plate IX. fig.
14.) Most of the species feed upon insects, which they take
when on the wing, receiving them in full flight into their open
mouths. One genus, Alcedo, the King-Fisher, subsists on fishes.
The Fissirostres, like the birds of prey, may be divided into di-
urnal and nocturnal. Their principal home is in tropical coun-
tries. Some species are found in the temperate zone, but rather
as migratory visitors than as permanent residents, and, on the ap-
proach of winter, they depart to more congenial climes. Many
of the species are celebrated for the brilliant hues which adorn
their plumage.

The Split-bills are divided into six families, viz. : (1) Capri-
mulgida, (Night-jars;) (2) Hirundinida, (Swallows ;) (3) Mer-
opida, (Bee-eaters;) (4) Trogonida, (Trogons ;) (5) Todidce,
(Todies ;) (6) Akedinidce, (King- fishers.)

FIRST FAMILY. The NIGHT-JARS.
Caprimulgida, (Lat. Caprimulgus, Goat-Sucker.)

These birds have the beak exceedingly small, but the gape
enormous ; (Plate IX. fig. 14 ;) .its sides are, for the most part
fringed with long stiff bristles called vibrissce ; and the interior
of the mouth is moistened with a glutinous secretion, both which
aid them to secure their insect prey. The wings are long and

INSESSORES. J3Q3

formed for powerful flight ; the feet very small and feathered to
the toes, which are connected at the base by a membrane. The
claw of the middle toe, in most of the genera, is extended on
one side, the edge being cut into regularly formed teeth, like those
of a comb, and used, as is thought, for cleaning their plumage.

The Night-jars are nocturnal or crepuscular in their habits,
chasing their insect food by night, or at dusk, when the beetles and
large moths are on the wing, for the capture of which the formation
of the mouth is admirably fitted.

In their nocturnal movements, their feathered feet, their large
ears and eyes, and in other additional respects, an analogy is dis-
coverable between these birds and the Owls, and one which is
recognized in the common names, Fern Owl, Churn Owl, &c.,
applied to some of the species. Indeed, the Night-jars are evi-
dently to be regarded as a connecting link between the Perchers
and Birds of Prey.

The species of these birds are widely spread. Their colors
are usually various shades of black, brown, gray and white,
beautifully intermingled with minute waves, lines and spots.

Instead of being noxious and mischievous, they are the most
harmless and useful of birds, destroying the scavenger beetles
and moths, those great enemies of vegetation.

The term GOAT SUCKERS, also applied to these birds as far
back as the days of Aristotle, is derived from a silly notion that
they suck goats, an idea about as credible as the one some-
times entertained that hedgehogs suck cows, or cats the breath
of children. The voices of the Night-jars, like those of the
Owls, are often harsh and strange ; and sometimes they show a
peculiar vibratory or quivering character. Some of these noc-
turnal birds, (Podargus, Gr. pous, a foot; argos, inactive,) have
a beak nearly as strong as an Owl's; others of them, (Psalurus,
Gr. psalis, scissors ; oura, tail,) have forked tails of excessive
length; and one species, (C. diurnis, Lat. diurnal,) is "seen in
cloudy days in troops of fifteen or twenty, skimming over the
surface of ponds precisely in the manner of swallows."

The COMMON GOAT-SUCKER of Europe, C. Europaus, (see
fig. on Chart.)

This is a beautiful Night-jar, in its migrations reaching Eng-
land about the middle of May, and departing near the end of
September. Its length is about ten inches. It builds no nest,
but lays two mottled eggs on the ground. Frequently this bird
sits on a branch or a fence-rail, and with the head as low as the
feet, utters, with swollen, quivering throat, its singular jarring

304 INSESSORES.

note, for a long space at » time, and without seeming to draw
breath.

The CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW, C. Carolinensis, is an interesting
American Night-jar, but rarely found beyond Mississippi or the
Carolinas on the sea-board. It is the southern species of the
United States. In sound and articulation, it seems to express
the words of its name, putting the chief emphasis upon the last
word. Its head and back are of a dark brown color, mottled
with red, and streaked sidewise with black ; the lower parts are
of a dull reddish yellow. The length of the male is twelve and
three-fourths inches; of the female thirteen and one-fourth
inches. The notes of this bird are seldom heard in cloudy
weather, and never when it rains. It forms no nest ; its eggs
are oval, of a dull olive speckled with brown, and are placed in
a little space carelessly scratched amongst the dead leaves. If
the eggs are touched, both parents remove them to some other
place of deposit in the woods, where they cannot easily be again
discovered.

The WHIP-POOR-WILL, C. vociferus, (Lat. vox, voice ; fero^to
bear or give forth,) is seen at the approach of spring in most
parts of the Western and Southern States, and in small tracts,
thinly covered with timber, in the Middle States also. Like its
near relative, the Chuck-wilPs-widow, it is not often seen during
the day, except when discovered casually in a state of repose ;
and it is much distressed by being forced to face a brilliant light.
In the dusk of the evening, however, this bird becomes active
and diligent in securing its insect prey. Its flight is light and
noiseless, the motion of its wings only causing a gentle undula-
tion in the air, scarcely noticed by a person a few feet distant.
An imagined resemblance of its notes to the syllables whip-poor-
will, has given this bird that common name. Its song is pro-
longed for several hours after sunset. The male bird is nine
and one-half inches long. (See Chart.)
Steatornis, (Gr. sUar, fat; ornis,a bird.)

The birds which this term includes were ranked by Cuvier in
the genus Podargus, but on account of their peculiar food and
habits, were erected by Humboldt into a separate genus.

The GuACHARO-BiED, S. Caripensis, (belonging to Caripe,)
takes its name from the mountain of Guacharo, near the valley
of Caripe, South America. It has a wedge-shaped tail, is about
the size of a common fowl, and covered with plumage of a
brownish gray color, mixed with small furrowed lines and black
dots. The Guacharo mountain is noted for its large cave, pierced
in the vertical profile of the rock, eighty feet broad and seventy-

INSESSORES. 305

two feet high, which was entered by Humboldt and his com-
panions. After penetrating not far from four hundred and fifty
feet, they heard from afar the hoarse cries of the Guacharo
Bhds. These birds quit the cavern only at nightfall, especially
when there is moonlight. Humboldt remarks that they are the
only frugivorous birds of the night yet known. They feed on
very hard fruits, and reject the insect food of which other Goat-
Suckers are fond. Once a year, near midsummer, this cave is
entered by the Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the
greater part of the nests, while the old birds hover over the heads
of the robbers, as if to defend their brood, uttering, at the same
time, horrible cries. The young which fall down are killed
upon the spot. The inner parts of these birds are laden with
fat ; darkness and repose, as Humboldt suggests, favoring its for-
mation, as in the case of geese and oxen. The fat of these birds,
when melted, is called the butter or oil of the Guacharo ; it is
half liquid, transparent and inodorous, and so pure that it will
keep a year or more without becoming rancid. The crops and
gizzards of the young birds, when opened in the cavern, are
found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits, which are con-
veyed to them by their parents. These are preserved, and, un-
der the name of Guacharo-seed, are considered a remedy against
intermittent fevers. The cave of the Guacharo is situated in
South Lat. 10o 10'.

SECOND FAMILY. The SWALLOWS or MARTINS.
Hirundinida, (Lat. Hirundo, a swallow.)

The family of Swallows resemble the Night-jars in the small-
ness of the beak, and the great width of the gape, as they do also
in the weakness and greatly reduced size of the feet. They,
however, differ from the Night-jars in being active during the
day, and hence are included in the sub-tribe, Fissirostres diurni,
or Diurnal Split-billed Birds. The Swallows are also of far
more powerful wing than the Night-jars, nor have their feathers
the lax softness, or the mottled style of coloration common to
birds of the night ; but on the other hand, the plumage is close,
smooth, and often burnished with a metallic gloss; while the pre-
vailing shades are black, (more or less changing into blue or
green.) above, and white, often varying with dull red, beneath.

The smallness of their feet is in correspondence with their al-
most perpetual flight ; they even drink on the wing ; and their
feet, being small and weak, are little used, yet as these birds
often cling to rocks and walls when they do rest, their toes are

306 INSESSORES.

furnished with sharp crooked claws, and the hind toe can either
wholly, as in the Swifts, or partially, as in the common Chimney
Swallow, be brought to point forward.

The Swallows are widely scattered over the globe, but still are
eminently fond of warm latitudes ; they roam, indeed, over the
temperate zones, and even advance as far north as the Arctic
circle, but only in the summer season ; when cold weather ap-
proaches, they hasten to equatorial climes. Everywhere they
are known as birds of great speed, for which they are fitted by
the firm and close plumage of their bodies, their long, stiff, and
pointed wing-feathers, and their long and forked tails.

Oypselus, (Gr. kupselos, a martin.) SWIFTS or MARTINS.
The birds of this genus have the toes thickly feathered, and
all the four toes directed forwards. The species C. apous, (Gr.
without feet,) is the SWIFT, or BLACK MARTIN. This specific
name is given to this bird on account of the exceeding smattness
of its feet. It is spread over Europe in the summer season, and
is_popularly known as "Jack Screamer." This is one of the
swiftest of the Swallow family, appearing to spend the whole
day on the wing, and occasionally soaring almost out of sight,
but screaming so shrilly that the sound is plainly heard. The
Black Martins destroy a very great number of insects, retaining
them in a kind of pouch under the tongue for the use of their
young, and constantly renewing the supply.

Chaetura, (Gr. chaite, bristle ; oura, tail.) SPINE-TAILS.
The Spine-tails have the tarsus bare and longer than the mid-
dle toe ; the tail short and even ; the shafts prolonged into sharp
points.

C. pelasgia, (Gr. pelazo,io come near,) is the AMERICAN SWIFT,
or CHIMNEY SWALLOW, a bird which seems to show its appreci-
ation of the progress of civilization by leaving its old abodes in
the hollows of trees, and taking possession of chimneys free from
smoke in the summer season. This bird builds its nest in a
semi-circular form. The nest is glued together with the saliva
or unctuous matter secreted in glands provided for that purpose,
and with the same saliva it is. fastened to trees or to a chimney
wall. When the nest is in a chimney, it is usually placed on
the east side, from five to eight feet from the entrance ; when in
the hollow of a tree, it is placed high or low, according to con-
venience. Audubon counted more than a thousand that " entered
one chimney before dark," and he estimated that nine thousand
roosted in a single tree which he watched near Louisville, Ken-
tucky. This Swallow rears two broods in a season. It does not

INSESSORES. 307

migrate farther east than Nova Scotia. In the State of New
York it appears about the last of April.

The ESCULENT SWALLOW, H. esculenta, is the maker of ihe
edible bird-nests, (see Chart.) esteemed such a delicacy among
the Chinese, and a considerable article of their commerce.
These nests are made of a species of sea- weed, (fucus.) The
bird macerates and bruises it before forming the material in lay-
ers so as to construct the whitish gelatinous cup-shaped nests.
The finest are those obtained before the nest has been contami-
nated by the young. These are pure white, scarce and valuable.
The inferior ones are dark, discolored, or mixed with feathers.
These are generally converted into glue. The only preparation
for sale which these bird-nests undergo, is that of simple drying,
without exposure to the sun, after which they are packed in
small boxes. They are assorted into three kinds for the Chinese
market, according to their relative values, and distinguished into
first or best, second and third qualities.

These nests are found in Java, and they are particularly
abundant in Sumatra. They are regarded as an article of ex-
pensive luxury, and sold at most extraordinary prices ; they are
consequently consumed by persons of rank alone. The sensual
Chinese use them under an impression that they are powerfully
stimulating and tonic ; but probably their most valuable quality
is their perfect harmlessness.

The BARN SWALLOW, H. rustica, (Lat. of the country,)
ranges in the spring from New Orleans to Newfoundland. The
same name is given to the Chimney Swallow of England, which
in its song this bird entirely resembles. The nest of this bird is
something like a section of an inverted cone, and is attached to
the side of a beam or rafter in a barn or shed. The Barn Swal-
low surpasses in speed every other species, except the Humming
Bird. The tail is deeply forked, the side feathers of which much
exceed the wings in length.

The PURPLE MARTIN, H. purpurea, (Lat. of a purple color,)
is seen early in April, and for its reception in our cities habita-
tions are sometimes furnished ; occasionally its nests are seen in
the corners of houses. Its flight is easy and graceful, but not
so swift as that of the Barn Swallow. Audubon was of the opin-
ion that this Swallow goes farther south than any other of our
migratory birds.

Other interesting species are H. riparia, (Lat. ripa, a bank,)
the BANK SWALLOW, or Sand Martin, which perforates sand banks
and makes its nest in the holes ; (Plate XI. fig. 10;) H. thalas-
sina, (Gr. thalassa, the sea,) the VIOLET GREEN SWALLOW ; H.

308 INSESSORES.

fulva, (Lat. tawny,) the REPUBLICAN, or CLIFF SWALLOW. This
latter species was described by Gov. De Witt Clinton, in 1824.
Its winter retreat, is in Mexico. In summer, it is found in dif-
ferent parts of the United States, takingthe course of the valleys
of the Mississippi and Ohio. Its nest is composed of mud or
clay, with a narrow tubular neck, and resembles a coarse retort.
(See Plate XI. fig. 11.)

THIRD FAMILY BEE-EATERS.
MeropidoR, (Gr. jue'^oi//, merops.)

We place the Bee-eaters next the Swallows, following in that
arrangement the classification of Swainson, though sometimes, on
account of the lengthened form of the beak in this family, they
have been placed immediately before the tenuirostral, or thin-
billed birds.

In addition to the long, slender and tapering beak, the Bee-
eaters are distinguished by their long pointed wings ; the first
quill, for the most part, being nearly or quite as long as any
other.

These birds are generally of a green color varied with blue.
They associate in flocks, and in their appearance and rapid flight
are much like the Swallows. The food of the Meropida, con-
sists of large insects, which they capture and eat during flight.
One species is said to perch and watch for prey on the horn of
the Rhinoceros, giving notice to that animal of the approach of
the hunter ; but usually they take their food on the wing. These
birds are entirely confined to the continents and islands of the
eastern hemisphere. They do not construct nests, but lay their
eggs in holes.

The EUROPEAN BEE-EATER, M. apiaster, (Lat. a bee-eater,)
in its coloring and shape, is not unlike the King-fisher. It an-
nually visits the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, ap-
pearing in flocks of twenty or thirty, and skimming over the
vineyards and olive plantations in pursuit especially of bees and
wasps. It is remarkable that these birds are never stung ; they
seize the insect, and with their strong beak crush it at once.
The flesh of the Bee-eater is sufficiently esteemed to be sold in
the markets both of Italy and Egypt. The boys of Candia, it is
said, take it after this manner : they bend a pin like a hook, and
tying it by the head to the end of a thread, they thrust it through
a Cicada, (as boys bait hooks with a fly,) holding the other end
of the thread in their hand. The Cicada so fastened, neverthe-
less continues its flight, which the merops perceiving, pursues
and catches it, swallowing pin and all, whereby she is captured.

INSESSORES. 309

The ROLLERS, which are in some respects intermediate between
the Swallows and Bee-eaters, have been variously arranged by
naturalists. With Swainson, we place them among the Meropi-
d<z. These are represented by the genus Coracias, (Gr. kora-
kias, raven-like,) the birds of which have a straight and moder-
ate sized bill, and very short perching or insessorial feet. One
species, C. Abyssinica, has two long, loose processes, terminat-
ing the two external quills.

The COMMON, or GARRULOUS ROLLER, C. garrula, (Lat. talk-
ative,) is plentifully found in most parts of Europe. The mouth
is slightly furnished with bristles like those of the Night-jar ;
the voice is loud and chattering, whence its specific name. To
the species C. orientahs, (Lat. eastern,) Linn, the name of DOL-
LAR BIRD is given. Swainson refers it to a sub-genus Eurysto-
mus, (Gr. eurus, broad; stoma, mouth.) It resembles the com-
mon Roller, but has a shorter and wider bill, and longer wings ;
the sides of the gape are smooth. It is a native of South Aus-
tralia. The natives near Sydney call it the NATAY-KIN ; the
Colonists name it Dollar Bird. (See Chart.)

THIRD FAMILY. TODIDJE, (Lat. todus, a small bird.) TODIES.

The Todies are a small family, resembling the King-fishers
in their general form, and found chiefly within the tropics of both
hemispheres. Their legs are rather long ; their wings short and
rounded, and incapable of any but the most feeble flight. The
beak is broad and much flattened, usually blunt or rounded at
the tip. In their habits they resemble the Fly-catchers, hopping
about among the slender branches of the trees, and occasionally
making a short flight to capture insects; these form their princi-
pal food, to which, in the case of some species, berries are added.
" They have scarcely any voice except at pairing time, and their
color closely resembles that of the trees in which they dwell."
The species included in the genus Todus are confined to Tropi-
cal America.

The GREEN TODY, T. viridis, is very common in the greater
West India Islands. This is a very familiar and beautiful bird ;
(Plate X. fig. 4d.) while sitting upon some twig or low bush,
watching for flying insects, " it will often let a man come within
a few feet and look at it for minutes together, before it moves."
It is interesting to note the various means Divine Wisdom has
ordained for the attainment of a given end. The Swallow and
Tody live upon the same food, (insects ;) the Tody's short, hoi-

310 INSESSORES.

low and feeble wings, are to him as effectual for securing his
prey, as are, for the same purpose, the long and powerful pin-
ions of the Swallow to him.

Eurylaimus, (Gr. eurus, broad; laimos, throat,) is a genus of
Todies peculiar to the Eastern Continent. One species is E. Ja-
vanicus, in which the beak is, at the base, nearly as broad as its
length. Sir Stamford Raffles says : "It frequents the banks of
rivers and lakes, feeding on insects and worms. It builds nests
pendent from the branch of a tree or bush which overhangs the

FOURTH FAMILY. TROGONIDJE. TROGONS.

This is not a large family of birds, but one pre-eminent in
beauty and brilliancy of plumage. The color is usually a me-
tallic golden green, strongly contrasted with scarlet, black and
brown.

The Trogons have two toes behind and two before, as in the
Woodpecker ; still they have not the habit or power of climbing.
The wings are very short but pointed; the quill-feathers stiff;
the general plumage soft and thick. The beak is short, triangu-
lar-shaped and strong; the tip, and generally the edges are
notched ; the gape is wide. The head is rather large, and the
form full and plump ; the tail remarkably long and ample ; the
feathers regularly decrease in length outward ; and in one genus,
• Calurus, (Gr. kalos, beautiful ; oura, tail,) the tail-coverts are so
greatly developed as to conceal the tail, and hang down in nar-
row flowing plumes of great length. (See Chart.)

The food of the Trogons consists principally of insects,
"which," says Mr. Gould, "they seize upon the wing, as their
wide gape enables them to do with facility ; while their feeble
tarsi and feet are such as to qualify them merely for resting on
the branches as a post of observation, whence to mark their prey
as it passes, and to which, having given chase, to return. Daz-
zled by the brightness of the meridional sun, morning and even-
ing twilight is the season of their activity." The recesses of
the thickest forests form their chosen abode for the entire year.
The Trogons of the most exquisite plumage are found .in South
America. According to Mr. Gould, twenty-three species are
inhabitants of America and its Islands, ten of the Indian Islands
and India, and one of Africa.

The remarkable plumage and shy habits of the Trogons were
closely observed by the ancient Mexicans. According to Cortes,
three hundred men were employed in taking care of the Royal

INSESSOEES. 311

Menagerie in which large numbers of these birds were kept ;
physicians were also appointed to watch their diseases and apply
timely remedies. This was by order of the King, who not only
delighted in the sight of so many species, but was very careful
of their feathers for the sake of the famous mosaic images and
pictures, as well as other works which were made of them.

The Trogon (Calurus) resplendens, (Lat. shining brightly.) is
the QUESAL of Guatimala. Unlike some others of the family,
its beak is not serrated ; the head is surmounted with a com-
pressed and elevated crest; the upper tail-feathers are so enor-
mously developed as to hide the tail. (See Chart.) "It is
Scarcely possible," says Mr. Gould, " for imagination to conceive
anything more rich and gorgeous than the golden-green color
which adorns the principal part of the plumage, or more elegant
and graceful than the flowing plumes which sweep pendent from
the lower part cf the back, forming a long train of metallic brill-
iancy." From the feathers of this, "the most beautiful of a
beautiful tribe," — not excluding, however, those of some other
species — the Mexicans made Mosaic pictures, together with orna-
ments for their head-dresses. A picture in mosaic, made from
the feathers of this bird, is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, Eng. The subject is " Christ fainting upon the cross."
The entire picture is about as large as the size of the palm of
the hand, and the figures are only half an inch in height ; yet
it is said, the very expression of the features is preserved.

Priorities, (Gr. serrated ) The MOTMOT.

The name of this genus is derived from the serrated margins
of both the mandibles, in which particular it differs from the
other Trogons. The Motmot, P. Braziliensis, is a very curi-
ous and handsome bird, inhabiting many parts of South Amer-
ica.

What is said concerning the size and number of the PERCHING BIRDS ?
What of their variations in form and structure ? Why are they called
PERCHERS ? What is said of their power of flight ? What of their beak,
food, and musical powers ? What of their instinct in building their nests?
How do they always live ? Into what TRIBES are they arranged, and upon
what is the arrangement based ? How are the Split-Bills distinguished from
all the others ? How and upon what do they feed ? Is there any exception to
this ? Where is the home of the Fissirostral birds ? Are any found in
temperate zones? Name the FAMILIES into which this tribe is divided.
Give the characteristics of the Night-jars. In what respects do they re-
semble the Owls ? Why are these birds called Goat-Suckers ? What is
said of their voices ? What sp. are mentioned ? Which is diurnal and
what is said of it ? Describe the Common G. S. of E. What is said of the

312 INSESSORES.

Chuck-wills-widow? What of the Whip-poor-will? Repeat what is said
of the Guacharo B.

What is the second FAMILY of the Split-billed birds ? Are they noctur-
nal or diurnal? In what respects do they resemble the Night-jars ? How
do they differ from them? What is said of their flight? What other char-
acteristics are noted of the SWALLOW FAMILY? What popular name has
the Swift or Martin ? What is said of this bird ? What characteristic of
the Spine-tails are mentioned? What is the scientific name of the AMERI-
CAN SWIFT or CHIMNEY SWALLOW? What is its signification ? Repeat what
is said of this bird. What is said of the construction, uses, &c. of the edible
bird-nests? Where are they found and how regarded? What is the range of
the Barn Swallow? What English bird does it resemble ? What other sp4
are mentioned ? How are the BEE-EATERS distinguished ? What is the
general color of their plumage ? What birds do they resemble ? To what
birds are the ROLLERS intermediate ? What habit is peculiar to one sp. ?
To what hemisphere are the Rollers confined ? To which sp. of R. is the
name Dollar Bird given? Describe the E. Bee-Eater? How do the boys
of Candia take this bird?

Give the characteristics of the third FAMILY or TODIES. To what region
are the birds of the gen. Todies confined ? What is said of the Green To-
dy? What. gen. is peculiar to the Eastern Continent? What is said of
the number, plumage and size of the TROGONS, or the fourth FAMILY?
What are their characteristics ? Where found ? How many sp. according
to Mr. Gould ? How did the ancient Mexicans regard these birds ? What
use did they make of their feathers? What does Mr. G. remark of the
QUESAL of Guatimala ? Which is the most beautiful of the Trogons ? What
mosaic picture was made of its feathers? Where is the MOTMOT found?

SECTION IV.

SECOND DIVISION OF THE PERCHERS. TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS.
Dentirostres. (Lat. dens, a tooth ; rostrum, a beak.)

The upper mandible in this division is notched on each side
near the tip, whence the name Dentirostres, or Tooth-billed. In
the Shrikes, or Butcher Birds, the indentation is very decided,
and attended with a projecting tooth, so as to show a connecting
link with the Birds of Prey ; the beak being also very strong,
hooked, and sharp pointed, and the habits of the birds ferocious
and carnivorous. Even the Shrikes, however, differ from the
Falcons in having the notch confined to the horny surface of the
beak, whereas, in the Falcon, it is a true process, extending into
the bone itself.

The favorite food of the Tooth -billed birds consists of insects,
though some of them join with this food, berries and other soft
fruits. Excepting the Finches, belonging to the Cone- billed

INSESSORES. 313

birds — all the musical birds, including the Nightingale of the
Old World, and the Mocking-bird of the New, belong to the
division which we are now to consider.

The Dentirostres are spread over the globe. They are com-
prised in five families, viz: (1.) Silviada, or Warblers; (2.)
Merulidce, or Thrushes ; (3.) Muscicapida, or Fly-catchers ;
(4.) Ampelidce, or Chatterers ; (5.) Laniadce, or Shrikes.

FIRST FAMILY. THE WARBLERS.
Silviada. (Lat. Sylvia, or Silvia, a wood.)

The small singing birds comprised under the general name of
Warblers, form a very numerous, as well as interesting group.
The bill in these birds is slender, straight, awl-shaped, higher
than it is wide at the base, and furnished with bristles, the lower
mandible being straight. Audubon enumerates no less than
forty-four species of these birds found on the American Conti-
nent. The habits of the different species vary considerably ;
but in general, the Warblers frequent groves and woods, and
search for the small insects, which are their food, among the
leaves and twigs, and the crevices in the barks of trees, rather
than on the wing, like the Swallows.

Excepting the Humming Birds, we find among this group, the
smallest birds of the creation. The diminutive Golden Crests,
Regulus ; the Nightingale, Pliilo?nela ; the White-throat, or
Petty-chaps, Silvia, or Curruca, (Lat. caterpillar;) the Wood-
warbler, or Wood- wren Sylvicola, (Lat. wood inhabitant,) are
examples of genuine warblers.

Diffused over all parts of the habitable world, it seems to be the
office of these birds to prevent an undue multiplication of the innu-
merable insects which lurk within the buds, the foliage or the flow-
ers of plants. The smallness of these insects, causes them to
elude the notice of the Thrushes and the larger insectivorous birds,
whilst their habits secure them against capture by the Swallows
and other birds that take their prey only when on the wing.

The Warblers are, for the most part, migratory birds. When
the increasing warmth of spring is ushering the insect tribe into
renewed life and activity, the return of these birds is providen-
tially and wisely ordered, to prevent its troublesome increase.
In autumn, when the hosts of insects begin to diminish, and no
longer require to be kept in check, these useful little creatures
take their flight to other climes.

The Warblers may be conveniently arranged into five groups,

314 INSESSOllES.

having different tribes of insects allotted to them respectively,
and showing a correspondent diversity in their favorite haunts.

(1.) THE GOLDEN CRESTS, Sylviad&, and WOOD- WARBLERS,
SylvicolidcR, are the true warblers, confining themselves mostly
to the taller trees, where they search for winged insects among
the leaves, or capture them, like the Fly-catchers, when attempt-
ing to escape. Of these, the Gold-crested Wren, or Kinglet,
Regulus, (Lat. dim. of rex. king;) cristatus, (see Chart.) is one
of the most attractive species, and the smallest of the European
birds, three and a half inches long.

The Golden-crested Kinglet, of America, Regulus satraps, is
half an inch longer than the European species,yet agrees with
it in its general appearance. The color is olive green ; beneath
whitish, but the crown is orange, or gold colored. It is an active
and restless bird, generally found in groups, on the extremities
of twigs and bunches of leaves. The Blue Bird, Erythaca, or
Sialia Wilsonii, or Blue Robin, as it is called in some districts
of the Union, bears considerable resemblance to the Robin Red-
breast, of Europe. It is a lovely warbler, found in all parts of
our country, appearing in New York early in the spring,
(March,) but leaving in November for the South, as far as Mex-
ico. It is very useful as a destroyer of multitudes of noxious
insects. The Myrtle Bird, so called from its feeding in autumn
and winter on Myrtle-wax berries, (Myrica cerifera,) or the Yel-
low-crowned Wood-warbler, Sylvicola coronata, is perhaps the
best representation of the Wood-warblers, — it is very common
in the State of New York, and ranges from Mexico to 65o N.
Lat.

The summer YELLOW BIRD, Sylvicola cestiva, (Lat. of sum-
mer,)— so called to distinguish it from the Common Yellow Bird,
(Carduelis tristis,) is "remarkable for its instinctive sagacity in
getting rid of the eggs of the Cow Black Bird, (Molothrus pecoris.)
As the egg is too large to be thrust out, this Yellow Bird com-
mences a new nest above it ; thus almost horizontally closing it
up, and then proceeds to deposit her own eggs."

The TAILOR BIRD, Silvia, (Lat. a tit-lark,) constructs a nest
of a curious kind, — by sewing leaves together. (See Plate
XL fig. 8;)

(2.) THE REED-WARBLERS and NIGHTINGALES, of Europe,
Philomelina, which haunt the vicinity of waters, or the more
dense foliage of hedges, for insects found in such situations.
These are larger than the true Warblers, and live partly upon
fruits as well as insects.

(3.) THE STONECHATS, Saxicolina, (Lat. saxum, rock; colo,

INSESSORES. 315

I inhabit.) which prefer dry commons, or wide extended plains,
and feed on the insects peculiar to such localities. The Robin
Red-breast, Erithacus* (Gr. eriihacos, Red-breast;) rubecula,
(Lat. a Red-breast,) — of ballad -and song celebrity, and a bird
that sings throughout the whole year, — belongs to this third
group. It is smaller, and more familiar in its habits, than the
American Robin, Turdus migratorius.

(4.) THE WAG-TAILS and TIT-LARKS, Motacillida, (from mota-
cilla, Lat. for wag-tail.) in some respects like the Wading birds,
and which have for their food the insects that frequent humid
and wet places.

The American Pipit, or Tit-lark, Anthus, (Lat. a tit-lark,)
ludovicianus, is of this group, — a little bird about six and a
half inches long, varying in its plumage with age and sex ; in
the male, of grayish brown on the upper parts, and dusky white
beneath. It feeds on minute shells, shrimps, and aquatic insects
found on rocky shores and the banks of streams, or on insects
and various seeds which it finds in meadows and ploughed
grounds ; when feeding in the latter places, these Tit-larks are
seen in small flocks ; to this the specific name probably refers.
These birds appear in New York about the first of May, — but
range far North and West ; wintering in Louisiana and still
farther South.

(5.) THE TIT-MICE, Paridce, (from Parus, Lat. for tit-mouse,
or torn-tit,) — birds which search assiduously for insects among
the buds and tender shoots of trees. At the same time, they are
quite omnivorous, sometimes laying up stores of grain, and even
eating small and sickly birds, when they are able to destroy
them. Of this group, the Black-cap Tit-mouse, or Chickadee,
P. atricapillus, (Lat. black-haired,) is a familiar example, (Plate
X. fig. 4e,) a truly Northern species, and so abundant in the fur
countries, that companies of them may be found in almost every
thicket. The penduline Tit-mouse, or Bottle-tit, Parus penduli-
nus, derives its name from its purse-like, or bottle-shaped nest,
suspended on the branch of a willow or some other aquatic tree,
with an opening on the side for the ingress and egress of the bird
and its young. (Plate XI. fig. 5.)

THE CHESTNUT-CROWNED TIT-MOUSE, P. minimus, (Lat. least,)
of the Wahlamet, (near the Pacific coast,) constructs a curious
nest, resembling a long purse, and hanging from a low bush.
(Plate XI. fig. 1.) It is made chiefly of moss, down, and lint
of plants, and lined with feathers ; the female lays six white eggs.

* This is spelled Erythaca, on the Chart, after the manner of Swainsou
and others, but the true orthography is that given in the text.

310 INSESSORES.

The length of this pretty bird is only four and a half inches.
Linnaeus included the entire group of Warblers under the one
genus Motacilla.

SECOND FAMILY. THRUSHES-.

Merulida, (Lat. merula, a black bird,) or Turdida, (Lat.
TurduSj a thrush.)

The Thrushes are the most numerous and diversified of the
tooth-billed division of birds. The average size is considerably
greater than that of the Warblers. The beak of these birds is as
long as the head, and compressed at the sides; the upper mandi-
ble arched to the tip ; the notch is well marked ; the gape is
furnished with bristles; the feet are long, with curved claws
adapted for walking as well as perching, for exercising on the
ground as well as moving among the trees. The food on which
the Thrushes subsist, is less restricted than that of the Warblers;
for, besides insects and their caterpillars, snails, slugs, earth-
worms, etc., they feed largely on pulpy and farinaceous berries.
Many of the species are gregarious in the winter, and some, as
the common Fieldfare, T.pilaris, (Lat. like a ball,) are so during
the year.

The colors of the Thrushes are, for the most part, sombre, but
often elegantly arranged ; various shades of olive are the pre-
vailing hues, and these often take the form of spots running in
chains upon the breast and under parts. The Orioles are dis-
tinguished for their fine contrasts of rich black and golden
yellow ; the Breves, Pitta, (Gr. pitch,) with remarkably short
tails, and found in India and Australia, — are distinguished for
their dazzling blue and green; while some of the African
Thrushes shine like the metallic lustre of burnished steel.

The Thrushes "are common in all parts of the world, and
many of them are eminently birds of song. As illustrating the
general character and habits of the family, we may refer to the
Song Thrush, Mavis, or Throstle, (T. musicus,) which sings
with sweet and varied note from the commencement of spring,
and even earlier, to the close of summer; to the Blackbird, (T.
merula.) whose song is less varied, but still richer and mellower;
and to the Fieldfare, or Gray Thrush, (T. pilaris.)

THE AFRICAN SHORT-LEGGED THRUSHES, Brachypodidce, (Gr.
brachus, short; pous, a foot,) are a sub-family; from having four
long bristles on the back of the neck, sometimes called Bristly-
necked Thrushes.

Another sub-family, is the BABBLERS, or LONG-LEGGED THRUSHES,

INSESSORES. 317

Craterpodida, (Gr. crater, a wine-cup, or opening ; pous, a
foot,) of Australia, which have large and strong feet, and send
forth loud and disagreeable notes. Among the true Thrushes,
Merulina, is the AMERICAN ROBIN, T. migratorius, (Lat. migra-
tory,) whose cheerful note is always most welcome in the open-
ing spring, and whose large nest, in which may be seen five
beautiful sea-green eggs, appears to be regarded, even by boys,
as more sacred than others.

THE AMERICAN MOCKING BIRD, Orpheus, (Gr. proper name
of a famous musician;) polyglottus, (Gr. many-tongued,) is
another true Thrush, — having a voice capable of every variety
of modulation, surpassing, in this respect, even the European
Nightingale ; but not noted either for its gay, or its brilliant
plumage. The Mocking Birds are much sought after on account
of their extraordinary vocal and imitative powers, which remain
undiminished even in confinement. They are easily raised ; a
single bird sells for from seven to fifteen or twenty dollars; the
sum of fifty dollars has been paid, and that of one hundred dol-
lars refused for an exquisite singer. The first brood of the
Mocking Bird are always largest and stoutest. This bird is
usually about ten inches in length. The CAT BIRD, T. lividus,
(Lat. livid,) is an aberrant form, of Orpheus, and, in some parts
of the United States, very numerous. It is nearly as large as
the Mocking Bird, (see Chart,) and has a note which closely im-
itates the cry of a young kitten. The MISLETOE THRUSH, (T.
viscivorus, (Lat. viscus, a misletoe ; voro, I devour,) is said to
"surpass all other Thrushes in size, and is decidedly the largest
songster of the European birds." It is particularly fond of the
berries of the misletoe ; next to these, it prefers the berries of the
mountain ash. Its length is eleven inches. Some persons call
it the STORMCOCK, as it " pours forth its melody when the bleak
winds of winter roar through the leafless trees." The WATER-
OUZEL, or DIPPER, Cinclus, (Gr. Kinklos, the name of a bird,)
aquaticus, — is an interesting bird, found principally in hilly places,
where there are clear and. rapid brooks and rivulets. It dives
for considerable distances with apparent ease, and may be
seen perched on the top of a stone in the midst of a torrent,
in a continual dipping motion, while watching for its food, which
consists of small fishes and insects. It has been said to possess
the extraordinary power of "walking, in quest of its prey, on
the pebbly bottom of a river, and with the same ease as on dry
land."!} Respecting this alleged power, it has been well re-
marked, "If the Water Ouzel, which is specifically lighter than
water, can manage, by some inherent power, to walk on the

313 INSESSORES.

ground at the .bottom of a rivulet, then there is great reason to
hope that we, who are heavier than air, may, any day, rise up
into it, unassisted by artificial apparatus, such as wings, gas,
steam, or broom staff."

THIRD FAMILY. FLY CATCHERS.
Muscicapida, (Lat. musca, a fly ; capio, I catch.)

This very musical family, which receives its popular name
from the expertness of the birds which it comprises, in catching
the flying insects upon which they feed, is found widely diffused
throughout both the Eastern and Western Continents ; and in-
eludes many of the most beautiful of the feathered tribes. They
appear to be a connecting link between the Split-billed and
the Tooth-billed birds. Like the former, they have a beak
which is broad at the base, and hooked at the tip, while the
gape is surrounded with bristles ; like them, also, their feet are
unusually feeble, or less developed than the wings, and they feed
upon insects which they take in their flight. Indeed, they are the
most insectivorous of all the tooth-billed birds. In their generic
details, the Fly-Catchers widely differ; all, however, are united
by common peculiarities of structure ; and, particularly, by
having the beak strong, broad, flat, angular on the summit, or
culmen, and notched at the tip ; and by having the side of the
mouth defended by thick bristles.

The European birds of this family, are sometimes called
" Restricted Fly-Catchers," having shorter bristles around the
mouth, and much more slender bills than the others. Of these
there are but two species, viz., M. grisola, the GRAY, or SPOT-
TED FLY-CATCHER, known by several provincial names, all
derived from its habits, — as the " Beam Bird," from a favorite
site of its nest, and the "Cherry-chopper," from its supposed
taste for the fruit of that tree. In some portions of England,
it is called the "Post- bird," and in other parts, the "Bee-
bird." It is about six inches in length; its breast is of a dull-
ish white, slightly tinged with a dull orange, and the upper
part of the body is brown. It is a very tame bird, often build-
ing its nest in places where persons are constantly passing and
repassing, — seeming particularly partial to the vine and sweet-
briar, as the support of its nest. The note of this Fly-Catcher
is a weak chirp, and even that is not often heard.

The other European species, M. luctuosa, (Lat. sorrowful,) is
the Pied Fly-Catcher, about as large as a Linnet, found in
Prussia, Sweden, and sometimes in England. It has been called

INSESSORES. 319

"a Magpie in miniature." The bill, and the crown of the head,
are black ; the other parts of the body present various shades of
black, brown and white ; there is a white spot on its forehead,
from which its name is derived. The female lays five very
pale blue eggs.

Of the numerous American Fly-Catchers, we name first, the
King Bird, or Tyrant Fly-Catcher ; M. tyrannus, (Linn.,) or
Tyrannus intrepidus, (Lat. undaunted,) ranging during summer
from the temperate part of Mexico to the remote interior.

It receives its name from the authority which it assumes over
other birds during the time of breeding; the eggs are five in
number, of a pale green color, or dullish white. At the breeding
season, the King Bird's extreme affection for his mate and for
his nest and young, makes him suspicious of every bird that
happens to pass near his residence, so that he attacks, with-
out discrimination, every intruder. In the months of May, June
and part of July, his life is one continued scene of broils and
battles; in which, however, he generally comes off conqueror.
Hawks, and Crows, the Bald Eagle, and the Great Black Eagle,
all equally dread an encounter with this dauntless little cham-
pion, which, mounting to a considerable height above these birds,
darts down upon their backs, sometimes fixing himself there, to
the no small annoyance of his powerful antagonists. In teasing
the Eagle, he constantly keeps up a shrill and rapid twittering ;
this, in fact, is his only song. The Purple Martin, however,
from its more rapid flight, is more than a match for the King
Bird, eluding all his attacks, and teasing him as he pleases.
"I have," says Wilson, "also seen the Red-headed Woodpecker,
while clinging on a rail of the fence, amuse himself with the
violence of the King Bird, and play bo-peep with him around the
rail, while the latter, highly irritated, made every attempt, as he
swept from side to side, to strike him,— -but in vain."

In fields of pasture, the King Bird often perches upon the tops
of the mullein, and other rank weeds, near the cattle, and makes
occasional sweeps after passing insects, particularly the large
gad-fly, so annoying to horses and cattle. This bird preys upon
bees, but in his watchings of the bee-hive, it is said, he picks out
only the drones, and never injures the working bees.

He must, however, be regarded as the farmer's friend, in de-
stroying great multitudes of insects, whose larvae prey upon the
productions of his fields and gardens. Like all Fly-Catchers,
the King Bird disgorges the harder parts of insects. This bird
reaches New York the last of April or the first of May ; it leaves
the Middle States earlier than most other species. The King

320 INSESSORES.

Bird is eight inches long, and fourteen in the expanse of
its wings.

THE PHEBE BIRD, or PEWIT FLY-CATCHER, M. fusca, (Lat.
dark or dusky.) The notes of this bird are pleasing, not for any
melody which they possess, but from their association with the
returning verdure of spring. The favorite resort of the Phebe
Bird is by streams of water, under or near bridges, in caves, &c.
Near such places, he sits on a projecting twig, calling out, pe-we£,
pewittitee pe-we£, fora whole morning, — occasionally sallying after
insects, and returning to the same perch. The Pewit appears
in New York State the last of March or the beginning of April.
It lays four to five white eggs, with a few reddish spots near the
larger end, and it sometimes rears three broods in a season.
Insects are its summer food ; berries and seeds, its winter fare.
Whenever the Pewit appears, Mr. Bartram says, it is safe to
plant almost all kinds of esculent garden seeds, as, after the
arrival of this bird, there are rarely frosts severe enough to injure
them. The plumage is a dark olive brown, the bill entirely
black; the tail emarginate, the feathers whitish on the outer
web. This familiar and favorite little bird, winters from South
Carolina to Mexico.

THE WOOD PEWEE, M. virens, (Lat. green, or lively,) is gen.
erally found in the interior of forests ; it is considerably more
abundant than the Phebe Bird; is rather late in entering the
Middle States, seldom reaching Pennsylvania and New York
until from the 10th to the 15th of May, but it advances as far
North as Labrador, and is seen on the Rocky Mountains.

THE AMERICAN RED- START, M. ruticilla, (Lat. red, inclining
to golden yellow,) is found, during the summer, throughout the
United States, but winters between the tropics; it is shy and
solitary, and varies much in the brilliancy of its colors.

Genus Culicivora, (Lat. gnat-eaters,) includes the Blue-grey
Fly-Catcher, C. carulea, (Lat. dark blue,) — a lively little bird,
four and a half inches in length, noted for its being frequently
the foster parent of the young Cow-bunting, the real mother of
which drops her egg in its nest. It ranges from Texas north-
ward.

The GREENLETS, which by some naturalists are included
among the Fly-catchers, are by Audubon and Dr. Dekay erected
into a separate family, Vireonidcz.

They include about eight species, and are peculiar to Amer-
ica. The bills of these birds are of moderate size, but strong,
and broader than high at the base, which is furnished with bris-
tles. The upper mandible is notched, and the tip bent ; the tar.

INSESSORES. 321

sus of moderate length, as is also the tail, which is more or less
emarginate. We can only glance at the principal species. They
feed upon insects and berries.

The YELLOW-THROATED GREENLET, V. flavifrons, (Lat. yel-
low-front,) is of an olive green color ; it winters in Texas and
Mexico, but in summer advances as far north as Nova Scotia.
This Greenlet is said to construct a pendulous nest. The length
is from five to six inches.

The SOLITARY GREENLET, V. solitarius, has a bill that is very .
short and nearly as broad as the Fly-catcher's. The color of
this Greenlet is dusky olive; the length five inches. It winters
in Mexico, but is seen as far north as Nova Scotia and as far
west as the Columbia river.

The WHITE-EYED GREENLET, V. novoboracensis, (of New
York,) has a short, straight bill, abruptly curved at the tip and
flattened at the base. Its general color is a dark olive, with white
underneath ; the third quill is the longest ; the length five inches.
The notes of this bird are uncommonly sweet. It uses bits of
newspaper in making its nest, and Wilson says is, therefore, some-
times called politician. This Greenlet is seen in New York
early in April, and is common ; it leaves for the South in Octo-
ber.

The WARBLING GREENLET, V. gilvus, (Lat. pale yellow,) is
of a pale green color above, but whitish beneath ; the first and
fifth primaries are equal ; the bill short ; the length five inches.
This is a musical little bird, wintering in tropical America but
reaching New York early in May, and advancing to 46o N. L. ;
it is seen westward as far as Columbia river. Its nest is pen-
dent, containing from four to six white eggs, marked with brown
spots and lines. The length is five inches.

The RED-EYED GREENLET, V. olivaceus, (from Lat. oliva, an
olive,) is of a light olive green above ; beneath whitish, with
a yellowish tinge on the sides. It has a long and strong
bill. This is a common species, ranging from Mexico to 55o
N. L.

The LONG-BEAKED GREENLET, V. longirostris, (Lat. long-
beaked,) has wings not reaching to half the length of the tail;
the first. quill shorter than the fourth. It is found in the Antilles ;
the length is five and one-half inches.

Another genus of the Greenlets is ICTERIA, with but one spe-
cies, the YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT, /. viridis, (Lat. green,) con-
necting the Fly-catchers with the Greenlets, and also forming the
passage between the Merula and the Vireo. This bird has a
strong and lengthened beak, curved and with small divergent

/*^^:^>'^

f OFTri£ \

I UNIVERSITY \

322

INSESSORES.

bristles at the base ; tbe wings are rounded ; the third and fourth
primaries the longest ; the first scarcely longer than the sixth.
The color is a greenish olive ; the length seven inches. This bird
attracts attention by its singular notes, and the oddity of its mo-
tions. It comes from the tropical regions of America early in
May ; along the Atlantic does not advance farther than the
southern part of New York ; it is, however, not uncommon in
the Western States. It leaves us among the earliest, going
South about the middle of August.

FOURTH FAMILY. CHATTERERS, or WAX- WINGS.
Ampelida, (Gr. afinellg, ampelis, a vine or singing bird.)

The beak in the Chatterers is stouter in proportion to its length
than in the Fly-catchers, the form of the lower mandible ap-
proaching that of the cone-billed birds ; the upper mandible is,
however, rather broad at the base, flat, with the upper edge more
or less angular and ridged, and the tip distinctly notched. The
feet are, for the most part, stout, with the outer toe united to the
middle one as far as, or beyond the first joint. In many, the wide
gape extends beyond the eye, and in some it is nearly as wide as
in the Night-jars. The absence of bristles from the gape indi-
cates that the wide opening is not to catch insects on the wing,
as in the Swallow family. The Chatterers feed chiefly on ber-
ries and other soft fruit, which they swallow whole ; and this
food naturally requires a wide passage ; occasionally they feed
on insects. Their home seems to be in fruit-bearing trees, and
they very seldom come to the ground.

The species in this family are not very numerous ; but they
are of varying forms, and widely scattered. Many of them are
distinguished for their soft and silky plumage and the brilliant
colors which adorn it. The plumage of the head forms a long
and pointed crest, which is capable of being erected, and is com-
mon to both sexes. Some of these birds are distinguished by hav-
ing singular appendages to the secondaries of the wing, and
sometimes to the feathers of the tail ; the shaft of the feather
being extended beyond the vane, and its tip dilated into a flat
oval appendage of a brilliant scarlet hue, and exactly resembling
the appearance of red sealing-wax. Hence they are sometimes
called Wax-wings ; from the silky softness and smoothness of
their plumage, and particularly that of the tail, they are also
named SILK-TAILS.

The BOHEMIAN CHATTERER, or SILK-TAIL, A. garrulus, or
Bombycilla, (Gr. Bombux, silk-worm,) garrulus, is the only spe-

INSESSORES. 3J3

cies known in Europe ; south-east of Germany it is quite abun-
dant. Its general plumage is of a purplish red hue ; the crown
and crest are of a chestnut brown ; some five or six of the
secondary feathers, and, in very old males, some of the tail feath-
ers also, have the extended scarlet appendages which are refer-
red io above. Prince Bonaparte gives a very amiable charac-
ter of the European Wax-wing in a state of nature. In the
spring it eats all sorts of flies and other insects ; in autumn and
winter different kinds of berries. It is fond of the berries of
the mountain ash ; of grapes it is exceeding greedy, and is,
therefore, with reason, called ampelis. When taking wing it ut-
ters a note resembling the syllables zi, zi, zi, but it is generally
silent, though it bears the name of Chatterer. In captivity it
eats almost any vegetable substance, losing at the same time,
all its vivacity and its amiable social habits. Its length is nine
or ten inches. This bird was seen by Dr. Richardson in N. Lat.
50o, in flocks, near the Great Bear Lake ; it has also been pro-
cured in the vicinity of Philadelphia.

The CEDAR WAX-WING, or CEDAR BIRD, B. Carolinensis,
ranges from Texas as far north as the Fur countries, and west-
ward to the Columbia river. Its nest is built in the fork of a
cedar or apple tree, and is composed of stalks of grass, coarse
without and fine within. In this it lays three or four eggs of a
bluish white, marked with dots of black and purple. It devours
every fruit or berry that comes in its way. Dr. Brewer says it
remains all the year round at Boston, and confers great benefit
on the farmer by destroying thousands of the destructive canker-
worm. Audubon thinks the name of Fruit devourers would be
more appropriate for these birds than that of Chatterers. " By
way of dessert," however, they eat largely of winged insects,
being troubled with most voracious appetites.

The A. cotinga, (Gr. from kotillo, to chatter,) (see Chart,)
an inhabitant of Brazil, is sometimes called the Pompadour Chat-
terer, from having been introduced into Europe by the thought-
less and extravagant mistress of Louis XV.

The RED, or JAPANESE WAX- WING, B. phcmicoptera, (Gr.
phoinicos, red; pteron, wing,) bears great resemblance to the
Cedar Bird. It was discovered by means of the scientific
mission to Japan, instituted by the government of the Nether-
lands.

The BELL- BIRD, Procnias, (Gr. prokne, a proper name or
Swallow,) carunculata, (Lat. from caruncula, a small piece of
flesh.) is a species of the Chatterers distinguished by the soft car-
buncle or fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak. It is the

324 INSESSORES.

celebrated Campanero of South America, whose voice, during
the stillness of mid-day, it is said, exactly resembles the tolling
of a bell.

At uncertain intervals, the Chatterers appear in particular
districts in immense flocks, and so remarkable have such visita-
tions appeared, that they have been recorded as events of history,
and regarded as ominous, in some way, of great public calami-
ties.

FIFTH FAMILY. SHRIKES, or BUTCHER BIRDS.
Laniadce, (Lat. lanius, a butcher.)

The structure of these birds closely resembles that of the
Perchers, but their beak is very similar to that of the falcons, in
its strength, its arched form, its strongly hooked point, (see Chart,)
and in the distinct tooth which precedes the usual notch of the
tooth-billed tribe. This peculiarity of beak is accompanied by
a carnivorous appetite, a rapacious cruelty, and a courage alto-
gether raptorial, and which, as indicating a kindred nature, have
induced naturalists to associate them with birds of prey.

The Shrikes not only devour the larger insects, especially
grasshoppers, but even attack and overpower small birds and
quadrupeds, seizing them with their beak or claws, and bearing
them to some station near to tear them in pieces with their
toothed and crooked beak. These birds live in families for a
few weeks after the breeding season ; they fly irregularly and
precipitately, uttering shrill cries ; nestle on trees or in bushes ;
lay five or six eggs and take great care of their young. Many
of them have the curious habit of impaling their prey upon a
large thorn, and then pulling it to pieces and'devouring it at their
leisure. Hence they have derived the name of Butcher-birds.
Mr. Bell, when traveling in Russia, had one of these birds given
to him, which he kept in a room, having fixed up a sharpened
stick for him in the wall ; and on turning small birds loose in the
room, the Butcher-bird instantly caught them by the throat in
such a manner as soon to suffocate them, and then stuck them on
the stick, pulling them on with bill and claws ; and so served as
many as were turned loose, one after another, on the same stick.

The power which the Shrikes have of clutching with their
toes is remarkably great. They always hold their prey in one
foot, resting on the tarsal joint of that foot, unless when they
have fastened the prey upon a thorn, when they pull it to pieces
in a contrary direction. They show great boldness in defending

INSESSORES. 325

themselves and their nests from their more powerful enemies ;
and the parents evince great attachment to each other as well
as to their young. This family comprises a large number of
species, distributed through all quarters of the globe. Some of
them have a remarkably melodious song.

The GREAT GRAY SHRIKE, L. excubitor, (Lat. a sentinel,) re-
ceives its specific name from its habit of watching for birds of
prey, and chattering loudly as soon as it perceives them. Bird-
catchers sometimes avail themselves of this peculiarity in taking-;
hawks. A pigeon is fastened to a net by way of bait. A string
is attached and brought within the turf hut where the bird-catcher
sits. Close to the hut a shrike is tied to the ground, and two
pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for the bird from the
weather, and as a refuge from the hawk. As soon as the hawk
appears in the distance, the shrike becomes agitated ; as it draws
nearer, he begins to scream with fright; and just as the hawk
pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf, which is the sig-
nal to the bird-catcher to pull the string, thereby enclosing the
hawk within the folds of the net. The nest of this bird is built
on trees, and contains about six grayish-white eggs, ash-colored
on the larger end. The length of the Great Gray Shrike is from
nine to ten inches.

The GREAT AMERICAN SHRIKE, L. borealis, (Lat. northern,)
is larger in size, but in other respects, does not differ much from
the preceding European Shrike.

The RED- BACKED SHRIKE, L. coUurio, (Gr. kollurion) has
derived its English name from having the back, scapulars,
and wing-coverts of a rusty red color. (See Chart.)

What is the 2d DIVISION of the PERCHERS? Why are they so called?
In what birds is the notch most remarkable? What are their habits? How
does their beak differ from the Falcons' ? What is said of the TOOTH-BILLED
BIRDS? Do they include all the musical birds? What is the exception?
Into how many FAMILIES are these birds divided? What is the 1st FAMILY?
What is said of their numbers? How many American sp. does Audubon
enumerate? What is said of the habits and size of these birds? What
office do they perform? What is said of their migrations? Into how many
GROUPS may they be arranged? Which are the TRUE WARBLERS? What
sp. are particularly mentioned? Which is the smallest of European birds?
What birds are included in the 2d GROUP ? What in the 3d GROUP? What
celebrated bird is found in this group? How does it differ from the A.
Robin? What is the 4th GROUP? What A. sp. is mentioned? What is
the 5th GROUP? What is a familiar example? Why is the Penduline Tit
OP Bottle Tit so called ?

Name the 2d FAMILY. What is said of their numbers, favorite haunts
and average size ? What of their beak, food and plumage ? For what are

14

gO(J INSESSORES.

the ORIOLES distinguished ? For what the BREVES and AFRICAN THRUSHES ?
What sp. illustrate the general character and habits of this family ? To
what sub-family does the AMERICAN ROBIN belong? What is said of the
Mocking-bird? What of the Cat-bird? Of the Misletoe Thrush? Of the
Water Ouzel or Dipper ?

What is the 3d FAMILY ? Why are they so called ? How do they appear
to connect the Split-billed and Tooth-billed birds? Into how many genera
does Audubon arrange them? What are the EUROPEAN FLY-CATCHERS
sometimes called and why? Mention the sp. What is said of the King-
bird? What of the Phebe B. ? What of the Wood Pewee and the Amer-
ican Redstart? How have the Greenlets been arranged? What is said
of them?

What is the 4th FAMILY? Give the characteristics of these birds. What
is their food ? What is said of their plumage ? Why are they called WAX-
WINGS? Name and describe the only E. sp. ? What is said of the Cedar
B.? What of the Pompadour Chatterer ? Of the Asiatic Wax-wing ? Of
the Bell B. ? What has been inferred from the appearance of immense
flocks of Chatterers in certain districts ?

What is the name of the 5th and last FAMILY? What is said of the
structure of these birds? What accompanies their peculiarity of beak? Is
their food confined to the larger insects? What curious habit have
they? What name is hence given to them? What is related by Mr. Bell?
What is said of the power of their toes? What of their boldness? Does
this family include many sp. ? What is said of the G. G. SHRIKE ? What
of the Great American S. ? What of the Red-backed S. ?

Trace those mentioned on the Chart.

SECTION V.

THIRD DIVISION OF THE PERCHERS. CONE-BILLED BIRDS.
Conirostres. (Lai. conus, a cone ; rostrum, a beak.)

This division is less numerous than the Dentirostres, but still
includes a great number of birds of varying size, structure and
habits. Naturalists regard this tribe as typical, not only in the
Order of the Perchers. but in the whole Class of Birds.

The chief character by which they are associated together, is
found in the beak, which, though differing in shape and compar-
ative size, is generally short ; at the same time, it is thick, and
very strong, more or less conical in form, and usually without a
notch at the tip. In one ^pretty large group, however, the
TANAGERS, of Louisiana, and South America, — gay, fire-colored
birds, — the beak, while partaking of the conical form of this
division, is distinctly notched ; constituting them one link of
connexion between this and the preceding tribe, (Dentirostres.)

INSESSORES.

The feet in the Cone-billed Birds are, upon the whole, formed
more for perching than for walking, though many birds of this
division, walk habitually upon the ground.

Seeds and grain are the principal food of these, the * Hard-
billed " Birds ; and for opening the different capsules, and seed
vessels, as well as for crushing hard seeds themselves, their stout
and horny beaks are peculiarly fitted. Some of these birds,
however, join insects to vegetable food ; and a part of them are
nearly or quite omnivorous. As the form of the beak varies from
that of a short and broad cone, so does the appetite proportiona-
bly vary from an exclusive seed diet. The Cone-billed Birds,
particularly the FINCHES, seem to prefer the temperate and
colder to the warmer regions; but they are represented in all the
countries of the globe. The families of this tribe are the follow-
ing, viz: (1.) Corvidce, or Crows ; (2.) Slurnidce, or Starlings;
(3.) Fringillida^ or Finches; (4.) Loxiada, or Cross-bills; (5.)
JBucerotidcB, or Horn-bills; (6.) Musophagida, or Plantain
Eaters.

FIRST FAMILY. THE CROWS.
Corvida, (Lat. corvus, a raven.)

THE CROWS are among the largest of the Passerine, or Perch-
ing Birds. They are widely spread, but yet comparatively few
in number. Their beak is powerful, more or less compressed at
the sides, conical, but long, having the upper mandible usually
arched, the gape nearly straight, and the nostrils concealed by
stiff bristles, pointing forwards. The plumage is dark and som-
bre, often black, -more or less glossed, and sometimes varied with
gray or white. To this sombre coloration, the Jays, however,
are an exception, being usually arrayed in the richest azure and
purple. They are also more exclusively arboreal than others of
the family which walk a great deal on the ground.

The Corvidce. are birds of firm and compact structure ; their
wings are long, pointed and strong ; their feet and claws robust.
Their disposition is bold and daring ; they are very sagacious ;
easily tamed, and rendered familiar. Most of them have the
faculty of imitating with much accuracy the sounds which they
hear, and even words of human language. They show a strange
propensity for thieving, and for hiding substances that can be of
no use to them whatever, particularly if they display metallic or
polished surfaces, or brilliant colors. They may be ranked as
omnivorous ; insects and their larvae, grain, fruits, bread, flesh,

323 . INSESSORES.

both when fresh and when putrid, they can, by turns, devour
with avidity.

"THE CROW, (Corvus,) "as Swainson strikingly remarks, "is
the type of types, or the preeminent type of all birds, uniting a
greater number of properties than are to be found in any other
genus of birds. Like the Hawk, it soars in the air, and seizes
living birds; like the Vulture, it devours putrid substances, and
picks out the eyes of young animals; like the Climbers, it dis-
covers its food when hidden from the eye, by pecking ; like the
Parrot -family, it has a taste for vegetable food; has great cun-
ning, sagacity, and powers of imitation, even to counterfeiting
the human voice; like the Waders, it walks with facility, and
has great powers of flight; like the Aquatic birds, it can both
catch and feed upon fish. Thus it unites some of the properties
of all other birds, and stands the preeminent type ofthe Perchers."

The largest and most powerful species of the genus Corvus, is
the well known Raven, C. corax, (Lat. a raven,) — the CORBIE,
of Scotland^ celebrated even from the time of the universal
deluge, and ever looked upon as a bird of dark omen. It is
twenty-five inches in length, and fifty inches in the spread of the
wings, — ranging from the Arctic seas to the Cape of Good Hope,
in the Eastern Continent, and from the same seas to Mexico, on
the Western; unchanged in character, amidst all the variations
and extremes of heat and cold ; traveling in pairs, and flying so
high that it would escape notice but for its frequent cry ing j in
all times and places, showing itself possessed of acute and
powerful sight and smell ; and at perpetual variance with all
other feathered tribes.

THE COMMON 'CROW, C. Americanus, is seventeen inches in
length, being somewhat smaller than the Common Carrion Crow
of Europe, from which it differs in its voice, its gregarious habits,
and the shape of its tongue. Both are regarded and treated as
nuisances. Tens of thousands of them are shot every season.
They may be of some use to farmers in ploughing time, by
picking up worms and the larvae of insects; but of other good
deeds of the Crow, we are ignorant. No sooner are the seeds
in the ground, than he begins to search after and devour them ;
for Indian Corn and eggs he seems to have a wonderful inclina-
tion; and even relishes young chickens, turkeys and goslings;
at the same time, he is very cunning in avoiding the sn ires
which are devised to entrap and destroy him. The FISH CROW,
C. ossifragus, (bone-breaker,) — found on the sea-coast as far
North as New York, like the Raven and Common Crow, robs
other birds of their eggs and their young; but, being regarded

INCESSORES. 329

as inoffensive, it is usually unmolested. It takes the liberty,
however, to feed with great freedom on the best garden fruits.
The MAGPIES, Pica, (Lat. magpie,) and the JAYS, Garrulus, (Lat.
chatting, or talkative,) are near relatives of the Crows. The
well known BLUE JAY, G. cristatus, (crested,) is capable of living
in cold as well as warm climates, and is found in all parts of the
United States. It is truly omnivorous, and, in times of scarcity,
has been known to feed even on carrion. Though extremely
beautiful in its appearance and graceful in its movements, (see
Plate X. fig. 4c.) it is a deceitful, and often a very mischievous
bird. The NUT-CRACKERS, Nucifraga, (Lat. nux, a nut; frango,
to break.) all belong to this family. In their habits, they resem-
ble both the Jays and the Woodpeckers, — climbing trees and
perforating their bark, and devouring all sorts of fruits and
insects, as well as small birds. The FRUIT CROWS, Coracina,
are a sub-family of South American Birds, about whose proper
place there has been some question among naturalists, but which
are placed by Swainson with the Corvida. The most remark,
able of these are the Capuchin Baldhead, Coracina gymnocephala,
(Gr. bald headed,) a bird about as large as the Common Crow,
of Spanish-snuff color, or, as some say, capuchin color. Its
large beak and ample forehead, bare of feathers, to which the
specific name refers, give it a very singular appearance. The
Crested Crow, C. cephaloptera, (Gr. head-winged,) is also a sin-
gular looking bird, of a uniform blue-black hue, having the
head and base of the bill ornamented with a crest, forming a sort
of parasol, to shade the face, and reaching to the end of the bill,
compressed in the same manner as in the Rupicola, or Cock of
the Rock. " The sides of the neck are naked, but long feathers
forming a loose pelerine, and hanging down lower than the
breast, spring from beneath the throat and from the sides of the
neck. This crest and feathers of the pelerine give metallic
reflections/' (Lesson.)

In the family of the Corvida are included the Birds of Para-
dise, which some naturalists have, with reason, erected into a
separate family, called Paradiseadce, including some of the most
singular and magnificent of the feathered tribes. They are
natives of New Guinea, to which they are almost confined. Of
these birds, splendid as they are, fiction has presented many
strange and exaggerated descriptions. For a long time, it was
asserted that some of them are without legs ! They considera-
bly resemble the Crows in their general structure, and they also
approach them in size. In these birds, the wings are long and
round, the tail varying in length at the extremity, or else

g30 INSESSOBES.

rounded. The tarsi are robust, long, and covered by a single
feathered scale ; the toes long and strong, especially the hind
toe ; the claws large, curved, and powerful. The sides of the
body, the neck, the breast, the tail, and sometimes the head, are
ornamented with lengthened and peculiarly developed showy
feathers ; the plumage of the face and throat, is commonly of a
scaly or velvety texture, and most richly glossed with metallic
hues, while other parts of the body are frequently arrayed in
rich and brilliant colors.

There are several species of these birds, but the EMERALD
BIRD OF PARADISE, which is figured on the Chart, is the one best
known. It is impossible adequately to describe its beauty of
form, and the vivid and changing tints of its plumage. The
generic part of the scientific name, Paradisea apoda, is from the
Greek Paradeisos, a pleasure-ground ; th^ specific name, which
means footless, was given it by Linnaeus, " because the older
naturalists called it footless. 'r The truth is, the natives of New
Guinea were accustomed to dry birds of this species, (having
first cut off the legs,) and to offer them for sale. They were
taken to other countries in this "footless" condition ; and hence,
conjectures arose that they lived in the air, buoyed up by the light-
ness of their feathery covering ; that the shoulders were used for
a nest ; that the only rest which they took, was by suspending
themselves from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail ,
that their food was the morning dew, — and other things of a like
character, — amusing enough, but entirely without foundation, in
fact. So far from living wholly on dew, this bird eats no small
amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, etc., which, however,
it will not touch when dead ; it also feeds largely on the seeds
of the teak tree, and on figs and aromatics ; when alive, it is
about the size of a Common Jay, or Pigeon ; its note is like that
of the Starling. The body, breast, and lower parts, are of a
deep rich brown ; the forehead is clothed with close-set feathers
of a velvety black shot with green ; the throat of a rich golden
green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the tail are clothed with a
splendid plume of downy feathers of a soft yellow color. By
these are placed two long filaments, or thread-like shafts,
which extend nearly two feet in length. (See figure on the
Chart.) "Of these beautiful feathers, the bird is so proud, that
it will not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon them,
and it is constantly examining its plumage, to see that there are no
spots on it. When in its wild state, it always flies and sits with
its face to the wind, lest its elegant flying plumes should be dis-
arranged." The female is without these floating plumes of the

INSESSORES. 331

male, and her colors are less lustrous. The Emerald, in its
motions is lively and agile, and, in general, it perches only upon
the tops of the most lofty trees. These birds are killed by the
natives with blunt arrows, and sold to the Europeans ; this forms
a gainful traffic ; and hence, the Chinese, it is said, fabricate
imitations of these " celestial fowls," of the feathers of Parrots
and Paroquets, which they sell at high prices to strangers.

SECOND FAMILY. THE STARLINGS.
Sturnida. (Lat. Slurnus, a starling, or stare.)
THE STARLINGS are a numerous and widely distributed fam-

ily ; larger, for the most part, than the average of the
birds ; but of less size than the Crows, which, in structure and
manners, they much resemble. The beak in these birds, is of a
form well adapted for penetrating the earth in search of the
worms and underground larvae upon which they feed.

The plumage is commonly of dark colors, but has a peculiar
richness; black, glossed with lustrous hues of steei blue, purple,
or green, of the prevailing color, but occasionally it is relieved
by broad masses of crimson or yellow, (and, in a lew instances,
of white,) as in the Icterus, or Baltimore Oriole.

The Starlings live in societies, sometimes immensely numer-
ous, and seem universally to prefer the locality of plains fre-
quented by cattle ; in this particular, resembling the Maize
Birds.

THE COMMON STARLING, (S. vuJgaris,) it has been observed,
becomes wonderfully familiar in the house ; is very docile ;
always gay and wakeful ; soon knows all the inhabilants of the
house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself ».o
their humors ; he repeats correctly the airs which he is taught,
imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the
birds in the same room with himself; but his acquirements are
of little value, for he forgets as fast as he learns The Starling
lays, twice in a year, from four to six eggs of a delicate pale
blue, or of an ashy green color. It is about the size of the
Blackbird.

THE MEADOW STARLING, or Meadow Lark, (Sturnella ludo-
viciana,) is a beautiful bird, found abundantly throughout the
United States, and as far North as the Fur countries, wintering
in the Carolinas, or Florida. It builds its nest at the foot of
some tall, strong grass. This bird, though useful in destroying

332 INSESSORES.

thousands of larvae in meadows, is a little too fond of scratching
up the seeds of grain, and of plucking up young corn; it has
been known even to kill and eat small birds. The male is
about eleven inches in length.

THE RED-WINGED STARLING, S. prcedatorius, (Lat. plunder,
ing,) ranges from Labrador to Mexico, — north of Maryland
being migratory. From its strong predilection for corn or
maize, and its extensive depredations upon the young ears, it has
acquired a bad reputation, having among other names, that of
CORN or MAIZE THIEF. A remarkable characteristic of this
bird is, that the male is nearly two inches longer than the female,
and of proportionate magnitude.

THE BOAT- TAILS are American Birds, and the largest of the
Starling family, and might easily be mistaken for Crows. Their
t ills are so concave on their upper sides as to resemble a boat,
whence the sub-family name, ScaphiduriiKZ, (Gr. skaphis, a
boat; oura, a tail.) The typical birds of this group, (Scaplii-
dura?) are found in South America.

Another genus, sometimes included in the Boat-tail Birds, is
Quiscalus, which has several representatives in the United States.
Among these are (1) the Boat-tailed Grackle, or Great Crow Black
Bird, Q. major, (Lat. greater,) about sixteen inches in length, and
found in the Southern States, particularly on the sea-coast. The
food of this species consists, principally, of the small crabs, called
* fiddlers;" (2.) the Purple Grackle, or Common Crow Black-
bird, is a constant resident in the Southern States, but migrating
very far North. It appears in the State of New York about
the middle of April, and is notorious, and dreaded for its attacks
on Indian Corn ; (3,) the Rusty Crow Blackbird, Q.ferrugineus,
(Lat. iron-colored,) of similar character and habits with the pre-
ceding, but ranging still farther North.

The sub-family, Lamprotornina, (Gr. lamprotes, splendor;
onus, a bird,) includes Grackles found in Asia and Africa, in
which they represent the Boat-tails of America.

THE ORIOLES, or Hang-Nests, Icterus, (Gr. Yellow Thrush,)
— sub-family, Icterina, — are a numerous and beautiful group
of American Birds, of which the Baltimore Oriole, /. Baltimore,
is the most noted. This is sometimes called Golden Oriole,
Golden Robin ; and also Fire-Bird, Fire Hang-Bird, from
the bright orange seen through the green leaves, and resem-
bling a flash of fire; but more generally, the Baltimore Bird ;
its colors of black and orange, resembling those of the arms
or livery of Lord Baltimore, formerly proprietary of Mary-
land. The materials which this bird uses for making its nest,

INSESSORES. 333

vary with the temperature. In Louisiana, its nest (see Plate
XI. fig. 4) is constructed of moss, woven throughout, so that the
air can easily pass through it, and it is placed in the coolest posi-
tion", so strongly is it secured, that no wind can carry it off
without breaking the branch to which it is suspended. In Penn-
sylvania and New York, the nest is constructed of the warmest
and softest materials, and so placed as to be exposed to the
sun's rays. In summer, the Baltimore Orioles are dispersed
over the United States, and as far North as Nova Scotia. The
song of this bird, is a clear, mellow whistle, repeated at short
intervals. The male, according to Audubon, does not receive
its full plumage until the third spring. The principal food of the
Oriole consists of caterpillars, beetles, and bugs, particularly one
of a brilliant glossy green.

Dr. DeKay, in the Natural History of New York, includes
the Crow Blackbirds, (Quiscalus,) the Orioles, (Icterus,) the Cow
Bunting, (Molothrus,) and the Bob-o'link, (Dolichonyx,) in one
family, Quiscalida. But Audubon arranges these together,
with the Marsh Blackbird, Agelaius, in the family AgelaincB,

MINO BIRD. — Among the Starlings we also place the Mino
Bird, Eulabes, (Gr. eulabes, circumspect, or religious,) Javana-
cus, or Gracula religiosa ; following Swainson in this arrange-
ment, who deems it quite unreasonable to place this long-legged
Grackle close to the short-legged ROLLERS, as M. Lesson has
done. This bird has a short and stout beak, with the tip dis-
tinctly notched. Its plumage is of a deep velvety black, with a
white space in the middle of the wing ; behind the eye spring
fleshy carbuncles of a bright orange color.

The Mino Bird feeds on insects and fruits. It is easily tamed ;.
learns to whistle and talk with great facility, and is therefore a
great favorite with the Javanese. Marsden says, it has the fac-
ulty of imitating human speech in greater perfection than any
other of the feathered tribe. There is said to be a smaller
variety of this bird in India.

THIRD FAMILY. FINCHES.
Fringittida. (Lat. Fringilla, a finch.)

The Finches are a large and interesting family, the smallest
of the Perchers, and, for the most part, excellent songsters.
They have short, thick, and powerful beaks ; both mandibles are
usually of equal thickness, and their length and breadth nearly
alike, so that when the beak is closed, it generally appears like
a. very, short cone divided in the middle by the gape. In some

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Nest of the CHESTNUT CROWNED TITMOUSE, suspended from the
fork of a twig, nine inches long, more than three in diameter, entrance
at the top less than an inch wide, made of the softest materials.
Fig. 2a. Nests of the AFRICAN WEAVER-BIRDS, (REPUBLICAN GROSBEAKS of
Swainson.) The numerous entrances to this BIRD TOWN lead to regu-
lar streets, having nests on each side, at about two inches distance from
each other ; the general roof or cover is built by the united labors of
the birds, and sometimes shelters hundreds. That from which this fig-
ure was taken was thought to contain a society of eight hundred or a
thousand.

Fig. 2b. Hive nests of the SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRDS. The lower surface
abounds with perforations admitting the birds to their nests, but ex-
cluding snakes and other intruders. They never occupy the, old nests,
but continue to add successive tiers until the branches yield to the ac-
cumulated weight.

Fig. 3. Nest of the WOOD SWALLOW.

Fig. 4. Nest of the BALTIMORE ORIOLE, closely interwoven with flax, hemp,
tow, hair, and bits of thread, cord, &c., stitched through and through
with horse hair, securely suspended from the branch of a tree.
Fig. 5. Nest of the PENDULINE TITMOUSE, or BOTTLE TIT, made of the
down of the willow, poplar, and thistle, lined with feathers, containing
from ten to fourteen eggs.

Fig. 6. Nest of the PENSILE WEAVER-BIRDS, or WEAVER FINCHES, shaped
like a Chemist's retort ; suspended over water from trees ; entrance
from beneath.
Fig. 7. Nest of the WREN ; of hay, if against a hay-stack ; of moss, if

against a mossy tree.

Fig. 8. Nest of the TAILOR-BIRD, or TAILOR WARBLER, of Ceylon, curi-
ously formed by stitching with plant fibres or threads of cotton a dead
leaf to a living one ; nest open at the top and filled with fine down.
A species in Italy are said to sew th«ir materials together with spiders'
webs.
Fig. 9. BAR-TAILED HUMMING BIRD, of Peru; the nest of soft delicate

materials, is often warped or woven together with spiders' webs.
Fig. 10. Nests of the BANK SWALLOWS or SAND MARTINS, numerous in sand
banks or artificial excavations, such as gravel-pits. Audubon says,
"the little creatures are so industrious he has known a hole dug to the
depth of three feet four inches, the nest finished in four days, and the
first egg deposited on the morning of the fifth."

Fig. 11. GOURD-SHAPED nests of the REPUBLICAN or CLIFF SWALLOW, built
of muddy sand under the eaves or cornices of buildings, or attached
to rocks overhanging rivers, where they are found grouped by hundreds.
NOTE. — The nests of RAPTORIAL birds are seldom met with, as they are
usually built in lofty trees or inaccessible precipices. OWLS do not usually
construct nests, but deposit their eggs in some hole, in a tree, an old build-
Ing, or in the ground. INSECTIVOROUS birds are solitary builders ; among
the Shrikes, Thrushes, Warblers, Tit-mice, and Fly-catchers, there is not
r>ne instance of a species either living or building in societies. Pensile
lests are altogether peculiar to perching birds, and are more common in
tropical than temperate latitudes. Hundreds of hang-nests may be seen in
Brazil attached to a single tree; some of them are said to measure between
four and five feet. Other nests are said to have a portico or ante-room
where the male bird often sits during the time of the female's incubation.

PI .

INSESSORES. 337

genera, however, the conical form is less obvious, by the lateral
and vertical swelling of its outline. The GROSBEAK, or HAW-
FINCH, Coccothraustes, (Gr. kokkos, grain; thraud, I break,) has
a beak enormously thick in proportion to its length, and in com-
parison with the size of the head. In this bird, and, indeed, in
all the Finches, the great strength of the beak well adapts it for
the uses to which it is destined, as the food of this bird consists
of seeds often enclosed in woody capsules of great hardness, or
the kernels of stone fruits, which must either be opened by a
forcible wrench, or crushed by a strong pressure. The Finch-
es, besides seeds, also feed on grain, and occasionally on
insects.

These birds frequent fields, groves, and woodlands ; numbers
of them are found in gardens, building their nests in bushes.
Many of them, in a state of captivity, are rendered subservient
to human improvement, and become favorite domestic pets. So
numerous are the genera and species of this family, it is impos-
sible, within the limits of this volume, to give any more than the
briefest notices of some of the more prominent ones.

1. We notice the WEAVERS, sub-family, Ploceina, (Gr. plo-
keus, a weaver )

These birds build their nest upon branches extending over
a river or' pool of water ; it is shaped exactly like a chemist's
retort, (Plate XI. fig 6 ;) and is suspended from the head ; and
the shank, of eight or nine inches length, at the bottom of which
is the opening, almost touches the water. It is made of green
grass, and curiously woven. The Weaver Birds also construct
the celebrated hive-shaped nests. (See nests of the Social
Weaver Birds, Plate XL fig. 2.) The Textor, (Lat. Weaver,)
erythrorhyncus, (Gr. eruthros, red ; rhunchos, a beak.) The
RED-BEAKED WEAVER, of South Africa, companies with Buffa-
loes, and obtains from their hides its supply of food. It serves
these animals by ridding them of the insects with which their
hides are infested, and by flying up on any alarm, it becomes to
them as a sentinel, indicating the approach of danger, or of any
thing unusual. This bird does not appear to attach itself to any
quadruped but the Buffalo.

THE WIDOW BIRDS, or Whidah Finches, ranged by Swainson
under the sub-genus Vidua, (Lat. a widow,) — have long boat-
shaped tails, with the two middle feathers excessively lengthened,
and generally broad and convex. In Senegal and South Africa,
is found the Widow Bird of the "English salesmen and fanciers,"
V.paradisea, about the size of a Canary bird, — but the two feathers
next to the middle tail- feathers are a foot in length from the base,

333 1NSESSORES.

and about three-fourths of an inch in width ; the two middle feathers
have very broad webs on their basal half, (or extending about three
inches midway,) but the remainder of the shaft becomes like a
plumeless, hair-like process of the same length. The term,
-; widowed," is applied to this group from the sombre hue which
prevails in the plumage, "suggesting the idea of widow's
weeds." Among the Ploceina, Svvainson places the JAVA
SPARROW, Amadina, represented by the Tiaris, or Creslc-t, in
South America, in which the thickness of the beak is enormous
in proportion to its length, and the middle feathers of the tail are
the longest. This bird is frequently kept as a pet in cages,
living on seeds.

II. THE BUNTINGS, sub-family, Emberizidtz, are an interest-
ing group of Passerine birds, differing from the Finches proper,
chiefly by having a knob on the "palate," or on the under man-
dible,— the sides of the under mandible bending inwards ; their
strong conical beak is well adapted for breaking the seeds which
constitute their principal food.

THE LARK BUNTINGS, Plectrophanes, (Gr. plectron ; phaino, to
display,) have moderately long tarsi ; the side toes of equal
length ; the hind toe strong, with a lengthened and nearly
straight claw. There are several species of these birds, among
which is the SNOW LARK BUNTING, P. nivalis, (Lat. snowy,)
which appears in the Eastern part of the United States early in
November, and in some parts, remaining until March. The
summer plumage of the Snow Bunting, is pure white and black,
but it is found in all varieties of plumage. In the Highlands of
Scotland, it is called the Snow Flake ; in Labrador, New Found-
land, and elsewhere, the White Bird; and also the White Snow-
Bird, to distinguish it from the COMMON SNOW BIRD, Siruthus,
(Gr. strouthos, a sparrow;) hyemalis, (Lat. of winter.) The
Arctic Bird, the Lapland Snow-B:rd, or Bunting, P. Lapponicus,
breeds in moist meadows, on the shores of the Arctic seas; and
in the State of New York, is seen during1 the extreme cold of
winter. Audubon observed these birds in Kentucky and Missouri.
They have been seen as far North as 74o Lat.

THE BUNTINGS, Emberixa, include a large number of species.
The BLACK THROATED BUNTING, E. Americana, is abundant in
the Middle and Atlantic districts of the Union, but exceedingly
so in the vast prairies of the West. Its simple and unmusical
notes, are said to resemble those of the CORN BUNTING, of Europe,
E. miliaria, (Lat. of millet.) Its length is six inches. The
YELLOW WINGED BUNTING, E. passerina, (Lat. sparrow-like,) is
a, small bird, only four and a half inches long, which "passes, un-

INSESSORES. 339

observed, from Mexico to Connecticut. The individuals seem
to move off in a sulky mood, and in so concealed a way, that
their winter-quarters are yet unknown." The FIELD BUNTING,
E. pusilla, (Lat. very small, or weak,) breeds from Maryland to
Maine. It is social and peaceable, and trills its notes like a
young Canary Bird. In length it is six inches.

THR CHIPPING BUNTING, or CHIP-BIRD, E. socialis, (Lat. so-
cial,) is known to all. It is confined to the United States and
the adjacent Eastern provinces; associating with the Song
Sparrow, or Finch, Fringilla melodia, and other birds of the same
genus. The Chip-Bird builds its nest on some low bush and
lines it with cow-hair; lays from four to five bright greenish
blue eggs, spotted with brown chiefly at the larger end. It
seerns determined to make up in quantity any defect in the
quality of its notes, for it sings all the day long. It migrates to
the Southern States in the winter, and is among the earliest of
the Spring birds. This bird may be noticed, gleaning up
crumbs from our yards, and our very doors, — it will even ap-
proach the threshold to pick up the crumbs thrown to it, — in
this social characteristic, it is singular ; it is distinguished by
its black bill and frontlet. Its length is five and a half inches.
This bird seems to represent, in America, the Common, or House
Sparrow, of Europe, Pyrgita domestica ; but it is less bold and
crafty than the latter bird, and probably less voracious also.
BufFon estimated that a pair of Sparrows will destroy about
4,000 caterpillars weekly in feeding their young; this is some
compensation for the birds' devastation in granaries and barns.

THE TREE SPARROW, or CANADA BUNTING, E. Canadensis,
breeds in the Fur countries. Audubon thinks it also breeds in
Maine. This bird may be seen in the magnificent elms that
ornament Boston and its adjacent villages. It is a sweet songster.
The well known SNOW BIRD, Struthus hyemalis, or Nipluza,
(snowy,) hiemalis, Aud., migrates from the North, at night, as far
as 30o N. L. It is common to the northern parts of the conti-
nent of Europe. This is a shy, timorous bird, and is rarely
seen except in snow-storms, when it appears in flocks around
dwellings. At night, it resorts to stacks of corn or hay, making
there a hole for its resort in cold weather. Its nest is built on
the ground ; the eggs are usually four in number, of a spherical
form, yellowish white, and sprinkled with reddish brown dots.
Length six and a quarter inches.

THE INDIGO BUNTING, or INDIGO BIRD, Spiza, (Gr. from spizo,
to chirp ;) cyanea, (sky-blue,) is one of our beautiful birds coming
from the South, and appearing in New York late in May, — it is

-•

340 INSESSORES.

seen throughout the United States. Its note nearly equals that
of the Canary, but is not so sonorous. This bird seems gradu-
ally to lose its brilliant tints when caught and caged, as does the
PAINTED BUNTING, S. ciris, (Gr. keiris, name of a bird,) of Caro-
lina, Louisiana, and South America. In certain lights, the plumage
of the Indigo Bird appears of a rich sky-blue, and in others, of a
vivid verdigris green ; so that "the same bird, in passing from one
place to another, before your eyes, seems to undergo a total
change of color." (Wilson.) Its length is five and a half inches.
The Painted Bunting is found in the orange groves of the South.
It is abundant in the vicinity of New Orleans, where it is caught
in trap-cages.

THE SHORE FINCHES, Ammodramus, (Gr. ammos, sand ; dra-
mein, to run,) are found on the Atlantic coast from Texas to
Massachusetts, — and in summer, in our salt marshes, where they
breed. The Seaside Finch, A. marilimus, (of the sea,) feeds
chiefly on marine Crustacea, and such insects as are found on the
seashore. Its builds its nest on the ground ; and lays from four
to six grayish white eggs, speckled with brown. Length from
seven to eight inches. The SWAMP SPARROW, A. palustris,
forms the principal food of the Sparrow Hawks and Hen- Har-
riers. In New York, it is often called the Red Grass-bird.
Swamp Sparrows have been found abundantly in the marshes of
Cayuga Lake. Their note is a harder tone than that of
other Sparrows. The length is about six inches. This bird
ranges from Texas to Labrador. It is said to be abundant about
Boston during the winter ; has a short, conical bill, higher than
broad at the base, unci very acute at the tip.

THE LINNETS, Linaria, include several species. The BROWN
LINNET, L. iinota, is a song-bird common in every part of Eu-
rope. Of this Linnet, it has been said, "it is the cleanliest of
birds, delighting to dabble in the water, and to dress its plumage
in every little rill that runs by. The extent of voice in a single
bird is not remarkable, being more pleasing than powerful, yet
a large field of furze, in a mild sunny April morning, animated
with the actions and cheering music of these harmless little
creatures, united with the bright glow and odor of this early
blossom, it not without its gratification."

The Common Linnet frequents commons and neglected pas-
tures, and builds its nest in the center of a large and dense brush.

THE LESSER RED-POLL, L. minor, in length about five inches,
and the MEALY RED POLL, L. borealis, in length, five inches and a
half, are found within the United States. The Pine Linnet, L.
pinus, (Lat. pine,) sings while on the wing, like the Goldfinch.

INSESSORES. 341

It feeds among the branches of the tallest Fir trees, as well as on
the seeds of Thistles, much in the manner of the European SISKIN,
on the Fringilla Spinus, (Lat. black-thorn.) Its length is a little
less than five inches.

THE AMERICAN GOLDFINCH, or YELLOW BIRD. Carduetis,
(Lat. a thistle-finch,) tristis, (Lat. sad,) (see Chart,) is a well
known and handsome bird, similar in" its song and flight to the
Goldfinch. Its plumage and notes make it universally agreea-
ble. The Yellow Bird is abundant in the middle districts of the
Union, in summer, and so hardy is it, that it often remains there
during the whole winter. It ranges from the tropics to the
northern and southern regions. Its length is four and a half
inches. This bird feeds principally on the seeds of hemp, the
sun-flower, and various species of thistles. From its fondness
for the thistle down, it has been called the THISTLEFINCH. It is
sometimes kept in cages for song, and will live to a great age in
a cage or room. Audubon says he has known instances in
which birds of this species had been confined for ten years.
They had been taken in trap-cages, as the writer has taken
them, in the vicinity of New York city. This bird is not
only beautiful, but seems to give evidence of unusual sagacity.
It can be trained to draw water for its drink from a glass, — and
when it alights on a twig covered with bird-lime, for the purpose
of securing it, "it no sooner discovers the nature of the treacher-
ous substance, than it throws itself backwards, with closed wings,
and hangs in this posture until the bird-lime has run out in the
form of a slender thread considerably below the twig, when,
feeling a certain degree of security, it beats its wings, and flies
off," — and, says Audubon, from whom we now quote, "I have
observed Goldfinches that had escaped from me in this manner,
when about to alight on any twig, whether smeared with bird-
lime or not, flutter over it, as if to assure themselves of its being
safe for them to perch upon it." Its length is four and a half
inches. Several species of Goldfinch are found in the United
States.

THE FINCHES PROPER, Fringilla, include quite a number of
species, among which are the SONG SPARROW, F. melodia, (Gr.
song,) which presents two varieties; one having spots generally
distributed over the breast; the other having fewer spots on the
breast, but a large black one in the center, — appearing among us
even before the Pewee and Blue Bird. The SONG SPARROW is
the harbinger of spring; it is "the earliest, sweetest, and most
lasting songster." The first named variety builds its nest in
low shrubs a few feet from the ground ; the other builds it upon

3|3 INSESSORES.

the ground. It feeds chiefly upon insects. Its length is about
six and a half inches.

THE FOX-COLORED FINCH, or SPARROW, .F. iliaca, (Lat. from
ilia, flanks,) is one of the largest of the genus, being seven and
a half inches long, and breeds in countries North of the United
States. It has been seen as far North as 680 Lat., and ranges
South to within 30o of the equator.

THE BAY-WINGED SPARROW, or GRASS BIRD, GREY GRASS
BIKD, F. graminea, is ranked by Audubon and Wilson with the
Buntings. We follow Dr. DeKay in placing this familiar Spar-
row with the Finches proper. It feeds on grass seeds and insects.
Length five and a half inches.

THE WHITE-THROATED FINCH, F. Pennsylvanica, is an active
Northern Sparrow, appearing in New York, more or less, during
the whole year, and advancing as far as 660 North.

THE GROUND FINCHES, Pipilo, (Lat. to peep, or chirp,) scoop
out the earth and build their nests on the ground. They live
on grubs and earth and wire-worms.

THE TOWHEE GROUND-FINCH, P. erythrophthaJmus, (Gr. eru-
thros, red ; ophlhalmos, eye,) is found in large numbers on the
Pine Barrens of Kentucky, It breeds in New York State, and
is known "under the name of CHE WINK from its peculiar note, and
of GROUND ROBIN, from its seldom attempting to fly high." In
Louisiana it is called GRASSET, and esteemed by epicures.

There are several species of PURPLE FINCHES, Erythrospiza,
(Gr. fruthros, red; spiza, a bird like a sparrow.) The CRESTED
PURPLE F;NCH. E, purpurea, (Lat. purple,) frequently associates
with the Cross- bills, and feeds upon the same trees, — it ranges
from Texas to Labrador. Length six inches. This bird is seen
on the Atlantic coast of New York State as late as December
and January.

THE PINE BULL-FINCH, or Common Pine Finch, Corythus,
(Gr. korus, a crest;) enudeator, (Lat. kernel, or seed-sheller,)
is a most beautiful bird, and a charming songster; of a red
color, (the female olive-green,) with the wings and tail brown, —
ranging from Pennsylvania to Newfoundland, and breeding
from Maine northward. The length is eight and a half inches.
It has been seen in large flocks in the vicinity of New York
city. Nuttall, Bonaparte, and others, name this bird Pyrrhula,
(Gr. purrhouJas, from puros, red,) enudeator.

THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK, or CRESTED RED BIRD, Pitylus,
(Gr. pitulos, frequent agitation and movement,) cardinalis, — is
a bird which no one can see without admiring. In richness of
plumage, elegance of motion, and strength of song, this species

INSESSORES. 343

surpasses all its kindred found within the United States. Length
eight inches. It breeds abundantly from Texas to New York.
In some parts, it is called the Virginia Nightingale.

THE BLUE GROSBEAK, Coccoborus c&ruleus, and the ROSE-
BREASTED GROSBEAK, Coccoborus ludovicianus, are also very
beautiful species.

THE SUMMER RED BIRD, Pyranga cestiva, (Lat. of sum-
mer,) coming from Mexico and farther South, is seen among
us in the hottest part of summer, rarely moving eastward of
New York. It feeds on insects, particularly the largest
beetles. This bird cannot bear cold, or even temperate weath-
er, and its stay in the United States, (where it breeds,) scarcely
exceeds four months. Length seven and a half inches. This
bird is also called Tanagra, (Gr. a brazen- vessel,) in allusion
to the color of the female bird. The BLACK-WINGED RED
BIRD, or TANAGER, is seven inches in length ; reaches New
York about the middle of May, and goes as far as 49o N. L.
It migrates by night in September.

LARKS.

Sub-family Alaudina, (Lat. alauda, a lark.)

Of these singing birds there are many species, characterized
by a long and straight hind claw, a strong straight bill, and by
being able to raise the feathers on the back part of the head in
the form of a crest. The greater part of them are migratory ;
they build their nests on the ground and may be regarded as pe-
culiarly birds of the fields and meadows. The Larks are every
where distinguished for their vigilance and their song. The con-
formation of their feet does not adapt them for perching, but
rather for walking on the earth. They accordingly always
build on the ground, making usually a rather slight, though neat
nest, and laying about five eggs, for the most part of a grayish
white, with specks of a brown color. They frequently rear two
broods of young during the summer.

These birds are famed for singing while in flight, and soaring
to great heights in the air. From the situation of their nests,
they are much exposed to the attacks of predaceous animals of
the weasel kind, which destroy a great many of the eggs and
young. During their migrations, immense numbers of these
singing birds are, contrary to our sense of justice, taken in nets
to increase the pleasures of the table, particularly on the conti-
nent of Europe. Swainson considers the genus Alauda to be of

341 INSESSORES.

the Fissirostral type, but they are more commonly ranked with
the Cone-billed birds, where we have placed them.

The SKY-LARK, A. avensis, the Alouette of the French, the
Feld Lerche of the Germans, and the Lodola of the Italians, is
widely celebrated for its inexpressibly beautiful song, chanted
far up in the air, when the bird is at liberty and in its natural
state. It commences to sing early in the spring, and continues
its song during the entire summer. " When this Lark first rises
from the earth, its notes are feeble and interrupted ; as it ascends
however, they gradually swell to their full tone, and long after
the bird has reached a height where it is lost to the eye, it still
continues to charm the ear with its melody." Its food consists
of insects and their larvae, with many sorts of seeds and grain.
The Sky-lark is about seven inches in length. It is found
throughout Europe ; also in Asia and the northern parts of
Africa.

The WOOD-LARK, A. arborea, is smaller and can perch on
trees, a power deniedsto the Sky-lark.

The HORNED LARK, A. cornuta, (Lat. horned,) is an Ameri-
can species of a dusky brown color, seven and a half inches in
length. Its head has erectile feathers. This Lark ranges from
680 N. Lat. to Texas. It is seen during the coldest weather.

Dr. Buckland figures a Lark, (alauda,) among the land mam-
mals and birds of the third period of the Tertiary series, in the
first plate of his illustrations of his " Bridge water Treatise."

SUB-FAMILY. The COLIES.
Coliada, (Gr. xo^oj, kolids, the name of a bird.)

The Colies are ranked by Svvainson among the Muscophagada,
or Plantain-eaters. Others rank them among the Finches. Gosse,
jn his work on Birds, raises them to the rank of a family, and
places them between the Finches and Plantain-eaters. They
are few in number and confined to Africa and India. The two
mandibles of the short, conical beak, are, in these birds, arched,
the point of the upper slightly overhanging the lower. The feath-
ers of the tail are exceedingly long and stiff; like the Humming
Birds, they deviate from the general rule of twelve tail-feathers,
having but ten, agreeing in this respect with the Swifts, and also
in having the hind toe capable of being turned forwards, so that
all the four toes point in one direction. In their general form
and habits, they do not, however, show any likeness to the
Swifts. The Colies live mostly on trees, climbing about much in
the manner of Parrots. They go in large flocks and even

INSESSORES. 345

breed in communities, constructing numerous large and round
nests in the same bushes ; in each nest five or six eggs are de-
posited. It is said these birds sleep suspended from a branch,
with their heads downwards, many of them together ; and that
when the weather is cold, -as it sometimes is in South Africa,
they are found so benumbed in the morning that they may be
readily taken, one after another, without their making an effort
to escape. The plumage of the Coly, (Colius,) is short, thick,
and smooth, with a silky appearance. The feathers of the head
are lengthened, forming a long pointed crest, which can be
erected at pleasure. The prevailing colors are gray or ashy,
. from which circumstance, and that of their crawling about trees,
they are, at the Cape of Good Hope, called Muys-vbgel, or
Mouse birds.

The Colies live chiefly on fruits, the buds of trees, and the
tender sprouts of vegetables. On account of the mischief which
they do in gardens, they are much disliked. They are bad
walkers, but expert climbers, clinging to the branches in all sorts
of attitudes. Their cry is monotonous, (the wind-pipe, (trachea,)
being furnished with but a single pair of vocal muscles,) and
that of the largest species is said to resemble the bleating of a
lamb. The flesh of the Colies is of a delicate flavor and highly
esteemed. It forms the common food of several species of the
Birds of Prey. The C. Senegalensis, as its name imports, is a
native of West Africa. It has a pearly-gray plumage with
greenish reflections ; the forehead is yellow ; the under part of
the body ruddy ; and a naked reddish skin surrounds the eye.

FOURTH FAMILY. CROSS-BILLS,
Loxiadce,' (Gr. Ao£6g, lows, oblique.)

The beak of the CROSS-BILLS, (Plate IX. fig. 8,) is of unique
form, the mandibles curving to the right and left, and always in
opposite directions to each other. In some of these birds the
upper mandible is turned to the right, the lower mandible curved
to the left ; in others the position of the mandibles is reversed as
to their direction. The upper mandible has a limited degree of
motion on the head or cranium, the upper jaw bones and the
nasal ones being united to the frontal bone by flexible osseous
laminae. The lower jaw is remarkably strong, and the muscles
by which this and the upper mandible are moved, are large, par-
ticularly in the lower jaw, and act with great power in asidewise
direction. By this extraordinary bill, these birds are enabled to
extract the seeds from pine cones with remarkable facility ; and

346 INSESSORES.

they are confined to localities in which these cones can be ob-
tained, such as the Hartz, or great pine forests of Germany.
They first fix themselves across the cone, then bring the points
of the mandibles from their crossed position to be immediately
over each other. In this reduced compass, they insert their beaks,
and then opening them, not in the usual manner, but by drawing
the lower mandible sidewise, they force open the scales. In
this process, they are aided by the beautiful and peculiar adap-
tation of the tongue, an additional portion, partly osseous, with a
horny covering being articulated to the front end of the bone of
the tongue, (os hyoides.) Underneath this grooved appendage is
another small muscle which is attached at one end to the bone of
the tongue ; at the other, it is joined to the movable piece, and
by its erection bends the point downwards and backwards; whilst,
therefore, the points of the beak press the shell from the body of the
cone, the tongue, brought forward by its own muscle, is enabled,
by additional ones, to direct and insert its cutting scoop beneath
the seed, and the food thus dislodged is transferred to the mouth.

While these birds are at work on the fircones, they send forth
a gentle twitter, and may be seen climbing among the branches
like parrots ; but they are also said to have a pleasant song,
poured forth only in the winter months, or at the season of incu-
bation. The Cross-bills are subject to considerable changes of
color.

The male of the COMMON CROSS-BILL, Loxia curviroslra. (Lat.
curve-beaked.) varies from a beautiful red to an orange color on
the head, neck, breast and back ; the female is generally of a
dull olive green on those parts which are red in the male. It is
sometimes called the German Parrot, and on account of its sweet
and well tasted flesh, is in special request in the bird-market of
Vienna, (Austria,) for the purposes of the table. This bird is
five and three-fourths inches long. It is a regular inhabitant of
all our pine forests (situated north of 40o N. Lat.,) from the be-
ginning of September to the middle of April, building its nest on
the highest part of the fir trees, and making use of the resinous
matter which exudes from them for fixing it to the trees.

The AMERICAN CROSS-BILL, L. Americana, is of a red color,
with brownish tail and wings, from six and one-half to seven
inches in length ; feeds on the cones of the hemlock, and on
apples and other fruits, which the bird breaks open for its seeds.
Bonaparte and other naturalists consider this species as distinct
from the European Cross-bill. It is a northern-bird, but breeds
as far south as Pennsylvania.

Another species is the WHITE WINGED CROSS-BILL, L. leucop-

INSESSORES. 347

tera, (Gr. white winged,) which is somewhat less than a Gold-
finch, (according to DeKay, six and one-half inches long.) It
ranges from 40o to 680 N. Lat., and is common on the shores of
Lake Ontario. (N. B. These Cross-billed birds are included
by Audubon in the family of Finches. In the N. Y. State Nat.
Hist, they have a like arrangement.)

FIFTH FAMILY. The HORN BILLS.
Bucerotida, (Gr. ^ovxe^wj, boukeros, ox-horned.)

The characteristics of the birds of this family which most ar-
rest the attention, are the enormous extent, and singular protu-
berances of the beak. In many of the species this organ is con-
siderably larger than the head ; there is a large, uncouth look-
ing projection, various in form, on its summit. This projection
sometimes resembles a horn, or the crest of a hejmet which often
encroaches upon the skull towards the crown of the head. The
mandibles in adult birds are both notched on the edges. The
protuberance on the upper mandible is small when the bird is
young, and does not attain its great size until the bird is fully
grown. (Plate IX. fig. 13.) By a beautiful provision of the
Creator, for birds supporting so large an organ, the horny case
of the beak is very thin, thus diminishing the weight ; and, at
the same time, the bony core is hollowed into numerous cells of
various sizes and forms, with very thin walls between them, so
that the needed firmness is preserved in union with remarkable
lightness. The bones of the body are also permeated with air
more than those of any other bird. The tongue in the Horn-
billed birds is fleshy, and like that of the Birds of Prey, short
and deep in the throat ; the tail is long, broad, and more or less
rounded at the extremity, consisting of only ten feathers ; the
feet are short, strong and formed for walking or perching ; the
claws short and blunt.

The Bucerotidse are large sized birds; they are gregarious and
noisy, and live both on animal and vegetable food ; few are
smaller than a Crow, and some are much larger than a Raven.
The plumage is usually of a sombre cast, but frequently relieved
with masses of white; the beak and naked skin often exhibit
bright colorings during life. The abode of these birds is lim-
ited to Africa, India, and the large islands adjacent.

The Horn-bills seem to be most nearly related to the Crows
on the one hand, and to the Toucans on the other, thus connect-
ing the Perchers and the Climbers. That they form a link be-
tween these two orders was proved from anatomical examina-

348 INSESSORES.

tions of the bird made by Professor Owen. More than twenty
species of the genus Buceros have been named.

The ITALIAN RAVEN, B. hydrocorax, (Gr. Water Raven,)
found in the Moluccas and in Africa, has the walk of the Crow,
but is unlike that bird in its food, rejecting carrion, and being
particularly fond of nutmegs, devouring them so greedily as
often to do serious damage. The flesh is very delicate, and
when roasted, possesses an aromatic flavor derived from its food.

The RHINOCEROS HORN-BILL, B. Rhinoceros, differs from the In-
dian Raven in living upon carrion ; it " casts forth a strong smell,
and hath a foul look, and much exceeds the European Raven in
bigness." This bird is about the size, though rather more slender
than a hen-turkey ; its color is black, except the lower part of the
belly and the tip of the tail, which are white ; the bill is usually
about ten inches long and of a yellowish white ; the upper mandi-
ble red at the, base ; the lower, black ; the legs are short, strong, and
of a pale yellow color. The cry consists of a short hoarse croak,
but when the bird is excited, this is changed to a loud discord,
ant noise. It breeds in the hollows of lofty trees. The flight
of the Horn-bills is sailing and resembles that of the crow ; on
the ground, they advance by a leaping kind of movement, assisted
by the wings. When making their leaps on the highest branches
oi' trees, and in their loud call note to their mates, the hollow
protuberance of their beaks seems to be to them like a sounding
board, increasing the reverberations of the air. The beak, it is
thought, "constitutes a necessary defence against monkeys and
other animals which may seek to assail its nest ;" or it may be
used in " drawing snakes and lizards from their lurking places,
and young birds and eggs from the recesses of old and decaying
trees."

SIXTH FAMILY. PLANTAIN- EATERS.

Musophagada, (Gr. ftovaa, musa, gen. term for plantain ; <p6ya),
phago, to eat.)

This family, though a small one, includes birds of uncommon
elegance and richness of plumage. They have a short beak ;
the upper mandible is much arched, and has its edges cut into
minute saw-like teeth ; the lower mandible is thin and narrow.
The feet are short and formed for climbing, the outer toe being
capable of a partial reversion ; it is, however, united to the mid-
dle toe by a short membrane. The tail, as in the Colies, con-
sists of but ten feathers ; the head is generally clothed with a

INSESSORES. 349

long and elegant crest. In their habits they show affinity to the
Toucans, among the Climbing Birds, with which they are prob-
ably connected by the Horn-bills, (Bucerotida.) Some of them,
as the PLANT-CUTTERS, Phytotoma, (Gr. phuton, a plant; temno,
to cut,) show an affinity to the Bull-Finches. The Plant-Cutters
are small, the CHILIAN PLANT-CUTTER, P. rara, being about the
size of a quail. They feed on plants and have the destructive
habit of cutting them off close to the root; often they capriciously
cut off a quantity without touching them any further. On this
account the rustic inhabitants carry on a continual war against
these birds, and children who destroy their eggs, are rewarded.
The nest is built in obscure places and on lofty trees, and thus
the Plant-Cutters escape, in some degree, the persecutions of
their enemies.

The PLANTAIN EATERS PROPER, are confined to Africa, where
they subsist almost entirely on fruits. Their movements are ex-
tremely light and elegant, and unlike the Colies, they pass with
an easy gliding flight from tree to tree. The first and fourth
toes are directed laterally. It is said they, therefore, usually
perch lengthwise on the horizontal branches, along which they
walk, clasping the bough with their two toes arranged side-wise,
while the other two point forwards. These birds live either in
pairs or in families, according to the season. They construct a
nest like the Parrots, in which they lay four eggs, delicately
white.

On the gold coast and in Senegal is found the Musophaga
violacea, the Violet-colored Plantain Eater — a "magnificent
bird."

The TOURACOS, belonging to this family, include seven species,
arranged under the generic name Corythaix, (Gr. xogvOalZ, koru-
thaix.) They have a brilliancy of plumage, elegance of form,
and grace of motion. Their long and broad tail and their high
pointed crest add much to their beauty. The color of these
birds is almost always rich green, set off with gorgeous crimson
or purple on the expanded wing. One of the most attractive
species is the C. erythrolophys, (Gr. red crested.)* When un-
der excitement, the crest of this bird ^s elevated into a somewhat
conical form compressed at the sides, so that the head appears
as if covered with a warrior-like helmet. To this appearance
the generic name refers, signifying a warrior, or one who moves
the helmet. In a state of repose, the crest feathers fall down

* One of these Red or Fire Crested Touracos lived for some years in the
garden of the Zoological Society, (London.) An engraving taken from
this bird during life, may be found in the " Penny Cyclopedia."

S50 INSESSORES.

upon the head and project behind. The Touracos are about
twenty inches in length.

What is the 3d DIVISION OF PERCHERS ? What is said of their number ?
Mention the chief characteristics by which they are united. What pecu-
liarity of the beak is found in one genus of these birds ? What link do
they thus form ? To what are the feet generally adapted ? What is the princi-
pal food of these HARD-BILLED BIRDS ? What other food do they use ?
In what proportion does their food vary from an exclusive seed diet? What
regions do these birds frequent? Mention the families into which they are
divided.

Is the CROW FAMILY a numerous one ? Describe the beak and plumage.
What group form an exception in respect to plumage ? In what other re •
spect do they differ ? What is said of the structure and disposition of the
Crow ? What of their propensity for thieving ? What of their food ?
Show how the Crow is a remarkable type of the Birds. Which is the
largest and most powerful of this family ? How large is it and how re-

garded? What more is said of it? What is the size of the Common
row, and h6w does it compare with that of Europe? In what respects is
it a nuisance? Does the FISH CROW differ from the raven and common
crow in character? What Birds of Prey are near relatives of the Crow?
What is said of the BLUE JAY ? What group do the NUTCRACKERS resem-
ble in their habits ? What is said of the FRUIT CROWS ? What species
are mentioned ? What remarkable birds are included in this family ? Of
what region are they natives? Give a general description of these birds.
Which species is best known? Give the meaning of the generic and spe-
cific name. Why were the birds of this species considered footless? What
strange conjecture respecting them arose? On what do they feed? Give
further particulars.

What is the 2d FAMILY of the Cone-Billed Birds ? What is said of their
number and distribution ? What of their beak and plumage ? Are they
solitary or social in their habits? What is said of the COMMON STARLING?
Of the MEADOW STARLING ? Of the RED WINGED STARLING ? Which are
the largest of the Starling family? Why are they so called? Where are
the Typical Birds of this group found?" What other genus is sometimes
included in the Boat tails ? What Grackles are found in Asia and Africa ?

What other SUB-FAMILY is mentioned ? Which is the most noted species ?
What is said of it ? Describe its nest. What is said of the Mino Bird ?
Where is it found ? What faculty has it in great perfection ?

What is the 3d FAMILY of CONE-BILLED BIRDS? What is said of their
number, size, and musical powers? Describe their beaks. What is pecul-
iar in that of the Grosbeak or Hawfinch? What use do they make of it
in obtaining their food? What Sub-Family is first noticed? Describe
their nests. Whence does the Red Beaked Weaver obtain its food ?
What is said of the Whidah Finches ? Why is the term Widow applied to
this group? What is said of the Java Sparrow? What SUB-FAMILY is
next mentioned? What is said of the LARK BUNTING? Describe the
Snow Lark Bunting. The Lapland Snow Bird. What species of the Bunt-
ings are mentioned? Describe the Chipping Bird. What European bird
does it represent in this country ? What fact shows the usefulness of Spar-
rows? What Bunting breeds in the fur countries? Describe the SNOW

INSESSORES. 351

BIRD. "What is said of the Indigo Bird ? What of the PAINTED BUNTING ?
Where are the SHORE FINCHES found? What species are mentioned?
What is the generic name of the Linnets? What has been said of the
Brown Linnet? What other sp. are mentioned? To what group does the
American Goldfinch or Yellow B. belong? What is said of it? Mention
the species which are given of the FINCHES PROPER. What is said of the
GROUND FINCHES? What. sp. of Purple Finches are mentioned? What is
said of the Pine Grosbeak ? What of the Cardinal Grosbeak ? What other
sp. of Grosbeak are mentioned? What is said of the Summer Red B.?
Why is this bird called the Tanagra ? What SUB-FAMILY is next mentioned?
How characterized? For what are they famed? What is said of the Sky-
Lark? What of the Wood-Lark? Of the Horned-Lark? What addi-
tional SUB-FAMJLY is mentioned? How do others rank them? To what
countries are they confined ? Describe them. What is said of their social
habits? What of their plumage ? Why are they much disliked ? What
is said of their cry ? Of their flesh ? What sp. is named ?

What is the 4th FAMILY? Describe the beak. What use do these birds
make of it? What aids them in this process? What is remarkable in this
organ ? What sp. are mentioned ?

What is the 5th FAMILY? What are their most noticeable characteris-
tics ? What renders their large beak supportable ? What is said o( the
bones of the body and the tongue ? On what do they live ? Describe their
plumage. To what regions are they limited? To what other birds are they
nearly related ? How many sp. of the gen. Buceros have been named?
What is said of the Indian Raven? What of the Rhinoceros Horn-bill?

What is the name of the LAST FAMILY ? Give their leading characteris-
tics? To what other birds are they related ? Why are they called PLAN-
TAIN EATERS? What is paid oi the Plant-Cutters? To what region are the
P. Eaters confined ? Describe their movements, &c. ? What apecies is
found on the gold coast, of Africa V What other birds belong to this fam-
ily? What is their generic name? What is its signification' What is
?aid of this group ? Which is the most attractive ? What is said of their
crest feathers ?

Name and trace those mentioned on the Chart.
SECTION VI.

FOURTH DIVISION OF THE PERCHERS. THIN BILLED BIRDS.

Tenuirosires, (Lat. tennis, thin, or slender; rostrum, beak.)
This group of birds, M. Vigors considers "the most interesting
of the animal world." They are characterized by the length
and the slenderness of the bills, which are frequently curved
and notched at the lip. The tongue is often divided at the end
into two or more filaments; sometimes the slender filaments are
so numerous as to resemble a painter's brush. The peculiar
conformation of the bill seems chiefly intended to protect the

15

332 INSESSORES.

tongue, by which, and not by the bill, these birds suck, or lick
up the nectar of flowers, drawing in with the honied liquid,
multitudes of minute insects, which form the solid part of their
food. The feet are very short and delicate.

The smallest birds, and those the most brilliantly adorned, are
found in this group. Many of the genera are clothed with a
plumage of metallic lustre; on particular parts of their bodies,
especially the forehead and throat, they have feathers of a scale-
like appearance, which reflect the varying hues of precious
stones. The Thin-billed Birds are principally to be found in
the tropical regions, but many species visit the temperate zones,
and a few are permanent residents of high latitudes. They are
arranged into five families: (1,) Promeropida or Upupida,
Hoopoes; (2,) Cinnyrida or Nectarinida, Sun Birds; (3.)
Trochilida, Humming Birds; (4,) Meliphagidce, Honey-Eaters;
(5,) Certhiada, Creepers.

FIRST FAMILY. HOOPOES.

Promeropida, (Gr. Ttgofisqoifj , promerops,) or Upupida, (Lat.
upupa, a hoopoe.)

The Hoopoes are a small family of birds confined to the Old
World, and most of them found in Africa and India. They ex-
hibit some relations to the Bee-Eaters of the Fissirostral division.
One species, me Common Hoopoe, visits Europe in company
with the Bee- Eaters and other Swallow-like birds, but unlike
them, walks upon the moist ground and newly turned earth, in
search of insects and their larvse; but the species of the genus
Promerops, seek for minute insects in the corollas of flowers.
The Common, or European Hoopoe, U. epops, (Gr. epops, a
hoopoe,) receives its name from the cry of the male bird, which
is 4i/ioop, hoop." It has a very long and slender beak, slightly
curved throughout its length, and compressed at the sides; long
and rounded wings, and a long and broad lail. The toes are
three before and one behind ; the hind toe is long, with a long
and nearly straight claw. The head is furnished with an
erectile crest, the feathers of whicn are of a ruddy buff-color,
terminated with black ; the plumage presents striking contrasts
of color, black, gray, buff, yellowish-white and white. The
length is twelve and a half inches. It has been known to breed
in England ; building its nest in hollow trees, and laying from
four to seven eggs, of a pale bluish gray hue. The Red beaked
Promerops, P. erythrorliyncus, (Gr. red- beaked,) has a very long
wedge-like tail, but is without an erectile crest. The long,

INSESSORES. 853

slender beak, is of a coral-red ; the entire plumage varies with
metallic blue and green. This brilliant bird is found in South
Africa. It lives in small flocks. The Grand Promerops,
Epimachus, (Gr. epimachos,) magnus, (see Chart,) has a gradua-
ted tail, three times as long as the body ; the feathers of the sides
are lengthened, raised and curled. They glitter on their edges
with steel-blue, azure, and emerald-green, like precious stones, —
those of the body are of a deep, or brownish black. It inhabits
the coasts of New Guinea. Swainson says it is "a bird of such
excessive rarity, that only two perfect specimens have been
known to exist in Europe."

SECOND FAMILY. SUN BIRDS.

Cinnyrida, (Gr. xtwa, kinna, a grass; vgtov, hurion, honey-
comb?) Genus Cinnyris, Cuv. — or Nectarimdce, (Gr. VEXTUQ,
nectar, nectar.) Genus Nectarmia, Illig.

The Sun-Birds, so called from their splendid glossy plumage,
are arranged into two groups, (1,) Cinnynda,— genus Cinny-
riS) — of Africa, India and the islands of the Eastern Archipel-
ago, which have comparatively slender bills and feet, and the
tongue retractile and simply forked; and, (2,) the Nectarinidce,
of South America and the Pacific islands, which have the beak
and feet comparatively strong, and hold an intermediate rank
between the Creepers, (Certhiada.) and the Sun Birds, (Cinnyri-
d& ) and the Humming Birds, (Trocliihd&,} The Nectarines
are to the New W-rld what the Sun Birds are to the Old ; their
tongue ends in a sort of pencil or brush; and they hop from
flower to flower, seeking the nectar of each ; while the Sun
Birds and the Humming Birds make no use whatever of their
feet as they extract their food, but in feeding, are poised upon
the wing. The Sun Birds and Humming Birds, as M. Vigors
remarks, approach each other in the slendernes of their bill, the
vividness and changeable lustre of their plumage, and the habit
of hovering on the wing when they feed, and being chiefly sepa-
rated from each other by the comparatively stronger foot and
bill of the Sun Birds. Both groups of Sun Birds are included
by Mr. G. R. Gray in one family, Nectarinidce; but Swainson
arranges the several genera under the name Cinnyrida.

Some of the Sun Birds add the charm of song to that of brill-
iancy of plumage ; and the music of one has been compared to
that of the Nightingale. Their nest is usually suspended, and
of a globe-like form, having an opening on one side, generally
near the bottom.

354 INSESSORES.

In the case of the Nectan'nii% of South America, the nest is
placed in the worm-oaten trunks of mimosa-trees, and contains
four or five eggs, entirely white. The Sun Birds of the genus
Meltthrtytes. (Gr. me.H, honey, trepho, to nourish,) included in
the Necianne group, are found in the Hawaiian islands. The
beautiful, yellow feathers of these birds, interspersed with a few of
a scarlet color, are worn as ornaments of the head. "These
feathers are among the most celebrated productions ' of the above
named islands* " Each bird yields only a few, and some thousands
are required to form a head-dress. The wreath, or tiara, is
sometimes valued as high as two hundred and fifty dollars. The
birds, (Me7<fhreptes Pacifica) are taken by means of bird-lime,
made from the pisonia, and ihe catching of them is practiced as
a trade oy the mountaineers. The wearing of these feathers is
a symbol of high rank."*

THIRD FAMILY. HUMMING BIRDS.
TrocluUda, (Gr. Wp&*U$, trochilos, a trochil, or wren.)

The family of Humming Birds is one of great interest. Mr.
Gould, in his recently published work, enumerates about sixty
genera, and his collection contains more than three hundred
species. They are, however, separated from each other by
comparatively slight variations in the length and curvature of
the beak, the form of the wings, and the greater or less deve'op-
ment of ihe tail, and of other parts. These birds are all confined to
this Continent and the West India Islands: some species penetrate,
in summer, to high latitudes on each side of the equator. The
gorgeous flashings and changing tint, and the lustre, as of burn-
ished metal, which are, to some extent, seen in the Sun Birds,
are in the birds of this family preeminently conspicuous.

They are the smallest of the feathered races; (See Chart;)
some species are exceeded both in size and weight by several
of the insect tribe, while a few species are as large as a
Swallow.

The Humming Birds are not less remarkable for their structure
than for the remarkable splendor of their plumage. The exces-
sively long wings are moved by pectoral and other muscles,
which form nearly the whole of the fleshy substance of the bird ;
those of the feet "are reduced to the least possible quantity con-
sistent with the requisite stability," — all this showing, that they
were adapted by the Creator to spend, as they do, the most active

* Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition.

INSESSORES. 355

part of a highly active life in the air. The humming noise made
by these birds, is produced by the extremely rapid movement of
their wings.

The tongue is their principal organ for obtaining their food in
the honied juices of flowers and insects ; and like that of the
Wood-peckers, it is so framed, that it can be darted out of the
bill, as a spring suddenly released from its restraint. It is of such
a length, that it can be protruded some distance from the bill.
The long and slender beak comes admirably in aid for inserting
the tongue into the nectaria of flowers. The sight of the Hum-
ming-Birds is very acute within the range required for its exer-
cise, as is also the sense of hearing.

The females are without the splendid plumage of the males,
and are clothed in modest dress. Some species living, as they
do, from ten to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea,
have the tarsi warmly and largely protected with white plumelets,
and look as if they had downy muffs on their legs.

Humboldt notices the religious belief of the Mexicans, that
Toyamiqui, the spouse of the god of war, conducted the souls of
those warriors who had died in defence of the gods, into the
mansions of the sun, and transformed them into humming-birds;
and it must be owned, they form an image of the soul, scarcely
less spiritual than the butterfly of the Greeks.

The nests of these birds are as wonderful as any that are
made. (Plate XI. fig. 9.) They vary greatly in form and
structure; but in all, the soft and delicate materials are so put
together as to furnish as much warmth as possible, that being
an object of the highest importance when the body of the ani-
mal is generally so small, and the quantity of animal heat
given out accordingly diminished. The eggs are two in num-
ber, of an elongated form, and in some sp.ecies, extraordinarily
small. These birds are very valiant in defence of their nests.
When attending their young, they attack any bird, indiscrimi-
nately, which approaches the nest. This display of valor, it
is suggested, probably fostered the Mexican belief, that the
bodies of these diminutive creatures contained the souls of slain
warriors.

Among the most beautiful species, are the Sickle-winged
Humming-Bird, T.fahatus, (Lat. from falx, a sickle ;) the Re-
curved-bill Humming-Bird. T. recurvirostris, (Lat. recurved-
beak:) Gould's Humming-Bird, Ornismus, (Gr. Bird-mouse.)
Gouldii ; the Bar-tailed Humming-Bird, (Plate XI. fig. 9,) T.
sparganurus, (Gr. ban,d-tailed ;) the Double-crested Humming-

S56 INSESSORES.

Bird, T. cornutus, (Lat. horned,) in length a little more than four
inches.

Four species are found within the limits of the United States.
(1,) The Mango Humming-Bird, T. Mango, found on Florida
Keys ; four inches and three-quarters in length ; (2,) the Anna
Humming-Bird, T. Anna, found on the Rocky Mountains, to-
wards California ; three inches and three-quarters in length ; (3,)
the Red-throated Humming-Bird, or Red-throated Honey-Sucker,
T. colubris, (Lat. serpentine ;) three and a half inches in length ;
ranging from Mexico to 57o N. Lat. This is the species most
commonly seen in the State of New York, (Plate X. fig. 4b,)
and well known for its golden green color, and its ruby colored
throat ; and (4,) the Ruff-necked Humming-Bird, T. rufus,
rather more than three inches and a half in length ; discovered
by Capt. Cook, who found it abundant at Nootka Sound ; it is
met with also in the vicinity of the Blue Mountains of the' Co-
lumbia River.

FOURTH FAMILY. HONEY-EATERS.
MeliphagidfE, (Gr. ft&i, meli, honey ; gxtyw, phdgd, to eat.)

The birds of this family in some measure depart from the
tenuirostral type in the increased stoutness of the beak. This
organ is, in these birds, awl-shaped and arched, and has the tip
distinctly notched ; the hind toe is so strong and robust, that
it serves as a support to the bird while taking its food ; the tongue
is still capable of protrusion, but in a subordinate degree, and
is terminated by a brush of hairs.

These birds are chiefly confined to Australia, where they feed
on the nectar and pollen of flowers. As in that country the
fields are never without blossom, they have in the luxuriant
vegetation, a support that never fails. They also live on insects
and berries. Usually, they are of sombre colors, black or olive-
brown, without any metallic lustre. Their nests are cup-shaped,
constructed in the forks of small branches of shrubs, not far
removed from the ground. The Honey-Eaters are larger than
most of the Thin-billed Birds; several species equal a Thrush
in size, and some are of considerably greater dimensions. The
Warty-faced Honey-Eater, Melipliaga phrygia, is described as
sometimes to be seen in great numbers, constantly flying from
tree to tree, particularly among those known as the blue gum,
from the blossoms of which they extract the honey with their
tongues as they pass along. One species is said to pick holes in
the bark of trees, and thence to extract insects, very much in

INSESSORES. 357

the manner of the Woodpecker ; indeed, these birds probably
represent in Australia, the true Woodpeckers, which are not
found in that region. The Tui, or Poe-Bird, Prosthemadera
Cincinnata, of New Zealand, is about the size of a Black-Bird ;
from its great imitative power, it has been called " the Mocking-
Bird;" and from its peculiar plumage, the "Parson-Bird."

FIFTH FAMILY*. CEEEPERS.
Cerihiada, (Gr. xtgOiog, kerthios, Creeper kind.)

The birds of this family manifestly deviate from the tenuiros-
tral type, and approach the order of the Climbers, (Scansores.)
We therefore follow Cuvier and Charles Lucien Bonaparte,
who, while including them among the Thin-Billed Birds, place
them on the confines of the present order. (See Chart.) In these
birds the tongue is still capable of protrusion, but is no longer
divided into filaments; the tip, however, is sharp, horny, and
fitted for transfixing insects, which are sought beneath the bark
of trees, in crevices of walls, and similar concealed situations.
To aid them in taking their insect prey, the beak also is generally
slender, sharp-pointed and strong, curved in various degrees;
sometimes, as in the Wall Creeper, Tichodroma, (Gr. wall-run-
ner,) muraria, (of a wall,) a species of Southern Europe, the
beak is almost straight; and at others, as in the Tree-Creeper,
Dendrocolaptes, (Gr. tree-beater,) found in Brazil, the beak is
bont almost to a semi-circle.

This family are Climbers, but still have not the feet of the
Climbers proper, (Scansoree.) with which M. Vigors arranges
them. The outer toe is not reversible, but the back toe is con-
siderably larger and stronger than it is in the greater part of the
perching birds.

Some of these birds, as the Tree Creepers, have the shafts of
the tail feathers strong and rigid, and their tips are lengthened
beyond the barbs, as in the Woodpeckers, and to Vneet the same
exigency, viz. : the wearing away of the more fragile parts by
the constant friction of the tip of the tail against perpendicular
surfaces ; in the species now referred to that organ being thrown
in and pressed against the tree or wall for support in climbing.

The Common Creeper, Certhia familiaris, is not more than
five inches in length, of a yellowish brown color above, the un-
der parts being white. It is generally distributed throughout
Europe and the United States. Wilson says: "The Brown
Creeper is an extremely active and restless little bird. In winter
it associates with the small spotted woodpecker, nuthatch, titmouse,

358 INSESSORES.

&c., and often follows in their rear, gleaning up those insects
which their more powerful bills had alarmed and exposed ; for
its own slender incurvated bill seem unequal to the task of pen-
etrating into even the decayed wood ; though it may enter into
holes and behind scales of the bark." It builds its nest in some
rent or cleft in a tree, where a branch has been broken off, or
where a hole has been chiseled by a woodpecker, and deposits in
it six or eight ash-colored eggs, marked with dusky reddish spots.
The voice of the Creeper is a monotonous cry, not very loud,
but often and suddenly repeated, especially in its flight from tree
to tree. The food on which it lives consists principally of small
beetles, bugs and flies, which it draws from their places of con-
cealment. Wilson mentions having found in its stomach, the
seeds of the pine tree and large quantities of gravel. Did our
limits permit, we would give details of genera and species
found in South America and Australia.

The Nuthatches, Sitta, are allied to the Titmice on the one
hand, and the Woodpeckers on the other. They have a stronger
bill than that of the Tree Creepers; and it is straight and pointed
like that of the Woodpeckers, used rather to scale off the bark
than to perforate it ; and they do not support themselves upon
the tail. They run about the trunk and branches of trees, seek-
ing for insects and their larvae, berries and nuts; they are noted
for their instinct of fixing a nut in a chink while they pierce it
with the bill, swinging the whole body as on a pivot, to make the
stroke more effective. The name Nuthatches is given to these
birds on account of the hatches or hammerings which they make
on hard nuts in search of the larvae within. From four to six
species of these birds are found within the United States. The
White-breasted Nuthatch, S. Carolinensis, is about five inches
long, o.f a slate blue above and pure white beneath ; it ranges
from Mexico to Maine. The eggs are whitish, spotted with
brown at the larger end, and from four to six in number.
The Red-bellied Nuthatch, S. Canadensis, is four and a half
inches long and lead-colored. This is a more northern bird than
the preceding, ranging from Maryland to Nova Scotia. The
BROWN-HEADED Nuthatch, S. pusilla, ranges from Texas to Mary-
land. The PYGMY NUTHATCH, S. pygmea, is found in California ;
it is less than four inches long.

The Wrens, Troglodytes, (Gr. troglodutes, a creeper into
caves.) are properly included in the present family, though they
have been differently arranged by some authors. (See Chart.)
The House Wren, T. aedon, is a familiar little bird which has
become inviolable, like the robin, from the confidence which it

INSESSORES. 359

shows in courting the neighborhood of man. This Wren is of
a dark brown above with blackish bands ; beneath it is whitish, with
faint or obscure bands. It builds its nest in boxes or houses pre-
pared by man, in which it lays six or eight flesh-colored eggs.
It is said that it seldom or never builds a distinct nest, but always
conceals it in things " placed for its convenience around houses,
or in the hollow of trees." The nest is proportionably very
large. Audubon figures one beautifully as built in an old hat.
The House-Wren shows great antipathy to cats. "Although it
does not attack puss, it follows and scolds her until she is out of
sight." It ranges as far as the 57o N. L. Audubon thinks it
spends the winter southward of the United States. Its length is
four and a half inches.

The Winter Wren, T. hyemalis, closely resembles the Euro-
pean Wren, T. Europaus ; its song is energetic and musical ;
it lays ten or twelve whitish eggs. This Wren is small, being
only three inches and a half in length.

The Wood Wren, T. Americanus, is nearly the same as the
House Wren, but spends the winter within the limits of the Uni-
ted States.

The Mocking Wren, T. hidovicianus, is noted for its mimicry
and song ; it is about five and a half inches long, and ranges
from Texas to New York.

The Ox-peckers, or Ox-eaters, BupJiagida, genus Buphaga,
(Gr. bous, an ox ; phago, to eat,) found in Southern Africa, are
also included among the Creepers. These birds have a large ob-
tuse and nearly quadrangular bill, the lower mandible being
stronger than the other, and both swollen towards the point, it
somewhat resembles a pair of pinchers or scissors. The Ox-
peclcers fasten themselves with their strong, hooked claws and
elastic tails upon the backs of ruminant quadrupeds, such as
oxen, buffaloes, antelopes and camels, and also, some travelers
say, upon the backs of the Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, and
with their beak dig and squeeze out from their backs the larvae
(or maggots) which the gadflies have deposited. Wherever, by
the presence of an elevation, the bird is aware of the existence
of a maggot, he extracts it with strong blows of his bill. This
treatment the animals willingly bear, seeming to look upon these
birds as their benefactors, as really they are, especially in a re-
gion where such insects abound.

What is the 4th DIVISION of the PERCHERS ? How does Vigors regard
them? What are their characteristics? For what does the bill seem
chiefly designed ? What is said of their size and plumage ? What of their

3GO INSESSORES.

distribution ? Name the families into which they are arranged. Where
are the HOOPOES found ? What sp. visits Europe ? From what does it re-
ceive its name ? What is said of it ? What is the food of the gen. Pro-
merops ? What is said of the Red-Beaked P. ? What of the Grand P. ?

What is the 2d FAMILY ? Why are they so called ? Into what groups
are they arranged? To what regions are the CINNYRID^E confined ? What
is said of their bills and feet? Where are the birds of the 2d GROUP found?
To what birds are they intermediate ? What is said of the NECTARINES ?
How do they differ from the Sun B. and Humming B. in their mode of
procuring their food ? Are any of the Sun B. musical ? What is said or
their nests ? What use is made of the feathers of one sp. of this bird ?

What is the 3d FAMILY? Are they numerous? What is said of the dis-
tinction between the sp. ? What of their size, structure, and plumage ?
How and whence do they obtain their food ? What is said of their tongue ?
What of their sight and hearing ? How are some of them protected against
the cold in elevated regions? What does Humboldt notice? What is said
of the nests of these birds, &c. ? What species are named?

Mention the 4th FAMILY? What is said of the beak of these birds?
To what region are they chiefly confined ? On what do they feed ? What
is said of their plumage? Of their size? What sp. are mentioned?

What is the 5th FAMILY ? Are they strictly Tenuirostral birds ? What
is said of their tongue ? On what do they feed ? Are they strictly Climb-
ers? What is said of the tails of the TREE CREEPERS? Describe the
Brown Creeper. Describe the bill of the NUTHATCHES. What use do they
make of it? Why are they called Nuthatches? What sp. are found in the
II. S. ? Which is the smallest? What is the generic name of the WRENS?
What is its signification ? Describe the HOUSE WREN. What other sp. are
mentioned? Where are the Ox-peckers found? Repeat what is said oi
them.

Name and trace those figured on the chart.

SECTION VII

THIRD ORDER. CLIMBERS.
SCANSORES, (Lat. scando, to climb.)

The birds of this order are unlike in their food and in their
general structure and habits ; but as a distinguishing character
common to them all, they have four toes rising nearly to the same
level, the outer toes being turned backwards more or less perma-
nently,, like the thumb, so that these are opposable to the middle
and inner toes, which point in the opposite direction. This pe-
culiar disposition of their toes gives these birds great facility in
climbing the branches of trees, but it renders walking more diffi-

SCANSORES. 301

cult to them. As they pass most of their lives in trees, their
powers of flight are usually moderate. Their nests are ordina-
rily constructed with less skill than those of the Perchers, these
birds often employing for this purpose the hollows of decayed
trees, and ono family depositing their eggs in the nest of other
birds. They feed on insects and fruits, and the species feeding
upon each may be known by the greater or less robustness of
the beak.

This order is divided into four families, viz. : (1.) Ramphasti-
da, (Toucans;) (2.) Picida, (Woodpeckers;) (3.) Psittacida,
(Parrots;) (4.) Cuculida, (Cuckoos.)

(Swainson also includes in this order the Certhiadce, (Creepers,)
which have the rigid tail of the Woodpeckers, but the feet of the
Perchers, among whom they were placed by Prince Bonaparte.)

FIRST FAMILY. TOUCANS.
Ramphastidcz, (Gr. 'Qapcpavr^g, ramphastes, a pike.)

The Toucans are all natives of Tropical America. They are
large birds, clothed with brilliant plumage, and found in the
depths of magnificent forests. They associate together in small
companies, which are said sometimes to include even distinct
species.

These birds are easily recognized by the extraordinary size
of the beak, which in the typical genus, Rqmphastos, is nearly
as large and as long as the body itself; it is rendered light in the
same way as that of the Horn-Bills, being permeated by a very thin
and fragile net work of bony fibres, of a honey-comb appear-
ance, and is said to be borne with so much of ease and grace as
entirely to remove the idea of uncouthness which its appearance
suggests to those who look at it only in figures and stuffed speci-
mens.

The edges of the mandibles are both regularly notched at wide
intervals, and curved downwards to the tip ; the tongue is nar-
row, lengthened, and barbed on the sides like a feather ; the feet
are formed more for grasping than flying, having two toes before
and two behind, and accordingly these birds are seen on trees,
hopping from branch to branch. Their general movements are
light and elegant, but having short, rounded wings, their flight,
though rapid, is labored and in straight lines.

Their powers of smell are exquisite ; the nerves of that sense
are so distributed in the beak as to enable them more readily to
discover their food. This is both animal and vegetable ; but
they prefer the eggs and young of other birds ; in obtaining these

362 SCANSOEES.

from the deep hanging nests found in the regions which they in-
habit, they use their enormous beaks, the surface of which is
endowed with sensibility, enabling them to explore the contents
of these nests. It is said these birds are remarkably fond of
bathing in cold weather. They nestle in the hollows of trees,
laying two white and delicately rounded eggs.

The Toucan takes great care of his bill, packing it away and
covering it carefully with the feathers of its back before sleep-
ing, when it exhibits the appearance of a large round ball of
feathers.

Mr. Gould arranges the Toucans into two sections; (1.) the
TOUCANS proper, Rampliastos^ (from Gr. ramphos, a beak,) in-
cluding eleven species; (2.) the ARACARIS, Pteroglossus, (Gr.
pteron, wing; glossa, a tongue.)

In the former the beak is without grooves ; but in the latter it
is notched at wide intervals. The tail in the Aracaris is shorter
than in the Toucans proper, and is graduated instead of squared.

The true Toucans are generally black on the upper parts,
with vivid colors, chiefly red and yellow, on the throat and breast.
The beak is often tinted with brilliant hues which vanish after
death. The TOUCAN, R. Toco, (see Chart,) is one of the largest of
this section, being twenty-seven inches in. total length, of which
the beak is seven inches and a half. It ranges from the River
La Plata to Guiana.

The KEEL-BEAKED TOUCAN, R. carinatus, (Lat. carina, a keel,)
is conspicuous for the number and brilliancy of the hues adorning
its beak, which is keeled along the upper edge.

The ARACARI, P. pluricinctus, (Lat. many-girdled.) has the
breast marked with two broad bands of black, the upper sepa-
rated from the throat by an intervening space of yellow, dashed
with red ; a similar but .broader space separates the two bands of
black, the lower of which is bounded by scarlet, advancing as
far as the thighs, which are brownish olive. The total length is
twenty inches ; the bill four inches and a half. It is a native of
Brazil.

SECOND FAMILY. PARROTS.
Psittacidce, (Gr. ylTjaxog, psittakos, a parrot.)

These birds are remarkable for their beautiful colors, their
powerful bill, their fleshy tongue, and their imitation of the
human voice. The articulation of some of the species is so per-
fect, that when unseen, it is difficult to suppose that Jhe words
pronounced do not come from the mouth of man. The power of

SCANSORES. 363

moving the upper mandible is much more highly developed in
this family than in other birds, that organ not being connected
into one piece with the skull, by elastic and yielding bony plates,
as is the c-ase with the birds in general, but constituting a par-
ticular bone, distinct from the rest of the skull, and joined to it.
This mobility becomes more conspicuous, for the reason that
their vigorous jaws are set in motion by a greater number of
muscles than are found in other birds. The advantages of this
peculiarity of structure are apparent, when we remember the
use which a Parrot makes of the beak, as a third hand, to assist
it in climbing from bough to bough, or about the bars of its cage
when in confinement. The beak appears to be well supplied
with nerves of sensation, as the bird not only seems to enjoy
holding its food with the tip of its bill, but sometimes scratches
that organ with its foot, plainly showing that there must be sensa-
tion. The thick and fleshy tongue of the Parrots, is a very del-
icate organ of taste; it is covered, like that of the Mammalia,
with papilla, and being moistened by a constant secretion of
saliva, they are able to select and taste different kinds of food.
In some of the Australian species which suck the nectar of
flowers, the tongue, while retaining the thick form and fleshy
structure common to the family, is distinguished by the peculiar-
ity of terminating in a number of very delicate and close-set fil-
aments, which can be protruded and expanded like a brush. One
of these species, the Australian LORIKEET, is of a predominant
azure color, and is sometimes called the Blue-mountain Parrot,
Trichoglossus, (Gr. hair-tongued ;) liamatodus, (Gr. of blood-
color,) — when shown, in confinement, a colored drawing of a
flower, it applied the tip of its tongue to it, as if it would suck it,
and on another occasion, made a similar attempt on seeing a
piece of furniture calico.

The most prevalent hue of the Parrots, is a soft and lustrous
green, varied, however, with scarlet, yellow and blue in profu-
sion, usually arranged in broad and well defined masses.

The Parrot tribe have been arranged into several groups,
founded, to a great extent, upon variations of plumage.

(1.) The TRUE PARROTS (Psittacus] are, for the most part,
found in tropical America. Their prevailing color is green.
The Ash-colored, or Gray Parrot, P. eryihacus, is seen in Africa.
This group excels all the others in powers of imitation. The
species of the Green Parrots are numerous. The best* known,
are the FESTIVE PARROT, P.festivus, and the AMAZON'S PARROT,
P. Amazonicus. The latter has superior mimic propensities, but
the Festive Parrot is the larger in size. The Amazon Parrot

364 SCANSORES.

can be easily taught to repeat many words and sentences. It
lives on fruit, particularly that of the Mangrove-tree. The
COMMON GRAY PARROT, P. erythacus, is thought superior to all
others in docility and mimicry ; when well taught, it completely
imitates the human voice ; and is clear in its articulation. A
Roman cardinal, it is said, "gave a hundred gold pieces" for one
of these birds which had learned to repeat distinctly the "Apos-
tle's creed." La Vaillant mentions one which had lived in con-
finement ninety-three years. The Parrots of this group are
square-tailed, and have no crests. (2.) The LONG-BILLED PAR-
ROTS, (Australian genus Nestor,) are the connecting link between
these and the Cockatoos. (3.) The COCKATOOS, Plyctolopliina,
(Gr. with washed, or folding crests.) are natives of Australia and
the Indian Islands. These are also square-tailed, but have
crests upon their heads. (Plate X. fig. 5a.) They are white
birds, with the crests and under parts of the tail-feathers yellow;
quite gentle in disposition, and easily domesticated, with the ex-
ception of a large Black Cockatoo, found in Australia. Their
imitative powers seldom go beyond a very few words added to
their own cry of "Cockatoo." (4.) The LOVE-BIRDS, Psittacula,
are a group of beautiful and diminutive birds, nearly allied to
the True Parrots, and found on both 'Continents. They are dis-
tinguished by their slightly graduated tails; and they have no
furcula, or wish-bone. (5.) The PARRAKEETS, or PARRAQUETS,
Palaornis, (Gr. palaios, old; ornis, bird,) are natives of India
and the adjacent islands. Some eleven or twelve species are
enumerated, one of which is found in Australia ; their color is
green, with the under parts scarlet. One species is named P.
Alexandri, after Alexander the Great, in whose time these birds
were first introduced into Europe. They have ever been noted
for their beauty of form and movement; their powers of imita-
tion, arid their show of affection when kindly treated. Amid the
luxuries of Rome, the " Indian-Bird " was kept in cages of the
most costly materials, nor was any price, however great, deemed
extravagant, or beyond its value. A species which Wilson
calls the Parrakeet^bui which is named by Audubon Psittacus
Garolinensis, is found as far north as Cincinnati, Ohio. The
Parrakeets have long pointed tails. (6.) The MACAWS, or MAC-
CAWS, Macroceros, (Gr. long-horned.) are American Birds.
Those of South America and the Antilles, are the largest and
most highly colored. Their imitative powers are much less
than those of the True Parrots, but when domesticated, they be-
come greatly attached. These birds are long-tailed, and the
largest of the family. The M. Ararauna, of Brazil, has a

SCANSORES. 385

plumage of rich hue above; the under parts light saffron. It is
thirty-nine inches long, including the tail, which measures
twenty-four. (7) The LORIES, Lorius, are a group found in
the Moluccas and the Eastern Islands, — remarkable for the very
rich and mellow hues of their plumage ; blending scarlet with
green, violet-purple, violet-blue, and orange-yellow. They
are lively and active, and of an affectionate disposition, and show
great docility in the articulation of words and sentences. The
beak of these birds is lengthened, and comparatively feeble ; the
tail rounded, or graduated. They feed upon the juice of flowers
or the pulp of the softest fruits.

THIRD FAMILY. WOODPECKERS,
Picida, (Lat. picus, a woodpecker.)

These birds are, in their whole organization, adapted to climb-
ing, and eminently entitled to be called Scansores.

The feet are short, but very strong ; the toes are placed in pairs,
two pointing forward and two backward, (Plate X. fig. 23 ;) the
claws are large, much curved, and very hard and sharp, ena-
bling the bird to cling firmly, and creep on trees in all directions.
The tail-feathers terminate in points, and are uncommonly hard,
so that, being pressed against the bark, they assist the bird in its
progress, or in keeping its position. The bill, destined for the
laborious operation of penetrating the wood, or stripping off the
bark of forest-trees, is beautifully adapted for the purpose, being
wedge-shaped, and in one species, (Picus principalis') nearly of
the color and consistency of ivory, whence it has been termed the
IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER. This bird obtains its food, consisting
of the Iarv86 of wood-boring insects, by chiseling away the bark
and surrounding wood, until the subtle grub is exposed. The head
then acts as a hammer, of which the beak is the face or point,
and the curved neck the handle, and being moved by muscles
of great energy, the sharp and wedge-like beak-tip is propelled
against the tree in a succession of strokes given with remarkable
force and activity.

To help in this work of chiseling out its grub- worm food, the
Woodpecker also has a worm-like tongue, barbed at the point,
and capable of being protruded to a great length ; for which
purpose there is a peculiar structure and arrangement in the
muscles at the base of the tongue. By means of its protruding
tongue, this bird transfixes the insects which it dislodges from
their hiding places with its powerful bill. Added to this, there
is on each side of the head, a very large gland which secretes a

306 SCANSORES.

glutinous substance ; this gland being compressed by the mus-
cular action which protrudes the tongue, the viscid matter is
poured out upon the sides of the tongue as it is thrust forth, and
this is sufficiently adhesive to attach to itself small insects, such
as ants, small grubs, beetles, &c., which are rapidly drawn in
and swallowed. "But as many of the boring larvae are too
heavy thus to adhere, and would hold on by their tuberculous
feet, or by their strong jaws, the capture of such is effected by a
horny tip of the tongue being set with numerous fine barbs on
each side, pointing backwards ; the fine point readily pierces the
skin of the insect, the barbs yielding as it enters, but when once
within, it cannot, without much force, be withdrawn, the barbs
having expanded within the skin, and so the insidious grub, de-
spite his efforts to maintain his tenancy, is dragged forth by the
powerful contraction of the Woodpecker's elastic tongue." All
this is to be placed among those beautiful contrivances of the
Divine Mind, which are so conspicuous in the "Animal King-
dom," and which, in so interesting and striking a manner, exhibit
the benevolent and fatherly care of Him, without whose notice
not even "a Sparrow falleth to the ground."

The Woodpeckers are widely scattered over the Eastern and
Western Continents. As yet, however, no representative of this
family has been found in Australia. The prevailing hue of
these birds is black, often handsomely spotted with white, and
varied with brilliant red, the latter especially upon the head.
They lay their eggs and bring up their young in capacious
chambers, which are hollowed out of the trunks of trees. Among
the birds of this family, is included the Yimx, more properly
lunx, (Gr. iw£. iunx,) or WRYNECK, (Y. torquilla.)ofo]d described
by Aristotle, and known to classical scholars as referred to in
the second Idyl, of Theocritus. Its general color is ash, spotted
with brown or black ; its beak is short, straight, and depressedly
conical. TheWryneck is a companion of the Cuckoo, appearing
and departing about the same time ; and in captivity, is a great
favorite.

The species of Woodpeckers are quite numerous. Audubon
mentions twenty-one as found in the United States.

The IMPERIAL WOODPECKER, P. imperialis, of California and
the Rocky Mountains, is the largest, being two feet in length.
The GREEN WOODPECKER, P. viridis* (Lat. green.) is found on'the
European Continent. P. torquatus, (Lat. collared.) is a species of
Green, or blackish-green Woodpecker, (Plate X. fig. 5b,) found in
California and the dense forests bordering on the Columbia River.
It has a band of dull white running over the back of the neck,

SCANSORES. 367

and joining a patch of a reddish color on the front and part of
the breast. The European species is thirteen inches long; the
American eleven. The HAIRY WOODPECKER, P. villosus, (Lat.
hairy,) is a constant resident of New York during the whole
year. Length eight and a half inches.

FOURTH FAMILY. CUCKOOS.
Cuculida, (Lat. Cuculus, a cuckoo.)

This family of birds have a beak of a medium length, rather
deeply cleft; both mandibles compressed, and more or less
curved downward; the nostrils exposed ; the wings, for the most
part, short, but the tail lengthened. Their skin is remarkably
thin ; the plumage thick and compact, generally of subdued, but
chaste and pleasing hues, with more or less of reflected lustre ; the
long tail is often graduated, and handsomely barred with black
and white.

"So faintly," says Swainson, "is the scansorial structure in-
dicated in these birds, that but for their natural habits, joined to
the position of their toes, we should not suspect they were so
intimately connected with the more typical groups of the tribe,
as they undoubtedly are. They decidedly climb, although in a
manner peculiar to themselves. Having frequently seen dif-
ferent species of the Brazilian Cuckoos in their native forests,
I may safely affirm, that they climb in all other directions than
that of the perpendicular. Their flight is so feeble, from the
extreme shortness of their wings, that it is evidently performed
with difficulty, and it is never exercised but to convey them from
one tree to another. All soft insects inhabiting such situations
lying in their route, become their prey, and the quantities that
are thus destroyed, must be very great."

The Brazilian hunters give to their Cuckoos the general
name of Cat's-tail, their long hanging tails and mode of climbing
presenting some resemblance to that quadruped. Swainson
thinks the long tail is given to the Cuckoo as a sort of balance,
just as a rope-dancer, with a pole in his hands, preserves his
footing when otherwise he would fall. It is a peculiarity of the
Cuckoo, that the outer hind-toe can be made to form a right angle
with that which is next it in front, so that it is termed versatile, —
a term not, however, strictly applicable, as the toe cannot be
brought more than half-way forward, although it can be placed
entirely backward. The Cuckoos are really half perching and
half climbing birds, not only in their feet, but in their manners.
They are divided into two sub- families; (1.) Cuculina, which

368 SCANSORES.

include the genuine Cuckoos, having the bill broader at the base
than it is high. These, with the exception of the birds included
in the genus Molothrus, are the only known parasitic birds, —
making no nests for their own use, but taking possession of those
of small insectivorous birds, usually of the Dentirostral tribe.
"The whole care of hatching ancf rearing the young, is now left
to the foster parent; and as the wants of so large an intruder,
additional to those of their own offspring, would be more than the
efforts of the selected nurses could supply, an instinct is im-
planted in the young Cuckoo, by which, even from the very day
of its birth, it is impelled to eject from the nest the rightful ten-
ants of it. This is a well known habit of the Common Cuckoo,
whose notes as harbinger of spring, are pleasing, but whose
reputation is bad, on account of the ruthless murders which, in
its early days, it is supposed to have committed." The Toucans,
however, seem to act as avengers. The favorite nests of the
Cuckoo, are those of the Hedge Sparrow, the Pied Wagtail, the
Pipit and the Robin.

(2.) The sub-family, Coccyzina, from the generic name,
Coccyzus, (Gr. kokkuzo, I sing as a cuckoo,) — have a bill of a
lengthened and oval shape, and are not to be regarded as paras-
tic. Coccyzus Americanus, (Cuculus Garolinensis — Wilson,) —
is well known by its notes, which seem to represent the word
cow, cow, repeated eight or ten times with increasing rapidity.
This is the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, which honorably builds its own
nest, and lays four or five eggs of a green color. Sometimes it
is called the Cow-bird. There are two other American species,
viz., the BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO, C. erythrophthalmus, (Gr. red-
eyed,) and Mangrove Cuckoo, C. seniculus, (Lat. a little old man.)

What is the THIRD ORDER OF BIRDS ? What characteristic is common to
them all ? For what does this fit them ? What is said of their powers of
flight and their nests ? Into what Families is the order divided ?

What is the FIRST FAMILY ? Of what region are they all natives ? What
is said of their plumage ? How do they associate ? How are they easily
recognized ? Describe the beak. What other characteristics are given ?
What is said of their flight ? What of their powers of smell ? What food
do they use ? What assists them in obtaining it ? What more is said of
these birds when sleeping ? How does Mr. Gould arrange the Toucan ?
State the differences between the two groups? Which is the largest of the
Toucans Proper? — What species of the Aracari is mentioned? What other
species of Toucans is mentioned ?

What is the SECOND FAMILY ? For what are the Parrots remarkable ?
What is peculiar in their upper mandible ? Describe it. Has the beak
nerves of sensation ? What is said of the tongue ? What peculiarity

EA SORES. 309

attaches to some of the Australian species ? What fact is mentioned in
relation to the Australian Lorikeet? What is the prevailing hue of the
Parrot? Where are the True Parrots for the most part found? What is
said of the imitative powers of this group? Which are the best known of
the Green Parrots ? What is said of them ? Which is superior in docility
and mimicry ? Are the True Parrots crested, and what is the form of the
tail? What Parrots connect them with the Cockatoos? Where are the
Cockatoos found? How do they differ from True Parrots? What is said
of the color of their plumage? What is said of the Love-Birds? What
group is next mentioned? Where are these found ? What is their color?
When were they first introduced into Europe? For what are they cele-
brated ? What Parrokeet is found in the U. S. ? Where are the MACCAWS
found? What is said of their size? What species are mentioned? Where
are the LORIES found? What is said of them?

What is the THIRD FAMILY ? For what are they eminently adapted ? How
is this shown? What use do they make of the bill? Why is the Ivory-
billed W. so called? What organs help them to obtain their food? With
what glands is the head furnished? What purpose do these serve? How
are they enabled to secure the larger larvaB ? What do these marks of adapt-
ation illustrate ? What is said of the diffusion of these birds? How are they
colored? Which is the largest species? Where found? How large?
What is said of the WRY-NECK ? Are the sp. of Wry-necks numerous ?

What is the FOURTH FAMILY? What characteristics are mentioned?
What does Swainson remark of these birds? What purpose is served by
their long tails? What is said of the outer hind toe? What are the
Cuckoos really said to be ? What SUB-FAMILY includes the GENUINE
CUCKOOS? Why are they called PARASITIC-BIRDS? Are there any other
Parasitic-birds ? Which are the favorite nests of the Cuckoo ? What is the
other SUB-FAMILY ? Are they Parasitic-birds ? What American species
are mentioned?

SECTION VIIT.

FOURTH ORDER. SCRATCHERS.

RASORES, (Lat. rado, to scratch ;) or GALLINJE, (Lat. gaHus, a

cock.)

This order, which includes the Gallinacea, or Poultry tribes,
consists of birds having bulky forms and strong legs, and espe-
cially adapted to live on the dry ground. The Poultry are
chiefly confined to the continents, few, comparatively being found
on the adjacent islands.

The wings of the Scratchers are muscular, but not proportion-
ate in size to the bulk of their bodies, so that their power of
flight is comparatively small. Most of them have strong, arched
beaks, long necks, and large, ample tails ; many have their
heads adorned with elegant crests ; the tail has more than the

370 RASORES.

usual number of feathers, having from fourteen to eighteen.
Their food is, with few exceptions, vegetable, being chiefly de-
rived from the seeds and grains of plants. These birds multi-
ply with great rapidity, are easily domesticated, and as furnish-
ing man with a large quantity of wholesome and delicate food,
deserve special regard. Some of them, as the Peacock and
Pheasant, are also interesting for the beauty and stateliness of
their forms, and the diversity of their plumage. In the few spe-
cies of this family which associate in pairs, such as the Ptarmi-
gan and Partridge, the male and female birds are nearly alike,
both in size and color.

The Scratchers are arranged into seven families, viz. : (1)
Columbida, Pigeons ; (2) Cracida, Currassows ; (3) Megapodi-
da, Megapodes, or large-footed Birds; (4) Phasianida, Pheas-
ants ; (5) Tetraonidce, Grouse ; (6) Chionida, Sheath-bills ; (7)
Tinamida, Tinamous.

FIRST FAMILY. PIGEONS.
Columbida, (Lat. Columba, a dove or pigeon.)

The food, habits, and internal economy of these birds, and the
form of their bills entitle them, in the judgment of Cuvier and
others, to a place among the RASORES. They, however, show
resemblances to the Perchers, which have led some naturalists to
place them in that order. The feet of the Pigeons, though fol-
lowing the type of the Perchers, allow them to spend most of
their time on the ground, and many of them perch very little.
They differ from the Gallinaceous birds, in pairing, which is
contrary to the habits of the latter, also in having the hind toe
on the same level with the others, whereas the Gallinaceous
birds have the hind toe higher up. The variations of the Pig-
eons from both the Scratchers and Perchers, have induced yet
other naturalists to erect them into a separate order, Gyratores,
(Gr. guros, a circle.) or CIRCLING Birds, a name referring to their
mode of flying in circles.

The Pigeons include a large number of elegant and amiable birds,
spread over every part of the world. One of their principal pe-
culiarities is the crop, which ordinarily is thin, but which, when
the young are about to be hatched, becomes expanded on each
side of the gullet, and very irregular as to its internal surface.
From this organ the parent bird supplies its young with food, pre-
viously rendered suitable by the action of a milky fluid that is
secreted in the crop ; this fluid, it is said, coagulates with acids
and forms curd. This apparatus constitutes among the Birds the

RASORES. 371

nearest approach to the Mammal tribes : hence the term " pig.
eon's milk."

The beak in the Pigeons is of moderate length, and swollen
towards the tip, which is curved downwards; the wings vary in
length and in adaptation to powerful flight ; the feet have three
divided toes in front, and a single one behind. The structure
of the feet varies, however, in different genera.

In the WOOD-PIGEONS, (Columba,) of North America and the
Eastern Continent, the outer and inner toes in front are equal.

In the GREEN PIGEONS, (Ptilinopus, Gr. feather- footed,) of
Australia and the East Indian Islands ; and the AROMATIC VJN-
AGOS, ( Vinago,) of inter-tropical Asia and Africa, a group which
includes the Thick-billed species of those countries, the inner
toe is much shorter than the outer, so that they are more fitted
for grasping than walking ; but this proportion is reversed in the
PASSENGER PIGEON, genus Ectopistes, (Gr. ektopizo, to migrate.)
In the genus Peristera, (Gr. for dove,) which comprises the
beautiful BRONZE- WINGED PIGEONS, of Australia, and the GROUND
PIGEONS of this continent, the tarsi are higher, the hind toe
shorter, and the inner toe is the longest.

The Pigeons generally nestle in trees and in the holes of rocks,
laying but few eggs at a time, but breeding very often, so that
their increase is very rapid. The prevailing hues of the plum-
age in the typical genus, Columba, are various shades of blue
and gray, merging, sometimes, into purple, and at others, into
white. Many of this family exhibit metallic reflections of great
beauty, mostly confined to particular parts, especially the neck.
The countenance in these birds is meek and gentle in its express-
ion ; the. eye, large, liquid and engaging. The voice has a soft
and mournful character; it is known by the term cooing.

The ROCK-PIGEON, C. livia, (Lat. livid,) in its wild state widely
distributed, is the original stock of the COMMON, or DOVE-COTE
PIGEON, and most of the curious varieties which are fostered by
"pigeon breeders." Among the varieties are the TUMBLERS, so
called from their singular habit of falling backwards when on
the wing ; the POUTERS, or CROPPERS, so named from their in-
flated crops, of which they seem exceedingly vain, and which
they are enabled to fill so full of air that the head is almost hid-
den behind it; the CARRIERS, or Messenger Pigeons, trained to
carry letters fastened under their wings or to their feet, cele-
brated in the verse of Anacreon, (ODE, eis peristeran, to the pig-
eon.) Victors in the games of ancient Greece sometimes em-
ployed these birds to announce their success ; the Crusaders used
them; they figure in Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," who sings

872 RASORES. .

of one that was attacked by a falcon, and* rescued by the hero,
Godfrey; but, though they continued to be used down to modern
times, and at last, for such ignoble purposes as heralding the fel-
on's death, increasing the gains of stock-jobbers, or bearing mes-
sages from the race course and prize ring, (see Hogarth's
print in the Penny Magazine,) yet since the invention and appli-
cation of the electric telegraph, their " occupation is " almost
" gone." A well trained carrier-pigeon, it is said, has " performed
the distance of forty miles in half an hour;" and " one has been
known to fly nearly one hundred and fifty miles in an hour ! "
Their more usual rate of flight probably does not exceed forty
miles an hour.

Other " fancy varieties " might be mentioned, but those given
must suffice.

The astonishing fecundity of the domesticated pigeon is shown
by the fact, that hatching as they do, nine or ten times a year, a
single pair may produce, in four years, 14,760 young !

The TURTLE-DOVE, Turtur, (Lat. turtle-dove.) risorius, (laugh-
ing,) or Columba risorius, is deemed a fitting emblem of con-
stant and faithful connubial attachment; it expresses its affection
by " billing and cooing in the gentlest and most soothing accents."
This bird reaches England early in the Spring, and leaves late
in August ; its length is rather more than twelve inches. The
specific name, (risorius,) is given to it from a "fancied resem-
blance to the human laugh in its cooings."

The CAROLINA TURTLE-DOVE, Columba (Ectopistes) Caroli-
nensis, is twelve inches long, and ranges and breeds from Texas
to Massachusetts. The plumage of the upper parts is light yel-
lowish brown, with the crown of the head and upper part of the
neck, bright greenish blue ; the under parts are brownish yel-
low. Wilson says : " This is a favorite bird with all who love
to wander among our woods in the spring, and listen to their va-
ried harmony. They will hear there many a sprightly per-
former ; but none so mournful as this. The hopeless woe of set-
tled sorrow, swelling the heart of female innocence itself, could
not assume tones more sad, more tender and affecting. They
are generally heard in the deepest shaded part of the woods, fre-
quently about noon, and towards the evening. There is, however,
nothing of real distress in all this; it is the voice of LOVE, for
which the whole family of doves are celebrated, and none more
so than the species before us." •

The PASSENGER PIGEON, or Wild Pigeon, Columba (Ectopistes)
migratoria, is found in all parts of North America, and in par-
ticular districts is, at times, wonderfully abundant. It is usually

RASORES. 373

of a bluish-slate color, with white underneath, though there are
considerable variations of color. The Passenger Pigeons have
great acuteness of vision ; they are also noted for their rapid
flight. These Pigeons have been killed in New York with Caro-
lina rice still in their crops. As the digestion of these birds is
extremely rapid, they must have flown between three and four
hundred miles in six hours, giving an average speed of a mile in
a minute. Wilson and Audubon have both felicitously described
the arrivals and departures of the almost innumerable multitudes
of Wild Pigeons which they saw. Wilson estimated one multi-
tude seen by him to contain above two hundred thousand millions
of pigeons! Audubon judged that a flock seen by him contained
one billion one hundred and fifteen millions!! The breeding
places of these birds are sometimes of very great extent. One
of these near Shelby viile, Kentucky, Wilson judged to have been
several miles in extent, and upwards of forty miles in length.
These birds usually raise two broods in a year. Their nests
are composed of a few dry twigs crossing each other, and are
supported by forks in the branches of trees. On the same tree,
it is said, from fifty to an hundred nests may often be seen.

The BRONZE- WINGED PIGEON, or Ground Dove, Phaps (Gr. a
pigeon) chalcoptera, (Gr. brazen- winged,) group Perislerina, is
an extremely beautiful species found in Australia. The predomi-
nant colors are gray tinged with purple, and brown tinged with
green ; the wing coverts are bluish gray, but the outer webs
of every feather have a large egg-shaped spot, exhibiting vari-
ous shades of metallic brilliancy according to the direction of
the light. The length of this bird is eighteen inches. Its cooing
is so loud that when heard at a distance it has been compared to
the lowing of a cow.

The CROWNED PIGEON, Lopliyrus, (Gr. having a remarkable
crest,) cristatus, is a native to the East Indian islands. The size
of this bird, (28 inches long,) compares with that of a turkey,
and its flesh is of excellent flavor. The greater part of the plu-
mage is of a fine purple or bluish ash; other portions are of a
dark reddish-brick color, It coos and shows the manners of pig-
eons, but in structure seems to approach the Curassows.

The WATTLED GROUNL PIGEON, Geophilus, (Gr. lover of the
ground,) carunculata, (Lat. wattled,) is a native of South Africa,
in size about as large as a turtle dove, but with the body stouter
and more rounded. In its bill and plumage it conforms to the
Pigeons, but in the naked red wattles of the forehead and chin,
and in some other respects, it appears to approach the Gallina-
ceous Birds.

374 EASORES.

The GROUND DOVE, Columla passerina, (Lat. Sparrow-like,)
is an American species, only six and three-fourths inches in
length, ranging from Louisiana to Cape Hatteras.

SECOND FAMILY. The CURASSOWS.
Cracida, (Or. krax, from krazo, to cry out like a crow.)

The hind toe in these birds is articulated on the same plane as
the others, touching the ground on its length in walking, so that
the foot is constructed after the model of the Perchers; hence,
they are much more arboreal than the Poultry-birds, form-
ing their nests among the branches of trees and feeding upon
their buds and fruit. The curved form of the claws, their com-
pressed sides, and their sharp points indicate that these birds are
not habitually occupied in walking and scratching upon the
ground ; the toes, unlike those of all other gallinaceous birds, are
destitute of any connecting membrane; the tarsi are without
spurs, but in other respects the Curassows conform- to the dis-
tinctive characters of the order.

These birds are found in Central and South America.

The COMMON CRESTED CURASSOWS, Crax elector, (Gr. alek-
tdr, a cock,) are natives of Mexico, Guiana and Brazil. They
are very common and furnish excellent food ; are about the size
of a turkey, and have the head adorned with crests of long, nar-
row, erectile feathers, curled at the tips. They usually perch
upon trees, are found in numerous flocks and easily domesticated.
These birds build their nests upon trees, laying but once a year;
the eggs are from five to eight in number, and nearly as large as
a turkey's. The plumage is of a deep black, with slight glosses
of green above; the under parts are dull white.

The GUANS, Penelope crislata> do not differ much from the
Curassows in their habits. They are known in Brazil by the
name of Jacu, (pronounced Yacou,) derived, it is said, from their
note. The length is thirty inches,

The HOAZINS, Opisthocomus, (Gr. opisthen, behind ; kome, hairs
or bristles,) crisiatus, live in pairs or small companies of six or
eight, in the flooded savannahs of South America. They seek for
their food the leaves of a species of arum which is found in such
places. Unlike other gallinaceous birds, their toes are without,
or have only rudimentary membranes. In stature and gait they
resemble the peacock. The generic name refers to the bristles
which* diverge from the base of the bill. The name Hoatzin, or
Hoazin, is given to these birds from its imagined resemblance

RASORES. 375

when pronounced, to their shrieking cry. They are nearly as
large as the Guans.

THIRD FAMILY. MEGAPODES, or GREATFOOTS.
Megapodiidcz, (Gr. ^/«£, m£gas, great ; noug, a foot.)

This family are scattered over Australia and the islands of the
Indian Archipelago.

Their characters may be given thus : the beak is vaulted,
somewhat compressed ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail
short, varying in the number of its feathers from twelve to
eighteen ; the feet of disproportionate size and strength, the tarsi
being stout, elevated, and strongly scaled ; the toes long, robust,
and armed with strong, flat, rasorial claws.

The flesh of these birds is white, and much valued for its
tenderness and flavor. The eggs are enormously large, as com-
pared with those of other birds.

The BRUSH TURKEY, Talegalla Lathami, (of Latham,) is so
called from being found principally in the thick brushwood of
New South Wales. Mr. Gould has given an account of the
curious nests of these birds. In making them, the bird never
uses its bill, but always grasping a quantity of material in its
foot, throws it backward to the common centre ; and thus clears
the surface of the ground for a considerable distance so com-
pletely, that scarcely a leaf or blade of grass is left. After heat
is engendered in the mound, the eggs are planted at the distance
of nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried nearly at
arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upwards.
They are covered up as laid, and allowed to remain until
hatched. It is said nearly a bushel of eggs is not unusually
obtained, at one time, from a single heap ; and as they are deli-
cious eating, they are eagerly sought.

The MOUND-MAKING MEGAPODE, Megapodius tumulus, (Lat. a
mound ) confines itself to thickets near the sea-shore, and is
called the Jungle-fowl. It is of a bright red brown color, about
as large as a common fowl, arid lays its eggs in mounds, not at
intervals, like the Brush-Turkey, but at the bottom of the mound,
usually five or six feet in depth. Sometimes the mounds are
excessively large. One is spoken of as fifteen feet in height,
naving a circumference of sixty feet at its base! From their
small brain, and not sitting upon their eggs, but leaving them to
the warmth of the sun's rays, or the fermentation of vegetable
matter, the Megapodes are supposed to be the lowest representa-
tives of their class.

16

RASORES.

FOURTH FAMILY. PHEASANTS.

Phasianida, (Gr. <pa(nav6$, phasianos, a pheasant, i. e., a bird
from the river Phasis, in Colchis.)

Sub-family Pavonina, (Lat. pavo, a peacock,) sometimes
ranked as a family, and so presented on the Chart.

This extensive family includes birds of a large size and mag-
nificent plumage ; the flesh of all of them is in good esteem.
They have an arched beak, and the nostril is covered with a
naked and horny scale. The wings are characteristic of the
order, in being incapable of rapid or long-sustained flight. The
feet are large and powerful ; the tarsi naked, covered in front
with large plates, or scales, and have one or more curved and
pointed spurs; tty? claws are slightly curved, and obtuse at the
point; the hind tee is placed higher up on the tarsus than the
three front ones, so that, in walking, its tip alone reaches the
surface. The tail consists of eighteen feathers, which, in all, are
developed well, and sometimes in an extraordinary manner; the
tail coverts are also, at times, greatly lengthened. The males
generally are of superior size and magnificence to the females,
shining with rich, but not, usually, showy hues, reflecting the
refulgence of precious stones or polished metal. Many, par-
ticularly the males, are ornamented with wattles, combs, or
feathery crests. The most gorgeous species are found in the
warmer regions of Eastern and Southern Asia.

Europeans date back their possession of the Pheasant twelve
centuries before the Christian Era. From the most ancient
time the Peacock has been a domesticated bird, as the references
to it made by the earliest Greek poets, very clearly show.

The COMMON PEACOCK, (Pavo cristatus,) was regularly im-
ported from the East in the fleets of Solomon ; and its remarka-
ble beauty was referred to at a period still more ancient, (Job
xxxix, 13.)

The feathers of this bird do not constitute its tail ; they begin
to grow far up on the back, so that, when erected and spread,
! scarcely more than the head and neck of the bird appear in front
of them. The true tail is situated beneath, being concealed by
these, and consists of eighteen brown feathers, about six inche's
long. Immense flocks of these birds, identical with the domestic
races, are found in the forests of India, — seeming to cover them
with their beautiful plumage. The flesh of the Peacock, when
not old, is juicy and savory, but is not eaten now so much as in

RASORES. . 377

former times, when it formed an important addition to great ban-
quets, being served up dressed in its own brilliant plumage.

The TURKEY, (Meleagris gallopavo) was so called from an
erroneous impression, that it came originally from the country
of the same name. It appears to have been introduced into
Europe about the year 1600. The generic name is the Lat. for
Guinea-fowl ; the specific, is Lat. from gallus and pavo, combined.

The habits of the Turkey, in a domestic state, are too well
known to need description, and its utility on the score of food,
most people are capable of appreciating. A few continue in a
wild condition in some of our Western States ; they are partly
migratory in their habits, moving in the latter part of October,
towards the Ohio and the Mississippi, seldom, however, using
their wings, except when attacked, or in order to pass over a
river. The stronger ones can cross a river of a mile in breadth,
but the weaker frequently fall into the river, and then paddle to
shore with some rapidity. C. L. Bonaparte, in his "American
Ornithology," speaks of an ingenious method in which the
Turkey escapes the onsets of large Owls, by suddenly " drop-
ping his head, squatting, and spreading the tail over his back, in
which case the Owl glances over him without doing any injury.

This fowl lays in the spring, usually, from fourteen to eighteen
eggs, which are white, mixed with yellow or reddish freckles.
Dr. Franklin expressed a wish that the Turkey, rather than the
Bald Eagle, had been selected as our national emblem. In point
of character and usefulness, it certainly much transcends the
latter bird.

The COMMON PHEASANT, Phasianus Colchicus, is now spread
over the greater part of the Old World. Fable says, it was
introduced into Europe "by Jason and his companions, who
brought it from Colchis in the good ship Argo." In size, this
bird is about equal to the domestic Cock. Its plumage presents
the finest tints of beautiful yellow and green, united with the
richest ruby and purple, set off with spots of glossy black. The
long wedge-shaped tail, partakes of the beautiful coloring of the
body, and the whole bird has an air of great elegance. Several
varieties have been produced by climate and domestication, such
as the White, the Pied, and the Ringed Pheasant.

The GOLDEN PHEASANT, P. pictus, is among the rare species.
It is a native of China, and remarkably elegant in its plumage.
The tail of this bird is longer and more richly tinted than that
of the European species; it is distinguished by a crest, which
can be raised at pleasure. Cuvier supposes this Pheasant to
be the Phoenix of Pliny. But the most splendid of the tribe, is

378 RASORES.

The ARGUS PHEASANT, Argus giganteus, (Lat. gigantic,) as
large as a Turkey, found in Sumatra, and the South-East-
ern parts of Asia. The "wings, the secondaries of which are
three times as long as the primary quills, are painted and ocel-
lated (having little eyes) in a manner which defies description."
This bird derives its name from the shepherd Argus, fabled to
have an hundred eyes.

THE GUINEA FOWLS, or PINTADOS, Numida meleagris, were ori-
ginally brought from Africa, and in the swamps and pestilential
regions of the Western portion of that Continent, they are found
in immense flocks.

Dr. Livingston says, " the woods were literally alive with
them," — that his " guides roasted them on skewers in the off-hand
fashion which is common among these people. They think it is
waste of time to strip the bird of its feathers before roasting it, as
the fire itself performs that operation." The flesh of these birds
is considered a great delicacy, as it is tender and well flavored.
Even in their wild state, they are not good flyers ; indeed, they
make more use of their legs than their wings. Their speed on
the ground is surprising ; but when chased for a while, they be-
come fatigued, and sit still until they are picked up. Guinea-
Hens are easily domesticated, and have been widely distributed.
They are frequently seen in the poultry-yard where they are
noted for their peculiar cries and unusual gait. During night,
they always perch in high situations, or on trees. In Jamaica
where these Hens do much mischief to some of the crops, they
have resumed their wild habits, and are shot like other game.

DOMESTIC POULTRY BIRDS.

Gallinacea, (Lat. Gallus, a cock ; Gallina, a hen.)

The Domestic Fowls are too well known to require a length-
ened description. Some of the varieties are the following, viz :

The GAME FOWL, — some years ago much sought after for use
in the cruel sport of cock-fighting, which, in some places, is still
continued.

The COCHIN CHINA FOWL, (a variety of the Java Fowl.) —
enormously large, and by some regarded as the origin of the
Barn-door Fowl; though others suppose the Jungle Fowl, of
India, to be the parent stock. The principal advantage con-
nected with raising the Cochin China breed, seems to be that the
chickens, from their large size, are ready for market earlier than
those of the ordinary fowl.

The BANTAMS, — small, but very courageous, sometimes even

RASORES. 379

venturing to attack a Turkey. Some of them are feathered
down to the toes. The long neck-feathers of this and the pre-
ceding fowl, are used by anglers for making artificial flies.

The SHANGHAI FOWL, — introduced from Shanghai, China, in
1848, by Capt. Forbes. Their general plumage is of a gold
color, variegated with dark brown and red ; their movement
appears proud and showy, but their legs are rather too long for
beauty.

The POLISH FOWL, — a small but beautiful breed, having deep
black plumage, with a white tuft on the crown of the head.

The DORKING FOWL, — a large and delicate variety. Its chief
peculiarity is the double hind toe, — it thus having five instead of
four toes.

The MALAY FOWL, — a long-legged and timorous bird, which,
for the first six months, has scarcely a feather to cover its na-
kedness ; its flesh, except in pure breeds, is coarse and stringy.

The JUNGLE FOWLS, — are large and spirited, with plumage of
purple and deep golden green, which, in the sun, has a splendid
appearance. The Chinese use these birds as Game Fowls.

FIFTH FAMILY. GROUSE.
Tetraonida, (Lat. tetrao, a heath-cock, or moor fowl.)

This family are distinguished from the Pheasants by the absence
of naked crests and wattles, that are so common among those
birds, as well as of the brilliant colors and the metallic lustre of
their plumage. The only naked skin about the Grouse is the
space which surrounds the eye ; this, when present, is of a
scarlet color. The tail is very short, and, in some species,
rudimentary. In the larger Grouse, of Europe and America,
and the Pintails, of Africa, this organ is, however, largely de-
veloped. The birds of this family differ from the Pheasants in
having the hind toe small and weak, and in some genera, reduced
to a mere rudiment. Some are found in the warmer regions,
but the larger and most typical part of them, in the cold regions
of the Northern Hemisphere, and on Alpine summits. As a
protection against the cold, these have the feet more or less
clothed with feathers.

The Grouse, unlike other birds of the order, for the most part,
pair at the breeding season ; though several species congregate
in large flocks. They all lay their eggs upon the ground, usu-
ally in large numbers ; in their general habits, they are terres-
trial, running with much ea?e and swiftness. In cold climates,
they sometimes perch on the low stunted trees. They feed on

380 RASORES.

the unexpanded leaf-buds of trees, upon grains, grass, seed, and
pulse. The flesh of all of these birds is much esteemed for its
tenderness and flavor.

The largest birds of this family, are included in the genus
Tetrao.

The CAPERCAILLIE, or COCK OF THE WOOD, T. urogallus, (Gr.
oura, a tail; gallus, a cock,) is common in most parts of North-
ern Europe. The male is a large bird, almost equaling a Tur-
key in size, but the female is considerably smaller. In the
early spring, the male bird is noted for his "play," in which his
movements are "much like those of an angry Turkey-cock, and
he utters a call somewhat resembling peller, peller, peller ; these
sounds he repeats at some little intervals, but as he proceeds, they
become increasingly rapid, until after a minute or so, he makes
a sort of gulp in his throat, and ends with sucking in, as it
were, his breath." The nest is made on the ground, and con-
tains from six to twelve eggs. Mr. Yarrell gives the length of
a specimen of this bird, as three feet four in.ches. The general
plumage is such a blending of black and white, as to give it a
gray hue. This bird feeds upon berries and young shoots.

The COMMON PARTRIDGE, or RUFFED GROUSE, T. umlellus,
(Lat. a small tuft,) is found only on this Continent, — ranging as
far South as Mexico. Its form is bulky, aid it has a slight crest.
(Plate X. fig. 6a.) The plumage is mottled with reddish and
dusky brown. The length is eighteen inches. The Partridge is
remarkable for producing a drumming noise, chiefly in the spring,
but occasionally at other seasons.

The COCK OF THE PLAINS, or PHEASANT-TAILED GROUSE, T.
urophasianus, (Gr. oura, a tail ; phasianos, a pheasant,) is found
in the Rocky Mountains, and in size not much less than a Tur-
key, being thirty inches in length. On each side of the lower
part of the neck in front, this bird has a large bare space, capable
of being inflated into a hemispherical sac.

The PINNATED GROUSE, also known as the Prairie-Hen, or
Heath-Hen, T. cupido, is another species, which in its voice,
manners and peculiarity of plumage, is perhaps the most singu-
lar, and in its flesh, the most excellent of the tribe found in the
United States. It is nineteen inches in length.

The QUAILS, Ortyx, (Gr. ortux, a quail,) in the Southern and
Western parts of the Union, called Partridges, are also included
in the present family.

The COMMON AMERICAN QUAIL, O. or Perdix, (Lat. partridge,)
Virginiana, is found abundantly from Texas to Massachusetts.

R4SORES. 881

In Texas it keeps principally on the prairies. This bird is
nine or ten inches long ; the bill is short arid thick, with the
upper mandible curved from the base ; the color a reddish
brown, varied with black and white. It makes its nest on the
ground, and lays from eight to eighteen pure white eggs. As it
is timorous and restless in its habits, it is hard to domesticate.
Its whistle, in the spring, is thought to resemble the words, Buck-
wheat, Bob White. The Quail is caught in large numbers by
traps, horse-hair nooses, and nets.

The CALIFORNIA QUAIL, or PARTRIDGE, O. California, resem-
bles the Common Quail, but has a crest, which it can erect or
depress at pleasure. (Plate X. fig. 6b.)

The PTARMIGAN, Lagopus, (Gr. Hare-footed,) albus, inhabits
the Northern parts of Europe and America. It has the legs and
feet thickly covered with hair-like feathers reaching as far as the
claws. (Plate IX. fig. 22.) Like the fur of the Ermine, the
plumage changes in winter from an almost tortoise. shell color to
a pure white. The length is about fifteen inches. In Norway,
the peasants take them in snares. The captured birds "are
kept in a frozen state until the dealers come, and one of these
will sometimes sell 50,000 Ptarmigans in a season."

SIXTH FAMILY. SHEATH-BILLS.
Chionida, (Gr. %i&vt chion, snow.)

The birds of this small family inhabit the high mountains or
dry plains of South America, or the remotest parts of the South-
ern Ocean. They resemble the grouse, but have the nostrils
surrounded by a sort of sheath ; hence are called Sheath-bills.
The typical genus is Chionis, a term suggested by the snowy
white plumage of these birds. They are often found far out at
sea, but chiefly inhabit the rocks washed by the tide, feeding on
sea-weeds and shells, and have, therefore, been placed by some
naturalists among the Wading Birds. The species C. necro-
phaga, (Gr. nekros, a dead body ; phago, to eat,) found in New
Holland, is about the size of a large partridge. It frequents the
sea-shore, and feeds on dead animal matter thrown up by the tide.
The Small Sheath-Bill, C. minor, is found on the dreary and iron-
bound shores around Cape Horn ; it is about as large as a Lap-
wing. This bird feeds on limpets and sea- weeds, not rejecting
animal substances thrown upon the shore by the waves.

382 RA SORES.

SEVENTH FAMILY. TINAMOUS.
Tinamida, (genus Tinamus.)

These birds include a very small number of species. They
inhabit the immense grassy plains of South America, and are
intermediate in form between the Partridges and Bustards, hav-
ing the long neck and legs of the latter, and the nostrils covered
with a naked scale, like the Pheasants. The beak varies in
length ; the wings are short, and the tail and hind toe rudimen-
tary or entirely wanting. In South America they appear to take
the place of the Partridges and Quails. Their appearance is
such that they have been said to represent "a Bustard in minia-
ture.'"' Swainson considers their flesh, " both in whiteness and
flavor, infinitely superior to that of the Partridge and the Pheas-
ant." The size of the Tinamous varies from that of a Pheasant
down to that of a Quail.

The GREAT TINAMOU, Tinamus Braziliensis, is eighteen inches
long; it inhabits extensive forests. The general plumage is
grayish brown, inclining to olive, with a mixture of white under-
neath and on the sides, and greenish on the neck. The female
lays twelve or fifteen eggs, the size of those of a hen, and of a
beautiful green color, in a nest formed of moss and dried leaves,
and placed on the ground among the thick herbage near the
root of some large tree.

The RUFESCENT TINAMOU, T. rvfescens, is the most beautiful
of the genus. It is fifteen inches and a half in length. It re-
sides among thick herbage, and feeds on it night and morning,
when it regularly utters its melancholy and feeble cry. The fe-
male deposits seven eggs of a fine bright violet color, in a hol-
low situated beneath tufts of grass.

The ANDALUSIAW TURNIX, or HEMIPODE, Turnix lacliydromus,
{Gr. swift runner,) is found in Spain and the northern parts of
Africa. It is scarcely larger than a lark, of a yellowish brown
color above, spotted and barred with chestnut, black, and white :
the under parts yellowish white. It has three toes before, en-
tirely divided ; no hind toe ; hence its name HEMJPODE, (half-
footed.)

What is the fourth order of Birds? What useful group does it include?
What characteristics are given to birds ot' this order? To what limits are
the POULTRY BiRDS chiefly confined? State further particulars respecting
the birds of this order. Name the families which it embraces. In what
respects do Pigeons differ from Gallinaceous birds ? Have they been treated
as a separate order, and under what name ? What chief peculiarity is men-

RASORES. 383

tioned ? What does this apparatus constitute them ? What is said of the
beak and feet ? State the variations in the feet of the different groups.
Where do they nestle ? What are their prevailing hues ? What sp. is the
origin of the Common, or Dove-cote Pigeon ? Mention the fancy varieties.
What fact illustrates the remarkable fecundity of the domestic P. ? What
is said of the Turtle Dove ? What of the Carolina Turtle D. ? Relate the
particulars given respecting the Passenger Pigeon? What is said of the
Bronze-winged P. ? What of the Crowned P. ? What other sp. are men-
tioned ?

Give the general character of the CURRASSOWS, the 2nd FAMILY. Where
are they found ? Name the different sp. and repeat what is said of them.

What is said of the 3rd FAMILY ? Where are they found ? Give their
characters. What is said of the flesh and eggs of these birds? Recite
what is said of the BRUSH TURKEY. What of the Mound-M. Megapode ?

What is the 4th FAMILY? What is said of the size, &c. ? Give the gen-
eral character. Where are the most gorgeous sp. found ? When were the
PHEASANT TRIBE introduced into Europe ? What is said of the COMMON
PEACOCK? What of the TURKEY? What of the COMMON PHEASANT?
Of the GOLDEN P. ? Of the ARGUS P. ? Of the GUINEA FOWL ? Name the
varieties of poultry birds. Give particulars respecting them.

What is the 5th FAMILY? How is it distinguished from the Pheasants?
Where are the GROUSE found ? What are their habits ? What genus in-
cludes the largest ? What is said of the Capercallie ? What of the COM-
MON PARTRIDGE, or RUFFLED GROUSE ? What of the Cock of the Plains ?
What of the PINNATED Grouse, or PRAIRIE Hen ? By what name are Quails
known in the S. and W. States ? What is said of the American Quail ?
What of the California Q. or P. ? What of the Ptarmigan ? _,

What is the 6th FAMILY? Mention their habitat? What suggested the
name of the typical genus? On what do these birds feed? What sp. are
mentioned ?

What is the Yth FAMILY? Is it numerous? Where are these birds
found ? To what birds are they intermediate ? What is said of the beak,
wings, &c. ? What do they represent in S. A. ? What does Swainson re-
mark of their flesh ? How does their size vary ? What is said of the
Great Tinamou? Of the RUFESCENT T. ? Of the Andalusian TUBNIX, or
HEMIPODE?

884

CURSORES.

SECTION IX.

FIFTH ORDER. RUNNERS.

CURSORES, (Lat. cursor, a runner, from curso, to run
hither and thither.)

This order contains a small number of species arranged in one
family, Struthionida. These species differ from each other con-
siderably, yet they all agree in having wings which are remark-
ably short, while the hind limbs are increased in size and strength
of muscle, proportioned to the decrease of those in front. The
pectoral muscles are small and slender, and the breast bone ex-
hibits a uniform convex surface, like that of a shield, but not
keeled, as in the Swallows and Humming Birds.

The Runners are all birds of large size, most of them equal-
ing, if not surpassing the average height and bulk of the Mam-
malia, to which class they approach nearer than any of the other
feathered tribes. They are found in the immense plains of the
Southern Hemisphere. Most of them are remarkable for the pe-
culiarity of their incubation. Many females occupy one nest in
which a great number of eggs are laid, to be incubated chiefly
by the male ; when disturbed, he feigns lameness, as is common
with birds that nestle on the ground. The hind toe is wanting
in all these, except that singular one, the Apteryx, or Kivi-Kivi,
of New Zealand, where it is found in the form of a small rudi-
ment.

The OSTRICH FAMILY.

Struthionida, (Gr. argovOos, strouthos, an ostrich.) Genus
Strulhio.

This family includes the true Ostrich, the American Ostrich,
(Rhea,) the Cassowary, the Australian Cassowary, or Emu, and
the Kivi-Kivi, or Apteryx, (for which see chart.)

These birds are very large, and the neck and legs of great
length. Their plumage is loose and flexible; the thighs short
and muscular. The toes vary, the Ostrich having but two, (and
only one of these furnished with a nail somewhat resembling a
hoof;) the Cassowary and Emu, three ; the Apteryx, (including
the rudimentary hind toe,) has four. (See Chart.)

The Ostrich, Struthio camelus, or Camel Bird, is so called
from its resemblance to the Camel, which is very striking. Both
" are furnished with callous protuberances on the chest and ab-

CURSORES. 385

domen, on which they support themselves when at rest ; they both
lie down in the same manner, and the feet and (in some respects)
the stomachs of both are similarly constructed ; both are capable
of subsisting on a scanty vegetation, of enduring thirst, and of
traversing arid sands and desert regions." Anderson says, "their
cry resembles that of a lion, so as even to deceive the natives ;
they are so swift and strong they will outstrip an English horse
in speed, with two men mounted on their back, and it takes a
long time to exhaust them. Their food, in the wild state, con-
sists of seeds, tops and buds of various shrubs and plants ; in
confinement, they swallow, with avidity, stones, pieces of wood,
iron spoons, knives, leather, hair, cordage, glass, minerals, and
all sorts of indigestible matter, so that this bird has been called
the Iron-eating Ostrich." Although capable of enduring thirst
for a long time, yet "they flock daily, about noon, to the pools,
where they swallow the water by a succession of gulps. This
is one of the most favorable times to shoot them. The Ostrich,
like the Capercaillie of Europe, has a plurality of wives, from
two to six, each laying from four to six eggs in the same nest,
which is a simple cavity scooped out in the sand ; both male and
female assist in hatching them.* The bird sits astride over them
with its legs pointed forward. Some eggs are always placed
outside the nest to serve as food for the young ; when hatched,
the chicks are about the size of pullets, and of a pepper and salt
color, covered with neither down nor feathers, but a kind of
prickly external. They are scarcely to be distinguished from
the gravel or sand of the plains, or the stunted vegetation among
which they dwell. The flesh of the young is not unpalatable,
but that of the old bird is anything but agreeable, tasting much
like the meat of the Zebra." Under the Mosaic law the Ostrich
was an unclean animal, and the Jews were forbidden to eat it.
The Arabs of the present day still adhere to this prohibition.
Some of the less fastidious tribes of Southern Africa partake of
it with a relish, more especially when fat. The brains of hund-
reds of these animals often made a dish at the luxurious suppers
of the ancient Romans. They were considered great delicacies,
and the Emperor Heliogabalus, it is said, was served with six
hundred of them at a single feast. The eggs of the Ostrich are

* There is no inconsistency in this statement with the passage Job, xxxix,
14, which refers to the Ostrich as found in the torrid zone, where the in-
tense heat renders incubation unnecessary, and the bird hence, " leaves her
eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust," showing little of mater-
nal care or solicitude. The remarks here given from Anderson apply to the
bird as seen in the cooler regions of Southern Africa.

386 CURSORES.

much prized by travelers as well as by natives. They weigh
about three pounds, and contain as much as two dozen of the
eggs of our common barn-door fowls. One might be considered
a sufficient meal for any man, but the Damaras sometimes eat
two at a meal. " The shells are valued as ornaments, as well as
drinking vessels, or to hold liquids, for which purpose they are
covered with a sort of net-work, and slung across the saddle;
grass, wood, etc., serving as substitutes for corks. The Copts
suspend them in their churches, passing the cords of their lamps
through the shells to prevent the rats from coming down to drink
the oil ; they look upon the shells as emblems of watchfulness.
Dissolved in vinegar, or reduced to powder, they are used me-
dicinally."

Stones as large as a bean or pea, are said to be sometimes
found in the eggs. Barrows speaks of nine found in one egg and
twelve in another, of a pale yellow color, about as large as a
marrowfat pea, and exceedingly hard. A full grown Ostrich is
seven or eight, sometimes nine or even eleven feet high, and
weighs two or three hundred pounds, some soy thirty stone, (420
Ibs.) This bird is supposed to live between twenty and thirty
years.

The general color of the female is a grayish or ashy brown,
slightly fringed with white. The lower part of the neck and
body of a mature male is of a deep glossy black, mixed with
whitish feathers. In both sexes, the large plumes of the wings
and tail are perfectly white ; the thinner the quill, the longer and
more wavy the plume, the more highly it is prized. Seventy to
ninety feathers go to the pound ; but though half this number
may be obtained from a single bird, only a small portion are of
any value. The best plumes are obtained soon after the moult-
ing season. The price varies, as the market is fluctuating at the
Cape of Good Hope. From five to fifty dollars are paid for a
pound of the finest feathers. Those obtained from living birds
are less liable to be attacked and injured by insects or worms
than such as are taken from dead ones. The Damaras and Be-
chuanas manufacture handsome parasols from the black feathers,
which serve as a sign of mourning, and to protect the complex-
ion ! These Ostrich parasols are used in hunting wild animals,
as a Spanish bull-fighter uses a red cloth; just as a wounded
beast charges a man, "he thrusts the support of the nodding
plumes into the ground, and slips off, while the infuriated ani-
mal vents his wrath upon the feathers." The skin is also held
in great request for manufacturing defensive armor. Ostriches
usually dwell far from the haunts of men, but occasionally ap-

CITRSORES. 387

proach the settlements, trampling down grain and eating it. Do-
mesticated, they are quiet, dull and heavy looking; in their na-
tive haunts they are restless, wary and difficult of approach.
The senses of touch, taste, smell, and hearing are in these, as
also in the other birds of the family, strongly developed. The
eye is well formed ; the sight is piercing, so that the Ostrich has
a wide range of vision, and can discover danger at a considerable
distance.

THE AMERICAN OSTRICH, Rliea Americana, (the Nhandu Gua-
cu of the Brazilians,) prominently differs from the Ostrich of the
Old World, in having three toes, all furnished with claws, and in
its smaller size, being only about half as large as the African
bird ; it is also thinly covered with feathers. It has the same
propensity for swallowing iron, stones, &c., as the Ostrich of the
East. Haunting the banks of rivers, it runs so swiftly and cun-
ningly as not only to evade the pursuit of dogs, but the weapons
of the natives. These birds, like other ostriches, lay their eggs
in the sand. " The* males," it is said, " sedulously perform the
office of incubation." The natives pursue them on horseback, and
kill them by throwing the " bolas," or leathern thong, loaded at the
end with a heavy stone or leaden ball. The Rhea frequently
swims across rivers several hundred feet in width, thus exceed-
ing the powers of the Ostrich and Cassowary. It feeds upon
flesh and fruits, and upon the small fishes which are washed
upon the sand ; its flesh is said to equal that of geese and swans,
and it is easily tamed.

A second (smaller) species, R. Darwinii, has been discovered
in Patagonia, but it is rare.

The CASSOWARY, Casuarius Casoar, (or Emeu,) is a native of
the Eastern part of Asia. Its wings are shorter than those of the
Ostrich, and quite useless in aiding progression ; the head is
surmounted with a bony prominence, covered with a horny sub-
stance; the skin of the head and upper part of the neck is naked,
tinged with cerulean blue and flame color, and has wattles like
those of a turkey; the feathers are composed of two long, thread-
like ones, proceeding from the same root and having the appear-
ance of hair; the wing feathers are round, black and strong, and
resemble the quills of a porcupine. At the end of the las^t joint
of the wing is a sort of spur. This bird, next in size to the Os-
trich, when erect and five feet in height, resembles the latter bird
in its general form and aspect, (Plate X. fig. 7,) but differs from
it in its digestive organs. The Cassowary lays a small number
of green eggs, which it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the
climate. Its food " consists of vegetable substances, and it will

SS8 CTJRSORES.

frequently swallow a large apple entire, trusting to the pebbles,
&c., in its stomach to bruise it." The name Emu, formerly
given to this bird, is now restricted to the following.

The Emu, Dromaius, (Gr. Dromaios, running swiftly,) is ana-
tive of New Holland, and in size and other respects closely re-
sembles the Cassowary ; but its plumage is thicker as its feathers
are more barbed ; the wings are small and hardly to be distin-
guished ; but as a runner, it outstrips the swiftest greyhound.
The dogs are shy of this bird on account of its powerful kicks,
so powerful that by means of them it can break a man's leg.

The Kivi-Kivi, Apteryx, (Gr. a, priv. ; pterux, wing,) of New
Zealand, is a remarkably odd bird, appearing to hold among the
feathered tribes of Polynesia, a position parallel to the Ornithor-
hyncus, or New Holland Mole, among the quadrupeds. Its bones
are not hollow like those of other birds, and it has no abdominal
air cells. It has no wings and only the most simple rudiments,
ending in a sharp hook, which seems to be an instrument of de-
fence ; it is also tailless. Upon its very long and slender beak
it leans forward as an old man would upon a stick. It is a noc-
turnal bird, pursuing its prey on the ground by the smell rather
than by the sight. The olfactory openings are near the point of
the beak ; and thus it scents the worms on which it feeds, far be-
low the surface of the ground. In the Zoological gardens, Lon-
don, (Eng.,) is the only one ever seen out of New Zealand. The
native name, Kivi-Kivi, is given to it on account of its peculiar
cry. The apteryx is becoming quite rare in its native clime,
and it is thought will, in a few years, become extinct.

Dinornis. This word represents a genus of struthious or Os-
trich liks birds formerly existing in New Zealand, and known
there by the name of MOVIE, or MOA ; but now, However, extinct,
having been exterminated by human agency within a recent
period ; or if any of the species whose bones are found in a fos-
sil state are still living, they are probably of the smaller forms
and related to the Apteryx, " the only living diminutive repre-
sentative of the stupendous Ostrich-like birds which once trod
the soil of New Zealand."

Mr. W. Mantel, son of Dr. Mantel, of Eng., while on a visit
to New Zealand, collected between seven hundred and eight
hundred bones belonging to birds of various sizes, which were
submitted to the examination of Prof. Owen. The Professor
referred these to the genera Dinornis, Palapteryx, Nofornis, and
Aptornis. A part of the bones were found on the banks of the
river Waingougou, on the western shore of North Island.
With these were mixed fragments of egg shells. The eggs to

CURSORES. £C9

which the fragments belonged were supposed to be about the size
of a tea cup. In connection with this fact, interest attaches to
a discovery recently made in Madagascar. "In a report to the
French Academy of Science, M. St. Hillaire describes three fos-
sil eggs from Madagascar, and small bones belonging to the same
bird. The Captain of a merchant vessel trading to Madagascar,
one day observed a native using, for a domestic purpose, a vase
which much resembled an egg, and upon an examination proved
to be one. The native stated that many such were to be found
in the interior of the island, and eventually procured the eggs
and bones exhibited by M. St. Hillaire. The largest of these
eggs is equal in bulk to 135 hen's eggs, and will hold two gal-
lons of water. M. St. Hillaire proposes the name of Epiornis,
for the monster biped of which these marvelous eggs and bones
are the first evidence brought under the notice of naturalists."
Casts of these eggs have been made and are to be seen in vari-
ous museums.

Gnaf.hodon, (Gr. gnathon,a jaw ; odous, a tooth.) is a genus of
birds in the South Sea Islands, described by Sir William Jardine,
from a specimen which was presented to him.

The upper mandible of the beak is strongly hooked, as in the
Dodo; the under one is deeply notched; hence the name. The
only known species, G. strigirosfris, (owl-beaked,) is rather
larger than a partridge, having the upper parts of a deep chest-
nut red, and the under of a glossy green black. Mr. Gould sup-
poses it to feed on fruit or grass.

Didunculus, is a name given to a genus of birds found by
Com. Wilkes, in the South Sea Islands, and thought to be the
same as the preceding.

The DODO, Didus, about whose proper place much doubt has
existed, should perhaps have a position in the present family.
To this bird, as now extinct, reference has already been made,
(see section on Birds,) but fossil remains of it have been discov-
ered, and there is abundant historical and other evidence of its
former existence. Clusius, in a work published in 1605, gives
a figure of a Dodo copied from a rough sketch taken by a Dutch
navigator, who had seen the bird while on a voyage to the Mo-
luccas in 1598. Bontius, (1658,) translated by Willoughby,
describes it as " for bigness of mean size between an ostrich and
a turkey, from which it partly differs in shape and partly agrees
with them, especially the African ostriches, if you consider the
rump, quill and feathers, so that it was like a pigmy among them,
if you regard the shortness of its legs. It has a great, ill-favored

890 CITRSORES.

head, with a kind of membrane resembling a hood, .... great
black eyes, an extraordinary long, strong, bluish-white bill."

In the British Museum are the head and foot of one of these
birds ; also a painting said to be a copy of a picture taken from
a living bird brought from Mauritius or St. Maurice's island,
East Indies.

The SOLITARY, Le Solitaire, has sometimes been confounded
with the Dodo, or represented as a species of that bird. Leguat,
who (1631) resided in the island Rodriquez, gives a somewhat
fanciful description of this bird as existing in his time on that
island. His account of it makes it resemble a turkey, though
taller and almost without either wings or tail. Subsequently it
appears to have become extinct. Bones were, in 1832, discov-
ered in the island, believed to be those of the Solitary.

What is the 5th order of birds ? Does it contain many sp. ? In what
family are they included? What is said of their differences and agree-
ment ? What of the muscles of the breast and the breast-bone ? What
of their size ? To what class of animals do they approach ? Where are
they found? For what are most of them remarkable? Have they any
hind toe ? Name the birds included in the OSTRICH FAMILY. What is said
of their plumage, &c. ? Why is the 0. called the CAMEL-BIRD ? Point out
the resemblances between them. Relate the particulars given by Ander-
son. Were the ancient Jews allowed to eat it ? How is it with the Arabs ?
How with the tribes of Southern Africa? What use was made of the
brains of these birds by the ancient Romans ? What is said of their eggs ?
What of the egg-shells ? Give the height and weight of a full grown Os-
trich. What is the general color of its plumage ? What further is said of
them ? What is said of the A. Ostrich ? Where has the second sp. been
discovered ? What is said of the CASSOWARY ? Is this bird properly called
the Emeu or Emu? Repeat what is said of the EMU. Where is the AP-
TERYX found ? What is its native name ? Why was it given ? Describe
this bird. Where is the only one ever seen out of N. Zealand ? Is this a
numerous sp. ? What does DINORNIS represent ? What collection of fos-
sil bones is mentioned? To what genera did Prof. Owen refer them?
What is said of the fossil eggs discovered in Madagascar ? What of the
GNATHODON ? With what other genera is it supposed to be identical ? Re-
peat what is said of the DODO and LE SOLITAIRE.

Mention and trace the birds of this order named upon the chart. Let
each pupil give an account of one of these birds.

GRALLATORES. 391

SECTION X.

AQUATIC BIRDS. (SECOND DIVISION.) TWO ORDERS.

FIRST ORDER. GRALLATORES, (Lat. gratia, stilts.) WADERS
or STILT BIRDS. Grallce, (N. H. S. N. Y.)

The Waders or Shore-Birds appear to hold an intermediate
rank between the Gallinaceous or Poultry Birds, and the Nata-
torial or Swimming groups, which are confined to the water.
M. Vigors is of the opinion that they, of all birds, enjoy most
equally the advantages of land and water. They are distin-
guished by the great length of the tarsi and legs, which raise up
their bodies as upon stilts; (Plate IX. fig. 27;) thus elevated,
they frequent the banks of rivers, lakes, marshes and the shores
of estuaries. The tibia or lower portion of the leg (a) is bare,
so that they can wade to a considerable depth without wetting
their plumage, and thus seize fishes and other aquatic animals
on which they feed. In this they are aided by the length of the
beak and neck, (Plate IX. fig. 6.) Such as are more especially
aquatic have webs to their toes. Their wings are long and pow-
erful, their flight strong and well sustained, enabling them to mi-
grate with the seasons, which most of them do ; thus becoming
widely distributed. In flying, they stretch out their long legs
behind, (Plate X. fig. 1,) as a counterbalance to their long necks;
and the tail being very short, its office as a rudder is transferred
to the legs. These birds have the power of maintaining a mo-
tionless position upon one leg for a considerable time. The
most aquatic of them place their nests among the reeds and
herbage of marshy places, or as the Herons, ( Ardeidce,) they
build in company on trees; those that frequent dry and stony
places, often lay their eggs upon the bare ground. The eggs
are usually colored and spotted, of a lengthened form, with one
end much pointed. The young run about as soon as hatched,
except in those species which live in pairs.

This order includes the following families, viz. : (1) Chara-
driada, the Plovers ; (2) Ardeida, Herons ; (3) Rostrida, Spoon-
bills ; (4) Tantalida, Ibises ; (5) Scolopacida, Snipes ; (6) Otida,
Bustards; (7) Rallida, Rails,

3D3 GRALLATORES.

FIRST FAMILY. PLOVERS. (French plumer, from Lat. plu-
vialis, rainy.)

Charadriadce, (Gr. xaQadgibg, charadrios, a kind of bird, from
Xag&crau, to excavate.)

The Plovers are distinguished by having long and slender feet,
adapted for running ; the toes are rather short; the hind one is
either entirely wanting, or so short as not to reach the ground.
The wings are large and these birds are swift and strong in
flight, moving in circles somewhat after the manner of pigeons,
and wheeling round at no great height, uttering piping cries.
The head is thick, with large dark eyes placed far back ; the
beak short and often slightly notched ; the nostrils are pierced
in a long groove. Resorting to the sea-shore, with their beaks
they penetrate the ground for worms, to obtain which they are
said to stamp with their feet, causing the worms to rise. Those
with feebler bills resort to meadows and newly ploughed land,
where they can more readily obtain their food ; such as have
stronger bills also feed on grain, herbage, &c. The colors of
the Plovers are chaste and beautiful, consisting of various shades
of brown, mingled with yellow, white and black, and often dis-
posed in bands. Many of them are active during the night.
The Plovers are dispersed over the entire globe.

The LAPWING, or Pewit, Vanellus crislalus, is a beautiful spe-
cies ; in summer spread over Europe and particularly plentiful
in Holland, but passing the winter in warm latitudes. The
plumage of the upper parts is green, with brilliant reflections ;
of the under parts, pure white. In its winter dress, the male has
the head feathers very long, loose, barbed and curved upwards,
forming a sort of crest, which is glossy black. When flying,
the black and white colors of this bird make it very conspicu-
ous. Sometimes thousands may be seen at once, gleaming in
the setting sun, or appearing like a dense, black, moving mass,
between its light and the spectator.

The Lapwings are about as large as pigeons ; their eggs are
laid upon the bare ground, and esteemed a luxury for the table.
The Lapwing takes its name from the device by which it lures
away intruders from its nest, dropping its wings in flight, and
appearing as if wounded, to entice them away, and thus often
inducing^them to follow to a considerable distance. This bird is
sometimes kept in gardens, and is useful for the destruction of
vermin. Another European species is

The GREAT PLOVER, or Stone Curlew (of Europe,) (Edicne-

GRALLATORES. £93

mus, (Gr. oidos, a swelling ; knemos, knee or shank bone ;) ere-
pitans, (Lat. making a rattling noise,) is about sixteen inches in
length, and esteemed a delicate bird for the table. The generic
name is given to this bird on account of the dilated or swollen
form of the upper part of the tarsus, and the size of the knee-
joint in the young birds. Their shrill evening cry pierces the
ear, and may be heard, in the night, for nearly a mile.

The GOLDEN PLOVER, Charadrius Virginianicus, C. marmo-
ratus, (marble-colored,) Aud., differs slightly in size from the Eu-
ropean Golden Plover, C. pluvialis, and in having the long axil-
lary feathers dull brown instead of pure white. It ranges from
23° to 75o N. L., breeding in the arctic regions. From the gen-
eral greenish appearance of their plumage, these birds are called
Greenbacks. They are highly prized by the epicures of the fur
countries, and they figure largely in the bills of fare of the old
English nobles. Ths Golden Plover is about ten inches in length,
and found in every continent. The generic name denotes a bird
found in cavities or hollows like those worn by a rapid stream or
torrent.

The OYSTER-CATCHER or SEA PIE, Hamatogus, (Gr. haima,
blood ; dps, face,) palliatus, (mantled,) is named from the red ap-
pearance of the bill and feet, and from the black of the upper
plumage, which, contrasting with the pure white under plumage,
has the appearance of a mantle. It feeds on oysters and other
sea bivalves. The bill in this genus is long and wedge-shaped,
with the tip much compressed ; the feet have three toes, all di-
rected forward and bordered with a narrow membrane. The
Oyster-catcher breeds from Texas to Labrador. Its flesh is tough
and unsavory.

The GRAY PLOVER, or GRAY LAPWING, Squatarola cinerea,
(ash-colored,) has a rather strong cylindrical bill, swollen half
way from the tip; the feet are four-toed, (the hind toe quite
small.) In the warmer parts of the United States, this bird often
has two breeds in a season ; it runs well ; its whistle is like that
of the Golden Plover, but not so shrill. If killed in good season
it is fine for the table.

The TURNSTONE, Strepsilas, (Gr. strepho, to turn ;) interpres,
(Lat. interpreter.) is widely distributed in both continents. It
has four toes; the bill is compressed at the base, swollen in the
middle, and blunt at the tip. The name Turnstone is given to it
from its habit of turning over stones to obtain the small crustace-
ans and molluscous animals which constitute its food. It is
known to sportsmen under the names of Brant-bird and Beach-
bird. From its fondness for the eggs of the Horsefoot, (Limulus

394 GEALLATORES.

polyphemus,) it is also called the Horsefoot Snipe. Length from
nine to ten inches.

The DOTTEREL, C. morinellus, has had credit for possessing
great powers of mimicry. He has also been charged with so
great stupidity that

"Acting every thing, he doth never mark the net,
Till he be within the snare which men for him have set."

For this, however, thera seems not sufficient reason. When first
seen, it shows but little fear of man ; but this might be ascribed
to its freedom from persecution in its native wilds ; after a short
experience of human annoyance, it becomes more cautious. Its
" mimicking the action of the fowler by stretching out its leg,
wing, or head," may be little more than the actions of other birds
when aroused from their repose. The Dotterel feeds by night on
insects, slugs, and worms; in common with others of the Plovers,
it rests and sleeps during the day, and on this account, may
allow of a close approach, as is true of the Golden PI over. These
things considered, it can hardly be deemed proper to call it a
stupid bird. The upper parts of its winter plumage are of a
blackish-ash color with a tinge of green; a portion of the breast
and under parts white; the face is white, dotted with blue. Jn
their winter migrations, these birds visit Italy and Spain ; they
are particularly abundant in the Eastern parts of Europe and
Northern Asia, where the larger part of them breed.

The SWIFT-FOOT or COURSER, Cursorius, (from Lat. cwrro, to
run,) is found in the hot regions of Asia and Africa. One spe-
cies, the BLACK-BELLIED COURIER, C. Temminckii, inhabits Abys-
sinia. The other species, C. IsabelUnus, or CREAM -COLORED
COURSER, is a native of Africa, but has occasionally been seen
in Europe.

Glareola is a genus of Plovers confined to the Old World,
and including three species, one of which, the PRATINCOLE, G.
Pratincola, (meadow inhabitant,) is spread through the warm
and temperate regions of Asia, Africa and Europe. It has very
long wings and a greatly forked tail, and is remarkable for its
rapidity and power of flight. Mr. Gould speaks of it as "an
elegant and graceful bird." Its length is nine inches.

Other species are the KILLDEER PLOVER, Charadrius vociferus,
which has its name from an imagined resemblance of its two
notes to the word Killdeer, and which breeds from Texas to
Massachusetts.

The WHISTLING PLOVER, S. Helvetica, called the Bull and

GRALLATORES. SUO

Beetle-Head Plover, common to Europe and America, and re-
sembling, in its autumnal dress, the Lapwing of Europe.

SECOND FAMILY. HERONS.

Ardeida, (Lat. ardea, a heron ;) Gruida, (Lat. grus, a crane.)
N. H. S. N. Y.

These birds are decidedly carnivorous in their appetite, feed-
ing on fishes, aquatic reptiles, small mammalia, worms, and.
insects. The CRANES, in their terrestrial habits and in their
food, approach some of the Gallinaceous or Cursorial birds, join-
ing with an animal diet, grains, seeds, and -herbage. The legs
and feet of the Cranes are' long and slender, as is also the neck,
which is very flexible ; the toes are four in number, the hind toe
usually long and resting on the ground ; the beak is long, straight,
sharp .pointed, firm in texture and very powerful. The wings
in this family are, in general, well developed, and some of the
birds are capable of high and powerful flight.

The HERONS are the type of the group. They rank as the
most beautiful of all the Waders, not so much from the shades
of their plumage, though these are chaste and agreeable, as on
account of their tapering and graceful forms, the curves of their
slender necks, their elegant hanging crests, and the long plumes
that adorn various parts of their bodies. They may be seen
watching on the margin of the water or within the shallows ; on
the appearance of their fishy prey, it is transfixed by a sudden
stroke of the pointed beak and swallowed entire. In their de-
cidedly carnivorous habits, they differ from the Cranes. They
are distinguished by their larger and more pointed bill, and the
greater length of their legs ; their stomach is a large undivided
sac, only in a small degree muscular. All the Herons have
comb-like divisions on the inner edge of the middle claw, (Plate
IX. fig. 28,) probably designed to free the plumage from insect-
parasites. They are generally solitary in their habits ; but they
build in companies, usually in trees not far from the banks of
rivers. We give some specimens in each division of the family.

CRANES.

The AMERICAN CRANE, Grus Americana, when mature, has
white plumage with the quills and their shafts black ; when young,
bluish gray, with the quills and their shafts brownish white. This
is called the Whooping Crane ; it migrates as far North as the
680 Lat. Its length is fifty-four inches.

£93 GRALLATORES.

The COMMON CRANE, G. cinereus, (ashy,) of the Eastern
Continent, is three feet eight or ten inches in length ; in its gen-
eral plumage ashy-gray ; migratory and gregarious in its habits ;
in its contour and gait somewhat like the Ostrich ; -in its strong
and muscular stomach, it differs from the Herons. The flesh is
well tasted, and was formerly highly prized.

The DEMOISELLE, Anthropoides, (Gr. of human-like form ;)
virgo, (Lat. a virgin,) or Ardea Virgo, of Linn, is an African
bird, but occasionally seen in Europe ; its general plumage is
slaty-gray; length about three feet. One of these birds hatched
in the menagerie at Versailles, (France,) and lived there twenty-
four years. Great numbers are seen in Egypt during the inun-
dations of the Nile. This bird exhibits much delicacy and ele-
gance of attitude, and a graceful playfulness in all its move-
ments. Its food consists, principally of grain and seeds, though
it occasionally eats small fishes, mollusks, and insects.

The STANLEY CRANE, A. SianJeyanus, (A. paradisceus,) is a
beautiful East India species, named after Lord Stanley, late
President of the Zool. Soc., Lond. ; it is three feet and a half in
length, and in manners and gestures, like the Demoiselle ; its
general plumage is bluish gray.

The CROWNED CRANE, A. pavonicus, (Lat. of a peacock,) is
supposed to be the Balearic Crane, (Balearica,} of the ancients.
Its plumage is of a bluish slate color ; when full grown it is
about four feet in length. Under the throat is a wattle like that
of a turkey. This stately bird is found in Northern and West-
ern Africa. (Plate X. fig. 8a.)

HERONS PROPER.

Of these there are quite a number of species. The use of
these birds in hawking, has already been noticed. The destruc-
tion of their eggs was in Europe formerly visited by a heavy
penalty ; they seem to have ranked as high at the tables of the
great as they did for their exploits in the field ; now, however,
their flesh is in low estimation.

Audubon includes the EGRETS and BITTERNS with the Herons,
under one genus, Ardea, and enumerates twelve species found
in America.

The COMMON HERON, A. cinerea, is remarkably light in pro-
portion to its bulk, weighing scarcely three pounds and a half,
though its length is upwards of three feet, and its expanse of
wings above five. This Heron is found in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America.

GKALLATORES. 897

The GREAT BLUE HERON, A. Herodias, is a species allied to
the Common Heron of Europe, and met with in every part of the
United States. It is over four feet in length, and six feet in the ex-
panse of its wings. The bill is seven or eight inches long and
very sharp pointed. This bird is partly nocturnal in its habits ;
a portion of its breast is covered with a down which is said to be
phosphorescent ; it is to be found from Texas to South Carolina ;
feeds on crabs, eels, and various other fish.

The GREENISH BLUE HERON, A. virescens, (Lat. verging to
green,) is more generally known than most other American spe-
cies, being widely spread in spring, summer, and autumn. It
has the popular names of Chalk-line, Polk, Fly -up-the- Creek,
&c. The length is about seventeen inches.

The BLACK CROWNED NIGHT HERON, A. discors, (Lat. dis-
cordant,) is from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches in length. In
many respects it resembles the Common Heron in its habits,
breeding like that bird, in company with others, on the topmost
branches of trees. During the day it roosts in the recesses of
woods in the vicinity of swamps and rivers, which it visits at
night in quest of prey. It feeds on fish, aquatic reptiles, sea-
lettuce, (ulva latissima,) grasshoppers, and other large insects.
The popular name of Quawk, or Qua-Bird, is given to it on ac-
count of its deep guttural cry. It closely resembles the A. nyc-
ticorax, (Gr. raven of the night.) the Night-Raven of Europe.

The GREAT AMERICAN WHITE EGRET, A. leuce, (white ;) A.
egrelta, (Wilson, Aud. and Bonaparte,) is forty inches in length ;
of a snowy white plumage, sometimes tinged with yellow. Its
food consists of frogs, salamanders, mice, moles, &c. This
bird is found from the Equator to 43o N. L. It is closely allied
to A. alba, or Herodias alba, the White Heron of Europe.

BITTERNS.

These are represented in the genus Botaurus, (Lat boo, to cry
out ; taunts, a bull.) They are widely diffused and solitary
birds, haunting woody swamps and marshes ; hid all day and
feeding at night. As might be conjectured from their haunts,
they feed mostly upon aquatic animals. They spread over both
hemispheres, but are not found in Australia. Everywhere they
are noted for their voracity. The names Mire-Drum and Bull
of the Bog are sometimes given to these birds on account of the
drumming or bellowing noise for which they are famous. The
English name Bittern was formerly spelled Bittour, and like the

398 GRALLATORES.

generic term, is supposed to refer to its deep-toned, bull-like
voice.

The COMMON BITTERN, B. stellaris, (Lat. starry,) was well
known to the ancients. It is referred to by Aristotle under the
name of Asterias ; in the palmy days of falconry it was much
sought for. It is not daunted when wounded, and therefore it
was the duty of the falconer to plunge the Bittern's bill into the
ground to prevent injury to the hawk ; both the falcon and the
falconer were sometimes endangered by the sharp beak of their
victim. In the time of Henry VIII., of England, its flesh was in
high esteem ; when the bird is well fed it resembles that of a
hare, and is not rank or fishy like that of the associate birds.
The long claw of this bird's hind toe is prized as a tooth-pick,
and in the olden time it was thought to have the property of pre-
serving the teeth. The Common Bittern is crested and about
two feet and a half in length, being smaller than the Common
Heron. The general color of the plumage is dull pale yellow,
varied with spots and bars of black.

The AMERICAN BITTERN, B. lentiginosus, (Lat. freckled,) or
Ardea minor, is not quite so large as the Common Bittern. It is
familiarly known by the names Poke, Indian-Hen, Indian-Pul-
let, &c., and migrates over most parts of the U. S. The color
is a rusty yellow, mottled and sprinkled with deep brown.

The SMALL BITTERN, A. exilis, (Lat. small or slender,) is sub-
crested and only eleven inches in length ; of a chestnut color
above, but whitish beneath. It ranges from Mexico to 45o N. L.

The COMMON BOAT BILL, Cancroma cochlearia, (Lat snail-
shells or spoons,) approaches in form quite closely to the Heron,
except in the bill, which is not unlike the bowls of two spoons
placed one upon the other, with the rims in contact. It perches
on trees by the side of rivers, where it lives on fish, and not on
crabs, as the name Cancroma indicates, though Linnaeus sup-
posed it to feed on crabs and so named it. Latham says : " We
are certain fish is its most common, if not only food." This bird
is native to South America.

STORKS.

The Storks, Ciconia, are not so aquatic as the other birds of
the family, but are among the largest. They build their nests
on turrets, steeples, and chimneys, — each pair, after wintering in
Africa, returning to the same place in the spring. Their bills
are very long and straight, resembling a lengthened cone. They
live in marshes, and feed principally on reptiles, frogs, and their

GRALLATORES. 399

spawn, as well as on fishes. Wherever found, the Storks are a
privileged race, on account of the havoc which they make among
noxious animals. They migrate in numerous flocks, and are
easily tamed. All the species make a clattering noise with
their bills.

The COMMON WHITE STORK, C. alba, (see Chart,) is about
three feet in length ; when well treated, it approaches, without
fear, the habitations of men. In the towns of Continental Eu-
rope, domesticated Storks, taken when young, " may often be »•
seen paddling about the markets, where they are kept as scaven-
gers to clear the place of the entrails of fish and other offal,
( which they do to the satisfaction of their employers." In Hol-
land, and especially in Germany, this bird is a welcome guest.
Dr. Shaw witnessed the annual migration of flocks of these birds
from Mount Carmel; each flock that he saw, "was half a mile
in breadth, and occupied three hours in passing over."

Among the ancients, to kill a Stork, was regarded a crime,
which, in some places, was punished with death; and, like the
Ibis, this bird became an object of adoration. It is noted for its
great affection for its young, but more particularly, for its care
of its parents in old age.

The BLACK STORK, C. nigra, or A. nigra, is, like the White
Stork, a migratory bird, spending the winter in Southern Europe,
and passing on to high northern latitudes in summer.

The ADJUTANT, Leptoptilus, (Gr. leptos, thin ; ptilos, down,
or plumage,) Argala, is a remarkable bird, native to the warmer
parts of India, and highly useful there in devouring noxious ani-
mals and carrion, which it does with avidity. It stands from
five to seven, feet in height, and measures from the tip of the
bill to the claws, seven and a half, while the expanse of wings is
not less than fourteen feet. The beak is extremely large, stout,
and strong ; under it hangs a downy pouch, or bag, like a dew-
lap, which is capable of being inflated. The upper part of this
bird is of an ashy-gray color ; the under part white. The vora-
city of the Adjutant is not more extraordinary than its capacity
for swallowing ; it makes but one mouthful of a rabbit, a fowl,
or even a small leg of mutton, and when domesticated, its habit
of purloining, makes it necessary to keep all kinds of provisions
out of its reach. Dr. Latham says, "These birds, in their wild
state, live in companies; and when seen at a distance, near the
mouths of rivers, coming towards an observer, which they often
do with their wings outspread, — may well be taken for canoes
upon the surface of a smooth sea ; when on the sand-banks, for

400 GRALLATORES.

men and women piuidng up shell-fish, or other things on the
beach."

The AFRICAN GIGANTIC STORK, or CRANE, C. marabou, (see
Chart,) resembles the Argala, but is not so large, — seldom ex-
ceeding five feet in length ; its pouch is also much shorter.
Another similar species is found in Java. These species furnish
the beautiful plumes, esteemed superior to those of the Ostrich,
known by the name of marabou feathers.

The JABIRU, C. mycteria, (Gr. mukter, a nostril, or proboscis,)
is native to Senegal, in Africa. In the enormous size of the
beak, as also in devouring carrion, the Jabiru resembles the Ad-
jutant; the greatest part of the head and body of this bird is en-
tirely bare ; the plumage of the latter white ; its size is somewhat
larger than that of the Swan.

THIRD FAMILY. SPOONBILLS.
Rostrida, (Lat. rostrum, a beak.)

The Spoonbills have many characters in common with the
Herons, and are often included with them. The peculiar form
of the bill has gained for them the name which they bear. It
is very long, strong, and much flattened ; the point is widened
and rounded so as to present the form of a spoon. The face and
head are partially, or entirely naked ; the neck and feet are
long; the nostrils basal and linear; the toes are four; in some,
the hind toe is very small, and articulated high up; the feet are
partially webbed ; the wings are ample, moderate in length ; the
first quill nearly as long as the second, which is the longest of
all. The Spoonbills live in companies, in wooded-marshes, gen-
erally not far from the mouths of rivers, and are rarely seen on
the seashore. Their food consists of small fish, spawn, and
minute fluviatile testaceous mollusks, reptiles, and aquatic insects.
According to circumstances, they build their nests either in high
trees, in bushes, or among rushes. The young bird does not
take the confirmed plumage of the adult until the third year.
The crest makes its appearance at the end of the second year.
(Temminck.)

I The COMMON WHITE SPOONBILL, Platalea, (Lat. Spoonbill,)
leucorodia, (Gr. leukorodon, a white rose,) is generally distributed
throughout Europe, but is most numerous in Holland. It has a
very full, long crest of loose feathers on the back of the head.
The length is two feet and a half. The old males have a fine
white plumage, with a patch of reddish yellow on the breast.
This bird winters in Africa, and is found as far South as the

GRALLATORES. 40 J

Cape of Good Hope. Its flesh, when well fed and fat, is said
nearly to resemble in flavor that of a goose.

The ROSEATE SPOONBILL, P. ajaja, is a beautiful, though sin-
gular bird, constantly found in Texas and South Florida; it is
seen as far eastward as North Carolina. The beak and wings
are of a delicate rose-color ; the lower parts of a deeper tint ;
the head is yellowish green; the neck white. The length is
about thirty-one inches. This Spoonbill is usually fond of being
with the Herons, whose keen sight and vigilance apprise it of
danger, and allow it to take flight in due time; it breeds in flocks
on trees, low bushes, or cactuses. The feathers of the wings
and tail are manufactured into fans by the Indians and Negroes
of Florida ; and at St. Augustine, form an article of trade.
(Aud.) The flesh is oily, and undesirable for eating.

FOURTH FAMILY. IBISES.
Tantalida, (Gr. lavralog, Tantalos> a proper name.)

These are birds which, in their general habits and conforma-
tion, closely resemble the Storks; they chiefly inhabit warm
countries, but except in very cold regions, they are to be found in
all parts of the world. The bill is very long, robust at the base,
and curved at the tip; the face is naked ; the throat dilatable ; the
legs are long, and have four toes ; the front toes are webbed at their
base as far as the first joint ; the hind toe is very long, and rests
upon the ground. The Ibises frequent the borders of rivers and
lakes, feeding on insects, worms, mollusks, and occasionally on
vegetable matter. They perform powerful and elevated flights,
extending their neck and legs, and uttering a hoarse croak. The
family includes between twenty and thirty species, which are
distributed over the globe. Four of these are found within the
limits of the United States.

The GLOSSY IBIS, Tantalus faldnellus, (Lat. from fah, a
sickle,) is about two feet in length. In the matured bird, the
neck, breast, top of the back, and all the lower parts of the body,
are of a bright red chestn.it; the wing coverts, quills, tail-feath-
ers, arid the rest of the back, of a dusky green, glossed with
bronze and purple; but the bird varies much in its plumage at
different ages. This species nestles in Asia, and is found on the
streams and lakes in flocks of thirty or forty. They migrate
periodically to Egypt, and pass in considerable numbers into
Europe. The Glossy Ibis is also found, in the United States.
Audubon saw flocks of it in Texas, but it is only a summer resi-
dent there, associating with the White Ibis. Vast numbers of

402 GRALLATORES.

it are seen in Mexico. Cuvier says, this, to all appearance, is the
species which the ancients called Black Ibis.

The WHITE or SACRED IBIS, Ibis religiosa, (see Chart.) is, per-
haps, the most celebrated species. Arriving in Egypt about the
time that the inundation of the Nile commences, its numbers
increase or diminish with the increase or diminution of its wa-
ters. It migrates about the end of June, at which time, it is
first noticed in Ethiopia. This species does not collect in large
flocks, more than eight or ten seldom being seen together. They
are about as large as a hen ; the head and neck are bare ; the
body white ; the primaries of the wings tipped with shining,
ashy black, among which the white forms oblique notches; the
secondaries are bright black, glossed with green or violet ;
the quill-feathers of the tail, white. This, and the preceding
species, were venerated by the ancient Egyptians, who used to
rear them in their temples, and after death, to embalm them.
Their mummies are found, to this day, in the vast catacombs of
ancient Memphis. Herodotus supposed that the Egyptians wor-
shipped the Ibis for services which it rendered in freeing them
from winged serpents. But this is contradicted by the bird's
structure : its bill is not fitted either to divide or pierce serpents,
but rather for dabbling in marshes an.d moist grounds. This
species is found throughout the extent of Africa.

The WHITE IBIS, of the American Continent, Ibis alba, is
about two feet in length. It is a constant resident in South
Florida, where it abounds, but also breeds along the coast to
Texas, — sometimes inland as far as Natchez and Red river, and
Eastward to New Jersey.

Audubon says, Sandy Island, near Cape Sable, in Florida, is
remarkable for the number of these birds found there. He
counted forty-seven nests in a single palm-tree, "The nests are
fifteen inches in their largest diameter, formed of long twigs, in-
termixed with fibrous roots and green branches of the trees
growing on the island; the interior of them is flat, being fur-
nished with leaves of the cane and some other plants." The
bird lays but three eggs, once a year. Its flight is described as
l' swift and long continued. Sometimes it rises to an immense
height in the air, while it performs beautiful evolutions." It
feeds on small crabs, slugs, and snails ; showing great ingenuity
in procuring cray-fish ; — breaking up the upper part of the mud
which the latter throws up in forming its hole, and dropping the
fragments into the cavity. The cray-fish, burdened by the load
of earth^ makes its way to the entrance of the burrow, when the

GRALLATORES. 4Q3

Ibis immediately seizes it with its bill. This bird is known in
Louisiana by the name of "Spanish Curlew."

The SCARLET IBIS, Ibis rubra, is a splendid bird, sometimes,
though rarely, seen in Louisiana and the adjacent States, but in
the hottest portions of this continent, is found in large flocks. This
bird flies rapidly, but rarely, except at morning and evening, in
search of food. The plumage is scarlet ; beak naked ; part of
the cheeks, legs and feet, pale red. Its length is twenty-nine
inches.

The WOOD IBIS, Tantalus loculator, is an extremely large
species, being forty-four inches, with a bill that is nine inches in
length. It is found in deep woody swamps, (where it breeds on
trees ;) also in fresh water lakes. These birds, after gorging
themselves with their fishy or reptile-food, taken in shallow,
muddy streams, walk to the nearest margin and arrange them-
selves in long rows, with all their breasts turned towards the
sun, in the manner of Pelicans and Vultures, and thus remain
for an hour or more. In flying, their long necks and legs are
stretched out to their full extent, the pure white of their plumage
contrasting beautifully with the jet black of the tips of the wings.
Although generally fat, they are unfit for food, their flesh
being tough and oily. They are resident from Texas to North
Carolina. Other species of the Ibis are found in India, Mada-
gascar, and the Cape of Good Hope.

The OPEN-BEAKED BIRDS, Anastomus, (Gr. ana, through ;
stoma, mouth,) are included by Swainson in this family. The
generic name was given to these birds by llliger; that of Lace-
pede, is Hians, (opening and gaping,) They have a straight
h°ad and heavy bill, marked with wrinkles running lengthwise.
The upper mandible is very straight ; the base thickened at the
top, and as high as the crown ; the tip notched ; the margin
dentated; the under mandible is greatly curved upwards, only
touching the upper at the base, and at the tip, and thus leaving
an opening through or between the two portions of the bill. Not
much is known respecting the economy of these birds, and hence
it is not easy to explain the purpose of the unique structure
shown in the beak. Cuvier places the genus Tantalus between
these birds and the Spoonbills, (Platalea.)

FIFTH FAMILY. SNIPES.
Scolopacida, (Gr. axoldnaZ, scolopax, a snipe.)

The most prominent characteristic of this family, is the extreme
length and slenderness of the beak. This is covered with a soft

404 GRALLATORES.

skin, which is extremely sensitive ; and the organ is much used
in probing the soft mud or earth for the capture of minute in-
sects. The hind toe is pointed on the tarsus above the level of
the fore toes, and so short as to be unable to reach the ground ;
in some of the family, it is wanting. The Snipes have mode-
rately long feet and necks ; the wings are long and pointed ; and
their flight swift and well sustained ; the tail is short and even ;
the front toes are frequently united by a membrane, more or less
large. The plumage is of subdued and varied shades; black,
white, and red being intermingled and contrasted ; sometimes,
the prevalent hue is a grayish olive. The flesh of these birds is
held in high esteem. They frequent marshes, the banks of lakes
and rivers, or the sea-coast, on which they run with great swift-
ness. With considerable powers of flight, they have also the
faculty, in part, both of swimming and diving. The females are
usually larger than the males. They lay four eggs, with but
little nest, on the ground, of inland moors or fens. The young,
when they escape from the shell, are clothed with down, and
immediately begin to run about. The Snipes are widely distrib-
uted, and more or less migratory in their habits.

Mr. G. R. Gray divides them into six sub-families, viz :

(1) NumenincK, of which Numenius, (Curlew,) is the typical

genus; (2) Totanina, typ. gen. Totanus, Tatler. Sand Lark, or

Willet ; (8) Recurvirostrina, typ. gen. Recurvirostra, Avoset:)

4) Tringince, typ. gen. Tringa, Sand-piper; (5) Scolopacina,

olopax, Common Snipe ; (6) Strepsilince, Strepsilas, (included
by others in the Charadriada, or Plovers, which see ;) (7) Phal-
aropodina, PhaJaropus, Phalaropes. Of these, he enumerates
thirty-four British species. De Kay (1843) says, this family
contains, at present, upwards of one hundred species, distributed
over the globe ; of these, about twenty-eight, (according to Au-
dubon, thirty-two,) are in the United States.

CURLEWS.

The LONG-BILLED CURLEW, Numenius longirostris, is the
largest of the genus found in North America, — known to sports-
men under the names of Big Curlew, and Sickle-bill. Its length
is from twenty-five to twenty-seven inches ; the color is blackish
brown above, with spots of a red hue beneath. The great length
of the bill, (Plate IX. fig. 6,) (seven to nine inches,) distinguishes
it from every other species. The Curlew forms a small nest for
its young on the ground. The day, the Curlew spends in the
sea marshes, but resorts at night to the sandy beaches of the sea-
shore. The number collected at their nightly retreat, it is said,

GRALLATORES. ^3",

sometimes amounts to several thousands. The food of theso
birds consists chiefly of the small crabs, called "fiddlers;" they
are also fond of sm'all salt-water shell fish ; and thrust out the
bill to its full length into the wet sand in search of sea-worms
and insects. The Long-billed Curlew resides in Texas and on
the Islands of South Carolina; but wanders North along the
coast, and is occasionally seen in the interior. Dr. Kirtland
observed it in Ohio ; others have seen it in Kentucky and Mis-
souri. .

Smaller species are the JACK CURLEW, or Short-billed Curlew,
N. Hudsonicus, closely allied to the Whimbrel, of Europe ; it
breeds in the Northern regions. This species, in addition to the
food of the preceding species, makes use of berries. Its length
is sixteen inches.

The SMALL ESQUIMAUX CURLEW, N. borealis, is known under
the names of Little Curlew, and Dough-Bird, and much esteemed
by epicures. Its length is fifteen inches. Nuttall says it ranges
from Paraguay to the 70o N. L.

TATTLERS.

The TELL-TALE TATTLER, Totanus vociferus, receives its name
from its frequent cries, uttered' quite as much for its own sake,
as tc give warning to others. It ranges widely over the United
States, and is found at all seasons. In Maine and New Bruns-
wick, it is called " Humility," — a name that does not seem to
agree, with its "vociferous habits." These birds "congregate in
great numbers in the inland marshes of Florida, and along its
rivers, during the winter." Though found near both salt and
fresh water, they seem to prefer the latter, selecting ponds of
which the water is shallow, and the shores muddy, affording
places where they can walk and wade with ease. In the West-
ern country, it is called the "Great Yellow-Shank." The upper
parts are generally black, glossed with green, each feather mar-
gined with white triangular spots; the throat, breast and abdo-
men, are pure white. Length about fourteen inches.

The SPOTTED SAND-LARK, T. macularius, is a familiar bird, of
a glossy olive brown color, with blackish waves, — found through-
out the Union in small families, along almost every stream, and
the borders of ponds and lakes. In allusion to its notes, it has
the common name of Peet-weet ; from its repeated grotesque,
jerking motions, it is called Teeter, and Tittup. It feeds on
insects and worms; breeds in New York and farther North.
Occasionally it is found in Europe. The length is eight inches.

The GRAY PLOVER, T. Bartramius, is twelve inches in length,

408 GRALLATORES.

and is much esteemed for game, but shy, and not easily obtained
by sportsmen. It is described as Bartram's Tattler and Sand
Piper; among its common names, are GRASS-PLOVER and FIELD-
PLOVER. This bird is not found on the coast, — its bill is very
short, scarcely longer than the head. In July and August, it is
seen in large flocks on its way South. It is fond of grass-hoppers.

AVOSETS.

The AVOSET, Recurvirostra, (Lat. up-turned bill,) Americana,
(see Chart,) is, from its "perpetual clamor and flippancy of
tongue, called by the inhabitants of Cape May, the Lawyer ;
the comparison, however, reaches no further; for our Lawyer is
simple, timid, and perfectly inoffensive." Wilson. The back
and under parts, are white ; the wings brownish black, with a
broad band of white. The bill is more than twice the length of
the head, very slender, tapering to a point, and somewhat re-
curved, or upturned, (Plate IX. fig. 4 ;) the legs are very long
and slender. This bird builds its nest among the tallest grass.
The eggs, like those of other Waders, are four in number, pear-
shaped, of a dull olive color, with blotches of black. Like the
Roseate Spoon-bill, it moves its head "to and fro sideways,"
while it is passing its bill through the soft mud in search of
insects; in deeper water, it immerses the entire head and a part
of the neck, after the manner of the Spoon-bill and Red-breasted
Snipe. The notes of this bird resemble the syllable click.
Length eighteen inches. The Avoset ranges from Texas north-
ward, and is abundant in the Rocky Mountains and the Fur
countries. In New Jersey, where it breeds, it is, from the color
of its legs, called Slue- Stocking. The food varies with its place
of resort, consisting of insects, crabs, fishes, marine worms, and
small mollusks.

The BLACK-NECKED STILT, Himantopus, (Gr. himas, a thong ;
pous, a foot,) nigricollis, (Lat. black-necked,) has white plum-
age with the head, neck, back, and wings, above, black. To
this bird is assigned the name of LAWYER, (N. H. S., N. Y.,)
it is also called Tilt and Longshanks. (See Chart.) It is a
rare species; but ranges from the Equator to the 41o N. L.
Its length is about fourteen inches.

NOTE>_pr. DeKay (see N". H. S. N. T.) has arranged the species of the
two preceding genera into a separate family, Recurvirostridtz.

The KNOT, or RED-BREASTED SANDPIPER, Tringa cinerea,
(Nutt.,) T. canulus, (Linn.,) has a slender, straight bill, rather
longer than the head ; the toes have a narrow membrane. This

GRALLATORES. 407

bird varies much in its plumage, and has, therefore, received
different names. It is common to Europe and America; rang-
ing in the latter, from the tropics to Labrador, and breeding in
the Fur countries to a high latitude. The Knot is seen on the
shores of New York in May, and is called by sportsmen, the
Robin Snipe. From August to October, it migrates Southward
in large flocks, when, in place of the red feathers, it has a white
plumage, spotted with dusky, ash-colored above; it is then called
White Robin Snipe, and Gray-back. Its length is ten inches.

WILSON'S SANDPIPER, T. pusilla, or the Little Sandpiper,
(Plate X. fig. 8c,) is about four inches long, with a slender,
dusky green tapering bill, and short neck ; the tail is doubly
emarginate. In summer, it is blackish and rufous ; beneath white ;
in winter, ash ; beneath, whitish, spotted with dusky. It is
known as the Peep, so named from its usual note ; and as the
Ox-eye, from the size and brilliancy of its eye. This species
pervades North America from Mexico to 680 N. L., and is one
of the most abundant of the group, being found in the interior as
well as on the sea-coast.

The SANDERLING, Calidris arenaria, or T. arenaria, has a
straight bill, shorter than the head ; thin in the middle, and
widened towards the tip ; the tail is short, the middle and outer
feathers the longest; the toes have* a warty membrane on each
side. They are three in number, while the preceding genus has
four. The female is larger than the male, being about seven
inches long. The plumage above is bluish in summer, but light
ash in winter : in both sexes, it varies quite as much as in the
Turnstones, (Strepsilas.) In flying, these birds have fewer evo-
lutions than the Sandpipers. They afford good eating, especially
when young. In autumn, they are very fat, and highly relished
by epicures. They are said to occur all over the globe.

The RUFF, of the Old World, (female REEVE,) machetes, (Gr.
a fighter,) pugnax, (Lat. combative,) the Combattantofthe French,
has a long and slender bill ; legs very long, slender, and naked
high above the tarsal joint; three toes before, and one (short)
behind; the tail is rounded. The hues of the plumage are so
variable, that it is very difficult to find any two that perfectly
resemble each other; but the prevailing ground color is brown,
inclining to ash, with lateral, and under covers, white ; in the
autumn or winter, the plumage is more spotted, particularly in
the under part, and a bunch of feathers or ruff appears on each
side of the head in the male. The females, which are called
Reeves, are smaller than the males, and have no ruff. The
food of these birds consists of worms and insects, which they pick

403 GRALLATORES.

up in marshy places ; in captivity, they are fed with bread and
milk, or boiled wheat. They have sometimes been caught in
nets, being decoyed by stuffed birds of their species. The Ruff
is a very pugnacious bird ; it weighs seven ounces, and is a foot
in length.

,* PHALAROPES.

The RED PHALAROPE, Phalaropus, (Gr. phalaros, bald or
naked ; pous, foot,) fulicarius, (Lat. from fuIicd, coot.) has a
long, slender, weak, and strait bill, both mandibles furrowed to
the point, and the end of the upper curved over the lower one ;
the front toes are united up to the first joint; the others with fes-
tooned or lobated membranes, (Plate IX. fig. 25.) toothed on the
edges; the hind toe without a membrane. The Red Phalarope
is found in flocks in Kentucky, on the Ohio, and during autumn,
is often seen at sea, as far as Newfoundland. It breeds in high
northern latitudes, as far as Melville Peninsula. The route of
this species towards the warmer regions, is along the Pacific
coast. The length is seven and a half inches. These birds are
said to breed in great numbers far North ; their flight is rapid,
resembling that of the Red-backed Sandpiper ; sometimes they
skim over the water, when they increase their, distance from
each other. They feed chiefly on insects and crustaceans, which
live on the surface of the water.

The HYBERBOREAN PHALAROPE, or LOBEFOOT, Lolipes hyper-
loreus, procures its food principally upon the water, on which
"they alight like Ducks, float as light as Gulls, and move about
in search of food with much nimbleness." Length six inches.

MARLINS or GODWITS.

The MARLIN or GREAT MARBLED GODWIT, Limosa fedoa, has
a recurved and tapering bill of great length, and long and slender
le^s ; the tibia is bare for about one-third of its length ; the toes
are four in number; the hind one small, and touching the ground
at the tip, — the plumage above is dark brown, varied with red
and gray; below, pale reddish brown or buff, with small dusky
spots on the neck. The length is from about sixteen to nine-
teen inches; the female is considerably the larger.

This is a very shy and vigilant bird, moving in large flocks,
with irregular and rather quick flight, though less rapid than the
Curlews. The flesh is tender and much esteemed. It is some-
times called the Red Curlew, the Strait-billed Curlew, and Dough-
bird. The Marlins move along the coast in immense flocks, as
far as Massachusetts, (reaching New York in May,) and are

GRALLATORES. 409

supposed to cross the land to Saskatchewan, where they breed.
(Aud.) They return from the North in August, remaining in
New York until their removal, in November, to their wintering
places South of the United States. They feed on aquatic in-
sects, leeches, small marine mollusks, crabs and worms.

The RING-TAILED MARLIN, Lwiosa Hudsonica, called in Bos-
ton, the Goose-bird, is sixteen inches long, and breeds in high
northern latitudes.

The SNIPE, or WOODCOCK, Scolopax, — common species, S.
Wilsonii, Wilson's Snipe, is about eleven inches long, and much
sought by the younger gunners, and sometimes, by the keenest
sportsmen. Its summer range is considerably beyond the north-
ern boundary of the United States. It resembles the Common
Snipe, of Europe, S. gallinago, and is sometimes called the Eng-
lish Snipe, but is, in fact, a different species. It breeds from
Virginia northward, — it does so abundantly in New York. It
resides in Kentucky and the Southern States, during the winter.
In flying early in the spring, it soars high in the air, making a
remarkable booming sound ; its notes are said to differ from those
of the Common Snipe, of Europe. It is fond of marshy, swampy
places, and selects such for breeding. On the back, the brown-
ish black feathers are edged with cream color, and barred
minutely with reddish brown; the throat and breast are buff,
spotted with brown and gray.

The GREAT SNIPE, of Europe, S. major, has a tail composed
of sixteen feathers, — (the normal number is fourteen.) Sir
Humphrey Davy, in noticing the breeding of this species in the
great royal decoy, near Hanover, says that they require solitude
and perfect quiet, and their food being peculiar, they need a
great extent of marshy meadow. They feed on the larvas of
Tipula, (Father Longlegs,) or kindred flies, and, according to
the same author, their stomach is the thinnest among the tribe
of Snipes. The nest of the Great Snipe, like that of the Common
Snipe, is usually placed on the borders of a swamp, and on a
tuft of grass, or a bunch of rushes,-— often it is found near wil-
low-bushes. The eggs are three or four, yellowish olive brown,
with great spots of reddish brown. Two other Snipes, accord-
ing to Mr. Gould, exceed this in size,— -one found in the hilly
districts of India, the other in Mexico.

The AMERICAN WOODCOCK, Rusticola minar, was separated
by Nuttall from the genus Scolopax. It has a straight and
knobbed bill, slightly drooping at the tip.

410

SIXTH FAMILY. BUSTARDS.
Otida, (Gr. (axis, otis, a bustard.)

The proper position of these birds has been a disputed point
among Ornithologists. Temminck ranks them with the RUN-
NERS, (Cursores,) and includes them with the Ostrich family.
M. Vigors also places them among the same birds ; but in loca-
ting them on the Chart, we have followed Cuvier and others, who
have included them among the Stilt-birds.

The Bustards are comprehended in one genus, Otis. The
bill in these birds, is of the length of the head, or shorter,
straight, conical, and slightly depressed at the base; the point of
the upper mandible is a little arched ; the feet are long, and
naked above the knee, with three toes in front, short, united at
their base, and bordered by membranes ; the wines are of mod-
erate size, the third quill longest in each wing. The chin feath-
ers and moustaches, (seen in the male bird ) are composed of
long wiry-feathers, and the barbs disunited and short ; the
scapulars are of a buff orange color, barred, and spotted with
black ; the back and tail coverts, reddish orange, barred, and
variegated with black ; the greater coverts, and some of the
secondaries, are bluish gray ; the sides of the neck white, tinged
with gray ; the lower part of the neck is fine reddish orange ;
the under parts white. This description of plumage applies to
the Great Bustard, O. tarda. The male bird of this species, is
about four feet long, and nine feet in the expansion of the wings,
being (except the Lammergeyer,) the largest of the European
birds. Its weight is, on an average, twenty-five pounds. The
female is not more than half the size of the male. This bird
is noted for its shyness, and its power of running ; ihe young
birds have sometimes been run with greyhounds. And yet, in
its wild state, unlike the Ostrich, the Great Bustard, upon being
disturbed, rises easily upon the wing, and "flies with much
strength and swiftness, usually to another haunt, sometimes to
the distance of six or seven miles." It was formerly said, this
bird "has a pouch in the fore part of the neck, capable of con-
taining nearly two quarts," — but Mr. Yarrell, in dissecting a
male Bustard, " failed to detect this organ." This Bustard is
common in some parts of Europe, but is becoming very rare in
England. It feeds upon corn, seeds of herbs, colewort. dande-
lion leaves, &c., and also upon insects and worms. Turnip-tops
are said to be peculiarly agreeable. The eggs of the Bustard
are two in number, generally, sometimes three, laid upon the

UNJVERSITV

GSALLATORES.

bare ground, a little hollowed out for the purpose, either among
clover, or, more frequently, in cornfields. The flesh is highly
esteemed for food ; it is dark in color, and short in fibre, but
sweet and well-flavored.

The LITTLE BUSTARD, O. tetrax, is another smaller species,
found in Europe and Africa.

The BLACK-HEADED BUSTARD, O. nigriceps, is a native of Asia,
verging towards five feet in length, and having a crested head.
It is found in large flocks in the open country of the Mahrattas,
as well as in the highlands of the Himalaya. Its flesh is con-
sidered a very great delicacy.

The AFRICAN BUSTARD, O. Denhami, is a magnificent species,
which was discovered by Mr.Denham in Africa, near the larger
towns. It frequented moist places where the herbage was pure
and fresh, and almost always appeared singly. This bird was
ever found in company with the Gazelles; "whenever a Bus-
tard was observed, it was certain that the Gazelles were not far
distant." The eye is said to be large and brilliant; the Arabs
"are accustomed to compare the eyes of their most beautiful
women to those of the OUBARA," — the general name for the Bus-
tards in Africa.

The Koni BUSTARD, O. Kori, is a species discovered by Mr.
Burchell in South Africa, — the most gigantic of the family, —
standing upwards of five feet high. Mr. B. says, "its body was
so thickly protected by feathers, that our largest sized shot made
no impression, and, taught by experience, the hunters never fire
at it except with a bullet."

The AGAMI, or GOLD-BREASTED TRUMPETER, Psophia, (Gr.
psopheo, to make a noise,) crepitans, is an interesting bird, de-
riving its name from the peculiar noise which it makes without
opening its bill. It is about the size of a Pheasant or large
Fowl, being twenty-two inches in length ; has long legs, and a
long neck,, but a very short tail, consisting of twelve black feath-
ers, over which the rump-plumes hang droopingly. It inhabits
the forests of South America, where it is found in numerous
flocks; it is a swift runner, and when pursued, trusts more to
its legs than its wings. When domesticated, it shows great fond-
ness and fidelity; and is so regardful of its owner's interests,
that it attacks the dogs and other animals that venture near him.
Sometimes it is used to protect domestic poultry from the onsets
of birds of prey.

GRALLATORES.

SEVENTH FAMILY. RAILS.
Rallidce, (Genus, rallus, a rail.)

The RAILS are separated from the other families of this order
by the shape of the body, (Plate X. fig. 8b,) which is compressed
and flattened at the sides, in consequence of the narrowness.of
the sternum. The compressed and keel-like form assists their
motion in the water, and as M. Vigors remarks, " is intended to
counterbalance the deficiency in the formation of the foot, which
separates them from the truer and more perfectly formed water-
birds." It is certain that the greater portion of these birds are
excellent swimmers ; and in such habits, as well as in the short-
ness of their tarsi, they are found to deviate from all the remain-
ing groups of the present order.

The Rails have been designated by that name on account of
their peculiarly harsh notes. They differ from the Sand-pipers
and Plovers in the great size of the leg, and the length of the
toes. Swainson speaks of the structure of their bodies as spe-
cially adapted to the tangled recesses in which they live, consist-
ing of reeds and aquatic vegetables, which clothe the sides of
rivers and morasses. Their flesh is delicate, and from living
chiefly upon aquatic seeds and vegetable aliment, they may be
regarded as aquatic Gallinacece. Many of them build nests of
accumulated materials, and lay a great number of eggs. The
length of the toes enables these birds to walk, without sinking,
on aquatic herbage, or in the soft mud of morasses. Although
their feet are not webbed, they swirn and dive with a facility un-
surpassed by that of any of the ducks. The sternum is narrow ;
wings short and sustained by feeble muscles ; hence, the flight is
but for short distances, and is slow and heavy ; while on the
ground, whether among the reeds or tall grass of the meadow,
they thread their way with surprising ease and celerity.

Among the well known species is the COMMON GALLINULE, or
WATER-HEN, Gallinula chloropus, (Gr. chloros, green ; pous, a
foot.) This bird swims in the open water of rivers and ponds,
and with much grace and swiftness, constantly nodding its head ;
it also dives with great skill and rapidity. It is shy and easily
alarmed, in which case it dives under floating herbage, and re-
mains with its beak above water until the danger is over. On
account of this habit, it is impossible to take it unless accompa-
nied by a dog. The nest of the Water-hen is built among
sedges and reeds near the water, and contains from five to nine
eggs, of a cream color spotted with brown. These birds show

GRALLATORES. 413

great sagacity in protecting their young, as the latter do in obey.
ing the monitory signals'of their watchful parents. The young
have their legs and feet of their full size even while the feathers
are only beginning to appear, showing how the organs of flight
are subordinate to those of walking and swimming. The female
has, contrary to the usual rule, a richer plumage than the male.
The pike is the chief enemy of the Water-hens, and destroys
many by darting at them from under the cover of water-lilies or
other plants.

Other species are (1) the SALT WATER MEADOW HEN, Rallus
crepitans, fourteen inches long, sometimes called the Clapper
Rail, or Mud Hen, which is seen in New York the last of April,
leaves for the South in October, and during the season is very
abundant. It lays from eight to fifteen whitish eggs with reddish
spots, which are highly valued and much sought for ; (2) the FRESH
WATER MEADOW HEN, or Great Red-Breasted Rail, R. elegans,
a rare species eighteen inches in length ; (3) the MUD HEN, or Vir-
ginia Rail, R. Virginianus, (Plate X. fig. 8b.) length ten inches;
(4) the SORA RAIL, Ortygometra, (Gr, migrating with the quails,)
Carolina, the same as the English Rail, or Coot, O. krex, (Gr.
krex, a name derived from its cry,) and the species of the South-
ern States ; numerous in New Jersey, and ranging to the 62o N.
L. ; length nine inches ; (5) the NEW YORK RAIL, O. Noveloracen-
sis ; length five and one-half inches ; a shy bird, and not seen
in flocks like the preceding species ; feeding on seeds and aquatic
insects; breeding extensively throughout the United States; (6)
the FLORIDA GALLINULE, Gallinula gafeata, (Lat. helmeted,) four-
teen inches in length, closely allied to the European species, G.
chloropus, (referred to above,) and ranging from Mexico to Mas-
sachusetts.

SUB-FAMILY. FLAMINGOES.

Phoenicoptince, (Gr. (poivixdirTeQog, phoinikopteros, red-winged.)

These birds are included in one genus, Phoenicoplerus. Their
proper position has been a matter of considerable doubt. Swain-
son places them with the Ducks, among the Swimmers, though
he remarks : " The Flamingo, which has the longest legs in the
Natatorial order, is so good a walker that it only swims occa-
sionally." We give them a place among the Grallatores, to
which order they have more commonly been assigned, but im-
mediately before the Swimmers. The genus Plwenicopterus has
the bill strong, higher than it is large, toothed and conical to-
wards the point ; the upper mandible is suddenly bent, curved

-414 GRALLATORES.

at its point on the lower mandible, which is larger than the up.
per ; the legs are of excessive length ; the feet also very long,
three toes in front, hind one very short and articulated high up
on the tarsus ; the wings moderate ; first and second quills
longest.

The EUROPEAN FLAMINGO, P. ruler, is found in the warmer
parts of Europe, but is common in Asia, and the coasts of Af-
rica. The beak is evidently adapted to its long and flexible neck.
When this bird wishes to feed, it merely stoops its head to the
water ; the upper mandible is then lowest, and as is the case
with the Duck, the edges of the beak filter what is received.
Pestilent marshy places, which urge man to a distance, are
boldly and safely frequented by this bird. Its plumage is a deep
brilliant scarlet, except the quill feathers, which are black. Ar-
ranged in a line, these birds appear like a file of soldiers ; but
the miasma of the regions in which they dwell, is more deadly
than the rifle, and its breath more surely fatal than the ball of
the cannon. The nest of the Flamingo is a conical structure of
mud, with an opening on the summit, in which are placed two
or three dusky white eggs, somewhat larger than those of a
goose. The nest is so high as to permit the bird to sit, or rather
stand, her long legs hanging down on each side at full length.
The height of this bird is five or- six feet, (see fig. on Chart.)
The flesh is said to be pretty good meat ; the young are thought
by some equal to a partridge. Juvenal, in his Satires, notes the
Flamingo, (Phoenicoplerus ingens.) as among the luxuries of the
table; the brains and the tongue formed one of the favorite
dishes of Heliogabalus. By some, however, the flesh is thrown
away as fishy, while the feathers are used to ornament other
birds served up at special entertainments.

The American species, P. ruber* or P, chilensis, scarcely dif-
fers from the European. It is remarked that " the development
of the gizzard in this genus makes it very probable that vegeta-
ble substances form part of the diet of the Flamingo ; but it is
not likely that large fish, or indeed water animals of any great
size, are ordinarily devoured by these birds. The bill is a col-
ander, admirably contrived for separating the nutritious portions
whether animal or vegetable, from the mud and other useless
parts." The Red Flamingo is found in the warmer regions of
North America. C. L. Bonaparte says it is very rare and acci-
dental in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. In South America
and the West India Islands it is also found. It is particularly
abundant in the Bahamas, where it breeds.

GRALLATORES. 415

What is the 1st order of AQUATIC BIRDS? To what birds are they inter-
mediate ? Mention their distinguishing characteristics. What is peculiar
in their flying ? What power do they possess ? Where and how do they
build their nests, &c. ? What FAMILY does the order include? How are
the PLOVERS distinguished ? What use do they make of their beaks ? What
is said of their plumage and diffusion? Repeat what is said of the LAP-
WING or Pee-wit. What is the generic name of the Great P. and why
given? Is it an American sp. ? What is said of the Golden P. of A.?
How does it differ from the Golden P. of Europe? What is it sometimes
called? What is the generic name of the Oyster-catcher and why given?
What is said of it ? What of the Gray P. ? Of the Turnstone ? Of the
Dotterel? Of the Swift-foot? Of the Pratincole ? What other sp. are
mentioned ?

What is the 2nd FAMILY ? What GROUPS of BIRDS does this include ?
What is said of the CRAKES? Of the Spoon-bills? Of the Herons? Repeat
what is said of the A. Crane. What of the Common C. of Europe ? Where
is the DEMOISELLE found? What is said of its plumage, size, &c. ? How
long did one of these birds live in Versailles, (Fr. ?) What is said of the
Crowned Crane? Are the TRUE HERONS numerous? What use was for-
merly made of them, and how were they esteemed for food? In what ge-
nus does Aud. include the Egrets and Bitterns ? What is said of the Com-
mon Heron ? What of the Great Blue Heron ? Of the Greenish B. H. ?
Of the Black-Crowned Night H. ? Of the Great American White Egret?
What is said of the diffusion, &c. of Bitterns? For what are they noted?
What popular names have been given them and why ? To what does the
English name Bittern refer? Was the Common B. formerly sought in fal-
conry? In what estimation has it» flesh been held? What use was made
of its hind claw ? How does it compare in size with the Common Heron ?
What is said of the American Bittern ? Of the Small B. ? Why is the
Common Boat Bill so named? On what does it feed ? How do Storks com-
pare with the other birds of this family? Where do they build their nests?
What is the shape of their bills? Why are they a privileged race? What
is the length of the Common White S. ? What is said of its familiarity
and of its appearance in European towns? What did Dr. Shaw witness?
For what has the S. ever been noted ? How regarded among the ancients ?
What is said of the Black Stork? Where is the Adjutant found? Describe
this bird. What is said of its voracity? What does Dr. Latham say of
these birds ? What is said of the Marabou Crane or Giant Stork of Af
rica ? Where is a similar species found ? What name is given to the beau-
tiful plumes of these birds ? What is said of the Jabiru ?

What is the 3cl FAMILY ? With what family are these birds often in-
cluded? Give their characters and habits. What is said of the Common
White Spoonbill? What of the Roseate S.? What is the generic name
of the OPEN-BEAKED BIRDS? Describe the beak. Where does Cuvier
place them?

What is the 4th FAMILY? To what birds are those of this family allied?
What countries do they chiefly inhabit? What characters are given? On
what do they feed ? How many species does this family include ? How
many in the U. S. ? Where is the Glossy Ibis found ? With what sp. known
to the ancients is it identical? At what time does the sacred Ibis appear

416 NATATORES.

in Egypt? What is said of its size and plumage? How was this and the
preceding sp. regarded by the ancient Egyptians? What is the length of
the American White Ibis ? What Island is noted as a resort for these
birds? How many of their nests did Aud. count in a single tree? What
else is said of the White I.? Give an account of the Scarlet I. Of the
Wood I. Where are other species found?

What is the 5th FAMILY ? What is the most prominent character of this
family? What use is made of this organ? What other characters are
mentioned? What is the color of their plumage? To what places do
they resort? What is said of their distribution? How does Mr. G. R.
Gray divide them? Which is the largest of the Curlews? What is the
generic name? What other sp. are mentioned? What is the generic
name of the Tattler? Why is the Tell-Tale Tattler so called? What is said
of it? What of the Spotted Sand L. ? Of the Gray Plover ? Of the Avo-
set ? Of the Blue-necked Stilt ? Of the Knot ? Of Wilson's Sand-Piper ?
Of the Sanderling? Of the Ruff?

Mention the 6th FAMILY. In what genus are they comprehended? What
is said of the bills, &c. ? How large is the Great Bustard? Does any other
European bird exceed it in size? For what is it noted? Has it a gular
pouch? What else is said of it. What sp. of Bustards are mentioned?
What is said of the Agama, or Gold-breasted Trumpeter ?

What is the 7th FAMILY ? How are they separated from the other fami-
lies of this order? How are they aided by their keel-like form? In what
respects do they deviate from the other groups of wading birds? Why are
they called Rails? What does Swains&n say of their structure? What is
said of their flesh, nests, toes, &c. ? What of their motion in the air and
on the ground? Which are the different sp. and what is said of them?
What SUB-FAMILY is mentioned ? What is said respecting their proper po-
sition? Give the characters of the gen. Phoenicopterus. Where is the
European Flamingo found? What places does it frequent? What is said
of it? Does the American sp. differ much from the E. ? Upon what does
it feed? Do vegetable substances form any part of its diet? What may
its bill be called, and why ? Where is the Red Flamingo found?

SECTION XL

SECOND ORDER. WEB-FOOTED BIRDS.

NATATORES, (Lat. Swimmers.) ANSERES, (Lat. anser, a goose.)

Linn.

We come now to the last order of birds, viz. : those which are
web-footed. These are numerous and widely distributed. Mov-
ing in an element which is everywhere essentially the same, we
find, as we might naturally expect, that these birds are repre-
sented, not only by peculiar genera in every part of the world,
but that particular species, as of the Ducks, the Terns, and the
Petrels, encircle the globe.

N ATA TORES. 417

The foot of the Grebes is not webbed, but has each toe sepa-
rate and flattened, (Plate IX. fig. 26,) somewhat like that of the
Coot in the last order, with this exception, the Swimmers are all
marked by having the toes united by a membrane, giving to the
foot the form of a powerful oar, as in the common Duck or
Goose, (Plate IX. fig. 24.) In those species which are eminently
aquatic, the feet are placed far back on the body, (see Auk on
the Chart,) which renders their gait clumsy and shuffling on land,
but gives to the backward stroke of the foot in the water an im-
petus that helps them in swimming ; the tarsus is also flattened
sidewise, diminishing the resistance to progression in the water.

The form of the body is flattened horizontally, (not laterally,
as in the Waders.) the better to float on the surface. The plu-
mage is remarkably thick and close, particularly on the under
parts of the most aquatic kinds ; besides which the skin is cov-
ered with a dense coat of soft down. The outer surface is usu-
ally polished and satin-like, probably from the oily secretion
which the bird frequently applies to it. The larger part of the
Swimmers have a copious and peculiarly oily secretion of fat.

As Cuvier remarks, these are the only birds in which the neck
is longer than the legs, which is sometimes the case to a consid-
erable extent, for the purpose of enabling them to search for
food in the depths below, while, they swim on the surface. The
tail is generally short, and so are the wings; hence, flight is in
most feeble, and in some altogether denied : and yet it must be
noted, that in the order Natatores are found examples of the long-
est wings, and the highest powers of flight of the entire class of
Birds, as, for example, in the Frigate Pelican. The Petrels and
Terns have also great length of wing.

The web-footed fowl resort to fens, morasses, broad rivers,
inland lakes, rocky coves, &c., and they are found also on the
ocean's wide expanse. The marine kinds are more numerous in
the colder seas of the North, than in those of tropical regions.

This order includes the following families: (1) Anatida,
Ducks; (2) Colymbida, Divers ; (3) Akida, Auks; (4) Procel-
larida, Petrels ; (5) Larida, Gulls 5 (6) Pelecanida, Pelicans.

FIRST FAMILY. DUCKS.
Anatida, (Lat, anas, a duck.)

This numerous family have the beak thick and broad ; high
at the base, and covered throughout almost its whole extent with
a soft skin, the tip alone being horny; the edges are cut into thin
parallel ridges, or small teeth ; the tongue is large and fleshy,

418 NATATOHES.

with its edges toothed ; the wings are of moderate length. The
males have, for the most part, the wind-pipe enlarged into a bony
chamber, varying in form and size; sometimes this tube is much
prolonged, and bent back in folds within the swollen keel of the
breast bone, peculiarities of organization probably connected with
the loudness of the voice. The gizzard, especially in the land
species, is large and muscular.

The Ducks mostly build their nests upon the ground, but some
on trees, and lay numerous unspotted eggs. The young are at
first covered with soft down, and can run and swim as soon as
they leave the shell. The laminated structure at the edges of
the mandibles, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) has often been referred to as
showing special adaptation to the habit of feeding in birds of this
family, enabling them to take with facility minute animals which
swarm in rivers, and those equally numerous found on the sides
of rivers and inland streams. By means of their broad beak,
they capture at one effort, considerable numbers, and as they are
drawn forth, covered with mud, this offensive part is thrown out
between the interstices, or tooth edges of the mandibles, (Plate
IX. fig. 5,) which, however, are not sufficiently wide to allow of
the passage of the insect food at the same time, so that the beak
operates as a sifter, expelling the refuse, but retaining the food.
It is probable that the large and fleshy tongue is an assistant in
this separating process.

GEESE seem to form the connecting link between the Swim-
ming and Wading Birds, retaining as they do the manners of the
Waders, but walking much more than they swim. Their food
consists more of grains and insects than of fishes; their legs are
long, arid they have a considerable space above the tarsal joint.
These birds, in common with the SWANS, have rather long necks.

The TRUE DUCKS include a large variety of species and are
found in almost every part of the world.

TheSnovELER, or SPOON-BILL, A. clypeata, (Lai. furnished with
a shield.) is in length from seventeen to twenty inches ; it is
named from its broad, shovel-like bill. Usually it breeds far
North, but to this there are exceptions. Some think its flesh ex-
ceeds that of the Wild Duck.

The MALLARD, or WILD DUCK, A. loschos, (Gr. loslas, a mal-
lard, from boske, a pasture,) is the parent of our domestic broods.
The ordinary length is about two feet, but one variety is said to
measure thirty inches. Its flesh is much esteemed. Richard-
son says " the Widgeon or Wild Duck is a strange eater of
grass ; " to this the specific term refers.

The SOFT-BILLED SHOVELER, Malacorhyncus, (Gr. mafakos,

NATATORES. 419

soft ; rhunkos, a bill,) found in Australia, has a very peculiar
bill, the edge of the upper mandible having on it a thin mem-
brane or skin, which hangs down like a wattle on each side.

The TAME DUCK, (from A. boschas,) is nearly omnivorous in
its indiscriminate appetite and its voracity. In the natural state
the Duck is a little more particular in its diet.

The GREEN WINGED TEAL, A. Carolinensis, is during the
autumn and winter, common in all our fresh water lakes and
ponds ; its flesh is very well tasted. Length fourteen inches.

The PIN-TAIL DUCK, A. acuta, (Lat. sharp,) affords similar
food to the preceding. It is about two feet long. This Duck is
particularly abundant on the shores of Lake Ontario; ranging,
however, during winter and spring, across this Continent; and
breeding in high northern latitudes.

The BLACK DUCK, A. obscura, (Lat. obscure or dark,) breeds
from Texas to Labrador. Its length is about two feet. Few
Ducks are more highly prized than this species.

The AMERICAN WIDGEON or BALD-?ATE, A. Americana, is
very generally distributed. It feeds chiefly on aquatic vegeta-
bles, and is esteemed for its delicate flavor. Length from
eighteen to twenty inches. The Widgeon of the Eastern Conti-
nent, A. Penelope, is also found in this hemisphere.

SUB-FAMILY FuligilincR^ (from Lat.y*wZzgo, soot.) SEA-DUCKS.

The Sea-Ducks include four genera, with a variety of species.
They principally frequent the sea ; but many of them are to be
found in the fresh water lakes and rivers, where the water is
deep. Their plumage is very close and thick, in comparison
with that of the True Ducks, (Anas,) and the covering of the
female differs much in hue from that of the male. The Sea-
Ducks are not good walkers, though they can run or shuffle
along rapidly. They swim remarkably well, but low in the
water, and excel in diving, on which they rely when in danger,
more than on their power of wing. Usually, they fly low, labori-
ously, and with a whistling sound. They are mostly found at
the north ; but some species are spread over the entire globe.
Large flocks migrate periodically, chiefly on the line of the sea-
coast,flying and feeding generally by night. They often make
their nests near fresh water; both parents, in several of the spe-
cies, strip off their down as a covering for their numerous eggs.

The genus Somateria, (Gr. so?na, body ; eria, wool, or teiro,
to wear away,) includes Ducks which are peculiarly marine;
according to Sir John Richardson, never found in fresh water.

I

420 NATATORES.

Their food consists principally of mollusks found in the Arctic
Sea.

The EIDER DUCK, <S. mollissima, (Lat. very soft,) is remarka-
ble for its exquisite and elastic down, so valuable in commerce,
and so essential in preserving the proper balance of animal heat
in the icy regions in which it dwells. The beak is prolonged
on the forehead into two narrow flat plates, which are separated
by an angular projection of the frontal plumage. This species
is, in severe winters, seen as far South as the Capes of the
Delaware. Northern explorers have repeatedly attested its
value. Dr. Kane writes thus of its appearance. "The Eider
Duck is an awkward animal on the wing, and hardly graceful
in the water. The position of the legs, set very far back, throws
the body, Penguin-like, nearly upright; and they move about
erect, but easily, and with animation." His party gathered two
hundred eggs from a gleaned field, one morning before break-
fast. A whaler which they met, had four hundred and fifty
dozen eggs on board : formerly, from a quarter to half a million
of eggs were, during a single season, taken from Melville Island.

The Duck and Drake build the nest in company, and line it
with down. This is of two kinds, — the dead down and the live
down ; the former is taken from a dead bird, and is of inferior
quality ; the latter is that which the Duck strips from herself to
cherish her eggs; its lightness and elasticity are such, that it is
said, two or three pounds of it squeezed into a ball, will swell
out to such an extent as to fill a case large enough for a foot
covering of a bed. The skin of the Eider Duck, with the
feathers on, forms an article of commerce, particularly among
the Chinese. The length is twenty-five inches.

The KING DUCKS, S. spectabilis, (Lat. deserving notice,) are
also found in the Arctic regions, but in their migration do not
pass so far South as the Eider Duck. According to Sir John
Ross, they afford a valuable and salutary supply of fresh pro-
vision to the crews of vessels employed in the Northern Seas,
and their down is equal to that of the Eider Duck.

The SURF DUCK, Oidemia, (Gr. from oideo, to swell,) seek their
food at sea chiefly, and have their name from frequenting its
shores. The prevailing color is black in the male and brown in
the female. The generic name was suggested by the swollen
appearance of the beak. The species O. fusca, (Lat. tawny,)
has a very thick and close plumage, and is called the VELVET
DUCK. The down is similar to that of the Eider Duck. They
are very numerous at Hudson's and Baffin's Bay, The length
is twenty- four inches.

NATATORES. 421

The CANVASS-BACK DUCKS, FuKgula, (Lat.fuligula, a fen-duck,)
valisneria.( botanical name of the tape-Grass, of which this species
are very fond,) — breeds from 50o N. L. to the extreme northern
limit of the Fur countries. About the middle of October it arrives
on the sea-coasts of the United States. This Duck is shy, but much
esteemed, as few birds grace the table better. It haunts the sea,
its bays and estuaries. The length is twenty-four inches. In
swimming, the tail is erected, and from the shortness of the neck,
is nearly as high as the bird's head, so that, at a little distance^ the
bird seems to have two heads.

The SPIRIT DUCK, Clangula, (Lat. clango, to clang;) atteola,
(partly white;) is abundant during the summer, on the rivers and
fresh water lakes of the Fur countries; in autumn and winter,
common in the United States. It is a most expert diver ; the
artful way in which it conceals itself after it has vanished under
water, has given it the name of Spirit Duck or Conjurer. Its
flesh is not in high repute. In Pennsylvania and New Jersey, it
becomes so fat, it is called "Butter-Box" or "Butter-Ball."
Length fourteen inches.

The LONG-TAILED DUCK, Heralda glacialis, (icy,) — the Old
Wife and Swallow-tailed Duck, of Hudson Bay residents, — is
noted for its very long tail of fourteen feathers. It swims and
dives with all the expertness of the Spirit Ducks. The young
Ducks are juicy and tender; the old ones not much valued for
the table. This species is found in the Arctic regions of both
Continents. Length twenty to twenty-one inches.

GEESE.

The SNOW GOOSE or WHITE BRANT, Anser Hyperboreus,
breeds in high northern latitudes. It is from twenty-seven to
thirty-one inches in length. Its feathers are valuable, and
Richardson says, its flesh is far superior to that of the Canada
Goose in juiciness and flavor.

The BRANT, A. bernicla, is deemed one of the most savory
birds; its length is about two feet; it breeds near the Arctic
Ocean ; is found on both Continents.

The BERNICLE, or BARNACLE GOOSE, Bernicla leucopsis, (Gr.
white-faced,) is found in the northern regions of both hemispheres.

The GRAY-LAG GOOSE, A.ferus, (Lat. wild,) in length two feet
and nine inches, is the origin of the COMMON DOMESTIC GOOSE.
The latter is too familiar to require description. It has been
known to live over eighty years.

The WILD GOOSE or CRAVAT GOOSE, A. Canadensis, is from
forty to forty-two inches in length. In its contour, especially

422 NATATORES.

about the neck, it seems to approach the Swans ; the patch of
white feathers on the neck contrasting with those of dark shade,
has the appearance of a cravat. It breeds most abundantly in
Labrador and high northern latitudes. In the Fur countries its
arrival is anxiously looked for, and hailed with great joy. At
Hudson's Bay, three thousand or more are sometimes killed and
barreled up in a year.

The EGYPTIAN GOOSE, Chenalopex, (Gr. a goose or duck,
Pliny,) jEgyptiacuS) is a beautiful species, which passes over
occasionally from Africa into Europe ; it is particularly numer-
ous in the island of Sicily. The upper part of the plumage is
reddish brown ; the under parts are buff, mingled with blackish
lines. This Goose is figured on the monuments of the ancient
Egyptians, and was regarded by them with veneration !

The GOOSANDERS or MERGANSERS, form a sub-family, — Mer-
ganince, including, according to Prince Bonaparte, two genera,
Mergus, (Lat. a diver, from mergo, to dip;) the Smew, and Mer-
ganser, (Lat. from mergo, to dip, and anser, a goose,) the Goos-
ander.

The SMEW or WHITE NUN, Mergus albellus, (Lat. from allus,
white,) is found in the Arctic regions of both Continents; it is
migratory in autumn, but especially in winter. Its food consists
of small crustaceans, water insects, mollusks, and small fish.
The nest is placed on the borders of rivers and lakes, and con-
tains twelve whitish eggs. The Smew (when old) has upon
the head a tufted crest of pure white; the edges of both mandi-
bles of the beak, have saw-like teeth directed backwards; the
point of the upper mandible is curved, and with the horny nail,
forms a hook. (Plate IX. fig. 5.) The length of the Smew is fif-
teen or sixteen inches.

The GOOSANDER or JACKDAW, Mergus merganser (or Castor,)
having also a saw-like and hooked bill, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) builds
its nest among rolled pebbles on the banks of waters, or in bushes
and hollow trees, and lays twelve or fourteen whitish eggs.
The flesh of this and the preceding species, is rank, and by no
means in request for the table. Its native abode corresponds
with that of the Smew ; it migrates southward on the approach
of winter. The very old male has a large and thick tuft on the
head; the plumage of the upper parts is deep black; the under
parts, which in the Smew are white, are in the Goosander tinged
with yellowish rose-color, (changing to white in stuffed speci-
mens.) The length is twenty-six or twenty-eight inches.

NATATOEES. 423

SECOND FAMILY. DIVERS. (Short- winged.)
Colymbidce, (Gr. xohvufio;, kolumbos, a diver.)

These birds are more entirely aquatic than the Ducks, and
remarkable for their powers of diving, and the great length of
time which they can remain immersed. They have narrow,
straight, and sharp-pointed beaks ; the head is small ; the legs,
placed near the extremity of the body, are flattened sidewise, so
as to present a thin edge before and behind ; the toes are armed
with broad, flat nails. In one genus, Colymbus, including the
Loons, — the toes are united by a membrane, and there is a
short tail; the two other genera, (including the Grebes.) have
the toes divided midway to the base, and bordered with white
oval membranes, and have no traces of a tail. Owing to the
position of their feet, these birds are poor walkers, though ex-
tremely powerful and fleet swimmers and divers. They have
short wings, and their ability to fly is consequently quite limited ;
but under the surface of the water, the wings are expanded and
employed as fins. The thread-like, or downy plumage, is re-
markably thick, and has a silvery gloss. The Divers' food
varies with the situations which they frequent. It consists of
fishes with their fry and spawn; crustaceans, water insects, &c.,
and occasionally vegetable substances. The Grebes are widely
scattered over fresh waters ; the Loons are confined to the oceans
and coasts of temperate and arctic regions. These birds dive
so instantaneously, that it is difficult to shoot them, — disappear-
ing, as they do, at the first flash of the gun, and not returning
to the surface within some two hundred yards, and then merely
to raise the head for a moment and again disappear. The stomach
of the Grebes, is generally found to contain a mass of their own
feathers. These are probably conyeyed thither in the bird's pro-
cess of oiling its plumage, or, as has been said, "making its
toilet." The largest, and finest species of Loon, is the GREAT
LOON or DIVER, Colymbus glacialis, (Plate X, fig. 9.) This bird
is thirty-two inches long, — the neck and head are black, glossed
with purple or green ; their upper parts black, marked with white
spots, set in rows; the under parts pure white. The cry of the
Great Diver is melancholy in its tone, resembling the howling
of a wolf, and is said to portend rain. The flesh is dark, tough,
and unpalatable. The eggs are two or three in number, of a
deep olive color, spotted with brown, and about as large as those
of a Goose.

The RED-THROATED LOON or SCAPE-GRACE, Colymbus septen-
18

4 M NATATORES.

trionatis, (Lat. northern,) is another species, breeding from New-
foundland northwardly. Length twenty-five inches.

The GREBES, (Podiceps.) have been variously placed by dif-
ferent naturalists. De Kay includes them with the COOTS, in a
separate order, Lobipedes, (Lobe- footed,) and ranks them imme-
diately before the Swimmers. We have followed Cuvier and
others, in placing them with the Swimmers, and in the present
family. Among the species are the HORNED GREBE, P. cornu-
tus, (Lat. horned,) in length fifteen inches; common to Europe
and America, and known by the names Dipper, Water-Witch,
&c. ; the CRESTED GREBE, P. cristatus, in length nineteen inches;
commonly found in secluded ponds and lakes in the interior, but
also seen on the sea-coast. It ranges from Mexico to 680 N. L. ; —
is found also in Europe ; the RED-NECKED GREBE, P. rubricoHis,
(Lat. red-necked,) not quite so long as the preceding, and scarcely
seen South of New York.

THIRD FAMILY. AUKS.
Alcida, (Lat. alca, alk or auk.)

The birds of this family, have a structure which pre-emi-
nently adapts them to an aquatic life, and are, in their resorts and
habits, exclusively maritime. The beak in these birds varies
in length, and is more or less compressed ; both mandibles are
much curved and notched ; the nostrils are almost entirely closed
by a naked membrane ; the feet small and entirely webbed ; the
legs short and placed far back, so that, in sitting, these birds assume
an erect position ; the tail has sixteen small feathers. In moving
under water, the Auks make no use of their feet, but hold them
out behind, as the Waders do theirs in flying, and use their short
wings in the manner of fins, so that they may be said to fly be-
neath the surface. " Their movements, under water, precisely
resemble those of the Dyticida, or Common Water-Beetles; the
principal motion being more or less vertical, instead of horizontal
as in the Grebes and Loons; they are, therefore, together with
the distinct group of Penguins, the most characteristic divers of the
class." Their food, obtained by diving, (an operation in which
they are assisted by their wings as well as their feet,) consists
of small fishes, crustaceans, and other marine animals. The
Auks are frequently seen in immense numbers on rocky islets,
and precipitate cliffs that overhang the sea, on the shelves and
edges of which they lay their eggs, one only being deposited by
each bird. The female, while sitting in an erect, position, keeps
the egg between her feet for the purpose of incubation. Many

NATATORES. 425

families gain their subsistence by procuring the eggs and young
of these and similar birds. The storm-lashed and iron-bound
coasts of Northern Europe and America, and the frozen islands
of the Arctic Seas are the dreary homes of the Auks; some of
them roam hundreds of miles out to sea.

The Penguins occupy, in the Southern Hemisphere, the place
filled by the Auks or Puffins in the Northern. Their wings are
very small, — mere rudiments, covered with an integument, re-
sembling scales, and entirely powerless as organs of flight; but
they not only aid the bird in its divings and evolutions under
water, but also as a sort of front extremities when progressing on
land. Being without the power of flight, and unable to run, this
bird may be easily overtaken on land; but when it reaches the
water, it has no difficulty in distancing itp pursuers, swimming
like a fish, and springing several feet over any obstacles which
it meets in its course. The Penguins are peculiarly remarka-
ble for having a kind of ball and socket union in the vertebrae,
corresponding, in some degree, to what is seen in the reptiles.

The GREAT AUK, Alca impennis, (Lat. wingless,) is almost
wingless, i. e. its wings are very small, entirely incapable of
raising it in the air, but serving admirably as paddles to the bird
when diving under water. The Lump-fish is said to be a spe-
cial favorite of the Great Auk. Audubon says, " the egg is
very large, measuring five inches in length and three in its great-
est breadth ; the shell is thick and rather rough to the touch ;
color yellowish white, with irregular lines and blotches of brownish
black," which have been supposed to bear some resemblance to
Chinese characters. Newfoundland is one of the breeding places
of these Swimmers, and the Esquimaux who frequent that island
are said to make clothing of their skins. The Great Auks are
widely diffused in the northern hemisphere, but in high northern
latitudes they "swarm." They may be seen on floating ice, but
do not wander beyond soundings. The winter plumage, which
begins to appear in autumn, "leaves the cheeks, throat, fore part
and sides of the neck, white. In spring, the summer change
begins to take place, and confines the white on the head to a large
patch which extends in front and around the eyes ; the rest of
the head, the neck and upper plumage is deep black." The
length of the Great Auk is ahout three feet.

The RAZOR-BILL, or BLACK-BILLED AUK, A. torda, has wings
so far developed as to answer for the purpose of flight, though
the bird uses them with great effect as oars, when swimming
under water. Its length is about seventeen inches. These
Auks breed from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to along the coast of

426 NATATORES.

Labrador. Thousands of them are killed on that coast for the
sake of the breast feathers, which are very warm and elastic.
The eggs are about as large as a turkey's, being great in propor-
tion to the size of the bird. Of these, incredible numbers are
collected at Labrador and in its vicinity. The Razor-Bill is
seen on the coast of New York State every autumn and winter ;
it is common in Europe.

The COMMON PUFFIN, or COULTER-NEB, Fratercula Arctica, or
Mormon f rater cula, (Mormon Arcticus, DeKay.) has a beak mon-
strously large, rivaling in its development those of the Toucans
and Hornbills, and from its enormous size and the sharpness of
the edge, rendering this bird a formidable antagonist. This or-
gan is shorter than the head, higher than its length, somewhat
triangular in outline, and has its sides cut into furrows, (Plate IX.
fig. 11.) The generic names applied to the Common Puffin, re-
fer, in their signification, to its singularly grotesque appearance,
with its short, thick-set form, its erect attitude, and above all, its
extraordinary and brightly colored beak. It makes a burrow for
itself on the lofty cliffs, but sometimes avoids this labor by occu-
pying that of a rabbit which stands in awe of the formidable
bill, and readily gives up his habitation. From the lofty cliff,
the Puffin plunges fearlessly into the sea, and returns with its
beak full of fish, which are secured by their heads, and lie in a
row along the Puffin's bill. The length of this bird is from
twelve to thirteen inches.

The LITTLE GUILLEMOT, Uria alle, or Mergulus aUe, is from
six to ten inches in length, sometimes, but rarely, seen on the
coast of New York, its range being from 39o N. L. to the north
pole. It is also called Sea-Dove, Sea-Pigeon, Pigeon Diver, or
Ice-Bird. During the breeding season, it collects in vast num-
bers along the north and east coast of Baffin's Bay. Dr. Kane
says it was not uncommon to kill more than a hundred in the
course of a couple of hours. The long-sought and lamented
Sir John Franklin killed and salted down so many of these birds
as to augment his resources by nearly a two years' supply of
food. " No other bird migrates in such numbers, or contributes
so largely to the pleasures of the table." (Grinn. A ret. Exped.)
The size of this bird compares well with that of a partridge ;
the feet are short, plunged into the feathers far back beyond the
equilibrium of the body ; it has three toes, all front and entirely
webbed. While taking their food, consisting of small fish, crus-
taceans and medusae, they can be approached so near as to be
knocked down with poles and boat hooks. The whalers some-
times shoot them with dried peas. Upon the bare rock they

NATATORES. 427

lay, in company, each a single egg of a pale green, blotched
with dark brown spots. So close are they together, that the birds,
when sitting nearly upright, almost touch each other, covering
the ledges ot the rocks upon which their young are hatched, and
from whence they take to the water in five or six weeks.

The PENGUINS, Aptenodytes, (Gr. a, priv., ptenos, winged ;
dutes, a diver,) seem to be among the Natatores what the Os-
triches are among the strictly terrestrial birds. Swainson re-
marks that "the hind toe in the Penguins and Cormorants is
placed almost as far forward as in the Swifts. In the Penguin
the tarsus is so short -as almost to be confounded with the sole of
the foot, and is probably rested on the ground when the bird
walks, just as in the bear and other plantigrade quadrupeds.
The whole foot is remarkably flattened, as if to enable the bird
to cover a greater breadth of ground." (Classification of birds,
Vol. I.)

The bones are described as very hard, compact and heavy,
having no aperture for the admission of air ; but they cohtain,
especially the bones of the extremities, a thin oily marrow. The
sensations of these birds are by no means acute. One writer
relates that he stumbled over a sleeping one and kicked it some
yards without disturbing its rest. Another states that he left a
number of these birds apparently lifeless, while he went in pur-
suit of others ; but they afterwards got up and marched off with
their usual gravity.

The habits of the Penguins are highly interesting, and have
frequently been described. Their camps, towns, and rookeries,
so called, are largely descanted upon by southern voyagers.
Those at the Falkland Islands have attracted particular atten-
tion.* The rookeries are said to be designed with the utmost
order and regularity, though they are the resort of different species.
But in the midst of this apparent order, there seems to be a want
of good government, the stronger species stealing the eggs of the
weaker, if they be left unguarded. The King or Patagonian
Penguin, A. Patachonica, (Plate X. fig. 9b,) is said to be the great-

* The rookeries at the Falkland Islands above referred to, sink into insig-
nificance when compared with a settlement of the King Penguins recorded
by Mr. Gr. Bennett, who saw at the north end of Macquarrie Island, in the
South Pacific ocean, a colony of these birds which covered an extent of
thirty or forty acres. He describes the number of Penguins collected to-
gether in this spot as immense, but observes that " it would be impossible
to guess at it with any near approach to truth, as during the whole of the
day and night, 30,000 or 40,000 are continually landing, and an equal num-
ber going to sea."

4° 3 NATATORES.

est thief of all. Three species are found in the Falkland Is-
lands. Two of these, the King Penguin and the MACARONI, A.
chrysocome, (Golden-haired or feathered,) deposit their eggs in
these rookeries. The Jackass Penguin, A. demersa, (Lat. from
demergo, to plunge in,) which is the third species, has its English
name from the horrible brayings which it sets up at night. This
makes its nest in burrows on downs or sandy plains, and does
not appear to take invasion so quietly as the other species.

H. T. Cheever, in his "Island World of the Pacific," when
referring to his landing on the Falkland Islands, says : " What
was our surprise to find what we had thought a facing of white
stones, to be innumerable Penguins, standing erect and in the
rank and file of battle array, upon the declivity of the rocks,
and occupying at least two acres, in dense columns, away, back
to the moss and grass. On every out-jutting angle or hollow,
there was a dusky nest with a bird sitting upon it, and so unac-
quainted with man that we could climb up and lay hands upon
them before they would move." He continues : " To those who
have never seen a picture of a Penguin, it would be impossible
to convey an idea, by description, of this odd amphibious crea-
ture. It has the head, bill, and two web- feet of a bird, and
stands erect on land, sometimes two and a half and three feet in
height. They have no wings nor proper feathers, but two fins
or flippers, like the seal. Their motion on land is by successive
hops in the most awkward manner conceivable. When going
down a declivity, the center of gravity is often thrown too far
forward, and away they tumble, and scramble, and roll over,
until they get to the sea, in which they dive and swim with great
swiftness. They are often seen singly, or two and three together,
far out at sea. Their cry or bark is like the inarticulate human
voice ; and sounding, as it often does, from the surface of the
ocean like the cry of a man in distress, it startles and appals
one."

The largest species of the Patagonian Penguins is said to be four
feet and a quarter in length, and to weigh forty pounds. When sit-
ting or attempting to walk, they have been compared to a dog
that has been taught to sit up and move in a minuet. Their
short legs drive the body in progression from side to side, and
were they not assisted by their flipper-like wings, they could
scarcely move faster than a tortoise. This awkward make of
the legs, which so disqualifies them for living on the land, ad-
mirably adapts them for life on the water, inasmuch as they serve
for propellers, and being placed so far behind the moving body,
and worked the more swiftly for being short, they push forward

NATATORES. 429

with great velocity ; with their heads erect, and their fin-like
wings hanging down as half arms, they " look like so many chil-
dren with white aprons on." Hence they are said to " unite in
themselves the qualities of men, fowls, and fishes ! Like men,
they are upright ; like fowls, they are feathered ; and like fish,
they have fin-like instruments that beat the water before them
and serve for all the purposes of swimming rather than flying."
They are covered more warmly with feathers than any other
bird, so that the sea seems entirely their element.

FOURTH FAMILY. PETRELS or FULMARS.
Procellarida, (Lat. from procella, a storm.)

The form of the beak in the birds of this family is very re-
markable ; it appears to be constituted of several separate pieces
soldered together. The .upper mandible has the basal part sep-
arated from the tip by a deep, oblique furrow, and has on its
summit a tube, (or two tubes united into one,) containing the nos-
trils ; the point of this mandible takes the form of a curved and
pointed claw or nail ; the lower mandible is likewise seamed in
a similar manner, and its tip is hooked downwards. (Plate IX.
fig 10.)

The front toes are united by a membrane ; the hind toe is re-
duced to a mere claw, which is elevated upon the tarsus and
sometimes wanting. The wings are usually long, and the flight
powerful.

The Petrels are eminently birds of the ocean, rarely approach-
ing the land, except in the breeding period. Some of them ap-
pear to be almost always on the wing, following the course of
ships for days together without alighting. Their food consists
of small mollusks and crustaceans, and the oily particles which
float upon the surface of the sea. In high latitudes, some of
them feed with much voracity on the fat of slaughtered whales.
Hence their flesh becomes apparently saturated with oil ; and
when alarmed, many of them occasionally eject fetid oil from
their nostrils, as a defence. This family includes a number of
species, about eight of which are found in America.

The COMMON FULMAR, Procellaria glacialis, (Lat. icy,) or
Fulmarus glacialis, is considered the type of the true Petrels,
having a stout, thick bill, with the upper mandible considerably
hooked at the tip, and sulcated or furrowed ; the lower mandi-
ble is straight and slightly truncated ; the nostrils are united in
a single tube ; the legs of only moderate length. This bird is
a, native of the Polar regions, but is found, though in less num-

430 NATATORES.

bers, in the Northern Seas of Europe and America. It is not
uncommon off the coast from New York to Nova Scotia. The
rocky St. Kilda, one of the western islands of Scotland, is the
only place of annual resort for this bird in the British dominions.
(Shelby.) It is from sixteen to eighteen inches in length ; breeds
in high latitudes, never coming to the coast except for the pur-
poses of nesting, or when driven thither by gales. The bill, iris
and feet are yellow ; the head, neck, and lower parts pure white ;
the back and wings, of a grayish blue. Scoresby says: " The
Fulmar is the constant companion of the whale-fisher. It joins
his ship immediately on passing the Shetland Islands, and accom-
panies it through the trackless ocean to the highest accessible
latitudes, ever keeping an eager watch for any thing thrown
overboard; the smallest particle of fatty substance can scarcely
escape it. It never dives but when incited to it by the appear-
ence of a morsel of fat under water." Though like Mother
Carey's Chicken, it follows in the wake of ships, its food is of a
somewhat higher grade, being restricted to the garbage of the
vessel, blubber, &c. This bird is the Mollemoke of Dr. Kane.
The SLENDER-BILLED FULMAR, P. tenuirostris, is a species
named by Audubon. Its length is eighteen inches and a half.
It is common near Columbia river ; is easily taken with a hook
baited with pork, and during a gale is so tame as almost to allow
itself to be taken with the hand.

The Southern Seas are visited by several species of Petrels.
The largest, the NELLY or BREAK-BONES, P. gigantea, is a com-
mon bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. "In
its habit and manner of flight," says Darwin in his Voyage of
Adventure, "there is a very close resemblance to the Albatross,
and, as with the latter bird, a person may watch it for hours to-
gether without seeing on what it feeds, so it is with this Petrel.
The Break-Bone is, however, a rapacious bird, for it was ob-
served by some of the officers of fort San Antonio, chasing a
diver. The bird tried to escape both by diving and flying, but
it was continually struck down, and at last killed by a blow on
its head. At Port St. Julian, also, these Great Petrels were seen
killing and devouring young gulls." These large Petrels are
called by the sailors, Mother Carey's Geese.

The SHEARWATER, Puffinus, differs from the true Petrels by
having a longer bill, and the tubular nostrils open, not by a com-
mon aperture, but by two distinct orifices.

The WANDERING or LARGE SHEARWATER, P. cinereus, (ashy-
colored,) is twenty inches in length, and of a sooty brown color.
It is frequently seen off the shore from the Gulf of St. Lawrence

NATATORES. 43 J

to that of Mexico. According to Mr. Darwin, it is common to Cape
Horn and the coast of Peru, as well as Europe. The flight of
these Wanderers of the ocean is very rapid and long protracted.
In calm weather they are fond of alighting on the water, in com-
pany with the Fulmars, and when at play among themselves,
swim with great buoyancy and have a graceful appearance.

The PUFFIN, or SHEARWATER, P. anglorum, is a species that
once largely inhabited a small islet near the southern part of the
Isle of Man, but has of late deserted it. It is now abundant on
the coast of South Wales. It has been found in the vicinity of
Newfoundland. In the Orkney Islands it is called the LYRE,
and is much valued, both on account of its serving as food, and
for its feathers. This bird is described as standing nearly erect
and flying with great rapidity. " It feeds on marine animal sub-
stances of all kinds, and when taken squirts out an oily fluid from
its nostrils, in the manner of the Petrels." It breeds in burrows,
laying one egg, which is white and about as large as that of the
domestic fowl. The upper parts of the body are of a lustrous
black ; the under parts pure white ; the sides of the neck speck-
led with black and white ; length thirteen inches.

The LITTLE SHEARWATER, P. obscurus, is of a brown color
above ; beneath, white ; in length, ten or eleven inches. It is
common to Europe and America; ranges northwardly from the
coast of Mexico to that of New York.

The genus Thalassidroma, (Gr. Thalassa, the sea ; dromos,
a race,) including the smallest of the web- footed birds, has been
separated from the rest of the Petrel group. They are of noc-
turnal or crepuscular habits, and seldom seen except in lowering
or stormy weather, when they frequently follow in the track of
ships. At other times and during clear weather, they are con-
cealed in the holes of rocks and in burrows, and only come forth
at night in search of food. Their flight equals in swiftness that
of the Swallow tribe, which they resemble in size, color, and
general appearance. They breed in the crevices of rocks or in
burrows, like the rest of the family, laying but one egg, which
is white and comparatively large.

The STORMY or LEAST PETREL, T. pelagica, (belonging to the
sea,) or P. pelagica, is known to sailors under the name of
Mother Carey's Chicken, and by them regarded as the precursor
of a storm. This is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds, being
only about six inches long. In the length of its wings and
its swift flight, it is like the Chimney Swallow ; in its plumage it
is black with purple reflections, except the rump and a portion
of the tail, which are white. It is met with on every part of

432 NATATORES.

the ocean, diving or swimming over the surface of the heavy
rolling waves of the most tempestuous sea, quite at ease and in
security. Long before seamen can discover any appearance of
a storm, these birds, as if foreseeing and fearing its approach,
flock together in large numbers, making a clamorous, piercing
cry, thus warning the mariner of his danger. So oily is the
Stormy Petrel said to be in its texture, that the inhabitants of the
Faroe islands draw a wick through its body and use it as a lamp.
A most singular peculiarity of this bird is its faculty of standing
and even running on the surface of the water, which it does
with the greatest facility. According to Buffon, it is from this
practice that these birds are called Petrels, the name being de-
rived from the Apostle Peter, who, as Sacred Scripture informs
us, walked upon the water. This species is not observed to
breed on the American coast, though it is not uncommon on the
Banks of Newfoundland.

WILSON'S PETREL, or MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN, T. Wilsonii,
is -a little over seven inches in length ; in the color of its plu-
mage of a dark grayish brown, with some portions of white.
It is less lively than the common Stormy Petrel.

The FORK-TAILED PETREL, T. Leachii, is eight inches in
length ; of similar plumage with Wilson's Petrel, but less active
and does not breed so extensively on the American coast.

The genus Diomedea, (a proper name.) comprises, among
other species, the ALBATROSS OF CHINA, JD. fuliginosa, (Lat.
sooty ;) the YELLOW AND BLACK-BEAKED ALBATROSS, D. chlo-
rorJiyncos, (Gr. yellow-beaked ;) (this has been taken on the Pa-
cific not far from Columbia river;) and the COMMON ALBATROSS,
D. exulans, (Lat. wandering.) The beak in these birds is very
strong, hard, long, and straight nearly to the end, where it sud-
denly curves. The upper mandible appears to be composed of
many articulated pieces, furrowed on the sides and crooked at
the point ; the lower mandible is smooth and cut short ; the
wings are very long and narrow with the primary quill short and
the secondaries long; the feet short; the three toes long and
completely webbed.

Albatross is a word said to be corrupted " from the Portuguese
• Alcatraz, which was applied by the early navigators of that na-
tion to cormorants and other large sea-birds."

The COMMON ALBATROSS, D. exulans, (Lat. wandering,) is the
largest sea-bird known. The top of the head is a muddy gray,
but the rest of the plumage is white, except a few of the wing-
feathers, and several transverse black bands on the back. The
range of these birds is very extensive. They are not confined

NATATORES. 433

to the Southern Ocean, as has been supposed, but are equally
numerous in northern latitudes, (excepting, perhaps, the tropics.)
From its often breeding with the Penguin, it has been supposed
to have a peculiar affection for that amphibious creature, and a
pleasure in its company. Their nests are seen together on unin-
habited islands, where the ground slants to the sea. As if for
mutual protection, the Albatross raises its nest on a hillock of
heath, sticks, and long grass, about two feet high, and lays one
egg; around this, the Penguins, in a circle, make their lower
settlement in burrowed holes in the ground, — commonly, it is
said, eight Penguins to one Albatross.

11 The Albatross," says Cheever, " is the most beautiful and
lovable object of the animate world which the adventurer meets
with in all the South Pacific ; when on the wing, it is the very
ideal of beauty and grace. The capture of a whale a thousand
miles from land, will bring them trooping from afar, as a carcass
in Mexico or Louisiana, will the Turkey-Buzzards. I have
watched them singly, keeping company with our ship, and have
seen them gathered by hundreds when the cutting-in of a whale
along side, allured them from a circuit of five hundred miles.
They sit upon the water light and graceful as Swans, and feed
on small marine animals, mucilaginous zoophytes, the spawn of
fish, and blubber. Not unfrequently, they measure eleven feet
from tip to tip of the outspread wings, and weigh from seventeen
to eighteen pounds." Another voyager, (Ives,) mentions one
shot off the Cape of Good Hope, " which measured seventeen feet
and a half from wing to wing."

In the Arctic Exploring Voyage, Dr. McCormick met with one
weighing twenty pounds, and having twelve feet stretch of wings.
The Albatross does not seem to be a quarrelsome bird, but when
attacked by its enemy, the Skua Gull, it seeks safety in flight.
Sometimes, however, it does so by dipping its body in the water,
its formidable bill appearing to repel its assailants. When it
wishes to rise on the wing, " it has to tread water a long way,
like a running Ostrich, before it can attain its due momentum
and soar aloft; and when captured, and set at liberty in the ship,
it can never, of itself, rise from the even surface of the deck, but
we must toss the noble bird overboard, or lift him quite clear of
the ship's rail, before he can raise his glorious pinions, and mount
aloft in the air."

Billets of wood with inscriptions upon them, are often attached
to these birds before setting them loose ; in repeated instances,
such birds have been captured in different and distant latitudes
by other ships, and curious information has thus been communi-

434 NATATORES.

cated. "They are caught by baiting a hook with pork or blubber,
and fastening a piece of wood near the bait, so that it may be
kept floating, and letting it tow astern. Superstitious sailors
sometimes ascribe the high winds and bad weather to their having
killed an Albatross."

FIFTH FAMILY. GULLS.
LaricUz, (Gr. Aa^o?, laros, a mew or gull.) ..

These web-footed and well known sea-birds, are numerously
dispersed over every quarter of the world, and, in some parts, are
met with at certain seasons, in prodigious multitudes. They
assemble together in rather promiscuous and straggling flocks,
and greatly enliven the beach and rocky cliffs, by their irregular
movements, while their shrill cries are often deadened by the
noise of the waves, or nearly drowned in the roaring of the surge.
Occasionally, taking a wide range over the ocean, they are seen
by navigators many leagues distant from the land. They are all
greedy and gluttonous, devouring, almost indiscriminately, what-
ever comes in their way, whether of fresh or putrid substances,
until they are obliged to disgorge the contents of the*ir overloaded
stomachs ; still, they can endure protracted .hunger. The large
kind of Gulls are most common in the cold climates of the North,
where they breed and raise their young, feeding chiefly upon the
remains of dead whales, which they find floating on the sea,
among the ice, or driven on shore by the winds and waves.
The True or Typical Gulls, (Larus ) are much more decidedly
land birds than any other of the order. Those of the sub-genus
Xema or Laughing Gulls, in particular, roam much inland ; feed
on insects and worms ; build among herbage in low nests near
the sea; lay eggs of an olive color, marked with large brown
spots; and undergo seasonable changes of plumage; all of
which may be said of the Plovers. To the Wading Birds, the
Plovers especially, the Gulls, (Larus,) approach in their general
form, in attitude, in the long and slender tarsus, with the hind
toe small and set high up, (as in the Lapwing. Vanellus,) in the
naked space above the heel, and even in the form of the beak,
straight, slender, and swelling towards the tip — and also in the
internal structure.

We quote from Swainson some remarks, pointing out clearly
the differences in the three sections into which the Gulls have
been arranged, viz: FORK-TAILED GULLS, (Rynchops ;) the
THREE-TOED GULLS, (Larus,) and the FOUR-TOED GULLS,
(Leslris.)

NATATORES. 435

" The TERNS, or Sea-Swallows, (Sterna,) constitute the fissiros-
tral type ; they have remarkably long wings, and slender bills ;
the tail is forked; and the plumage, generally, is of a delicate
pearl-white, with more or less black upon the head ; the species
are numerous, and occur in both hemispheres. The extraordi-
nary-genus, Rhynchops,, or Skimmer, although possessing much
of the general habits of the Terns, is eminently distinguished by
the singular form of its bill, the upper mandible of which is con-
siderably shorter than the under, and appears as if one-third of
the length had been broken off; three species have been de-
scribed,0 to which we add a fourth ; they skirn over the surface
of the ocean with great swiftness, and scoop up small marine
insects and other animals. The True or Typical Gull, (Larus,)
are a numerous race, dispersed over every clime, and so closely
resembling each other in plumage, that many of the species are
even now 'but imperfectly understood; they are much like the
Terns in general appearance, but the bill is stronger, and the
upper mandible is much more curved towards the end ; many
are of larger size ; and all, rapacious devourers of fish, and of
every marine animal, dead or alive, which is cast upon the shore ;
they particularly abound in northern latitudes, but seem to
range over the wide world of waters. The Parasitic Gulls,
(Lestris,) are the raptorial representative in this family, and are
almost confined to cold regions ; they are known by their stronger
conformation, their different shaped bill, and the rough scales
upon their feet ; these birds, like the frigate cormorants, derive
their chief supply of food by robbing their more feeble congen-
ers ; they pursue the largest Gulls, and make them disgorge or
relinquish their hard-earned prey. The Black-toed .and the
Arctic Gulls belong to this group, and both are occasionally seen
on the northern shores of Britain."

FORK-TAILED GULLS.

The BLACK SKIMMER, Rhynchops, (Gr. rhunchos, beak; ops,
face;) nigra, (Lat. black.) This singularly endowed bird (re-
ferred to above) is dispersed in large flocks from Texas to New
Jersey. It reaches the coast of New York State in May ; breeds on
sand beaches or islands ; at night, ascending streams, sometimes
to the distance of one hundred miles. The length of the male
bird is twenty inches. The bill, for half its length, is a rich
carmine, inclining to vermilion ; and the feet are of the same color ;
the claws, black. The upper parts are a deep brownish black ;
the secondary quills, and four or five of the primaries, tipped
with white ; the tail-feathers of the male, are black, broadly

430 NATATORES.

margined with white, (in the female they are white ;) the under
parts are white, with a roseate tinge. This bird is known under
the names Shearwater, Razor-bill, Cutwater, Skimmer, Floodgull,
and Shippang.^ Its eggs are three or four, white, blotched with
shades of brown, laid in a slight hollow in the sand. Audubon
says, "The flight of the Black Skimmer is perhaps more elegant
than that of any water-bird with which I am acquainted. The
great length of Jts narrow wings, its partially elongated forked
tail, its thin body and extremely compressed bill, all appear con-
trived to assure it that buoyancy which one cannot but admire
when he sees it on the wing. It is able to maintain itself in the
heaviest gale ; and I believe no instance has been recorded of
any bird of this species having been forced inland by the most
violent storm." These birds show much sagacity in finding their
place of rendezvous in the- morning, after having been scattered
during the night in all directions in quest of food ; and evince
great enmity to Crows and Turkey Buzzards, driving them as
marauders from their breeding grounds. All possess great
power and endurance in flight; their long forked tails and
pointed wings, indicating both strength and swiftness.

Of the TERNS, twelve or more species might be enumerated.
But we can only refer in particular to — the COMMON TERN, Sterna
hirundo, (Lat. swallow.) found in abundance on the southern
shores of Europe, and in many parts of Asia and Africa. This
species, from fourteen to sixteen inches in length ; is sometimes
called the Big Tern, — in Massachusetts, the Mackerel Tern. It
ranges on this Continent from the tropics to the Arctic circle.

The CAYENNE TERN, <S. Cayana, is larger than the Common
Tern, in its size and its robust tarsi, resembling the smaller Gulls.
It breeds from Florida southwardly, but is met with from the
intertropical regions to 55o N. L. Length from sixteen to
nineteen inches.

— The NODDY TERN, S. stolida, (Lat. dull,) receives its common
name from the breeding places of this species, one of the Tor-
tugas Keys, called Noddy Key. The Sooty Terns, S.fuliginosa,
breed on an island a few miles distant. The Noddy ranging
from Florida southwardly, has been frequently celebrated by
travelers who have crossed the equator. Its color is sooty brown ;
the bill, black ; the crown, white ; the tail, wedge-shaped and
long. The Noddies form regular nests of twigs and dry grass,
which they place on the bushes or low trees, but never on the
ground. The female lays three eggs, of a reddish yellow color,
spotted with dull red and purple. "When seized in the hand,
the Noddy utters a rough cry, not unlike that of a young Amer-

NATATORES. 437

ican Crow taken from the nest. On such occasions, it does not
disgorge its food, like the Cayenne Tern and other species,
although it bites severely, with quickly repeated movements of
the bill, which, on missing the object aimed at, snaps like that of
our larger Fly-Catchers." Length about sixteen inches.

— The SILVERY or LITTLE TERN, S. argentea, (Lat. silvery,) is
closely allied to the S. minuta, (Lat. small or minute,) of Europe.
The upper parts and tail, are a deep pearl gray ; all beneath,
silvery white. It is larger than the corresponding European
species, and the entire upper parts, (with the tail,) are of a lighter
shade. Length from nine to ten inches. The eggs are light
yellowish white, with angular dark brown spots. The Silvery
Tern breeds from Texas to Labrador.

THREE-TOED GULLS.

The GULLS, Larus, are represented by thirteen or more species
on this continent. In these the hind toe is very small, and artic-
ulated high up on the tarsus ; in one species entirely wanting.

The GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL, L. marinus, is the largest
Gull that is seen on the American coast, and described as ex-
ceedingly bold, voracious, and predatory in its habits. Its length
is from twenty-eight to thirty inches ; the expanse of wings about
five feet and a half. It breeds on the coast, from Labrador
northwardly ; ranging in the winter, to New York, and migra-
ting as far South as Florida. It is also common in many parts
of the North of Europe, where it finds a home. Its nest is made
of grass, rushes, and other materials, and contains three or four
eggs, of an olive green, marked with very dark brown. Audu-
bon remarks, "This bird must be of extraordinary longevity, as
I have seen one that was kept in captivity more than thirty
years." The back and wings are a deep bluish black ; the
quills, with black shafts, tipped with white; in the summer, the
head and neck are pure white ; in winter, the same parts are
white, with brownish streaks.

The COMMON AMERICAN GULL, L. zonorhyncus, (Gr. zone or
ring-billed,) has a mantle of bluish gray ; the head, tail, and
under parts, white ; the outer quills are black, tipped with white.
In the quills, however, the plumage changes with the age and
season. It is popularly called the BROWN WINTER GULL, — a name
referring to the plumage of the young, rather than of the adult.
The ring on the bill is not always found. The length of this spe-
cies is nineteen inches. It is allied to the L. canus, (Lat. gray,)
or Gray Gull, of Europe, breeds from Maine northwardly, — and

438 NATATORES.

during the winter, is seen as far South as Mexico ; sometimes it
appears on the Pacific coast.

The FOUR-TOED PARASITIC GULLS. JAGERS, or SKUAS.

These birds all breed in high northern latitudes, spreading
themselves into the interior on lakes and rivers; but in the winter
are seen in temperate regions, and on this Continent as far South
as Mexico. The bill is of moderate length, cylindrical, and
hooked at the tip ; the hook and tip, of separate pieces ; the hind
toe is small, and on a level with the others; the tail is even or
rounded ; the central pair of feathers very much lengthened.
Of the several species, we can refer particularly only to

The ARCTIC JAGER, Lestris, (Gr. a pillager,) parasiticus, which
is seen in great numbers in the northern regions. Like the other
Skuas, it obtains the greater part of its subsistence by pursuing and
buffeting the peaceable Gulls, and compelling them to give up the
produce of their toils. But the Jagers also feed on fish, insects,
and worms. Temminck particularly mentions the Janthina, or
Oceanic Snail, as forming a portion of their sustenance. " In
truth, no animal substances seem to come amiss to them." The
nests of these birds are composed of dry grass and mosses, and
placed on unfrequented heaths, at some distance from the shore ;
the eggs are two, of a dark olive green, with irregular blotches
of dark brown. Captains Parry and Ross speak of this bird as
abundant at Baffin's Bay and in the islands of the Polar Sea.
It is said, that it "is frequently met with inland, seeking its food
along the water courses which occupy the bottom of ravines ;
differing in this respect from the Pomarine Jager, L. pomarinus,
which is exclusively a Sea-bird." The length of the Arctic
Jager is twenty-three inches. The plumage is "close, elastic,
soft, and blended ; " on the upper parts blackish gray ; the neck
and lower parts, white, the former tinged with yellow.

SIXTH FAMILY. PELICANS. ,
Pelecanida, (Gr. Ttsfox&v, pelecan, a pelican.)

The Pelican family are characterised by having the hind toe
united with the others in a single membrane, so that the whole
four toes are webbed. The bill is, generally, longer than the
head, strong, and sometimes compressed ; the mandibles are
dentate, (toothed ;) the nostrils mere slits, the aperture to which
is scarcely perceivable. With the exception of the Phaeton or
Tropic-bird, — which, in many respects, agrees with the Gulls, —
there is more or less of naked skin about the face and throat ;

NATATORES. 439

the skin of the throat is capable of being dilated ; the wings are
long and powerful ; the feet short and robust ; the tail consists
of twelve, fourteen, twenty or twenty-four feathers.

Though their completely webbed feet seem to be perfect oars,
peculiarly adapting these birds to an aquatic life, yet a very large
part of them do not swim or dive at all, but perch on trees.
They all fly well, and some, from the broad expanse of their
wings, have uncommon powers of flight. Soaring far out over
the ocean, when a fish first arrests their attention, they plunge
down upon it, and instantly rise again into the air.

The birds of this family nestle and roost either on rocks or
lofty trees ; the eggs are encased with a soft, absorbent, chalky
substance laid over the hard shell ; the young are, at first, cov-
ered with long and flossy blackish down. They remain a great
while in the nest, and when they leave it, are generally equal
or superior to the adults in weight. The species are not very
numerous, but are found in the seas and around the coasts of
most parts of the globe. The plumage is usually black, (often
glossed with metallic reflections,) and white.

This family may be arranged into the Pelicans proper, (Toti-
palmes, of Cuvier,) the Cormorants, the Darters, the Frigate
Birds, the Gannets, and the Phaetons.

PELICANS PROPER.

The True Pelicans, Pelecanus, are large and heavy birds,
with very long, rather narrow, and rounded wings; the tail is
short, broad, rounded, with twenty to twenty-four feathers, which
are broad, and abruptly pointed. A pouch which hangs under
the lower mandible, is capable of containing a large quantity of
water. It has been said by some writers, that this pouch "ena-
bles these birds to dispose of a superabundance of fish, which
they take, either for their own use, or the nourishment of their
young," and this has been' the generally received idea. Audu-
bon, however, who often noticed flocks of these birds, says "the
idea that the Pelicans keep fish or water in their pouches to con-
vey them to their young, is quite erroneous." He states, as the
result of his observations, that the water is immediately forced
out between the partially closed mandibles; and the fish, "unless
larger than those on which they usually feed," are instantly
swallowed, though afterwards disgorged for the benefit of the
young. The Pelicans have long been celebrated as symbols of
maternal love. Books of emblems have depicted this bird as
tearing open the breast to nourish its young with its blood, but
this representation is not well founded. The fact appears to be,

440 NATATORES.

that the bird, ia the process of feeding its young, crushes the fish
between its mandibles, and thus stains its white breast with
drops of blood. The Pelicans are rarely seen more than sixty
miles from land. They are gregarious, and nuYnerous in Asia
and Africa, as well as in Europe and America.

The COMMON WHITE PELICAN, P. onocrotalus, (Gr. vnokrota-
Jos, a pelican,) is an European species, with which that of P.
Americanus, or the American White Pelican, very nearly
agrees. The American, however, differs from the European
bird in having a " long, thin, bony process in the upper mandi-
ble." " The male of the American species is sixty-one and three-
fourths inches long; bill thirteen and three-fourths inches ; ex-
panse of wings one hundred and three inches." In this species,
the feet and pouch are pale yellow, as are the long feathers on the
breast, and the tuft on the back of the head.

The BROWN PELICAN, P.fuscus, (Lat. brown.) is, when ma-
ture, fifty-two inches in length ; the expanse of wings is eighty
inches. It is very abundant on the American coast as far north-
ward as North Carolina ; breeds on trees, and also on the ground ;
the pouch is usually from six to ten inches in depth, and will
hold a gallon of water. This membrane is sometimes dried, and
used for keeping snuff, gun-powder, and shot. The quantity offish
which the Brown Pelicans consume, is extremely large. They
often times become so overburdened with food, that flight is diffi-
cult. Audubon examined one which had in the stomach up-
wards of a hundred small fishes ; sometimes " he found in that
organ a great number of live, blue colored worms, measuring
about two and a half inches in length, and about the thickness
of a Crow-quill." The bodies of these birds are greatly inflated
by air-ceils ; their bones are very light ; and they are hard to
kill. The Black-headed Gull, which is abundant along the
coast of Florida in spring and summer, closely watches the
motions of these Pelicans, in order to seize the small fishes which
in letting off the water from the bill, they sometimes allow to
escape ; for that purpose, the Gull alights on the Pelican's bill,
or on his head, and seizes the prey when apparently just on the
eve of deliverance, — the Pelican, meanwhile, exhibiting no
symptoms of annoyance or anger.

The CORMORANTS are included in the genus Plialacrocorax,
(Gr. phalakros, bald ; korax, raven.) They are widely spread
over many parts of the world, and every where remarkable for
their voraciousness. The bill in these birds is about as long as
the head, rather slender, nearly straight, and compressed towards
the end, the upper mandible ending in a powerful hook ; the sac

NATATORES. 441

under the throat is small, by no means comparing in size with
that of the Pelicans proper; the nostrils are obliterated, but in
youth open, (Aud. ;) the wings of moderate size and broad ; the
tail of moderate length, very narrow and much rounded, having
twelve or more strong shafted feathers. These birds differ from
others of the family in being excellent divers. Their plumage
is soft and generally blended, compact on the back and wings ;
usually of dark, but often rich colors, varying with age and the
season of the year. They are capable of domestication and are
trained to catch and bring in fish. The Chinese who use them
for this purpose, put a' ring around the neck as a hindrance to
their devouring the fish. To increase the power of swallowing,
it should be noted that the Cormorant has an additional bone pe-
culiar to itself, on the back part of the head, called the xyphoid
(sword-like) bone, which, moving with facility in each direc-
tion, by the action of the muscles attached to it, enlarges the
opening of the gullet for the more easy passage of any unusu-
ally large fish.

The COMMON CORMORANT, P. carbo, (Lat. charcoal,) is spread
over a considerable portion of Europe, especially the north. It
is a common bird in England ; in this country ranges in the win-
ter and is plentiful as far south as New York ; breeds in New-
foundland, Labrador and Baffin's Bay. It swims very low in
the water ; even in the sea its body is deeply immersed, so that
little more than the head and neck can be seen above the sur-
face ; arid mo§t expertly does it dive after its fishy prey. It
perches on trees, where it is occasionally known to build its nest,
but it mostly selects rocky shores and islands, preferring, accord-
ing to Selby, the summits, and not, like the Green Cormorant,
the clefts or ledges. The nest is said to be composed entirely of
a mass of sea-weed, frequently heaped up to the height of two
feet, in which are deposited from three to five eggs, of a pale
bluish-white, with a rough surface. Ravens and Peregrine
Falcons have been observed to have nests on the same rocks
with those of the Cormorant, and in some instances, close to them.
This bird is sometimes three feet and four inches in length.

The GREEN CORMORANT or SHAG, P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,)
does not perch on trees like the others. As illustrating the depth
to which this bird dives, Mr. Yarrell says: " The Shag has been
caught in a crab-pot fixed at twenty fathoms, or a hundred feet
from the surface." The specific name is given to it from the
crest or tuft of wide outspread feathers which appears in the
spring on the back part of the head, and is capable of erection.
The Shag is without the white feathers on the neck and thighs

442 NATATORES

which are seen in the Common or Great Cormorant. The length
is two feet, one or two inches.

The VIOLET GREEN CORMORANT, P. resplendens, (Lat. glit-
tering,) is the most beautiful species which has been found within
the limits of the United States. The gloss of its silky plumage
suggested the specific name. This bird has been found in abund-
ance near the Columbia river. The length of the female is two
feet three inches.

THE DARTERS, OR SNAKE-BIRDS.

These birds, which are included in the genus Plotus, have
bills longer than the head, slender, pointed, and finely serrated at
the extremity ; the tarsus is partly feathered above ; the neck is
much lengthened; the tail long, spreading and much rounded.
The necks of these birds, often rapidly moved and bent, sug-
gested the name of Darter, or Snake Bird. (Fig. on Chart.)

The AMERICAN ANHINGA, or SNAKE BIRD, P. Anhinga, is a
common and constant resident from Florida to Georgia, and it
passes up the Mississippi as far as Natchez. In the southern
parts of Florida it is called the " Grecian Lady." This bird is
seen only occasionally in the immediate vicinity of the sea, de-
cidedly preferring rivers, small bays, or lagoons in the interior
where the land is level and lies low. It is quite remarkable in
its appearance and manners, often standing erect with the wings
and tail spread out in the sunshine, and throwing its long slen-
der neck and head, in every direction, by sudden jerks and
bendings. Though adapted for protracted and powerful flight,
as is shown by its form, long wings and large fan-like tail, this
bird spends more than half its time by day in the water. On
the approach of any danger, it sinks its body and swims with its
head and neck only above the surface, when these parts, " from
their form and peculiar sinuous motion, somewhat resemble the
head and part of the body of a snake." The nest of the Snake
Bird is found in different situations, sometimes in low bushes
not more than eight or ten feet above the water ; at others, on
large and tall cypresses, overhanging the borders of rivers or
other streams. The nest is of a circular form and two feet in
diameter; the eggs of a sky-blue color.

NATATORES. 443

FRIGATE BIRDS.

These birds, though in some respects nearly resembling the
Cormorants, yet at the same time, differ from them in the very
broad expanse of the wing, by which they are rendered the
most powerful of the Swimming Birds. They also differ from the
Cormorants in their feet, the webs of which are deeply notched,
and in the form of the tail and beak. The tail is very long,
deeply forked, and of twelve feathers; the bill is longer than
the head, strong, and broader than high, except towards its
curved extremity. The Frigate or man-of-war birds, seem par-
ticularly fond of the Flying fish, darting at it themselves when
near the surface of the water, or obtaining it from other birds
which they force to drop their prey. Often they sadly persecute
the Boobies. Indeed, these birds are eminently raptorial. Ray
speaks of their eagle eyes, vulturine claws, and kite-like glid-
ings. Their immense extent of wing and dashing habits have
obtained for them the name of the swiftest ships of war that
sweep the seas.

The Frigate or Man-of-War Birds, are included in one genus
and species, Tachypetes, (Gr. tachus, swift; petdo, to fly,) or
Fregata aquilus, (Lat. from aquila, an eagle.) Their length
is three feet five inches ; the expanse of wings is eight feet ;
some accounts make it fourteen feet! Audubon says: "The
Frigate Pelican is possessed of a power of flight which I con-
ceive superior to that of perhaps any other bird." This bird is
very common on the intertropical American coasts, and in the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but always within reach of land.
It resides constantly on and about the Florida Keys, where it
breeds in vast numbers, on trees. Sometimes the nest is built
on elevated rocky cliffs.

GANNETS, OR BOOBIES.

These have bills differing somewhat from those of the Frig,
ate Bird, being long and resembling a lengthened cone which
is very large at the base and compressed towards the slightly
curved point ; the edges of the mandibles are serrated ; the
hind toe is articulated to the inner surface of the tarsus, and
all the four toes are united by a membrane ; the wings are long ;
the power of flight is however not equal to that of the Frigate
Bird ; the tail is wedge- formed.

The COMMON GANNET of Europe, Sulaalla, (Lat. white,) is
sometimes called the SOLAN GOOSE. Its length is about thirty-

444 NATATORES.

four inches. The head and neck are of a buff color, all the
rest of the plumage white, except the wing primaries, which are
black. This species is also included among the birds of Ma-
deira and South Africa.

The AMERICAN GANNET, S. Americana, is thirty-seven inches
in length. Near the base of the upper mandible is "a sharp pro-
cess and suture," which this bird can move in a small degree in
swallowing a fish. This was formerly supposed to be identical
with the European Gannet, but is now considered a distinct
species.

The Booby Gannet, S.fusca, (Lat. tawny,) has the head, neck,
and all the upper parts dusky brown ; the under parts white ;
the face, bill and feet yellow. Its length is thirty-one inches.

The term Booby is more particularly applied to this species
on account of the stupidity which it shows when assailed, calmly
waiting to be knocked on the head, as these birds often do when
sitting on shore, or when perching on the yard of a ship till the
sailor climbs to their resting place, and takes them off with the
hand. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written about
the stupidity of this bird, its dullness may be questioned ; it may
not, like other birds, associate danger, certainly not at first, with
the appearance of man ; its wings are so long, and its legs so
short, that when once at rest, it has difficulty in setting the for-
mer in motion, and when surprised has no resource but its beak,
which is seldom feared by the aggressor. Audubon says : " I
am unable to find a good reason for those who have chosen to
call these birds boobies.'" It has been affirmed by many writers
and eye-witnesses that this bird suffers greatly from the persecu-
tions of the Frigate-bird, and the Lestris or Skua Gull, which force
it to disgorge its food. All the old voyagers abound in entertaining
stories relating to this subject, and it is hardly credible that all were
mistaken. Audubon, however, says, "this / have never wit-
nessed." The nest of the Booby is placed on the top of a bush
at a height of four to ten feet; sometimes on ledges of rocks cov-
ered with herbage. It lays one egg, of a dull white color, about
as large as that of a common hen. This bird ranges from
Georgia southwardly, but is occasionally seen farther north. It
is found in large numbers on Noddy island, one of the Tortugas,
in company with the Noddies.

TROPIC BIRDS, OR PHAETONS.

These birds, (Phaeton,) are distinguished by two long slender
tail feathers, and well known to navigators as the harbingers of

N ATA TORES. 443

the tropics. They are characterized by extraordinary length
of wing and feeble feet ; they are hence well formed for flight,
and disport in the air far out at sea; on land they are seen perch-
ing on rocks and trees.

The COMMON TROPIC BIRD, P. athereus, is somewhat larger
than a partridge. The bill is red, with an angle under the
lower mandible, as in the Gulls. The eyes are surrounded with
black, which ends in a point towards the back of the head ; three
or four of the largest quill feathers, towards their ends, are black
tipped with white ; all the rest of the plumage is white, except
the back, which is variegated with curved lines of black ; the
legs and feet are of a vermilion red. These birds are seldom seen
but a few degrees north or south of either tropic. They glide
along, most frequently without any motion of the wing, but at
times, this smooth progression is interrupted by sudden jerks.
When they perceive a ship, they never fail to sail around it as
if to reconnoitre. They ordinarily return every evening to land
to roost in the midst of the rocks where they place their nests.
The long feathers of the tail are used by the inhabitants of the
South Sea Islands as ornaments of dress.

What is the 2nd order of AQUATIC BIRDS? "What is said of their distri-
bution ? What of the Grebe's foot ? What is said of the feet of the other
SWIMMERS? What of their motion on land and in the water? What is
remarked of their plumage ? What peculiarity of these birds is noticed
by Cuvier? Have any of them very high powers of flight? What is said
of their flesh? What are their resorts? How many families does this or-
der include ?

Give the leading characteristics of the 1st FAMILY. What is said of their
nests and young ? Upon what do they feed ? How does their beak aid
them in obtaining their food ? Are they assisted by any other organ ?
What birds form the connecting link between the SWIMMERS and WADERS ?
Do the TRUE DUCKS include many species? What is said of the Shoveler
or Spoon-bill? What sp. are referred to and what is said of each? What
SUB-FAMILY is mentioned ? How many genera does it include ? Where are
the Sea Ducks mostly found ? What is said of their migration ? Where
do they make their nests ? How do they cover their eggs ? Which gen. in-
cludes peculiarly Marine Ducks? For what is the Eidei D. remarkable?
What is peculiar in its beak? What does Dr. Kane say of its appearance,
&c. ? What facts show the great numbers of these birds at the north?
What is said of their nests ? How many kinds of down and how do they
differ? Illustrate the elasticity of the live down. Where are the King-
Ducks found ? What is said of their flesh and down? What is said of the
Surf D.? What sp. is mentioned? Why is it called the Velvet D. and
what is said of its down ? Where is it very numerous ? Where are the
breeding places of the Canvas-backs? When are they 'seen on the coast
of the U. S. ? What else is said of them ? What of the Spirit D. ? Of
ihe Long-tailed D. ? Mention the different sp. of GEESE. Which of these

4 46 NATATORES.

is the origin of the Common Domestic Goose? What is said of the Egyp-
tian Goose? What SUB-FAMILY is named? How many gen. has it? What
is said of the Smew ? What of the Merganser ?

What is the 2nd FAMPLY ? Are they more or less aquatic than the Ducks ?
What is said of the beak, &c. ? What of the Loons and Grebes ? What
is said of their ability to walk and fly ? What of their power as swim-
mers and divers ? How do they use their wings under water ? What is
said of their plumage and food ? Which are Ocean birds ? Which Fresh-
water? What of the diving of the Grebes ? Of their stomach ? Which
is the largest of the Loons ? What is said of it ? Which are the other sp. ?
What is said of them ?

Which is the 3rd FAMILY? What is said of their structure and habits?
What characteristics are given? In moving under water do they "use
their feet ? What insects do they resemble in such motion? Of what docs
their food consist, and how do they obtain it ? Where are they seen in
immense numbers? What is said of their eggs? In which hemisphere
are the AUKS found ? What birds fill their places in the Southern H. ?
What is said of their wings? Of their movements in water? For what
are the PENGUINS peculiarly remarkable ? What is said of the Great Auk ?
Of the Razor or Black-billed A. ? Of the Common PUFFIN ? Of the Lit-
tle Guillemot ? What relation do the Penguins sustain to the Swimming
Birds? What does~S\vainson remark? What is said of the bones of the
Penguins? What of their sensations? What of their habits? Which of
their rookeries have attracted particular attention? Are they arranged
with order? What is said of their extent? Describe the characteristics
and habits of the Penguins, as given by Cheever.

Which is the 4th FAMILY? Give its characters. What are its habits?
How many sp. in America ? Which is the type of the TRUE PETRELS ? In
what localities is it found ? To what class of persons is it a constant com-
panion ? What is this bird called by Dr. Kane ? What other sp. are men-
tioned ? Do they frequent the Southern Sea ? Which is the largest ? What
does Darwin say of it ? What names do sailors give these large P. ? How
does the Shearwater differ from the True Petrels ? What is said of the
Large S. ? Of the Manx Puffin ? Of the Little S. ? What genus has been
separated from the rest of this group ? What is their size ? Mention their
habits ? Which is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds? What do sailors
call it ? What is said of its plumage ? What interesting particulars are
given? What is said of Wilson's Petrel ? Of the Forked-Tailed P. ? What
sp. of the Albatross is mentioned? What is said of the origin of the name?
What is the size of the Common Albatross ? Describe its plumage. What
is its range ? For what bird has it been supposed to have peculiar affec-
tion ? What is said of its beauty and loveliness ? What more is said of it ?

Which is the 5th FAMILY ? What is said of the distribution and habits
of these birds ? Where are the larger Gulls most common ? Which of the
Swimmers are most decidedly land-birds? What Gulls roam inland? What
order of birds do the Gulls resemble ? Into what sections are they ar-
ranged? What distinctions does Swainson make? Which of the Forked-
Tailed Gulls are mentioned? What is said of the Black Skimmer ? How
many sp. of the TERN? What is s.aid of the Common Tern? Of the Cay-

NATATORES. 447

enne T. ? Whence does the Noody T. derive its name ? What is said of
it ? What of the Silvery T. ? How many sp. of the Three-toed Gulls?
What is said of the Great Black Backed G. ? Of the Common G. ? In
what latitude do the Jagers breed? What characters are given? How
does the Arctic Jager obtain its food ? Upon what mollusk do they feed ?
What else is said of it ?

What is the 6th FAMILY? How is it characterized? Do they Swim or
dive ? What is said of their powers of flight ? In what places do they
build their nests ? What is said of the eggs ? Are the sp. numerous ?
Into what groups are they arranged? What is the size of the TRUE PELI-
CANS ? What use do they make of their pouch ? What is Audubon's opin-
ion relative to this subject? For what have the Pelicans been celebrated?
How have they been depicted? Has this been done with good reason ?
What is said of the Common White P. ? Of the Brown P. ? What gen.
includes the Cormorants ? How do they differ from others of the family ?
What bone is peculiar to the C. ? What is said of the Common C. ? Of
the Green C. or Shag ? Which is the most beautiful sp. in the U. S. ? What
gen. includes the DARTERS or SNAKE BIRDS ? What suggested the name ? What
is said of the Anhinga or American Snake B. ? What group do the FRIG-
ATE BIRDS resemble? How differ from them? Of what fish are they par-
ticularly fond? What other fish do they persecute? What does Ray say
of them ? Which is the only gen. and sp. ? In what respects do the Gan-
nets differ from the Frigate B. ? What name is sometimes given to the
Common G. of Europe ? In what other regions is it found? What is said
of the A. Gannet? Of the Booby? How are the TROPIC BIRDS distin-
guished and characterised ? What is said of the Common Tropic B. ?

GENERAL EXERCISE ON THE CHART.

What is the first division of Birds on the Chart ? Into how many orders
are the LAND BIRDS arranged? Name each, giving some peculiarity or
characteristic. . Name the SUB-ORDERS, and the forms or peculiarities of the
bills upon which the divisions of Perching birds are based. Name and trace
the families in each order. Which order is most numerous ? Which the
least numerous ? Which contain the largest birds? Which the smallest ?
Which are the most beautiful ? Which the most ordinary ? How are the
WATER BIRDS divided? What kind of feet have they? Which wade?
Which swim ? What is the form of each ? Which the most awkward ?
Which most useful ? How do the bills vary in all the different orders ?
How the toes, wings, legs and necks?

~jf£

19

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 1st. Skeleton of a Tortoise, with the under part (sternum or plastron,)
removed to show how the back-bone and ribs are expanded and uni-
ted together, forming the carapace, dorsal plate, or buckler.

H. The three-branched shoulder. I. Humerus, between the shoul-
der-joint and the elbow. K. Ulna. L. Radius, both bones of the
fore-arm. R. Femur, or the thigh bone. S. Tibia, the largest, and
Fibula, the smallest bones of the leg.

Fig. 2d. Skeleton of a Bird, consisting of A. Cranium or Skull. B. Cer-
vical vertebrae. C. The anchylosed or immovably fixed vertebrae of
the back. D. The caudal vertebrae. E. Ribs. F. Breast-bone. G.
Furcula, or merrythought. H. Clavicle, or collar-bone. H*. Scapula,
or shoulder-bone. I. Humerus. K, L. Bones of the fore arm, ulna,
and radius. M. Metacarpus of hand. N. Phalanges of fingers. R.
Femur, or thigh-bone, o, o. Patella, or knee-pan. S. Leg, tibia
and fibula. T, T. Os calcis, or heel-bone. U, U. Metatarsal bones.
V, Y. Metacarpal bones. 0. Ilium. P. Pubis, and Q. Ischium, bones
of the pelvis.

Fig. 3d. Skeleton of a Fish, showing the five sorts of fins, some of which
are often absent, a, b, first and second dorsal fins on the ridge of the
back, varying in number and form ; c, the caudal or tail fin, as impor-
tant to a fish as the rudder to a ship ; d, anal fin, on the under part
of the tail ; e, one of the ventral fins which correspond to tke hind
feet of quadrupeds ; f, one of the pectoral fins, which are analogous to
the fore feet of quadrupeds, or the wings of birds.

Fig. 4th. Skeleton of a Frog, showing the absence (or mere rudiments,) of
ribs, and its long hind limbs adapting it for sudden springs and long

Fig. 5th. Skeleton of a Boa-constrictor, consisting of skull, a ; vertebral col-
umn, b ; and ribs, c. The ribs, 304 in number, come forward in succes-
sion, like the feet of a caterpillar, and form 152 pairs of levers by
which the animal moves from place to place. The jaws, d, have
on each side, a double row of sharp, strong, close-set teeth, pointing
backwards, thus giving a firm hold of its victims.

Fig. 6th. Skeleton of a Chameleon, showing how the toes and tail are
adapted for clinging to the branches of trees, and that the trunk is
mounted high upon the legs, forming in this respect an exception to
most reptiles.

THIRD BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

HERPETOLOGY, (Gr. e^rog, herpetos, a reptile, from ty™,
herpo, to creep.)

II. GRAND DIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATES, (Cold-blooded Animals,)

SECTION I.

THE second grand division of the Vertebrates, or Cold-blooded
Animals, includes REPTILES and FISHES.

REPTILIA, (Lat. reptilis, a reptile, from repo, to creep.) REP-
TILES. The science which treats of Reptiles is called Herpe-
tology, (or Erpetology.) They form one of the most remarkable
of the vertebrate classes of the Animal Kingdom. They are
highly characterised by the vertebral column, the articulations
of which, in most recent adult forms, are spherically convex at
one extremity and spherically concave at the other. The num-
ber of vertebrae varies exceedingly. As, for example, in the
Surinam toad, (Pipa,) there are seven, and in the Python upwards
of four hundred. The ribs also occur in various stages of de-
velopment. A general survey of these creatures brings to view
wonderful varieties of form and structure by which they are
adapted to different localities. Some dwell on the land ; others
in the ocean. Many of them are found in rivers and morasses,
and some are even arboreal in their habits, living amidst the foli-
age of the trees,/ intertwined with the branches, or flitting, with
bird-like swiftness, from leaf to leaf or from branch to branch,
in pursuit of their insect food. Though found in different lati-
tudes, the hotter regions of the globe are the great nursery of the
Reptiles ; in tropical countries, they actually teem, swarming in
sandy deserts, among dense and tangled brushwood, in humid

452 HERPETOLOGY.

forests, and extended pestilential swamps. They are. termed
COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS, their natural temperature being not
much, if at all, above that of the atmosphere or water in which
they dwell. Their power of producing animal heat is very lim-
ited, so that the system is at once affected by the lowering of the
temperature of the medium which they inhabit. In our climate,
and indeed in climates considerably nearer the meridian, they
all undergo a state of torpidity, in some sheltered retreat, to
which, as a refuge, their instinct directs them, and where they
remain during the season of winter. Their blood, though cold,
is red. In these, and in fact in all cold-blooded animals, the
vital principle is much stronger than in those whose blood is
warm. A frog has been kept alive forty days after having been
subjected to the total privation of its lungs. The brain, which
in reptiles is considerably inferior to that of birds, though supe-
rior to that of fishes, is not so essentially requisite to the exer-
cise of their animal and vital functions as in the mammalia; for
they continue to live and to execute voluntary movements for a
considerable time after being deprived of it, and even after the
loss of the head ; their muscles also are strong and preserve
their irritability for some time after life would appear to be ex-
tinct; their heart continues to pulsate for hours after it has been
torn from the body. In the reptiles this organ is strikingly pecul-
iar. In warm-blooded vertebrates it consists of two auricles
and two ventricles ; the left ventricle furnishing the system with
blood, which, in the capillary vessels of the lungs has been
acted on by the external atmosphere. In Reptiles the heart con-
sists of but one ventricle and two auricles ; and of these the
right auricle receives the vitiated blood returned from the sys-
tem to the heart ; the left auricle receives the arterialized blood
returned from the lungs ; and both auricles convey their con-
tents into the cavity of the ventricle. The vitiated and the arte-
rialized blood thus become more or less mixed together ; part
of this mixed fluid is sent through the great arterial trunk, as a
supply to the system, and part through the pulmonary arteries to
be further oxygenated in the lungs, this ventricle having in it-
pelf the branching arteries both of the body and the lungs.
Such is the circulation in the tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The
blood of Reptiles is characterized by the possession of the larg-
est globules to be found in the entire sub-kingdom of Vertebrates.
Those in the tailed Batrachians, as the Siren, &c., are visible to
the naked eye. As in fishes and in birds, these globules are
elliptical in their outline, whereas in the Mammals, excepting the
Camelida, they are circular.

HERPETOLOGY. 453

The Amphibia, at an early stage of their existence, are fur-
nished with gills, and, like fishes, respire in water; the gills, indue
time, become obliterated, and lungs developed, as in the frog,
the newt, &c., (Plate XIII.) Others, however, of this group,
though they acquire lungs, never lose their gills, and are at the
same time both aquatic and aerial in their respiration, or capa-
ble of breathing both in air and water. Such are the Proteus,
the Siren, and the Axolotl. The former are called Caduci-
branchiate, (Lat. caducus, falling or perishable; branchia, gills ;)
the latter are termed Perennibranchiate, (Lat. perennis, durable ;
branchia, gills.) In the latter Amphibians, the ventricle receives
blood from the auricles, and transmits it into an enlarged arte-
rial vessel or bulb, which soon divides into separate branches,
one being destined for each leaf of the gills essentially like those
of a fish ; here these arterial vessels sub-divide into five capil-
laries, and these at length, (as in fishes,) gradually pass into
branchial veins which at last emerge into two vessels, and these
unite to form the aorta, or great arterial trunk. Into this aorta,
the blood purified in the gills, or branchiae, is conveyed without
being first sent back to the heart; and from this aorta, it is dis-
tributed throughout the system. But besides the branchial, these
Amphibians have also a pulmonic, (Lat. pulmo, a lung,) circula-
tion. By the pulmonary artery proceeding from the aorta, a
portion of the blood which has already been partially oxygenated
in the gills, is conveyed to the lungs, where it is still further
purified. It is then sent through pulmonic veins to the left auri-
cle, and from that to the ventricle, whence, mixing with the vitia-
ted blood of the system, it is sent to the gills, and thence to the
aorta, from which a portion again passes to the lungs, the rest to
the system, and so on in a perpetual succession.

The Caducibranchiates, at the commencement of their exist-
ence, have only gills truly developed, and the circulation is bran-
chial or fish. like. The lungs are, at this period, in a rudimen-
tary state, and the pulmonary arteries exceedingly minute. In
process of time, however, a new impetus is given to the pulmo-
nary arteries and to the lungs, at the expense of the branchial
arteries and the gills ; as the former develop, the latter decrease,
until at the last, the branchial apparatus entirely perishes, no
trace of it being left; while certain vessels, which formed a
junction" bet ween the branchial system of arteries and the pulmo-
nic arteries, enlarge, and now add only to the pulmonic circula-
tion. Thus the circulation in the frog and newt changes, by a
wonderful transition, from that of a fish to that of a perfect rep-
tile ! while in the Proteus and its allies, it continues to be that

454 HERPETOLOGY.

of the fish, with the addition of a modified state of pulmonary
circulation. We advert thus particularly to these peculiarities,
because they present proof so striking of divine contrivance.

Reptiles have either four limbs, (Plate XII. figs. 1, 4, 6,) two,
(see Chirotes or Bipes on the Chart,) or none, (Plate XII. fig. 5 ;)
the ribs are sometimes very numerous, (Plate XII. fig. 5,) some-
times wanting or merely rudimentary, (Plate XII. fig. 4 ;) in the
latter case, the ribs assist greatly in terrestrial locomotion. There
is no true distinction between the chest and abdomen, no dia-
phragm or muscular expansion, dividing, as in quadrupeds, these
two cavities. As the blood is of a low temperature, these ani-
mals need neither fur nor feathers for the retention of the vital
heat. They are therefore covered either with horny plates, or
with scales, or have the skin entirely naked. Their sight is in
general extremely acute. On this sense they depend in their
pursuit of food, and for their perception of the approach of ene-
mies. The senses of taste, smell, and touch, in reptiles are com-
paratively feeble. With regard to hearing, considerable varia-
tion appears in different groups. In serpents, the sense is very
acute, and they evidently derive pleasure from musical notes, a
fact well understood by the serpent-charmers of the East. In
lizards, also, the sense of hearing appears to be quick ; in tor-
toises and in the Amphibians it is probably much more obtuse. In
most cases the internal organs of hearing are entirely covered by
the scaly investment of the head, or by the naked skin. In liz-
ards generally, the tympanic, or drum-like membrane, is stretched
over the external orifice of the ear, and is on a level with the
scaly covering of the rest of the head ; but in the crocodile, the
external orifice, instead of being thus permanently closed, is pro-
vided with a firm, movable lid or operculum, by means of which
the aperture may be either stopped or kept open. While bask-
ing on the margin of a river, or lying there in ambush for prey,
the crocodile is able to raise the ear-lid, in order to listen atten-
tively to every noise ; but when he dives beneath the water,
either for safety or to drown the victim he has seized, the en-
trance of water into the auditory cavities is prevented by the
firm shutting of the lid, which accurately fits the orifice.

Reptiles are ordinarily produced from eggs. Many of them
exhibit extraordinary fecundity. None of them, unless the
Pythons be an exception, ever perform the process of incubation.
They bury their eggs in the sand, deposit them in warm places
of concealment, or leave them floating in the water exposed to
the rays of the sun. In due time the young are hatched. In
some Reptiles which produce eggs, as the Viper, the young is

HERPETOLOGY. 455

already formed and advanced within the egg at the time the pa-
rent deposits it. This reptile, in many northern and temperate
regions, seems to represent the multitude of deadly snakes that
infest the torrid regions ; while the harmless ringed snake takes
the place of the huge Python of Bengal and Java. In the coun-
tries of the Polar circles, the snake, the lizard, the toad and the
frog are never seen. The absence of the snails, insects and
small animals upon which reptiles usually feed, excludes them
from those dreary regions. The larger part of them are carni-
vorous ; the Tortoises, however, are vegetable feeders. A few
feed both on small animals, as slugs, insects, &c., and on leaves
and fruits.

Reptiles probably number as many as two thousand species.
They are either terrestrial, or aquatic, or both, and hibernate in
temperate regions, passing nearly the whole winter in a state of
lethargy. An extensive division of the Serpents have hollow
fangs which they can erect at pleasure, when they open their
mouths to bite, and these fangs have apertures, from which they
eject into the wounds made by them, an active and deadly poi-
son.

From the earliest times the forms and habits of Reptiles have
attracted attention. They are found represented on the monu-
ments of the ancient Egyptians, and numerous allusions to them
are contained in the scriptures of the Old Testament. Nor
should it be unnoticed that among the organic remains which the
industry and science of inquiring minds have lately brought to
light, none present forms more wonderful, or proportions more
gigantic, than some of the Fossil Reptiles.

REPTILES are divided into four orders, viz. : (1) CHELONIA,
Chelonians ; (2) SAURIA, Saurians ; (3) OPHIDIA, Ophidians ;
(4) AMPHIBIA, Amphibians.

These orders pass into each other by certain gradations of
form, traceable in all, but most evidently so in the Saurians and
Ophidians, all these gradations clearly pointing to the existence of
one grand scheme, of which the parts respectively link together in
admirable harmony.

REPTILES.

What is the 3d branch of ZOOLOGY? Of what does it treat? To what
Grand Division of VERTEBRATES do they belong ? What is said of the ver-
tebral column ? Of their form, habitat, &c. ? Why are they called COLD-
BLOODED animals ? What is their condition during winter ? What is said
of the strength of the Tital principle in Reptiles ? How is this illustrated ?

456 CHELONIANS.

State what is peculiar in the heart of Reptiles. Explain the circulation of
the blood in Tortoises, Lizards, &c. What striking facts are given respect-
ing the blood of Reptiles? What is at first the condition of the Amphibia?
What change do they undergo ? Is this true of all of them ? How do some
of them differ ? Explain the circulation in both divisions. How many limbs
have Reptiles ? Does their internal structure differ from that of Quadru-
peds ? What is said of their covering ? What of their organs of sense ?
How are they usually produced ? How do they dispose of their eggs ? How
is it with the VIPER ? What is said of the diffusion of Reptiles V Upon
what do they feed ? How many species do they include ? Name the OR-
DERS into which they are divided. Point out on the Chart some animals be-
longing to each of these orders.

SECTION II.
FIRST ORDER. CHELONIANS, or TORTOISES.

CHELONIA. (Gr. xMvi], chelone, a tortoise.)

The Tortoises may be arranged into the following divisions,
viz: (1) LAND TORTOISES; (2) MARSH and RIVER TORTOISES;
(3^ MARINE TORTOISES or TURTLES.

They differ most widely from the general form of the class;
for (1) They are clothed with a natural armor, not like that of
•the Armadillo, a simple, hofny addition to the skin, but a part of
the skeleton itself. The skeleton is, in fact, thrown to the out-
side of the body, so as to form an external bony envelope, covered
with a horny or leathery sheathing, and enclosing, as in a box,
the internal organs, and other parts of the bony frame-work
which do not immediately enter into its composition. Tortoises
may be likened to Frogs, so enveloped in horny armor as to be
restrained by it from jumping.

The upper piece, or dorsal buckler, is termed the carapace.
This is usually more or less arched, and consists of an expansion
of the ribs into wide flat bones, all united firmly together, and
also to the edge of the flattened spinal processes, — the whole
forming a consolidated plate. (Plate XII. fig. 1.) To the
margin of the plate thus formed, is added a third set of bones,
regarded as representing the sternal ribs of the Crocodiles and
other Lizards, and assisting to complete the circumference of
the carapace.

The lower plate, or abdominal buckler, is termed the plastron
or sternon. This, instead of being prolonged forwards into a
keel to afford attachment to large muscles, as in the Birds, is ex-
tended sidewise for the protection of the body. It consists of

CHELONIANS. 457

nine bony portions, of which eight are in pairs ; the ninth is
single, and occupies the front part of the plastron.

(2) The Chelonians are also distinguished from other Reptiles
by the entire absence of teeth. As a compensation for this,
however, the jaws are cased in horny coverings with cutting
edges, resembling the hooked beak of a Parrot, and with which
they crop and mince the vegetable substances on which many
of them feed. The armor in which the animals are encased,
seems to be their most effectual defence. In the Land Tortoises
the carapace is usually much arched and firmly united, so that,
without injury, it can sustain a very great weight; the plastron
in these also exhibits the highest degree of solidity, and is united
to the carapace by an extended lateral surface. At the line of
its union, it is sometimes slightly movable, but in most, it is
fixed by an unyielding suture. Its front and hind margins are
generally indented or notched, for the more easy egress of the
neck and tail ; but sometimes they simply end in a cross line ;
or, on the contrary, are prolonged into a point. In the Land
Tortoises of the genus Pyxis, (Gr. puxis, a box,) — species Arach-
noides, (Gr. spider-like,) — the Arachnoid Tortoises of India, the
plastron is furnished with a transverse hinge, giving a power
of motion to the front part, so that the animals can redraw their
head and fore-limbs within the carapace, and close the plastron
upon it. In another genus of the same group, Cynixis, of Guiana,
the carapace, instead of being one solid whole, has the posterior
portion distinct from the front portion, and movable, so as to close
upon the hinder margin of the plastron, and shut in the hinder
limbs and tail. In the aquatic species, the shell is generally
more flattened, so as to present less resistance to the water.
Some of them swim with considerable rapidity, and are much
more active in their habits than others of the order. The shell
of such has its parts less firmly united, and is, in some degree,
flexible ; it also affords much less complete protection to the
body.

Notwithstanding the horny beak with which the jaws of Tor-
toises are in general furnished, the sense of taste is decidedly
higher in these than in other Reptiles. The broad, thick, fleshy,
and movable tongue, is provided with salivary glands, and nerves
of taste, but is not capable of being protruded from the mouth.
It is not an organ of taste merely, but filling out the entire cavity
of the mouth, assists in the process of respiration ; for " Turtles
swallow the air they breathe."

The eyes are larger in proportion, and more movable in
Tortoises than in other Reptiles. They have three eye-lids ; two

458 CHELONIANS.

external, continued from the common skin of the head, and vary,
ing as to form in different genera ; one, internal, resembling the
nictitating membrane of birds ; and moved by muscles appropri-
ate to that office. The form of the pupil is round, as in birds.
The iris is always colored, usually dark, but in some, red, or
even milk-white.

Tortoises have no movable external ear, but in all are found
the tympanic orifice and membrane which are wanting in Suuri-
ans, and the sense of hearing is consequently well developed.
The sense of smell appears to be at a low degree. The nostrils
open on the most anterior part of the upper jaw or mandible, and
are close to each other. In the River Tortoises, and in the
MATAMATA, a Marsh Tortoise, of South America, the nostrils are
prolonged into a sort of flexible proboscis, which the animals can
raise for the purpose of respiration, between the large, floating
leaves of water plants, while they lurk with their bodies con-
cealed below them, and immersed in the water, — lying in wait
for their prey.

The males of the Tortoises are, in general, smaller than the
females, and commonly distinguished by the plastron, which is
slightly concave. Tortoises have a voice, — that is, they have,
more or less, the faculty of uttering distinct sounds. They vary
in their food according to the localities which they are accus-
tomed to frequent. Some live on marine plants ; others on small
animals, in addition to vegetable food. They require but little
nourishment, and can pass months, and even years, without eat-
ing. Turtles, in their growth, are exceedingly slow, coming to
maturity the latest of all the Reptiles. But, at the same time,,
they are very long-lived. Land Tortoises have been known to
live one hundred and twenty years, and some have even reached
more than two hundred years.

According to Agassiz, their eggs, up to the seventh year, are
of small size, — numerous, yet not distinguishable into sets; but
with every succeeding year, there appears a larger and larger
set of eggs; each set being made up of the usual number which
the species lays, so that a Turtle of eleven years old, for the first
time, contains mature eggs ready to be laid in the spring. The
larger eggs always appear in regular sets, of* a definite number,
and these coincide with the number laid by that particular species
at one time. Four sets can be readily distinguished ; one of
them mature eggs; another about half the size; a third still
smaller; and the fourth smaller still, (about the size of a large
pin's head ;) below these, it is difficult to distinguish the differ-
ence in size. "Turtles," says Agassiz, "lay once a year;

CHELONIANS. 459

therefore, it follows that an egg requires four years from the
time there exists a marked difference among the eggs of different
sizes, to acquire its full maturity."* Fresh-water Tortoises lay
their eggs in moist ground, or in dryer places near the water;
Marine Turtles lay theirs in hot sand ; the Land Tortoises lay
theirs upon dry ground. The time of the extrusion of the ani-
mal varies from six weeks to three or four months.

The divisions of the Chelonians vary, as made by different
naturalists. Agassiz, who prefers names which have priority of
dale, divides the order TESTUDINATA, or CHELONIA, into two sub-
orders.

I. AMYDJ2, with seven families.

(1) Testudinina,) Land Tortoises.

(2) Emydoida, (3) Cinosternoida, ) R. , M ,
(4) Chelydroid*, (5) Hydraspida, > ToSfoea
(6) Chelyoida, (7) TrwnycUda, )

II. CHELONII, with two families.

(1) Chelonioida, (2) Sphargidcz, Marine Turtles.

FIRST SUB-ORDER. AMYD.E. DIGITATED.

This sub-order includes, besides the Land Tortoises, the
Marsh and River Tortoises, intermediate in form between the
Marine and Land Tortoises. The Marsh Tortoises proper, are
sometimes arranged into two divisions, viz: (1) the Pleurodera,
(Gr. pleuron, a side ; deire, neck,) — so named because the head
is concealed, not by being drawn back in a straight line, but by the
neck folded to one side of the opening of the shell. ,. The arms
are also incapable of being completely drawn within the cara-
pace and plastron. Seven is said to be the number of the genera
included in this division, None of the species belong to North
America, but many to South America. (2) The Cryptodera,
(Gr. krupto, to conceal ; deire, neck,) in which the cylindrical
shaped neck can be folded back upon itself under the center of
the forepart of the carapace. The pelvis is articulated to the
internal surface of the carapace, while in respect to the plas-
tron, it is free ; this gives to many of the Marsh qr Pond Tor-
toises a power to .move the under portions of the osseous box ;
and this, accordingly, has a less degree of solidity ; whereas, in
the Pleurodera, the pelvis is firmly fixed to the roof of the cara-
pace above, and to that of the plastron beneath. The species of
this division are very numerous, and many are found both in
North and South America.

* Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Vol. I.

460 CIIELONIANS.

FIRST FAMILY. Testudinina, (Lat. Tesludo, a tortoise.)
LAND TORTOISES. First Sub-Order, Amydse.

The Tortoises of this family exhibit the greatest symmetry of
form, and are, on various accounts, entitled to the first rank in
the order. They are distinguished by their highly arched cara-
pace, and still more, by their short, clubby feet, terminating in
flat, spade-like nails. The outward armor is entirely ossified,
and harder and thicker, in proportion to the animal's size, than
in the Aquatic Tortoises. The shield is covered, externally,
•with epidermal scales, and the skin everywhere more or less
protected with them ; on the most exposed parts, they are thick
and stiff, and form a continuous hard covering. The neck and
legs are short, and can be drawn entirely within the shell.
(See Radiated Tortoise on Chart.)

The Land Tortoises show nothing of the fierce dispositions
exhibited by most of the other groups. — never attacking or
making resistance, but resorting to the shield, and trusting to that
alone for protection. Their feet, which, in shape, have some
resemblance to those of the Elephant, are adapted to walking on
solid ground only ; when placed in water, these animals endeavor
to walk, as if upon land, having no swimming motion. Their
movement on dry ground is firmer and more steady, the weight
being almost equally supported by both pair of limbs ; and they
can travel for a distance at a pace less slow than any other Tor-
toises. The fore feet have, usually, five toes, and the hind ones,
four, which are furnished with short conical claws, well adapted
for digging. The food of the Land Tortoises is entirely vegeta-
ble. They appear most fond of the succulent stems of plants
and fleshy fruits. ''I have often," says Agassiz. "seen our
Gopher gnawing the stumps of cabbage, and apples falling from
the trees in my garden, as the Squirrels do, holding them between
their feet," The lungs are very much larger in the Land Tor-
toises than in any other family of the first sub-order. Their
size is also, on the whole, larger than that of any other family
of that division.

The Land Tortoises include four genera.

(1) tCinixys, of which there are two or three species found in
Guiana. In thes'e, the hind part of the carapace is not united to
the front part, and is movable, so that the animals can shut in
their hind limbs and tail.

(2) Pyxis. (Gr. puxis. a box.) This genera includes the
Land Box Tortoises, having the front part of the plastron mova-

CHELONIANS. 461

ble on a hinge, so that they can conceal the head and fore
limbs within the carapace.

(3) Homopus, (Gr. homos, like each other; pous, foot,) in-
cluding Land Tortoises which have the carapace and pastron
immovable. They have but four nails on the fore feet, while
the other genera have five. The VERMILION TORTOISE, H. are-

. olatus, (Lat. divided into areas, or spaces.) is a species of this
genus, found in Eastern Africa and Madagascar, and one of the
smallest known of Land Tortoises, being seldom more than five
inches in length.

(4) Testudo, having the carapace and plastron immovable.
Of this genus, only one species is indigenous to North America,
viz: T. Carolina or T. Polyphemus, — [Xerobates] (Gr. xeros from
xera land ; baino, to go,) Carolina, Ag., — the GOPHER TORTOISE,
ranging from Florida to Georgia. It is from fifteen to seventeen
inches in length. Its strength is so great that it can move
easily with a man standing on its back. In habits, it is noc-
turnal ; its flesh is excellent, and much sought after for the
table. In sandy districts, it excavates holes in the ground, which
much impede the movements of horsemen.

The ELEPHANTINE TORTOISE, T. Indica, (T. Elephantina.) Cyl-
indraspis, (Gr. rolling or cylindrical shield,) Indica, is from
three to four feet in length ; and every way a huge animal. It
sometimes has been known to weigh not far from three hundred
pounds. The Elephant Tortoises are found in great numbers in
the Galapagos islands, but, comparatively, not large, — averaging
sixty pounds in weight. They are eagerly sought by crews of
vessels. When captured, they serve for fresh meat, as they can
be kept for a year in the hold of a ship without food or drink.

The GREEK or EUROPEAN TORTOISE, T. Graca, is a well known
species, found in the South of Europe.

The GEOMETRIC TORTOISE, T. geometrica, is a beautiful little
creature, about six inches in length, found in South Africa and
Madagascar. It has its specific name from the radiating lines
of yellow, forming angular figures on the plates of the carapace.

The Charcoal Tortoise, IT. carbonaria, is common in Brazil
and other parts of South America. The carapace is deep black,
and eighteen inches long. This kind is sold as a great delicacy
in the markets at Caraccas.

The RADIATED TORTOISE, T. radiata, a handsome species, is
a native of Madagascar, whence it is frequently taken to the
Cape of Good Hope, and to the Mauritius and Bourbon isles. The
carapace is hemispherical ; the plates are simple and black, with
a yellow central spot, whence diverge lines of the same color; the
plates of the plastron are ornamented with black and yellow.

402 CHELONLANS.

SECOND FAMILY. Emydoida, (Gr. sptg, emus, a fresh-water

tortoise.)

This is a most numerous family, including a large number of
well known species, which present great varieties of habit, size,
and structure. Dumeril and Bibron unite the Emydoida and
Chetyoida into one family, under the name of ELODITES, refer,
ring the Emydoidce to the division Cryptodera, and the Clielyoida
to the division Pleurodera. Our limits do not allow us to detail
minutely the distinctive peculiarities of this family, or to assign
at large the differences existing in the various sub-divisions un-
der which it is exhibited.

In these Tortoises, the box in which the animal is enclosed, is
less thick and strong than in the Land Tortoises, not becoming
completely ossified until late in life; its figure is oval, for the
most part, broader behind than before. All the bony plates show
great constancy and regularity of arrangement. The outside of
the whole shield is covered with scales, as is, more or less, the
skin of the head, neck, limbs, and tail; the tympanum is visible,
and the eyelids are of equal height.

Nearly the whole of these are eminently MARSH TORTOISES.
Almost all of them can withdraw and conceal their limbs within
the carapace and plastron ; but in the Platysternvn, (Gr. broad-
sternon,) the plastron or sternon from its width, suffices to con-
ceal the limbs when folded ; yet the head remains constantly
exposed. The food of these Tortoises is both vegetable and
animal. None of them catch active prey, or are in any way
ferocious; when hard pressed, however, they defend themselves
by biting. They lay their eggs on dry land, in holes which they
dig with their hind legs; the land species, from two or three to
five or seven ; the water species, from ten or fifteen to twenty,
thirty, or even more. (Agassiz.) The shell of the eggs is never
brittle, but rather flexible, and less calcareous than in some other
families.

The genera Emys and Cistudo, are prominent representatives
of this family. In the Emys, the fore feet have five toes; the
hind feet, four; the plastron is broad, immovable, solidly united
to the carapace, and covered with twelve plates; the head is
about the ordinary size ; the tail long.

Emys Muhlenbergii, or Muhlenburg's Tortoise, is the smallest
known species, about four inches in length ; found in New Jer-
sey and the eastern part of Pennsylvania.

E. rugosa, (Lat. wrinkled,) or E. rubriventris, (Lat. red-

CHELONIANS. 463

bellied,) — the Ptychemys, (Gr. ptuche, a fold; emys.) rugosa, of
Agassiz, — is found as far South as Virginia, and North as far as
the neighborhood of New York City. It is known by the name
of the Red-bellied Terrapin, and as food is prized by epicures.
Length from ten to seventeen inches. (Agassiz says fifteen
inches.)

Emys concinna, (Lat. polished, beautiful,) is a handsome spe-
cies, found in Georgia; in length, according to Agassiz, fifteen
inches. This, and the preceding species, are the rarest of the
family.

E. concentrica, is found both in North and South America.
New York is said by DeKay to be its northern limit. It gives
the preference to salt-water marshes, and is therefore called the
SALT-WATER TERRAPIN. The flesh of this species is in particu-
lar request for the table. The plates of the carapace are olive-
green, with concentric lines of brown, whence the specific name,
concentrica. Sometimes it is called E. palustris. These Tortoises
bury themselves in mud during the winter; they are then very
fat, and taken in large numbers.^ The length is from seven to
ten inches.

E. picta, (Lat. painted,) or Chrysemys, (Gr. gold-colored Emys,)
picta, Ag., — is probably the most essentially aquatic Tortoise
of the entire family ; in fact, it soon perishes, if removed from
the water. The PAINTED EMYS (see Chart) is very common in
the United States, but on account of the ill flavor of its flesh,
never used for food. The plates of the carapace, which is con-
siderably depressed, are of a deep brown color; the plastron is
of a yellow or gold color. For the variety and beauty of its
markings, this may be esteemed the handsomest of all the fresh-
water Tortoises. It seems to enjoy much the rays of the sun,
and sometimes floats in the water with the head just emerging
from the shell, luxuriating in the genial temperature. It inhab-
its stagnant ponds or lakes, and is never found in rivers or run-
ning streams. Its length is from five to nine inches. When
young, its contour is circular rather than oval. It is remarkably
slow in coming to maturity, not laying eggs before it is seven
years old.

E, guttata, (Lat. speckled,) the SPOTTED TORTOISE, is a small
species found throughout the Union. Its length is about four
inches. The carapace is black, or deep brownish black, with
distant rounded yellow dots, occasionally with a few orange
spots. It shows a preference for streams and ponds which have
a muddy bottom. On a warm day, Speckled Tortoises may be
seen basking in the sun, on a log or rock ; but on the approach

464 CHELONIANS.

of any person, they slip suddenly into the water. This species
is the Nanemys, (Gr. dwarf-emys,) gutiata, of Agassiz.

The genus Cistudo, (Lat. a box.) includes TERRAPINS, or Box
TORTOISES. These, like the Emydes, have five toes on the fore
feet and four on the hind ones. The head is very high ; the
plastron, broad, oval, and divided by a transverse hinge into two
movable portions or valves, by means of which the whole body
may be shut in. The beak of the upper jaw projects downward
in the middle ; the lower jaw is sharp pointed in front ; the hind
foot plantigrade. These Tortoises never take to the water from
choice, and would be drowned if detained there. Indeed, they
are so much on dry land as to be sometimes called Land Tor-
toises.

The CAROLINA TERRAPIN, or Box TORTOISE, C. Carolina, or
C. Virginia, (Agassiz,) is found in New England, also westward
as far as Michigan, and southward as far as the Carolinas. In
its general habits, in the vaulted form of its carapace, and in the
structure of its feet, which are but slightly palmated, it appears
to be a link between the Marsh and Land Tortoises. This spe-
cies is not aquatic, preferring woods and dry places and living
on vegetables and insects; occasionally, however, it is met with
in swamps and moist places. Of all the Marsh Tortoises, it has
the shortest and most convex carapace. The general color is
dark brown with stars and blotches. The flesh is not much es-
teemed, but the eggs, which are about as large as a pigeon's, are
thought to be excellent, and are much sought for. The length
of this species is from five to seven inches.

BLANDING'S Box TORTOISE, C. Blandingii, has a shell less
raised than that of the Carolina Terrapin,^and the lower jaw is
hooked instead of the upper, as in the Carolina species. Its
length is from seven to eight inches. This species was first ac-
curately described and figured by Dr. Holbrook, in his valuable
work on North American Herpetology. According to Agassiz,
who deems this a "true Emys," the oldest name is E. meleagris.
The EUROPEAN Box TORTOISE, C. Europaa, is widely dif-
fused. It differs from the Carolina Terrapin in giving the pref-
erence to still waters, ponds and marshes, in the mud of which
it delights to bury itself. This species is particularly fond of
small fishes. These it kills previously to .devouring them, but
rejects the air sac, which rises and floats on the surface, so that
the abundance or scarcity of these animals in any pool or sheet
of water, is judged of by the numbers of these floating air sacs.
The flesh of the European Box Tortoise, though not very deli-
cate, is nevertheless eaten.

CHELONIANS.

THIRD FAMILY. Cinosternoida,- (Gr. xtyew, kineo, to move;
v, sternon.) MUD and MUSK TORTOISES.

The Tortoises of this family have long and narrow bodies,
covered by a shield which is entirely ossified. The marginal
plates are twenty-four in number ; the plastron is divided into
three sections, and, " at least in the adult species, is made up of
eight plates, there being no odd one, as in all the other families
of the sub-order." (Ag.) The shield or carapace is covered
with large horny scales ; the head is large, elongated, and pyr-
arnydal in form ; the mandibles are hooked, and in the under
jaw covered with fleshy excrescences. In the female, the tail is
short ; in the males, thick and long. Their legs are slender, ill
fitted for land travel, but easily carrying the body through the
water over the bottom. As a family, they are dwarfish in their
forms, the largest not being more than nine inches long, and the
smallest not more than four inches. These Tortoises smell
strongly of musk. Their disposition is a blending of shyness
and ferocity. " They remind us," says Agassiz, " of the Insec-
tivora among the Mammalia, the rapacious habits of which are
in strange contrast with their size and feebleness." Their
movements are abrupt and quick, but have little power ; their
food is chiefly animal ; their habits aquatic, though sometimes
they bask in the sun on the shore. They lay only from three
to five eggs, having the shape of a lengthened ellipse with very
blunt ends, and a glazed, shining surface, much smoother than
that of the other turtles' eggs, and also quite thick and brittle.

This" family, entirely American, is represented by the genera
Cinosternon and Sternotharus, (Gr. sternon; thairos, a hinge.)
The former has both the front and hind parts of the plastron
movable upon an intermediate fixed position ; the latter has the
plastron solid, with the front part movable.

Cinosternon represents the MUD TORTOISES, or Cinosteroids.
Several species are described.

C. Pennsylvanicum, or Thyrosternum, (Gr. thuron, porch ;
sternon,) Pennsylvanicum, (Ag.) is very common in various parts
of the United States. It inhabits ditches and muddy ponds, and
often takes the hook. Its food consists of frogs and small fishes.
The length is seven or eight inches.

Sternothcerus, or Ozotheca, (Gr. ozo, to smell ; theke, repos-
itory,) Ag., of sub-family Qzothecoidce, includes the MUSK TOR-
TOISES. Of the species the Musk Tortoise, S. odoratus, or O.
odorata, Ag., is the most common and the smallest one known, being

466 CHELONIANS.

less than four inches in length. It is common in marshes and
ditches from Maine to Florida. The carapace is gibbous or ob-
long, of a brownish color, with streaks of green. The color and
marking are, however, not easily detected, as the animal is usu-
ally covered with mud, and an agglutination of water plants.
It is sometimes called Mud Terrapin, and, on account of its dis-
agreeable odor, Stink-Pot, and other names equally savory.

FOURTH FAMILY. Chelydroida, (Gr. xefodgog, cheludros, a
water-tortorse.)

SNAPPING TURTLES.

The body of these Tortoises is high in front and low behind,
the upper surface is "like a shed-roof falling backwards, curved
down on either stde, lowest about the middle, less and less to-
wards the ends." The carapace projects beyond the attached
surface of the body, except at the neck, where it is joined with
the plastron ; the latter is not movable, of a cross-like shape, and
covered with twelve plates. The head is very large and cov-
ered with small plates ; the upper mandible is hooked ; below
the under mandible are two small wattle-like excrescences. The
tail is extremely long, compressed and surmounted by a ridge
of strong scales, as in the crocodile. The limbs are very robust,
and the nails of the toes are strong, hooked and sharp. The
head, though of great size, can be withdrawn within the cara-
pace ; but not so the tail and limbs. " The animal lives mostly
in the water, but makes considerable passages over land. It does
not, like the Trionychida, remain burrowed in the soft muddy
bottom, but rather lies in wait for prey under shelving banks, or
among the reeds and rushes."

This family is represented by the ALLIGATOR TORTOISE, or
SNAPPING TURTLE, to which naturalists have given various
names, among which are Chelonura, (Gr. chelone, tortoise ; oura,
a tail,) Serpentina, (Say ;) Gypochelys, (Gr. gups, a vulture ;
chelus, a tortoise.) Serpentina, (Agassiz.) Both internally and
externally, it exhibits an approach to the alligator, and perhaps
may be viewed as an intermediate link. When adult, it exceeds
•^ three feet in its total length. So great is the strength of its jaws
that a large one has been seen to bite off a piece of plank more
than an inch thick. It eats frogs, other aquatic reptiles, and
even fish ; it swims with celerity, and is prone to snap at every
thing coming near it. Woe to the unwary duck or other animal
that swims unguardedly within its reach. . The Alligator Tor-
toise is a native of Carolina and the warmer districts of North

CHELONIANS. 467

America. This Tortoise, according to De Kay, lays from sixty
to seventy eggs, about the size of a small walnut.

FIFTH FAMILY. HydraspicUt, (Gr. vdga, hudra, a water-snake ;
acTTilg, aspis, a shield.)

This family includes four genera, viz. : Platemys, (Gr. pla~
tus, broad; emus, emys:) Rhinemys, (Gr. rhin, nose; emus,
emys ;) Phrynops, (Gr. phrunos,* a rubeta, or venomous toad ;
ops, face;) Hydraspis. The whole are included by Wagler in
one genus, Platemys. They have the head flattened and covered
with a single delicate scale, or with a number of small irregular
plates ; the jaws are simple ; two barbels appear under the chin ;
the carapace is very much flattened ; the plastron is immov-
able ; there are five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind.
One species is found on the banks of the Macquarie River,
(Australia ;) other species are found in South America, living in
marshes or else on the banks of rivers. So far as the head and
neck are concerned, some of these animals, as the Chelodina of
New Holland, appear more like a snake than a tortoise.

SIXTH FAMILY. Ckelyoidce, (Gr. /e^v?, chelus, a tortoise.)

The Tortoises of this family have a shield that is thick, .com-
pletely ossified, and regularly divided into plates ; the head is
extraordinarily large, flat and triangular ; the jaws are weak,
neither pointed nor sharp edged, unfit for catching large active
prey, or for tearing any tough vegetable or animal matter ; the
mouth is broad, but very close when its roof and floor are
brought together, being well adapted for catching and swallow-
ing minute animals ; the legs are strong ; the feet broad and
compact, with long and sharp claws, the fore feet having five,
the hind feet four. This family includes but one genus, Chelys.
The only recognized species is the MATAMATA, C. matamata, (an
aboriginal name,) found in Cayenne and Guiana, having the neck
furnished with long cutaneous appendages, and two barbels on
the chin. The head looks as if it had been crushed, and this,
together with its fringes and skinny enfoldings, gives it a singu-
larly grotesque appearance. Decidedly, it is the most remark-
able of the Pond or Marsh Tortoises. When full grown, the
Matamata is about two and a half feet in length.

468 CHELONIANS.

SEVENTH FAMILY. TrionycJiida, (Gr. tg^s, treis, three ; "ovv^,
onux, nail.)

SOFT-SHELLED OR RIVER TORTOISES.

These Tortoises are distinguished by the complete absence of
scales from the body, the shell being covered with a soft skin.
The feet are broad, webbed, and move horizontally ; of the toes,
three on each foot are provided with nails or claws, whence the
term Trionyx, (see derivation above.) The form is that of a flat
orbicular disk, slightly elongated, with a long pointed head pro-
jecting upon a lengthened, slender neck. The structure of these
animals is well adapted to life and motion in the water. They
swim with great facility. In this process they are aided, not by
their flattened and webbed feet alone, but by the loose and flex-
ible skin of the body, forming a narrow flap or border around the
edges of the shell, and performing the office of a fin. The soft
carapace is generally dark colored, variegated with brown ; but
the plastron and all the under parts are pale, like the turbot.
The plastron is not entirely ossified in the Trionyx proper, and
is united to the carapace by cartilage. These Tortoises live
mostly on the muddy bottom of shallow waters, burying them-
selves in the soft mud, leaving only the head, or a small part of
it exposed. Sometimes they remain under water as long as half
an hour, without coming to the surface to take breath. They
are rarely seen on land, where, to them, locomotion is labored
and unsteady. They lay from a dozen to twenty or more eggs,
of a spherical form, having a thick but brittle shell, and about
the size of a musket ball.

They feed upon fish, reptiles, and mollusks, especially Ana-
dontas and Paludinas, fragments of which have been found in
their intestines. Two genera represent this family.

(1) Gymnopus, (Gr. naked-footed,) or PlatypeUes, (Gr. plains,
broad ; pelte, shield ;) (2) Cryptopus, (Gr. krupto, to hide ; pous,
foot,) or Aspidonect.es, (Gr. aspis, shield ; nectes, a swimmer,)
Agassiz. The type of the genus Gymnopus, or Platypeltes, is
the Trionyx fer ox, the species of this country earliest known to
foreign naturalists. The Tryonyx ferox, or P. ferox, (Lat.
fierce,) is found from Georgia to Western Louisiana. Though
fierce, it is not very large. Agassiz says the largest tortoise
which he ever saw or heard of belonging to this species, was one
foot and a half in length. As the generic name, Platypeltes, in-
dicates, the carapace is broad. The great breadth of the carti-
laginous circumference of the carapace, and the narrowness of

CHELONIANS. 469

the plastron, are distinctive marks of this tortoise. In its native
regions it reigns as a tyrant, producing great havoc among the
finny tribes ; it is very voracious, and eagerly seizes a hook
baited with a fish.

The females visit the shore in May to lay their eggs. These
are globular in shape and brittle ; they are hatched in July. It
is said that in its fierceness and voracity, this Tortoise will at-
tack small quadrupeds, aquatic birds, and young alligators. The
Trionyx of the Nile, G. JEgyptiacus, is much valued in Egypt,
on account of the services it renders in devouring the eggs and
young of the crocodile.

Tortoises of the genus Cryptopus, or Aspidonectes, have the
plastron broad, and capable of closing up in front, so as to shut
in the retracted head and limbs ; in the rear they have a cartila-
ginous valve on each side, for shutting in the 4iind limbs.

A. spinifer, (Lat. thorn-bearing or prickly,) is a species com-
mon in Lake Champlain, and in most of our western rivers.
Length fourteen inches.

SECOND SUB-ORDER. CHELONID.E, OR CHELONII. SEA TURTLES.
PINNATED.

The entire structure of the Sea Turtles shows an express
adaptation to aquatic habits. Not only is the carapace greatly
flattened, but the limbs, in which the toes are not externally dis-
tinct, are likewise flattened and modified into large oars. On
land, these animals shuffle along in the most awkward manner,
and make, with toilsome efforts, only a slow progress ; but they
plough the waves, dive and ascend with admirable address and
dexterity. They swim almost entirely by means of their front
limbs; the other pair acting independently and being chiefly
useful in aiding to balance the body, and guide the general
course. They feed chiefly on marine plants. The gullet of
these Turtles is lined with long cartilaginous processes, all tend-
ing towards the stomach. These appear designed to prevent the
return of the food when the water which is swallowed in con-
nection with it is regurgitated.

The Sea Turtles never resort to the shore, except to deposit
their eggs. They lay them at night and in large companies.
Those of most of the species are both nutritious, and agreeable
to the taste. "American Sea Turtles," says Agassiz, " lay their
eggs towards the end of May, or in the beginning of June. They
lay a large number of them, about one hundred at a time, or
even more, which they deposit on shore, in the dry sand. Their

UNIVERSITY

OF
» lc-xvovi\k^

470 CHELONIANS.

eggs are not large, in comparison to the size of the animal, and
not perfectly spherical, their orbicular outline being more or less
irregular." "I have no reason," he says, "to trust the reports
that they lay eggs more than once a year." Other writers, how.
ever, say "the process is repeated three times a year." The
eggs are almost unprotected by a shell, and hence it is necessary
that the sand in which they are laid to be hatched by the heat of
the sun, should be soft and movable. To obtain a suitable local-
ity for their eggs, they often travel many hundred leagues. As-
cension Island is to them a favorite place of resort. At the
breeding season the Turtle-fishery is carried on. The flesh
of the females is in the highest estimation, and at this sea-
son, it is supposed to possess its best quality. " The fish-
ers suddenly advance from their watching places, and despatch
the Turtles with clubs, or turn them quickly over upon their
backs, in doing which, it is often necessary to use levers,
several men at the same t;me combining their strength. A few
skillful men, in the course of three hours, may turn over, and
thus secure forty or fifty turtles." On the coast of Guiana, haul
nets are employed for the capture of these creatures. In the
Chinese and Indian seas, and also on the shores of Mozambique,
boatmen take them by availing themselves of the natural powers
and instincts of certain fishes, named poissons pecheurs, or Fish-
fishers. The Turtles are usually met with in the warm latitudes
of the ocean, and especially towards the torrid zone.

FIRST FAMILY. Chetonioida.

This family are characterized by having the carapace very
broad, more or less depressed, of a somewhat heart-shaped out-
line, covered with horny scales, and bordered by a distinct mar-
ginal rim ; also by having a flat nail on the thumb of each pad-
dle. Three well defined genera are found along the coast
of the .United States; the greatest difference between them
has relation to the structure of the mouth. Their food consists
of aquatic plants, sea-weeds, and the like. In size, they much
surpass the average size of the Amydce,', yet they are shy and
inoffensive, not biting when hard pressed, but striking with their
powerful flappers, and endeavoring to escape by quickening
their speed. They lay their eggs at the end of May or begin-
nina; of June.

The GREEN or ESCULENT TURTLE, Chelonia mydas. is consid-
ered the most important of the Turtles, its flesh being in great
request as a luxury for the table, and as furnishing abundant and

CHELONIANS. 471

wholesome food to voyagers in tropical climates. It has twelve
pair of scales of a greenish color, but they do not overlay each
other, and are of no use in the arts. Green Turtles are very
common in shallow parts of the sea near the islands and the
shores of continents, within the tropics, where they may be seen
in great numbers among the sea-weeds, grazing like a herd of
cattle ; occasionally coming to the surface to breathe, and some-
times remaining there, basking in the sunshine. They are often
caught at sea in calm weather, a harpoon and line being used.
The usual length is four or five feet, arid the weight from four
hundred to eight hundred pounds ; but this Turtle has been
known to " reach the length of eight feet, and a weight of fif-
teen hundred pounds." The flesh of the smaller ones is, how-
ever, the more highly esteemed.

The coast of Florida is one of the resorts for the females,
which deposit each, every spring, between one hundred and two
hundred eggs in the sand, where they hatch in about seven or
eight weeks. But scarcely a thirtieth of this number gain the
sea, or live a week after reaching it. Birds and beasts of prey
thin the number of those hatched ; and crocodiles and rapacious
fishes are ready to seize upon such as escape destruction on
land and gain the water.

The TORTOISE SHELL TURTLE, Chelonia imbricata, or Eret-
mochelys, (Gr. eretmon, an oar; chelus, a tortoise,) imbricata,
(Ag.,) has the horny muzzle somewhat lengthened into a sharp
point, and the lower jaw is received into a groove of the upper,
so that the food can be cut as well as bruised by it. The shield
has twelve pair of scales. They overlap each other, at least
one-third of each lying over the one behind it ; hence this spe-
cies is named imbricata, (imbricated.) The plates increase only
in front. As they enlarge there, " the older parts move back-
wards, where they are worn off by external mechanical agencies.
This process goes on so fast that in a specimen of two feet in
length, no trace of those primary scales which covered the whole
shield, during the first year, could be found. This mode of
growing and moulting, if we may call it so, is very similar to
that in the human nail." (Ag.) The flesh of this Turtle has
a disagreeable flavor, probably arising from the nature of its
food. The animal is chiefly sought for the plates of the cara-
pace, called " Tortoise Shell," and which are much thicker and
stronger, as well as more clouded in color than those of any
other species. The shell procured from the live Turtle is thought
to be the finest. The epidermis, or outer shell, is said to change
every year. The shell is removed from the bone of the cara-

47-2

CHELONIANS.

pace by presenting its convex surface to a glowing fire. The ap-
plication of boiling water to the shell when removed, so mollifies
it that it may be acted on like a soft mass, and by pressure in
metallic moulds, made to assume a great variety of forms. A
single Turtle yields about ten or twelve pounds of Tortoise
Shell. When the stripped animal is set at liberty, the shell
grows again ; and hence it sometimes happens that in after
years, the stripped Turtle is recaptured, and subjected to a sec-
ond ordeal, but the shell in that case obtained is very thin. The
Tortoise Shell Turtle never reaches so large a size as the Green
or Esculent Turtle. Sometimes it is called the Hawk's-bill Tur-
tle. (See Chart.) It is found in the warmer latitudes of the
seas and coasts of this continent, and also in the seas of Asia.

Com. Wilkes, in his " Exploring Expedition," states that the
chiefs in the Fejee Islands, keep Tortoise Shell Turtles in pens.
Tortoise Shell " sometimes sells in Manilla for from two to three
thousand dollars the picul, (one hundred and thirty-three English
pounds.")

The LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, C. caretta, or Thalassoclielys, (Gr.
Sea-Turtle,) Caouana, differs from the tortoise shell Turtle, in
having thirteen pairs of scales, and these not imbricated. The
flesh is not much valued, though wholesome. The Loggerhead
Turtle feeds upon fish and mollusks. It yields abundance of
oil, for which alone it is sought. This species is numerous in
the Mediterranean.

SECOND FAMILY. Sphargida, (from Gr. cr^a^ayew, spharageo, to
roar loudly.)

These Sea-Turtles have the bony structure of the carapace
covered with a thick layer of leathery skin, instead of plates or
scales ; the form may be compared to a flattened cone, with an-
gular sides ; the skeleton is light, and the shield narrow and
small, compared with the size of the animal ; in the full grown
Turtle, the skin is quite smooth ; but in the young is tubercu-
lous. The paddles are without any distinct nails. These Tur-
tles are the largest in size and lay a great number of eggs.
Only one species is as yet recognized.

The LEATHERY TURTLE, Sphargis coriacea, (Lat. leathery.)
This has jaws of immense strength, the lower one being sharp
edged, and turning up at a point which when the jaws are closed
is received into a central indentation or notch of the upper jaw,
The carapace is heart-shaped and has seven longitudinal ridges
at equal distances from each other. (See Chart.) The eyes

CHELONIANS. 473

open almost vertically, which gives to the animal a strange as-
pect. This Turtle exceeds all others in size; the carapace is
sometimes fifteen feet in circumference, and nearly seven feet in
length. It sometimes weighs more than eighteen hundred
pounds. Agassiz states he has seen those that weighed over a
ton. The Leathery Turtle feeds upon marine animals, as well
as plants. When aged, it is said " to carry on its carapace ** a
world of parasites." This gigantic species is found in the Med-
iterranean, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It breeds on
the Tortugas or Turtle islands, on the Bahama islands and Keys,
and on the coast of Brazil, laying, on an average, about three
hundred and fifty eggs, in two sets. A large sized specimen of
this species, taken off Sandy Hook in 1816, is now in the Ameri-
can Museum, New York city. The Leathery Turtle was known
to the ancient Greeks, and of its carapace the first lyre is sup-
posed to have been formed ; the seven ridges on the back sug-
gesting the adoption of seven strings, which was the ancient
number. Hence, it is sometimes called the LUTE TURTLE.

CHELONIANS.

Into what divisions may this Order be arranged ? In what respects do
they widely diifer from the general form of the class ? What is the shield
of the back called? Of what does this consist? What in the TORTOISES
represents the sternal or breast ribs of the lizards, &c. ? What is the name
of the lower plate of the armor ? What is said of it ? What is the sec-
ond distinction between CHELONIANS and other reptiles? How are they
compensated for the want of teeth? What is said of the armor of the
LAND TORTOISES? What is peculiar in that of the genus Pyxis ? In that
of the genus Cinixys ? How is it in the aquatic species ? What is said
of the organs of sense in Tortoises? What of their food? Of their pow-
ers of abstinence ? Of their growth ? Of their age ? What does Agassiz
say of their eggs? Into how many SUB-ORDERS does he divide the order
Chelonia? Name the families included in AMYDJS, or DIGITATED TORTOISES.
Also those included in CHELONII or PINNATED, (finned, ) T. What groups
besides the Land Tortoises does the Sub-order Amydae include ? Into what
two divisions are the strictly Marsh Tortoises sometimes arranged ? Are
the sp. of this Sub-order numerous ? What is said of the forms of the
Land Tortoises? What of their distinguishing characteristics? Of their
disposition, habits, &c. ? Name the sp. which are mentioned. Which of
these are found in the U. S. ? What is said of it ? What can you say of
the others ?

Which is the 2nd and most numerous FAMILY ? How does the box or
armor of these T. differ from that of the Land T. ? Where are the largest
part of them found ? How is it with the Cistudo ? What gen. are promi-
nent in this family ? Which is the smallest sp. of Emys ? Which is the
largest ? What is said of the SALT WATER TERRAPIN ? Which is the most
essentially aquatic ? What is said of it ? Which gen. includes the Box

20

474 CHELONIANS.

TORTOISE ? What is said of the CAROLINA TERRAPIN ? Of the European
BoxT.?

Which is the 3rd FAMILY ? Describe them. Of what does Agassiz say
they remind us ? What is said of their movements, food, &c. ? On what
continent are they all found ? What genera represent this family ? Which
genus includes the MUD Tortoises? Which the MUSK T. ?

What is the 4th FAMILY? Describe them. What turtle represents this
family ? How does it resemble the ALLIGATOR ? What is said of its strength,
food, &c.?

What is said of the 5th FAMILY? How many gen. does it include? Where
are they found ? What other reptiles do some or all of these resemble ?

What is the 6th FAMILY ? Name their characteristics. What gen. does
it include ? What is the only recognized sp. ? What is said of it ?

What is the 7th FAMILY ? In what respects are these distinguished ?
For what element does the structure of these animals fit them? What
helps them in swimming ? In what waters are they usually found ? Upon
what do they feed? What gen. are mentioned? What is the type of the
gen. Platypeltes ? What is said of it ? What of the Trionyx of the Nile ?
What is said of the plastron of Aspidonectes ? What sp. of this gen. is
mentioned?

What is the 2nd SUB-ORDER ? How does the structure of the SEA TUR-
TLES fit them for aquatic habits? What is said of their motion ? Which
limbs do they use in swimming ? What is the chief use of the hind limb ?
On what do they feed ? Are they ever found on shore ? When do they
lay their eggs and what is said of them ? What is to them a favorite breed-
ing place? At what time is the T. Fishery carried on? How are the Tur-
tles secured? How do the Chinese boatmen take them? In what lati-
tudes are the Sea T. found? What is the 1st FAMILY? How is it charac-
terized? How many well defined gen. on the coast of the U. S. ? What
is said of their food, &c. ? Which is the most important of the SEA TUR-
TLE? Why? Where is it very common? How often caught at sea?
What is said of the size and weight ? What resort for the female is men-
tioned? What is said of their eggs? Do their young, when hatched, all
reach the sea ? How many pair of scales has the Tortoise-shell T. ? Why
are they said to be imbricated ? At what part do the plates increase ? What
effect has this upon the older part ? What does this mode of growing and
moulting resemble ? For what is this animal chiefly sought ? Which shells
are the best? How is the shell removed from the carapace? How is it
made to assume various forms ? Is the shell renewed upon the stripped
animal? Where is this T. found? How does the Loggerhead T. differ
from the Hawks-bill or Tortoise shell T. ? For what is it sought?

What is the 2nd FAMILY ? From what is the family name derived ? What
Sea T. does it include? What is said of the jaw, carapace, &c. of the
LEATHERY T. ? What of its size, weight, &c. ? Where is it found ? What
breeding places are spoken of? Why is it sometimes called the LUTE T. ?

How are the Ohelonidae or Testudinata usually divided, as given on the
Chart? What is Prof. Agassiz' first division of them as there shown?

SAURIANS. 475

SECTION III.

SECOND ORDER. SAURIANS.
Sauria, (Gr. cravgog, sauros, a lizard.)

This order contains a numerous assemblage of animals re-
markable for the differences in their size, which varies from a
few inches to thirty feet ; and not less so for differences in re- :
spect to strength, form and habit. All, however, agree in cer-
tain essential characters. Many species, generally of great
dimensions, are known only in a fossil state.

The general contour of the body is lengthened ; the skin is
protected either by horny plates, by scales of various sizes and
figures, or by granulations. The limbs are usually four in num-
ber ; the toes armed with claws. The body always terminates
in a tail, which is frequently of considerable length. The eyes
are protected by eye-lids, except in certain instances ; and in
most species a tympanic membrane covers the orifice leading to
the internal organs of hearing. The ribs, unlike those of the
Tortoises, are distinct and movable; and there is a sternum or
breast-bone, which is not found in serpents. The jaws are
armed with teeth, as in snakes ; but the bones of the jaws are
firmly united together, and not separable into distinct parts, as
in the latter animals.

The eggs of the Saurians have a hard calcareous shell ; the
young undergo no metamorphoses or changes like those of the
newt and frog.

The tongue, in these animals, differs greatly in its form, and
in the degree of freedom which it enjoys. In the Crocodile it
is undeveloped and scarcely distinguishable from the general
floor of the mouth, between the branches of the lower jaw. In
other groups, it is broad, fleshy, and free only at its point; in
the Chameleons, it is fleshy, cylindrical, and capable of being
projected to a great distance, and then completely redrawn. In
some genera, it is slender and deeply forked, like that of a snake,
and when at rest drawn into a sheath ; while in others, it is flat,
very movable, and notched or forked at the tip. It is, in all, lu-
bricated with a glutinous saliva, but does not appear to be en-
dowed with a high sense of taste.

In most of the Saurians, the body is so remarkable for its
length and cylindrical figure that, as Aristotle has observed, they
resemble snakes with the addition of limbs. "Among all the
reptiles," says M. Bibron, "these undoubtedly approach nearest

478 SAUKIANS.

to the Mammalia, both in the variety and rapidity of their differ-
ent movements, especially if we compare their progression with
that of Tortoises. There are, indeed, among the Saurians, spe-
cies which enjoy many modes of progression ; for they can creep,
walk, run, climb, swim, dive, and even fly. Nevertheless, the
elongated and heavy trunk of these Reptiles is not supported by
the limbs without effort ; they walk in general, with constraint
and slowly, forthe arms and thighs are short, slender, but slightly
muscular, and directed outwardly ; while the elbows and knees
are too angular to support with ease the superincumbent weight.
Still, however, notwithstanding this conformation, so faulty in ap-
pearance, (though not in reality,) they are capable of executing
a great variety of movements, all bearing on progression."

The form of the tail, the length of the body, the structure
of the toes, and the shape of the claws determine the character
of the movements, and correspond with the general habits of the
animal.

The hotter climates of the globe are the great nurseries of the
Saurians. Persons who live in northern latitudes are ordinarily
not likely to form any adequate idea of the variety of these crea-
tures, which tenant their favorite abodes.

" In the intertropical latitudes, they obtrude themselves upon
notice ; they are in the common pathway, and even haunt the
abodes of men ; they swarm among the trees; they lie motion-
less upon the surface of the water, enjoying the hot rays of the
sun ; they cover banks and walls or crumbling ruins, and min-
gle their sparkling hues with those of the blooming vegetation
amidst which they nestle."

Like the snake tribe, the Saurians moult their skin during the
spring or summer, appearing afterwards in bright colors.

None of the Saurians are poisonous; none have poison fangs,
though the ancients regarded many as venomous in the extreme.
Of these an imaginary animal termed the Basilisk, (Basilicus,)
was especially celebrated ; a name which modern naturalists
apply to a genus peculiar to South America.

Though the Lizard race do not possess the medical properties
which have been ascribed to them, many of them, as the Igua-
nas, hold a high rank as articles of luxury for the table; and
the flesh and eggs of the Teguixin or Monitor, a large species
found in Brazil and other parts of South America, are esteemed
for food.

The Saurians are divided into the following families, viz. :
(1) Crocodilida, Crocodiles; (2) ChamaeleonidcB, Chameleons;

SAURIANS. 477

(3) Geckotidcz, Geckos ; (4) Iguanida, Iguanas ; (5) Varanida,
Varans; (6) Teida, Teguixins; (7) Lacertidce, Lizards; (8)
Chalcida, Chalcides ; (9) Scincida, Scinks.

FIRST FAMILY. CROCODILES.
Crocodilida, (Gr. xQoxtidedos, krokodeilos, a crocodile.)

This family includes three genera, closely related to each
other, and agreeing in the general details of their structure.
They are the largest of the Lizards found in America. They
are called Alligators in the southern parts of the United States,
and Caimans in the Antilles and South America. In Africa and
Asia they are called Gavials. Those of America are distin-
guished by a broad and rounded snout; those of Africa by an
elongated flat snout, and those of Asia by a pointed one like the
beak of a bird. They differ from other reptiles in the tongue,
which is thick, flat, and attached so much to the mouth that the
ancients believed this member was altogether wanting. "To it,
of all animals," wrote Herodotus, "nature has not given a
tongue." The power of swimming is shown by the palmated
feet, and by the lateral compression of the tail, which thus acts
as a large and powerful fin ; the tail is no doubt used as a wea-
pon of defence, being armed with a serrated ridge of strong
square scales. The lower jaw is rather longer than the upper,
and both are armed with a single row of pointed teeth, the num-
ber of which does not vary with age, as in other animals. The
Crocodiles are all inhabitants of the rivers and fresh waters of
warm countries ; but are most abundant in those latitudes which
approach nearest to the equinoctial line. Their mode of feed-
ing is very peculiar. They do not swallow their prey upon
seizing it, nor is it ever eaten while fresh ; but the victim is first
drowned, and then conveyed to some hole at the edge of the wa-
xter, where it is suffered to putrify before it is devoured. Their
food consists principally of fish, crabs, and such other animals as
they can catch. They seem to manifest an affinity to the Tor-
toises in the coverings of their bodies, being defended, like them,
by plates or shields; with this difference, however, that in the
Tortoises the plates are compactly united at the edges, while in
Crocodiles they are sufficiently far apart to admit the free mo-
tion of all parts of the body and limbs. Owing to a peculiarity
in the vertebrae of the neck, which bear upon each other by
means of small false ribs, that render motion sidewise somewhat
difficult, these creatures can not turn about with much facility,

478 SAURIANS

and may be avoided without difficulty, when on land they at-
tempt the pursuit of man.

The Crocodiles of the Nile were regarded as sacred by the
ancient Egyptians, and sometimes, when caught young, they
were so tamed as to follow in the train of their religious proces-
sions. In some localities they have been killed of the length of
thirty feet, (Swain.) Those of Egypt and Senegal, (Africa,)
are less numerous, but more dangerous than those of this conti-
nent. No living species of this family is found in Europe, nor
has any yet been detected in Australia, but remains have been
discovered which indicate the former existence of this animal in
territory now included in the British dominions.

Alligator (Lat. a binder) Champsa, (Gr. Crocodile, Hesiod.)
ALLIGATORS. (See fig. on Chart.)

These have the head broad ; the muzzle wide and rounded ;
the teeth of unequal length; the fourth or canine tooth of the
lower jaw, (counting from the fore part of the jaw,) is the longest
and is received into a corresponding cavity or pit in the upper
jaw, when the mouth is closed, so that it is concealed. The
hinder limbs are rounded and destitute of rigid scales ; the webs
between the toes are short.

The Alligators pursue fish with much dexterity, driving a
shoal of them into a creek, and then getting into the midst of
their prey and devouring them at pleasure. They also seize
and feed upon dogs, frogs, pigs or other animals incautiously ap-
proaching too near to their lurking places. The usual method
of capturing the Alligator is by baiting a large four-pointed hook
and suffering it to float in the river. When the creature has
swallowed the hook, he is hauled on shore and killed. Audubon
gives an interesting account of the chase of a wounded Ibis by
one of these animals. It had almost reached the terrified bird,
" when," says he, "by pulling three triggers at once, we lodged
the contents of our guns in the throat of the monster. Thresh-
ing furiously with his tail, and rolling his body in agony, the
Alligator at last sunk to the mud ; and the ibis, as if in grati-
tude, walked to our very feet, and then Iving down, surrendered
to us."

The principal species are the Caiman with bony eye-lids, A.
palpelrosus, (Lat. from palpebra, an eye-lid.) found in Cayenne
and Brazil, also in the Mississippi, as high as the Red River, in
Carolina and Florida, and sometimes twenty feet in length.

The PIKE-NOSED ALLIGATOR, (see Chart.) A. Indus, (Lat. a
pike,) found in the southern rivers of North America. In
Louisiana, the Alligators of this species bury themselves in

SAURIANS. 479

mud, where they become stiff, without being frozen. So intense
is their lethargy, when the cold is severe, that they may be cut
deeply without being roused. Their eggs are less in size than
those of the Crocodile, being not much larger than a hen's. A
peck of them are sometimes taken out of the place of deposit in
the sand.

The SPECTACLED CAIMAN, A. sclerops, (Gr. skleros, hard ;
ops, face,) is a native of Cayenne, Brazil, and Paraguay. It has
its English name from a ridge across the forehead, and another
before each eye, showing some resemblance to a pair of specta-
cles. The eggs are as large as those of a goose ; usually about
sixty are deposited. The Indians esteem them as food, and even
relish the flesh of the Yacare, as the animal is called in Para-
guay.

Crocodilus. The CROCODILE. (See Chart.)

This genus is distinguished from the preceding by the sudden
narrowness of the muzzle behind the nostrils, which produces a
large notch for the lodgment of the fourth tooth of the upper jaw,
when the mouth is closed. The hinder margin of the leg is orna-
mented with a series of ridged scales, and the hind toes, espe-
cially the three outermost, are joined by webs to their point.
The sublime description of the Leviathan in the book of Job,
(chap, xii.,) evidently relates to the Crocodile. The most favor-
a.ble season for catching the animal, is the winter, when it usually
sleeps in sand banks, enjoying the warmth of the sun ; or else,
in the spring, while the female is " watching the sand islands,
where she has buried her eggs." Sometimes it is harpooned,
the coat of mail which protects the animal, being pierced by the
weapon. The eggs of this formidable creature are but little
larger than those of a goose. Many of them are destroyed
yearly by birds of prey and quadrupeds, particularly the Ich-
neumon. Herodotus speaks of a bird called Trochilus, (sup-
posed by some to be one of the Plovers,) which entered the jaws
of this animal unmolested, and picked out, and devoured the
bdellte) suckers or gnats. These insects also infest the mouths
of the Caimans, of South America. Two species of this genus are
found in this hemisphere, viz : the C. rhombifer, (Lat. rhombus, a
rhomb; fero, to bear,) found in Cuba; and the SHARP-NOSED
CROCODILE, C. acutus, (Lat. sharp,) found in St. Domingo and
Martinique. The other species all belong to the Eastern Con-
tinent.

The COMMON CROCODILE, C. vulgaris, is found in the Nile, the
Senegal, and the Ganges, and along the coast of Malabar.

480 SAURIANS.

The HELMETED CROCODILE, C. galeatus, (Lat. helmeted,) is
found in Siam.

The Two-RiDGED CROCODILE, C. Mporcalus, (Lat. Us, twice ;
porcatus, ridged.) occurs in the Ganges, in the rivers of Pondi-
cherry, and in those of Java.

The CUIRASSED CROCODILE, C. cataphractus, (Gr. kataphractos,
mailed,) is found in the river Galba, near Sierra Leone, (Africa.)

The GAVIALS.

Gamalis. This genus is at once distinguished by the length
and narrowness of the jaws, which are prolonged in a straight
beak-like snout, armed with ranges of formidable teeth. Of this
genus there is but one known species.

The GAVIAL OF THE GANGES, Gavialis Gangeticus, (see Chart,)
one of the scourges of that celebrated river. The dying Hindoo,
exposed upon its bank, and the dead body committed to its
waters, become, not rarely, the food of this ferocious animal.

"In the living sub-genera of the Crocodilean family," observes
Dr. Buckland, ('Bridgewater Treatise,' pp. 20,) "we see the
elongated and slender beak of the Gavial of the Ganges, con-
structed to feed on fishes; while the shorter and stronger snout
of the broad-nosed Alligators, gives them the power of seizing
and devouring quadrupeds that come to the banks of rivers in
hot countries. As there were scarcely any mammalia during
the secondary periods, whilst the waters were abundantly stored
with fishes, we might, a priori, expect that if any crocodilean
forms had then existed, they would have most nearly resembled
the Common Gavial ; and we have hitherto only found those
genera which have elongated beaks in formations anterior to,
and including the chalk, while True Crocodiles, with a short and
broad snuut, like that of the Caiman and the Alligator, appear
for the first time in strata of the tertiary periods, in which remains
of the Mammalia abound."

FOSSIL CROCODILES.

These have been found in the Eocene or early tertiary depos-
its of England. About seventy fossil members of the Crocodile
family are known ; but not many belong to the United States.
In their structure, they conform most nearly to the Gavial of the
Ganges.

The genus Steneosaurus, (Gr. stenos, narrow or straight;
sauros, a lizard), affords the nearest link to the living species of
the crocodile family.

The genus Teleosaurus, (Gr. teleios, perfect ; sauros, a lizard,)

SAURIANS. 481

resembles the living Saurians in the general contour of the head
and jaws, but differs from them widely in the conformation of the
muzzle, and the opening of the nose. Many species of the fossil
Crocodiles were of enormous size, much larger than the living
ones of the present day.

SUB-FAMILY. MARINE FOSSIL LIZARDS.

Enaliosauria, (Gr. sv&hog, enalios, marine; crai5^o?, sauros, a

lizard.)

This group includes some very extraordinary fossil Saurians.
Little else than the bones have been preserved, and from these
alone the structure and habits are inferred. It is hence impos-
sible to speak with certainty in regard to many parts of the living
organization ; while yet it is made quite clear, that in these ex-
tinct and gigantic reptiles, the extremities were flattened into
fin-like flippers, connecting them with the CHELONIA, and, to-
gether with other peculiarities of their structure, pointing out the
animals as exclusively aquatic. The Enaliosaurians " inhabited
the seas of Europe during the Trias and Jura formations." We
are not aware that any species have as yet been discovered in
North America. The two genera, are,

1st, Ichthyosaurus, (Gr. ichthus, a fish; sauros, a lizard.)
(See Chart.) This reptile is, according to Prof. Owen, a singu-
lar compound, in which the characters of the fish, the cetacea,
and the bird are engrafted upon an essentially Saurine type of
structure. Dr. Buckland, in his "Bridgewater Treatise," says
of it, "It presents combinations of form and mechanical con-
trivances, which are now dispersed through various classes and
orders of existing animals, but are no longer united in the same
genus. Thus, in the same individual, the snout of a Porpoise
is combined with the teeth of a Crocodile ; the head of a Lizard
with the vertebrae of a Fish ; and the sternum of the Orni-
thorhyncus with the paddles of a Whale." The general outline
of an Ichthyosaurus "must have most nearly resembled the
modern Porpoise or Grampus. It had four broad feet or paddles,
and terminated behind in a long and powerful tail." The struct-
ure of the skeleton is like that of a Saurian ; but the vertebral
column consists of more than a hundred vertebrae, each of which
is hollow, and fashioned like those of fishes. The form of the
sternal arch and the broad surfaces of the clavicles are adapted
to give great strength to the chest, and enable the animal to
breast the most disturbed waters. Dr. Buckland remarks, that
" the bones composing the arch are combined nearly in the same

482 SAURIANS.

manner as the Ornithorhyncus, of Australia, which seeks its food
at the bottom of lakes and rivers, and is obliged, like the Ichthy-
osaurus, to be continually rising to the surface to breathe air."
To this sternal arch the front paddles are articulated; they are
nearly one-half larger than the posterior paddles, and in this part
of the structure the cetaceous type appears to have been flattened.
The bones of the head, the length of the muzzle, and the teeth,
sometimes amounting to one hundred and eighty in number, pre-
sent analogies to those of the Crocodile. The eyes, however,
were extremely large, much larger than those of the latter ani-
mal, and we can easily imagine, glared ferociously as the mon-
ster darted towards its prey. Six different species have been
enumerated. The commonest species, 7. tenuirostres, (Lat. thin-
beaked,) reaches the length of fourteen feet. The species /.
platyodon, (Gr. plains, broad or large, and odous, tooth,) has
been seen in specimens thirty feet long. The teeth are some-
times two and a half inches in length ; and the orbit (of the eye)
one foot in diameter. The vertebrae are one hundred and twenty
in number. There is no evidence whatever that one species has
succeeded, or been the result of the transmutation of a former
species.

It should be added, that the first remains of the Ichthyosaurus
were collected by a lady, — Miss Anning, — from the cliffs of
Lyme Regis, Eng. The Ichthyosaurians are abundant through-
out the Lias and Oolitic formations.

Phsiosaurus, (Gr. plesios, next; sauros, a lizard.) This
genus was first described by Conybeare, in 1821. Its most
remarkable character pertains to the vertebrae of the neck,
which are from twenty to forty in number, (see Chart;) — more
than in any other known animal. Conybeare conjectures, that
as this creature 4^'eathed air, and had frequent need of respira-
tion, it usually swam upon or near the surface of the water,
arching back its long neck like the Swan, and plunging down-
wards at the fishes coming within its reach. Cuvier asserts, —
" To the head of a Lizard, the Plesiosaurus united the tail of
a Crocodile ; a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of
a Serpent ; a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary
quadruped ; the ribs of a Chameleon, and the paddies of a
Whale." The greater length of its extremities would seem to
indicate that movement on land was probably less difficult for
this creature than for the Ichthyosaurus. It was, probably, in
general, about ten feet long; though some species of this genus
and the preceding one, must have exceeded twenty feet in length.

SATJRIANS. 483

Prof. Owen enumerates no less than sixteen species of this extinct
and most anomalous animal.

Pterodactylus, (Gr. pteron, wing ; daktulos, a finger or toe,) The
PTERODACTYLE, (see Chart,) The researches of geology have
brought to light this Flying (fossil) Lizard, which received its name
from Cuvier. The construction of the skeleton fully proves that it
was capable of flying, or of skimming from one spot to another.
The wings were, probably, much like those found in the Bat.
The neck was very long and bird-like ; the head large ; the jaws
armed with pointed teeth ; and the tail very short. Six or seven
species of this genus have been distinguished ; one is almost the
size of a Thrush ; one of a Common Bat ; and another consider-
ably larger than the first. To these extinct reptiles, the little
Dragons, (Draco,) have but a distant resemblance. The food of
the smaller species consisted of insects, the larger preying upon
the fishes, or the marsupials of their day. These very singular
animals have only, within a comparatively short period, been
admitted to a place among the Reptiles.

Iguanodon, (Iguana, and odous, a tooth.) This name has
been given to the fossil remains of an extinct animal related to
the Iguana; but which attained a far more enormous bulk.
The bones were discovered by Dr. Mantell in the strata of
Tilgate forest, Eng. The teeth are so much like those of the
Iguana, as to show beyond question, its relation to this gigantic
Saurian, which could not have been less than seventy feet in
length. The teeth of the Iguanodon disclose some peculiar me-
chanical contrivances, fitting them for cropping tough vegetable
food, such as that furnished by the plants found imbedded with it.

SAURIANS.

What is the SECOND ORDER OF REPTILES ? Give the general characteris-
tics of this order. What did Aristotle observe respecting the SAURIANS?
In what respects do they come nearer the Mammalia than other reptiles?
In what climates are they most numerous ? At what season do they moult
their skin? Are medicinal properties justly ascribed to them? Into how
many families are they divided? What is the First Family? How many
genera does this family include ? How do they compare in size with the
rest of the LIZARDS? Where are they called ALLIGATORS ? Where CAI-
MANS? Where GAVIALS? How are these severally distinguished? In
what particulars do they differ from other reptiles? What evinces their
power of swimming? How are the jaws armed? Where are Crocodiles
most abundant ? What is peculiar in their mode of feeding? How are
they related to the Tortoises? How did the ancient Egyptians regard
them ? Is any species found in Europe or Australia ? What characters of
the ALLIGATOR are given ? What is said of its pursuit of fishes ? How is
it captured? What incident is related by Audubon? Mention the princi-
pal species. How does the gen. Crocodilus differ from the gea. Alligator ?

484 SAURIANS.

Mention the species found in this Hemisphere. Also the other species and
their localities. How is the gen. Gavialis at once distinguished? What
is said of the Gavial of the Ganges? What is the remark of Dr. Buckland?
What is said of Fossil Crocodiles? From what is the name Enaliosauria
derived ? Upon what is this group of marine Fossil Lizards founded ? What
two genera does it include? What does Prof. Owen say of the Ichthyosau-
rus? What does Dr. Buckland say respecting it? What further is said
of it? How many species have been enumerated? Who first described
the gen. Plesiosaurus? What is its most remarkable character? What was
the conjecture of Conybeare? What else is said of this gen.? How many
species have been enumerated? What is said of the Pterodactyle ?
What of the Iguauodon? Of the Chameleon? Illustrate this order from
the Chart, tracing the gen. and families as there given.

SECTION IV.
SECOND FAMILY. CHAMELEONS.

Chamaleonida, (Gr. #a,wattaW, chamaileon, a Chameleon,
Chameleon-kind.)

These are a group of singular reptiles, not immediately rela-
ted to any other family, but perhaps succeeding the Crocodiles
as fitly as it would any other reptiles. It contains but a single
genus, Chamcekon; the first peculiarity whereof consists in the
absence of scales, — instead of which, the surface of the skin is
covered with horny granulations of unequal size, but of sym-
metrical distribution; (2) the body is of a deep, compressed
form, surmounted on the back by a sharp ridge; (3) the Parrot-
like structure of the feet, (Plate XII. fig. 6,) longer in proportion
than those of any other Saurian, having each five toes, divided
into two opposing sets, one including two, and the other three,
armed with five sharp claws, and connected together as far as
the claws by the skin.

The internal organ of hearing is entirely hidden; the head is
very large, and seems to be set upon the shoulders; the upper
part usually showing an elevated crest or casque; and a ridged
arch is over each of the large orbits to the muzzle. The mouth
is very wide ; the teeth are sharp, small, and three lobed. The
eyes, though in themselves small, appear extremely minute ; the
whole of the ball, except the pupil, being covered with skin,
forming a single circular eye-lid with a central dilatable aperture,
The furrow between the ball of the eye and the edge of the
orbit is very deep; and the eye-lid closely attached to the ball,
moves with it. Each eye has the power of motion independent
of its fellow ! — so that we may see the axis of one directed up-

SATJRIANS. 485

wards or backwards, while that of the other is in a contrary
direction, giving a strange and most ludicrous aspect to the ani-
mal, in unison with its general contour and slow movements.
In consequence of this independent motion of the eyes the animal
when agitated, appears, in its movements, as if it were joined to
another, with which it has no unity of purpose or action. For
this reason, the Chameleon never goes into the water. He can-
not swim ; when in the water his power of concentration is lost;
and he tumbles about as if in a state of intoxication. Moreover,
he may be asleep on one side, and awake on the other !

As Cuvier observes, the only part of the Chameleon which
moves with quickness, is its tongue. This organ is cylindrical
and worm-like in shape, capable of being greatly elongated ; it
terminates in a fleshy tubercle, and is lubricated with a viscous
saliva. When not in use, it can be withdrawn into the mouth,
but is thrust forth with noiseless and arrow-like rapidity after in-
sects, slugs, and the like, which come within its reach. On these
• the animal lives, and not "on air," as many of the ancients sup-
posed. The gummy secretion at the tip of the tongue enables it
to secure its food readily. When fully protruded, the tongue
reaches to a distance equal to the length of the animal's body.
"An insect on a leaf at an apparently hopeless distance, or. a
drop of water on a twig, disappear as if by enchantment, before
the Chameleon," so marvelously rapid is the movement of its
tongue ; and here, doubtless, is the origin of the old idea relating
to the airiness of its food. The structure of the grasping power
of the tail in these animals can hardly fail to remind the beholder
of the Spider Monkeys, and distinctly points to their arboreal
habits ; when they descend to the ground, their actions there
appear strange and awkward. The females of this group dig a
hole in the ground for the reception of their eggs, which they
cover with earth and dry leaves.

In captivity, the Chameleons have little in their habits or
manners that is pleasing or attractive. Like all the Lizard
tribe, they are capable of enduring long-continued abstinence from
food, and apparently without injury.

Fifteen species, mostly African, are described as belonging to
the genus Chamodeon.

The COMMON CHAMELEON, C. vulgaris, is found in the south
of Europe, as well as in Africa. This species, the emblem of
hypocrisy and inconstancy, is the one so well known to the an-
cients, and respecting which so much has been said relative to
its power of changing its form, and taking the color of near ob-
jects, and which was believed " to live on air."

486 SAURIANS.

The FORKED-NOSED CHAMELEON, C. lifidus, (Lat. divided
into two parts,) is a very singular species, found in the Moluccas,
India and Australia, having the top of the head flat, and the
snout prolonged into two distinct branohes.

The WARTY CHAMELEON, C. verrucosus, (Lat. warty,) is one
of the largest species, averaging twenty inches in' its total length.
It is a native of Madagascar.

THIRD FAMILY. Geckotidce. The GECKOS.

The Geckos are a numerous family, divided by Cuvier into
seven sections, according to the structure of the toes, but bear-
ing a strong resemblance to each other in their general charac-
ters, and are distinguished for their nocturnal habits. Their
flattened form and broad head give them a peculiarly disagree-
able appearance, which is increased by their sombre and rather
toad-like hue : whence they have been subjected to the unfounded
imputation of being venomous creatures, producing, by their
touch, malignant disorders of the skin. Their limbs are short
and the toes, which are nearly of equal size, are flattened and
expanded on their under surface, either throughout the whole or
a greater part of their length ; the dilated parts, or the disks, are
often marked with regular but minute plates, so ranged as to pro-
duce a striated surface, and acting as suckers. The nails are
sharp, hooked, and retractile, like those of a cat, so that their
points may not become worn or blunted. The tongue is fleshy
and broad, but short and capable of little protrusion, and notched
at the tip, which alone is free. The eyes are large and full,
with extremely small eye-lids, which, as in the Chameleon, form
only a single membrane, leaving, however, a large aperture, and
exposing the nictitating membrane. The pupil, as in the cat
and other nocturnal animsils, is linear when undilated, and con-
tracts under the influence of light.

The orifices of the ears are placed on the sides of the head,
the tympanum being considerably below the surface. The
mouth is extremely wide ; the teeth are small, uniform, and im-
planted along the inner margin of the jaws ; the nostrils are
placed laterally.

The skin is more or less covered with granulations or horny
tubercles; and in some species, it is extended along the sides
and limbs into a kind of marginal fringe.

The voice of these reptiles is a sort of clucking cry, of which
the term GECKO, uttered in a shrill tone, is an imitation.

Their food consists of insects and caterpillars, which they

SAURIANS. 437

often obtain by waiting in ambush for them, or by pursuing them
into the holes and crevices to which they retreat for refuge. The
imbricated suckers of the feet permit these reptiles to traverse
ceilings, and suspend themselves on the under side of a leaf,
while^ watching the movements of their prey.

Their sharp, hooked-like claws enable them to climb the bark
of trees with perfect facility ; to penetrate the cavities and clefts
of rocks, and to ascend walls for the purpose of finding chinks
or hollows in which they conceal themselves during the day, rest-
ing motionless, and affixed by the feet, with the back downwards.
We must not fail to notice the singular power which the
Geckos have of reproducing the tail when it is lost by accident.
Indeed, the tail appears to be brittle ; and when broken off, it is
soon replaced ; but a swelling at the base of the reproduced
member, marks its line of union.

These reptiles, though persecuted, seem partial to the habita-
tions of men ; attracted thither by the flies which swarm in the
regions of their abode. It is useless to try to seize them. Their
power of adhesion is instantly overcome in the case of danger;
in their quick escape, not the slightest noise or rustle is heard, so
that they vanish as if by magic. Mrs. Mason, of the Baptist
mission in Burmah, says: "The first reptile that attracts the
attention of new comers, is the Gecko, or House Lizard. They
are every where ; under the sides of tables and chairs ; in the
closets and book-cases, and among the food and clothing. They
sometimes tumble from the roof upon the tables, but they usually
come struggling with a centipede, or some other vermin in their
mouths." So far from having any wish to destroy them, Mrs.
Mason says their services were invaluable, the best " help " sho
had. " This harmless little creature," she continues, "is repre-
sented by English, French, and German authorities, as ' a species
of poisonous lizard ; ' yet I have had them rest on the back of
my hand, and hang suspended from my fingers, without the
slightest disagreeable effect being produced." This is the ani-
mal mentioned in Prov. xxx., 28, correctly rendered by Jerome,

" The Gecko taketh hold with her hands,
And dwelleth in kings' palaces."

The Geckos are arranged, by some naturalists into seven ge-
nera, based upon the distinctive form of the toes and including
about sixty species. They are found in Asia, Africa, America
and Australia.

The COMMON GECKO, G. verus, (Lat. true,) was noticed by

488 SAURIANS.

Pliny and others of the ancients, under the name of Stellio, (Lat.
a newt, or an animal having star-like spots upon its back.)

The BANDED GECKO, Diplodactylus, (Gr. diploos, double ;
dactulos, finger,) vittalus, (Lat. banded or filleted,) is a singu-
lar species, found in Australia.

The LEAF-TAILED GECKO, Phyllurus (Gr. phullon, a leaf;
oura, tail,) platurus, (Gr. plains, broad ; oura, tail,) is a curious
New Holland species, first described by Dr. Shaw, having a
tail which is flattened horizontally in the shape of a leaf.

The WALL GECKO, Platydactylus, (Gr. broad-fingered,) mura-
lis, (Lat. of a wall,) is a species common in southern Europe,
where it attracts attention by its power of ascending smooth per-
pendicular walls. * It is this species which is called by the Ital-
ians, Tarantola, or Tarantula.

The LEAF-FINGERED GECKO, Phyllodactyla. (Gr. leaf-fingered,)
tuberculosus, (Lat. pimpled or tuberculated,) is found in Cali-
fornia.

The SMOOTH GECKO, G. lams, (Lat. smooth.) or Platydactulus
theconyx, (Gr. theke, a bag or sheath ; onux, a nail,) is a native of
South America and the Caribbee Islands. Specimens of this spe-
cies, in which the tail has been broken off and replaced by another
of imperfect growth, are seen in cabinets.

FOURTH FAMILY. Iguanida. The IGUANAS, or Thick-tongued
Lizards.

These form a very numerous group of reptiles, of which the

¥mus Iguana, (aboriginal name,) may be considered the type,
he whole have been comprised, (see Chart.) in forty-six genera
and one hundred and fifty species. Further discoveries, together
with modifications of former classifications, have increased the
number of genera to over fifty. Of the entire number of spe-
cies belonging to this family, about one hundred are natives of
America. North America possesses a considerable number, but
not more than three species are found within the limits of the
United States.

In all the genera of the Iguanas, the body is covered with
horny plates or scales, often keeled, spinous or tuberculated, but
never investing bony centres'or rings. Nearly all have a horny
ridge or crest along the middle of the back and tail. The teeth
vary in their mode of attachment, but are never rooted or fixed
in sockets. The tongue is of moderate size and free at the ex-
tremity only; it is thick, fleshy and spongy or velvety on its sur-

SAURIANS. 4?9

face, never cylindrical, nor playing in a sheath. The eyes are
protected with movable eyelids. The fingers are free, distinct,
and all furnished with claws. The auditory orifice is usually
visible, and often surrounded with pointed scales. .

The senses of sight and hearing in the Iguanas, appear to be
well developed ; taste they seem to have in a fair degree, but
not smell ; the touch is moderate.

MM. Dumeril and Bibron divide these reptiles into two sub-
families; (1) the Pleurodonta, (Gr. pleuron, side; odous, tooth,)
having the teeth palatine, or in a sort of furrow running along
the jaw bones and to which they adhere simply by their inner
surface. All the genera are American, with the exception of
one genus, Brachylophus, (Gr. brachus, short; lophos, crest,)
found in India.

(2) The Acrodonta, (Gr. akros, the highest part or summit ;
odous, tooth,) having the teeth soldered to the ridge or upper
edge of the jaws, of which they appear to be a continuation, and
from which they rise. Our space allows us to notice but a few
of the genera and species.

I. Iguana, distinguished by having a long flap or fold of skin
under the throat, on the part nearest the chin, somewhat like a
dewlap, and by having two series of palatine teeth, a long com-
pressed tail, and a dentated crest along the back.

The animals of this genus are arboreal in their habits, but
often, however, visit the ground, and occasionally take to the wa-
ter, in which they swim with ease and rapidity. They are easily
tamed, though they retain a degree of fierceness, and will often
attempt to bite. The female visits the sea shore, or the borders
of rivers, in order to deposit her eggs in the sand.

The incessant destruction of these creatures for the sake of
their flesh, has rendered them exceedingly scarce in localities
where they were once abundant. Their eggs are much es-
teemed. When attacked, they seldom attempt to escape, but
gaze at their assailants, inflating their throats prodigiously, and
assuming as formidable an air as possible, They show them-
selves to be very tenacious of life, and are generally killed by
plunging a sharp instrument into the brain. A well known spe-
cies inhabiting South America and the West India Islands, is
the Iguana tuberculata, (Lat. having tubercles,) often reaching
five feet in length, and sometimes measuring even six; the sides
of the neck are covered with tubercles, whence the specific name.
The general color of this species is green, more or less tinged
with olive ; or yellowish, marbled with a brighter tint ; the tail
is ringed with dusky black. It is fierce in its aspect and dispo-
sition. On account of the excellence of its flesh, the animal

4C9 SAURIANS.

has also the specific name sapidissima, (Lat. most savory ;) it
does not, however, suit " some constitutions."

II. Anolius, or Anolis. This genus is distinguished by an ex-
pansion of the skin on the last joint but one, (or the penultimate
joint,) of the toes ; by the possession of two rows of palatine
teeth ; by the absence of pores from the thighs. In some species,
both the back and tail are without a ridge or crest ; in others, a
crest consisting of minute scales runs along the middle line of
the back, and sometimes along the tail.

Like the Chameleons, the animals of this genus have the
power of changing their color. They are smaller in size, the
largest being not more than a foot in length ; climb the branches
of trees with great facility ; and even rest upon the leaves,
secured by the disks with which their toes are provided. The
males are said to make a barking noise like that of a small dog,
and to curl the tail over the back while running. In these ani-
mals, as well as those of the preceding genus, the middle parts
of the body and the tail are more slender and fragile than the other
portions, so that they often suffer a break, followed, however, by
a reproduction and consequent deformity. One species is found
in the United States, viz. : the CAROLINA ANOLIS, A. Carolinen-
sis. It is very abundant in the southern sections of the Union,
where it is known as the Green Lizard or Chameleon. This is
a very beautiful animal, of a light golden green above and green-
ish white beneath ; the throat pouch, when inflated with air, is
of a vermilion color. It keeps about gardens, and often, in search
of flies, enters the windows of houses, and can even walk upon
glass by means of the disks of the toes.

The GREAT CRESTED ANOLIS, A. velifer, (Lat. sail-bearing,)
is one of the species which have upon the back a sail-like crest.

III. Basilicus, (Gr. lasilikos, a kinglet.) This genus varies
from the Iguana, in the absence of femoral pores, and in having
a more contracted dewlap. A triangular fold of thin skin, sus-
tained by a cartilage, and rising vertically from the middle lon-
gitudinal line of the back of the head, gives a singular aspect to
the animals of this genus, which appear as if crowned with a
raised hood or pointed cap. An elevated, serrated ridge or crest
of scales passes along the middle of the back and tail, in the
males of one or two of the species, supported by bony appenda-
ges, and presenting the appearance of a continuous fin.

The MITRED BASILISK, B. mitratus, (Lat. mitred,) found in
Mexico and regions further south, receives its name from the
conspicuous pointed hood or crest on the occiput or hind part of
the head. It should be noted that the Basilisk of modern natu-

SAURLANS. 491

ralists, is not to be confounded with the Malignant Basilisk, or
serpent of the African deserts, pictured by the fancy of poets,
whose very glance the ancients believed to be fatal to all who
came within its influence. The true Basilisk or Cockatrice is,
notwithstanding its formidable appearance, a perfectly harmless
reptile, possessing great activity and seeking its insect food among
the trees.

IV. Amblyrhyncus, (Gr. aniblus, blunt ; rJiunchos, a beak or
muzzle,) is an anomalous genus found in the volcanic Galapa-
gos islands, so noted for their peculiar forms. The head is
short and has a blunt muzzle ; the scales of the body are not
tuberculated ; the skin of the throat is dilatable, but not formed
into a dewlap ; a high crest appears upon the back and tail.
Two species are found in the Galapagos islands, one terrestrial
and burrowing under ground, A. subcristatus, (Lat. somewhat
crested ;) the other marine, A. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) living
exclusively on the rock-bound sea, feeding on sea-weed, and sel-
dom found at much distance from the shore. "It is of a dirty
black color ; stupid and sluggish in its movements. The limbs
and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the
rugged and fissured masses of lava which every where form the
coast ; on the black rocks, six or seven of these hideous reptiles
may oftentimes be seen basking in the sun." (Darwin's " Voy-
ages of the Adventure and the Beagle.")

V. Tropidolepis, (Gr. tropis, a keel ; lepis, a scale.) is a ge-
nus confined to North America, and embracing ten species. The
Lizards which it includes have rough carinated (keel-like) scales
on the back and sides, while those of the other parts are imbri-
cated. The body is depressed and oblong in shape ; the head
short, depressed and rounded in front ; the neck contracted and
smooth beneath ; the thighs have a series of distinct pores, but
there is no crest either on the back or -tail.

The Brown Swift, T. undulatus, (Lat. varied with waves,) is
found within the Atlantic states as far north as New York, and
also in the Western States. It is often seen running along fences
or among trees, particularly in hilly or sandy districts, abounding
in pine trees, among which it seeks its insect food ; and hence
is called the Pine or Fence Lizard. This little creature, from
five to eight inches lonor, is venomous in its aspect, but really
harmless. Like the Chameleon, it changes its color. It is
very active, and therefore called Swift.

VI. Phrynosoma, (Gr. phrunos, a toad ; soma, body.) (Hoi-
brook.)

The genus Agama formerly included both Tropidolepis and

492 SAURIAN S.

Phrynosoma, but as now restricted, it contains no American spe-
cies. The genus Phrynosoma is closely allied to the preceding.
It includes several species inhabiting Texas, Mexico and Califor-
nia. The short, squat, nearly orbicular body, the feeble limbs,
the long spines fringing the hind part of the head, and the
shorter ones scattered along the back, give the animal quite a
singular appearance. The species which are most numerous
are P. cornuta, (Lat. horned,) or spinosa, (Lat. spiny ;) P. or-
biculare, (Lat. orbicular.) They are named Tapayaxan, or Horned
Frog, from their fancied resemblance to the latter animal. These
species feed upon insects, which they take by stealing upon
them imperceptibly : they have the strange habit of feigning
death when handled or even approached.

SECOND SUB-FAMILY, Acrodonta, without palatine teeth, and
the greater part without any external auditory orifice. All the
species are found in the old world. We barely notice some of
the more prominent genera.

I. Draco, (a dragon,) including eight or nine species found in
India, Java, Sumatra, etc.

These Lizards are of small size, and at once distinguished
from all other Saurians, by the possession of a pair of parachute
appendages, formed by the horizontal extension of the 'wings of
the sides, and resembling those of a butterfly. They are the
only living representatives of the fabulous dragons of olden timo,
celebrated in romance and fable. The " wings" can be folded up
or expanded at will, but they can not be made to strike the air,
and raise the animal after the manner of a bird or bat ; they,
however assist this little dragon, only a few inches in length, in
fluttering from branch to branch in search of insects, or when,
like the Pteromys, or Flying Squirrel, it shoots from tree to tree.
One of the most common species is the D. Daudini, of Bibron,
or D. volans, (Lat. flying,) of Gmelin, found in Java.

II. Stellio, (Lat. a newt or stellion.) is a genus characterized
chiefly by having the tail encircled with rings of large scales
that are often spinous. It furnishes the only European repre-
sentative of the present family, viz. : S. vulgaris, the COMMON
STELLION.

III. Grammatophora. (Gr. Grammata, letters ; phoreo, I carry,)
so called from a fancied resemblance of the tubercles of the
neck to letters. The back is without a crest, but has cross-rows
of large scales. Some have a fold across the throat. One spe-
cies is the G. muricata, the MURICATED LIZARD.

SAURIANS. 493

FIFTH FAMILY. VARANID^E. VARANS.

The Varans are worthy of particular attention on account of
the light which they shed upon the organization of certain fossil
Saurians. They are also interesting on account of the size of
some of the species, which is inferior only to that of Crocodiles.

These reptiles are covered with non-imbricated tubercles; i.e.,
they do not overlay each other, like tiles on a roof. These are
set in the skin, rounded (except on the under part of the body,
where they are angular in shape,) and arranged in circular
bands or rings. The body is elongated, rounded, and without
dorsal crests ; the toes are distinct, very long, and armed with
strong claws. The tail is more or less compressed, and at least
twice as long as the body ; the tongue is fleshy and very extensi-
ble, being, when fully protruded, twice as long as the head ; it
is of a slender figure, and deeply forked at the tip, like the
tongue of a snake.

The Varans are divided into two distinct groups, viz : (1) the
eminently Terrestrial group, which have the tail nearly conical in
shape, and which dwell far from the water, in desert and sandy
places ; (2) the Aquatic group, consisting of those which inhabit
the banks of rivers and lakes. In this latter group, the tail is
compressed laterally, and surmounted by a ridge, formed by two
series of flattened scales. In these the tail is an important organ
of progression in the water; they lash it rapidly and powerfully
from side to side, and thus propel themselves along with great
celerity, cleaving the water like an arrow. The body, in con-
sequence of the air with which the lungs are filled, floats on the
surface, and is directed by this powerful organ, at once a rudder
and an oar.

The motions of these animals on land, are quick and active.
It is not certain that any of them are arboreal, or able to climb
trees, but they can scramble up rocks and craggy precipices.
They run with facility ; but owing to the length of the tail and
manner in which they work it from side to side, pressing, at the
same time, against the ground, their movements are sinuous, like
those of a serpent; and they can spring upon their prey.

The pupil of the eye is circular, and yet many are said to be
nocturnal in their habits; others, however, are undoubtedly
diurnal.

The food of the Varans consists of the larger kinds of insects,
such as locusts, crickets, and beetles, — of birds, eggs, and small
mammalia. It is said, "they unite themselves in packs on the

494 SAURIANS.

borders of lakes and rivers, to attack quadrupeds which unsus-
pectingly approach to quench their thirst." M. Dumeril quotes
Latour as saying that he had "seen them hunt down a young
deer which was crossing a river, and succeed in drowning him;"
and, on one occasion, had "found a bone of the thigh of a sheep
in the stomach of one of these animals which he dissected."

No evidence exists that they ever attempt to injure man unless
previously molested by him.

Such are the animals which, in certain parts of their organ-
ization, bear the closest resemblance to the extinct Saurians. If
the habits attributed to these Varans bear any relation to those
of the Saurians now swept from the earth, then " we might have
in those annihilated giants, no bad representatives of the dragons
of our wildest legends."

The species of this family are not numerous, though widely
distributed. But one belongs to the North America, viz : the
Mexican HeJoderma, Heloderma horrida, one of the Aquatic
Varans. In Mexico, the belief is general, but erroneous, that the
bite of this species is fatal. Others are found in Asia, Africa,
and Oceanica. Only two species of Terrestrial Varans are
known ; one is peculiar to the island of Timor, (F. Timor iensis ;)
the other is

The DESERT VARAN OF EGYPT, V. arenarius, the Ouaran-el-
hard of the Arabs, — about three feet in its total length. It is
less active than the aquatic species, and especially than that in-
habiting the Nile.

The VARAN OF THE NILE, V.Niloticus or Monitor Niloticus,
Nilotic monitor, is a noted aquatic species, attaining the length
of five or six feet, and common in the Nile. It u as held in
great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, probably, says Cuvier,
because it destroyed the eggs of the Crocodile, of the approach of
which it is said to warn persons by a hissing noise, and hence
was called monitor. There are several conspicuous fossil Sau-
rians, some of which seem to be allied to the Varans, and which
are represented in the Cretaceous (Lat. creta, chalk) system of
the United States,

(1) The Geosaurus, (Gr. ge, the earth, sauros, a saurian.)
This name was given to this fossil by Cuvier, not in reference to
its habits as a living animal, as it was no doubt aquatic, but in
"allusion to the earth, — the Ge (TTj) of the Greeks, as the fabled
mother of the Giants." Remains of this animal were first ob-
tained from the white lias, at Manheim, Franconia. According
to DeKay, remains have also been found in the marl of the green
sand in New Jersey, and named G. Mitchelli, after the late Dr.

SAURIANS. 495

Samuel L. Mitchell, (Ann. of the Lye. of New York, Vol. III.)
Cuvier judged from the remains, that the animal was inter-
mediate between the extinct Enaliosauria, or Sea-Lizards, and
the living ones. The length of this fossil species is estimated at
from fifteen to twenty-five feet. (2) The animal of Maestritcht,
Mosasaurus, (Lat. mosa, the Latin name of Maestricht, and Gr.
sauros, a lizard,) named by Conybeare from a fine specimen ob-
tained from Maestricht, at the time of its, capture by the French
army. Specimens of this fossil, M. maximiliani or M. major
have been obtained from New Jersey and the banks of the
Yellow Stone River. DeKay gives the length, from four-
teen to fifteen feet ; but Dr. Buckland judges the animal to have
been twenty-five or twenty-eight long, (see his " Bridgewater Trea-
tise,") and so constructed as to "possess the power of moving in
the sea with sufficient velocity to overtake and capture such
large and powerful fishes as, from the enormous size of its teeth
and jaws, we may conclude it was intended to devour."

SIXTH FAMILY. Teida. TEGUIXINS.

The Lacertida have been arranged, by M. Dumeril, into two
divisions, viz : (1) Pleodonta, (Gr. pleos, full, not hollow; odous,
odontos, a tooth,) distinguished by having solid and rooted teeth ;
(2) Coelodonta, (Gr. koilos, hollow,) which have the teeth hol-
lowed by a sort of canal, and but slightly adherent to the bones
of the jaws. The latter are peculiar to the Old World ; the
Pleodonta are confined to this continent, and none are included
in the family Teidce, which have the head-plate horny, and the
scales small and granular, and sometimes with large plates.
This division is clearly separable from the Helioderms, of Mex-
ico, which have the head shields and scales of the body tubercu-
lar and the teeth groved within the ridge of the jaw.

The present family of Lizards includes twelve genera, which
may be divided into two groups, the one with the tail compressed
or flattened vertically; the other with rounded tail; or they may be
divided into those in which the front has the cross-folds, with
six-sided scales between ; (2) those in which the throat has a
collar of large shields.

Those which have compressed tails, show a marked resem-
blance to the Crocodiles, which is increased by their great size.
The tail is flattened somewhat like an oar, and the surface being
increased by caudal crests, these animals are able to move in the
water, which they inhabit, with nearly or quite as much facility
as the Crocodiles.

498 SAURIANS.

The species Crocodilurus, (Gr. Crocodile-tailed,) lacertinus, is
nearly six feet in length ; inhabiting the waters of Guiana and
Brazil. This is sometimes called the Tupinambis.

The Teius Teguixin, or Teguixin Monitor, of Gray, Tupinam-
bis Monitor, (Daudin,) is the true Tupinambis, the Sauvegarde, (the
Safeguard.) of Cuvier. This is one of the most noted species.
In their habits, the SAFEGUARDS are highly aquatic. They are,
indeed, able to run with, great swiftness along the ground, and
they dig for themselves burrows or hiding places in the earth,
but when hard pressed, are sure to take to the water. They are
found in South America, and reach from four to six feet in
length. Sometimes they are seen as long as eight feet.

D'Ayara states, that " they feed on fruits and insects," and that
"they also eat serpents, toads, young chicks and eggs." He
also relates that "they are fond of honey; and in order to
obtain it without injury from the bees, they come forward at in-
tervals, and as they run away, each time, give the hive a blow
with their tail, until, by repeated attacks, they weary out the in-
dustrious insects, and drive them from their home."

The Thorictes, (Gr. from thorax, coat of mail,) draccena, is a
very large species found in Guiana, and, in some instances,
being almost seven feet in length, of which the tail occupied five
feet. This, and the species Crocodilvrus lacertinus, were for-
merly included in the genus Ada, divided into the two genera
by M. Bibron.

The genus Ameiva includes six species, some of which have
the tail more rounded or conical, and two plates on the throat.
These are more terrestrial or arboreal in their habits.

The genus Cnemidophorus, (Gr. knlmis, a greave or Irggin ;
phoreo, I carry.) is interesting as including the only representa-
tive of the family in North America. This is the C. sex-Iineaius,
(Lat. six-lined,) which is abundant in the Southern States, and as
far North as North-eastern Maryland. It is easily known from
the other Lizards by the six yellow lines along the back, and the
long tail. When pursued, it runs with almost incredible swift-
ness; climbing trees with great facility, but not leaping from
branch to branch, like the Green Lizard, Anolis Carolinensis.

Acrantus, (Gr. akrantos, imperfect,) is a large South Ameri-
can genus, which has but four toes visible on the hind feet.

SAURIAWS. 497

SEVENTH FAMILY. Lacertida, (Lai. lacerta, lizard.)

SLENDER-TONGUED LIZARDS.

This family includes the Coelodonta, already defined ; and
which are found in the Old World. No true Lizard has yet
been discovered either in Australia or the Polynesian islands.

In many respects, these and the American Teidee agree. The
body is rounded and elongated ; the tail generally exceeds the
body in length, and is always well developed ; the head is pyra-
midal, flattened above, and covered with plates; the tympanum
is distinct, and sometimes externally apparent; the feet have each
four or five separate toes, armed with hooked claws ; the eyes
have the nictitating membrane in addition to the ordinary eye-
lids; the rnouth is very wide, and its edges are covered with
large (labial) plates; the teeth hollowed and placed in a groove
within the ridge of the jaw.

The True Lizards inhabit all the warm countries of the Old
World, and some of those which are considered temperate ; but
in the latter, they pass the winter in a torpid state. When ex-
cited by the heat of the sun, they are extremely active and
vivacious, — the most so indeed of all the Saurians. It is, how
ever, only by sudden darts, and for short distances, that they
perform their movements. If these animals do not soon gain
their burrows, or hiding places, they become fatigued, and fall
an easy prey to their enemies. Hence, they never undertake
long excursions from their native spot, or from the retreat which
they have chosen. In their course over the ground, or when
making their way among tangled herbage, the movement of their
bodies is serpentine. They help themselves onward not simply
by their limbs, but also by the body, and especially the tail. The
latter is so brittle, that it breaks off easily, but it is soon renewed ;
the renewed part being clearly distinguishable by a difference of
coloring from the rest, and the vertebrse, instead of being hard
and bony, are cartilaginous.

Although quite inoffensive, Lizards defend themselves with
much energy when attacked, and bite more sharply than might
be supposed. The larger part of them feed upon insects;
though some of them prey upon small animals, such as mice or
frogs.

The typical genus, Lacerta, contains species which are widely
spread over Europe and Africa, and remarkable for their brilliant
colors, as well as their quick movements. The Lizards of this
genus are easily distinguish ?d by the throat collar of broad

21

498 SAUEIANS

scales ; the tongue is long and forked ; the scales of the tail
are disposed in rings ; a minute plate of bone above protects
the orbits of the eyes ; a long row of pores runs down each thigh ;
the palate is toothed.

The EYED LIZARD, L. ocellata, of Southern Europe, attains to
about sixteen inches in length. Its ground color is a bright
glossy green, ornamented with round eye-shaped spots of gold
and blue, and with rings and irregular markings of black. It is
very bold and resolute ; when attacked by a dog, it fastens itself
on the muzzle of its enemy, and will suffer itself to be killed be-
fore it will let go its hold. The female lays seven or eight
oblong eggs.

The GREEN LIZARD. L. viridis, is an elegant species, but in
size is much less than the preceding. It is readily tamed, and
taught to come to the hand for food; will lie coiled in the hand
without attempting to escape ; on account of its beauty and grace-
fulness, it is often kept in cages furnished with an inner com-
partment filled with dried moss or bran; amidst which it buries
itself in order to pass the winter. It seldom bites ; and, indeed,
its bite is said to be "a pinch scarcely to be felt."

The SAND LIZARD, L. agilis, is considerably larger than the
Green Lizard ; is a native of England and most parts of the
Continent of Europe. Its general color is a sandy brown, spot-
ted with black on the sides, each spot having a white or yellowish
dot in the center. Unlike the Green Lizard, it is impatient of
confinement, and soon pines to death, never growing familiar.
It is sometimes a foot long, measuring from the nose to the ex-
tremity of the tail. The female buries her eggs in the sand, and
leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun.

The VIVIPAROUS or SCALY LIZARD, Zootoca, (Gr. zoos, living ;
tikto, to bring forth,) vivipara. This species of the sub-genus
Zootoca is characterised by the palate being toothless. This is
also found in Great Britain and in the Continent of Europe, and
is "a pretty, active little creature, frequenting dry, sunny banks,
thickets and copses." It seldom exceeds five or six inches in
length, and is very gentle and harmless. It differs from the
preceding species in producing living young. The eggs are
hatched before exclusion, and not deposited in the sand ; hence,
the term applied to it, "viviparous." This Lizard ordinarily
produces four or five young, often seen in company with the
mother, and for sometime, probably, guided by her, but lively
and alert, and capable of procuring their own food. This species
presents various markings, but in most, the upper parts are of a
greenish or olive brown, with lines of dark brown on the back

SAURIANS. 499

and side ; the under parts orange, spotted with black, or, in the
female, pale gray, with a tinge of green.

The genus Ophiops, (Gr. ophis, serpent ; dps, eye,) is princi-
pally distinguished by having no eye-lids, or merely rudimentary
ones, like the Serpents.

The species Ophiops Megans, is of an olive color above, with
two lines of yellow on each side of the body, having two rows
of black spots between them.

EIGHTH FAMILY, CTidlcid®. CHALCIDES.

This and the succeeding family of Skinks, each conduct to the
Ophidia, or Snakes. These two families have, therefore, some-
times been regarded as constituting an intermediate order be-
tween the Saurians and Ophidia, and termed Saurophidia, or
Lizard-Snakes. Some of the genera of the present family are,
by Cuvier, classed with the Snakes, as they are without limbs, and
resemble the latter in other respects in their structure.

The animals of this family are readily distinguishable by the
arrangement of the scales or markings of the skin, and by the
lateral furrow found in many species. Some of them are fur-
nished with four legs; others with but two; while another por-
tion of the family are entirely serpent-like in their appearance,
in consequence of the absence of these members outside of the
skin. The trunk of the body blends with the head and tail,
without any distinct lines of division, and is covered with scales
which, instead of being imbricated like those of fishes, are ar-
ranged in whorls or rings enclosing the body. Where the scales
are absent, furrows in the hardened skin exhibit similar mark-
ings. The teeth are not implanted in the jaws, but appended
along the margin or internal edge, — thus showing the true
pleurodont character; the tongue is free, but not very extensi-
ble ; it is broad, and covered with papillce, and is notched at the
front ; the ears are apparent externally in some species, while
others present no such indications. The eyes are generally
small and slightly developed. Some species have movable eye-
lids; in others, these organs are not movable ; while a few have
the entire ball of the eye covered by the skin.

The Reptiles are confined chiefly to Africa and America.
Mexico, California, and the Southern parts of the Union have
quite a number of species, some fifty of which have been de-
scribed and arranged in sixteen or more genera. They have
been divided into two sub-families, according as the skin is cov.
ered with scales, or destitute of them. (1) Ptychopleura, (Gr.

500 SAURIANS.

ptuche, a fold ; pleura, side,) distinguished by a fold of the skin
upon the side ; (2) Glyptoderma, (Gr. gluptos, graved or carved ;
derma, skin,) distinguished by square or card-like divisions,
sometimes colored, and then, like mosaic work, extending in reg-
ular order over the skin. The first sub-family have scales ar-
ranged in the manner described above. All have a fold or
furrow on each side, and are in possession of eye-lids.

Of these may be mentioned the Ophisauros, (Gr. serpent-
lizard,) found in North America, having, with the head of a lizard,
the body of a snake, and the snake-like manners which such a
form involves. It is called the Glass-snake, from the fact that the
body is very brittle, and may be broken by a slight blow.

Two species exist in the United States, viz: (1) O. ventralis,
which is limited to the Southern or South-Eastern States; (2)
O. lineatus, which is met with in the South- West, and as far
North as Michigan.

II. Genus Pseudopus, (Gr. pszudos, false; pous, foot.) includ-
ing reptiles which, in their form and movements, resemble
snakes, — having no front limbs, and hind limbs which are mere
scaly, undivided appendages.

The SCHELTOPUSIK, (P. Pallasii, Cuv.,) is so named by the
natives of the desert of Naryn, near the Volga, (Russia.) It is
a native, not of Europe only, but of Africa and Asia. This rep-
tile is eighteen inches long; of a reddish yellow or chestnut
color, clouded with black. It frequents wooded valleys and
gives chase to small Lizards, which, together with insects, con-
stitute its food. Being of a quiet and inoffensive disposition, it
is, when captured, sometimes kept alive in rooms. It is re-
corded, however, that on one occasion, one of these reptiles so
kept, got access to a nest of young birds, which it soon demol-
ished, and, no doubt, fully enjoyed.

III. Genus Chalcides, 'includes species chiefly found in South
America, having both fore and hind limbs, but in a rudimentary
condition. The front pair terminate in three or four scaly
tubercles; the posterior pair are represented by two. slender
spines ; the tongue is arrow-like in figure, with a sharp, two-
cleft point ; the surface is covered with large, flat, imbricated
papillae, resembling in form and arrangement, the scales of a
fish. Four species are described. One, (C. Schlegii,} a native
of Java; the others are found in Guiana, Columbia, and Chili.
These reptiles have no external ear, by which they are distin-
guished from the following genus.

IV. Genus Chamaesaura, (Gr. chamai, on the ground ; sou-
rat a lizard,) which has an outward auditory cavity, and the

SAURIANS. 501

rudimentary limbs without any sub-division, or but one toe on
each foot. The only species is the C. anguina, of the Cape of
Good Hope, having the head covered with many side shields or
scales, and the cylindrical and elongated body covered with
elongate, keeled scales.

V. Genus Saurophis, (Gr. Lizard-Serpent,) — includes reptiles
with more highly developed extremities, each foot having four
toes. The only species known, is the S. tetradactylus, which
inhabits the southern part of Africa.

The other genera of this sub-family have four- toes on each
foot, of these we can only refer to the genus.

VI. Gerrhonotus, (Gr. shield-back,) of which there are eight
specie's, seven inhabiting Mexico, and one California. In these
reptiles, the thighs are destitute of the pores. They produce
their young alive; and in their habits, closely resemble the
Lizards.

VII. Zonurus, (Gr. zone, belt; oura, tail,) is a genus in which
the limbs are four and robust; the feet each furnished with five
toes ; the tail is short, and the head triangular and flattened ; the
scales of the back and sides are square, in a close cross series.

The CORDYLE LIZARD, Z. griseus, (Bibron,) or Cordylus
(Gr. a knotty club,) griseus, (Cuvier,) is an example of this
genus. It is a native of South Africa, where it is common.

VIII. Tachydromus, (Gr. swift runner,) is a genus found in
Cochin China, China, Borneo, and Java, distinguished by having
keeled ventral shields ; and the throat with keeled scales. It
has, like the preceding, four lirnbs, but they are less robust ; five
toes, but three not fully developed, and a greatly elongated form.

The TACHYDROME, T. sexlineatus, (Lat. six-lined,) receives
its specific name from having three lines extending longitudi-
nally on each side.

Second sub-class. Glyptoderma, (Gr. carved -skin.) This
division nearly corresponds with the family Ampliisbaenida, of
some authors. The lateral furrow peculiar to these reptiles, is
faintly seen in the more typical Chalcides referred to above. Most
of the species have been classed by some with the Ophidia, which
they greatly resemble. From the latter, however, they are dis-
tinguished by their Saurian head and tongue; and by having
the vertebrae united by fibrous or thread-like cartilage.

I. Genus Amphisbaena, DOUBLE WALKERS, so called from the

strong resemblance between the front and hind extremities of the

membranous body, the head, tail, and intermediate part being of

- the same circumference. Appearing to have a tail at each end,

they are supposed to be capable of progression in either direction.

502 SAURIANS.

M. Bibron enumerates ten species, of which two are natives of
Africa, the rest of America.

The DUSKY AMPHISBAENA, A. fuliginosa, and the WHITE AM-
PHISBAENA, A. alba, are species measuring nearly two feet in
length ; found in Brazil and Cayenne. They bore the ground
like worms, and, it is said, move either way with equal facility.
They are often found in the earthy habitations of the Termite-
Ants, which they follow through their winding galleries, for the
purpose of feeding on them. The flesh of these creatures, dried
and reduced. to a fine powder, is sometimes administered as an
infallible remedy in cases of broken bones, or dislocated joints ;
on the inference, that as it has the power of uniting its own body,
if cut in two, and of healing, in so marvelous a manner, amputa-
tion in itself, it has at least the power of curing a simple fracture
in another !

II. Genus Chirotes, (Gr. from cheir, hand,) has no hind limbs,
but has a pair of short front limbs placed near the head, and what
is remarkable among Saurians, each having five fingers, or at
least four fingers or toes, armed with claws, and a tubercle rep-
resenting the fifth. The possession of a sternum distinguishes
these reptiles from the Amphisbaena. The body is snake-like ;
the head, neck and trunk, are of equal circumference. Only
one species is known ;

The CHANNELED CHIROTES or BIPED, C. canaliculatus, (Lat.
channeled,) — eight or ten inches in length, a native of Mexico,
and extending to the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The
eyes are almost imperceptible, covered with transparent skin, but
destitute of eye-lids. Its upper surface is yellow ; the under,
white, and the whole body covered with little square compart-
ments, disposed circularly. In the absence of hind feet, while
the front ones are present, this creature presents a strong resem-
blance to the Siren, a genus of the Batrachians.

NINTH FAMILY. SCINKS, (or SKINKS,) or LEPIDOSAURIANS.
Scincida, (Gr. axlyxog, skinkos, a kind of lizard.)

We come now to the last family of the Saurians, which, to the
general characters of the order, join many distinguishing pecu-
liarities. They have the head covered with large plates, which
have angular and regular shapes. These render them distin-
guishable from all the other families of the order, except the
True Lizards and the Chalcidians, which, as we have seen, pos-
sess them also. The rest of the body is invested with scales, of
greater or less magnitude, and of variable forms; but always

SAURIANS. 503

arranged in a quincunx or five • fold order, and overlaying each
other like the tiles of a house, as we see in large scaled fishes,
as, for instance, the Carp. The scales of the under parts and
sides, are nearly of the same size and shape as those of the back.
This distinguishes them from the True Lizards, in which the
ventral scales are much larger than those of the back, with the
outlines angular. There are no lateral furrows or folds of skin
extending along the flanks; this again separates them from the
Chalcidians. The tongue is free, fleshy, notched at its point,
without a sheath, and covered either altogether, or in part, with
papillae. The whole surface of the scales being generally
smooth and polished, many of these reptiles, glide easily into
small crevices ; and they creep by giving a tortuous and snake-
like motion to the trunk and tail. The limbs vary in different
groups, being four, two, or none; when present, they are short.

The Skinks include about a hundred species, variously dis-
tributed over the globe. The largest number of species is found
in Australia, which has nearly forty peculiar to itself. Asia
claims the next largest number; then comes Africa, and after-
wards America. Europe numbers scarcely more than six or
eight species. Five species are found within the limits of the
United States.

The Skinks have been arranged into three sub-families, dis-
tinguished from each other by peculiarities relating to the eyes.

I. Saurophthalmia, (Gr. sauros, a saurian ; ophthalmos, an
eye.) The members of this sub-family have movable eye-lids,
which can be brought together so as to entirely cover the eye.
Most of them have four feet, but some have two, while others
appear to have none. All are without femoral pores. The
lowest form of this group is the Acontias, (Gr. a serpent that
darts from a tree on its prey.) Of this, only one species is
known, the Acontius meleagris, found at the Cape of Good Hope.
Though much like a serpent in the absence of feet, and of a
tympanic orifice, it possesses most of the characters of the Skinks.
The tongue, as in the Blind or Slow Worm, is flat, and like an
arrow-head, with scarcely any notch at the tip. The eyes are
very minute, and there is only a single eye-lid, which proceeds
from the lower part of the orbit. The scales are smooth and
imbricated.

II. Genus Anguis, (Lat. a snake,) is probably the best repre-
sentative of the Serpentine or Footless Skinks. This is charac-
terised by a cylindrical aad snake-like body and tail, as well as
by the absence of limbs. The eyes, as in the preceding species,
are very minute. Only one species is known, viz : the SLOW

504 SATJRIANS.

WORM or BLIND WORM, A.fragilis, (Lat. brittle.) When irri-
tated or alarmed, the Slow Worm, by a forcible contraction of
all the muscles of the body, becomes perfectly stiff, and then
breaks in two, with the slightest blow, or upon an attempt to bend
it. Hence, Linnaeus applied to it the iermfragihs. This beau-
tiful and harmless reptile, is found in various parts of Europe,
appearing early in the spring, and going into winter quarters in
October. It feeds on insects, earth-worms and slugs; being
particularly partial to the latter. The Slow Worm is said to
shed its skin like the true snakes. The female produces her
young alive, in July or August, or at least lays from ten to six-
teen eggs, from which the young soon escape; development
having considerably advanced previous to the deposit. The
general color is yellowish brown or yellowish gray, with lines
and spots of black ; the under parts are white, with whitish retic-
ulations or net-work.

III. Tropidophorus, (Gr. tropis, carina or keel ; phoreo, to
carry.) In this genus there are four strong limbs, each with
five compressed toes. The body is fusiform or spindle-shaped.
The scales upon the body are thick and striated, but rounded on
the muzzle; the tail has four spinose keels above, but is smooth
on the sides. The species T. Cocincinensis, is a native'of Cochin
China. It is, on the upper parts of the body, of a color inclining
to olive, or a yellow brown. The neck is banded, the color
being brown ; with marks of a much deeper shade, representing
a succession of figures like the letter X; spots of deep brown
also appear on the tail ; and a row of whitish points along the
lower parts of the sides.

IV. Genus Seps, (Gr. a small serpent.) exhibits a form some-
what snake-like, it being much elongated, but still provided with
four limbs. These, however, are very small and weak, and
have toes of unequal length. This is represented by a single
species, <S. chalcides. This curious reptile is a native of South-
ern Europe, and, except in the possession of limbs, resembles the
Slow Worm. Like that reptile, it brings forth its young alive,
and feeds on insects, earth worms and slugs. It is said to be
perfectly harmless, though some suppose it to be a poisonous
animal. It spends the winter in its ground-burrow, but emerges
again in the spring, and lives during summer in sunny spots
covered with herbage and underwood.

V. Tetradactylus, (Gr. four toed.) This genus has four toes
on each foot.

VI. ChampsodactyluS) (Gr. with crocodile-toes.) has five toes in
front, and four behind.

SAUKIANS. 505

VII. Heteropus, (Gr. with unlike feet,) has four toes in front
and five behind.

VIII. Trachysaurus, (Gr. rough lizard,) has five toes to each
toot. The Rough Skink, T. rugosus, of New Holland, attains
to a very large size, and is very singular in its appearance.

IX. Plestiodon, is a genus found in the United States, also
having five toes to each foot ; the fore feet short and scaly, with
five sharp nails ; the hind feet larger, with long slender toes,
also furnished with nails. The species P. fasciatus, (Lat.
banded,) was formerly Scincus fasciatus, (as in the Chart.)
The body has five yellow lines upon it, from which the specific
name is derived ; the color above is bluish black. The length
is from six to eight inches. This reptile is common in the South-
ern parts of New York State, and has been seen as far North as
Massachusetts. It is found in Japan. The species P. erythro-
cephalus, (Gr. red headed,) is twelve inches long, and found
from Pennsylvania to Florida. One species, P. Americanus,
which is the largest, is said to attain the length of twenty-five
inches. In the Southern States, they are called Scorpions, and
regarded as poisonous, but not justly. The larger species are
capable of inflicting a severe bite. The smaller ones are found
about old logs, and sometimes under the bark of trees. A species
of this genus is found in Egypt.

X. Scincus. This genus, as now restricted, includes but one
species, S. officinalis, peculiar to Northern and Western Africa
and Syria, having the tongue notched -and scaly, the teeth con-
ical and blunt, and two rows on the palate ; the muzzle is
wedge-shaped ; the scales are smooth and shining, like those of a
fish. The limbs are four, with five toes on each foot. The tail
is conical and pointed. The upper parts are usually yellow, or
of a silvery gray, mingled with brown and blackish. The under
parts are, generally, of a silvery white. It is termed by Bruce,
EL ADDA. In ancient times, it was regarded as an efficacious
remedy in various diseases, especially those of an eruptive na-
ture. According to Pliny, it was useful for curing wounds
made by poisoned arrows, and, at the present day, it is kept by
tha druggists of Southern Europe; though its reputation has
greatly waned. " It runs with considerable rapidity, and. when
alarmed, it buries itself in the sand with singular quickness,
burrowing, in a few moments, a gallery of many feet in depth.
When caught, it struggles to escape, but neither attempts to bite,
nor to defend itself with its claws."

II. Sub-family Opiophthalmoi, (Gr. serpent-eyes,) including
Skinks, in which the eyes, like those of Serpents, are either

506 SAURIANS.

without eye-lids, or else have them in the form of a narrow ring,
partly or entirely surrounding the eye. Most of the species arc
found in New Holland. The genus Hysteropus, (Gr. husteropus,
hind- footed,) (Bipes, Cuv.,) is without fore feet, and the hind ones
are but short, flattened appendages, without any division into toes.
III. Sub-family Typhlopthalmoi, (Gr. blind-eyes.) includes
Skinks which are entirely blind, having eyes so minute as to be
completely rudimentary. Of this division, there are but two
genera, each with a single species, viz : the Dibamus, of New
Guinea, with hind oar-like feet; and Typline Cuvierii, of South
Africa, without any feet whatever.

Which is the SECOND FAMILY of the SAURIAN REPTILES ? What is its only
gen.? What characteristics are given? What is said of the organ of hear-
ing? Of the mouth, teeth, &c. ? Describe the eyes. What peculiar power
has each eye? How does this animal therefore appear when agitated?
How does he act when in the water? Which is the only part of the C. that
moves quickly? Describe the tongue and its uses. In what respect is the
Chameleon like the Spider-Monkeys? What sp. are referred to?

What is the THIRD FAMILY ? Give its characters. What is the origin
of the name Gecko ? On what does the animal feed ? How is it able to
traverse ceilings and the under side of leaves ? How does it use its sharp
hook-like claws? What singular power does it possess? Repeat the re-
marks of Mrs. Mason. What is the number of sp. ? Where are they found ?
Which are referred to?

What is the FOURTH FAMILY? Which is the typical gen. of this family?
What is said of the number of gen. and sp. which it includes ? Give their
general characteristics. Into what two SUB-FAMILIES have they been arrang-
ed ? What is said of the gen. Iguana ? What sp. of it are referred to ? What
is said of the gen. Anolis ? What sp. are mentioned? What is said of the gen.
Sasilicus ? What of the MITRED BASILISK ? What of the gen. Amblyrhyncus ?
What sp. are named? What of the Tropidolepis ? What of the BROWN
SWIFT? What of the gen. Phrynosoma? Which are the mo?t numerous
sp. ? Where are all the sp. of the SECOND SUB-FAMILY found ? . Which is
.the first gen. mentioned? What is said of it? What other gen. is
mentioned ?

What is the FIFTH FAMILY? Why do the VARANS deserve particular at-
tention ? Describe them. Into what groups are they divided ? Give their
peculiarities. Are they nocturnal? Upon what do they feed? What is
the remark of Latours ? What sp. belong to N. A. ? What is said of it?
What two sp. of Terrestrial Varans are known? What is said of the V. OF
THE NILE? What FOSSIL Saurians allied to the Varans are mentioned?

What is the SIXTH FAMILY ? Into what divisions have the LACERTID^E
been arranged ? Which of these is confined to this continent, and included
in the Teida3? Does it include the Helodorma of Mexico? How many
gen. and groups does it contain? Which group resembles Crocodiles?
What is said of the Tupinambis? Give the other name. What is said of

OPHIDIANS. 507

the TEGUIXIN MONITOR? What very large sp. is found in Guiana? What
representative of this family is found in N. A. ? How is it known from the
other Lizards ?

What is the SEVENTH FAMILY ? To which Continent are they confined?
Describe the habits of the TRUE LIZARDS. What is said of the gen. Lacerta ?
Describe the Eyed-Lizard. The GREEN L. What of the LAND L. ? Of the
VIVIPAROUS or SCALY L. ?

What of the EIGHTH FAMILY ? To what order is this and the succeeding
family closely related? How have they been regarded? How are the
Chalcides readily distinguished ? What further characters are given ? To
what regions are these Reptiles confined ? Are any found in the U. S. ?
How many sp. have been described? Name the sub-families into which
they have been arranged ? What gen. is found in N. A. ? Why is it
called the GLASS-SNAKE ? What sp. in the U. S. ? State particulars in
regard to the other gen. and sp.

What is the NINTH FAMILY? Give the peculiarities of the family? How
many sp. ? Name their localities. How many sub-families ? How distin-
guished from each other ? Describe the gen. and sp. Name the first sub-
family. What is said of the second sub-family ? What of the third ?

SECTION V.

THIRD ORDER. — OPHIDIANS OR SERPENTS.
Ophidia. (Gr. 6'<pt£, ophis, a serpent.)

The Ophidians are particularly distinguished by the total ab-
sence of external limbs in a majority of the species, or else the
limbs are so rudimentary as to be discoverable only by dissection,
or on very close examination : so that, as Cuvier remarks, they
are more truly deserving of the name of Reptiles than any other
order.

They possess an elongated form, with which is conjoined not
only great flexibility, but amazing strength. Their upper sur.
face is covered with narrow and somewhat pointed scales, of
small or moderate size, imbricated or disposed like tiles ; these
are called squama. The under surface is covered with broad
transverse scales or plates, called scuta, of which the hind edge
in one overlays the front edge in the other. The top of the head
is also usually covered with plates. The whole "of the delicate
and pellucid outward membrane which covers the scales, is shed
entire, and renewed once a year, or perhaps oftener ; it is some-
times called the slough. All serpents pass the winter, or cold-
est part of the year, in a torpid state ; when coming out from
this state, the skin is cast or exuviated ; it is first detached

508 OPHIDIANS.

around the head, and is pushed off gradually, being turned inside
out, like the finger of a glove. This rejection of the slough
was to many of the ancients, a sign of a renovated state of ex-
istence; they regarded these reptiles as leading a protracted life
of annually renewed vigor and beauty. The internal frame-
work or skeleton of serpents is extremely simple, consisting of
the skull, the vertebral column, and the ribs, (Plate XII. fig. 5.)
The breast bone is wanting; so also are the bones of the hips,
and of the limbs, excepting where the hind pair exist in the form
of hook-like stylets, as in the Boas. A reference to the plate of
the skeleton just referred to, must satisfy any one of its elegance,
and also suggest the idea of its flexibility, which an examination
of its parts will fully confirm.

The vertebral column consists of a series of bones united to
each other by beautiful ball-and-socket joints ; the head of each
separate vertebra being received into a deep cup-like cavity of
the one succeeding it. The whole of the spine is, in reality, a
chain of these joints, firmly locked together, each movable to
such extent as is consistent with the safety of the spinal cord.

Serpents are capable of twisting themselves in the most extra-
ordinary manner; but their pliability consists less in the mobil-
ity of each joint separately, however great this be, than in the
number of joints into which the vertebral column is divided.
Two ribs, one on either side, arise from each of the distinct
bones of that column. Its bones are exceedingly numerous,
being always more than a hundred, and in some species amount-
ing to more than three hundred.

The ribs, forming a large portion of a circle, embrace nearly
the whole circumference of the body; and to these reptiles are
the efficient agents of locomotion. They each severally play on
a convex protuberance of the respective vertebrae, and are acted
upon by powerful muscles, which move them backwards and
forwards. Instead of being attached at their extremity to a
breast bone, as is the case in the Mammals and Lizards, each
pair, by means of a slender cartilage, is connected with one of
the scuta, or shield-like plates of the under surface. The ribs
may be likened to the limbs of the millipede or thousand-legged
worm ; they support the weight of the snake, and in its progres-
sion, work like the legs of that insect.

Although destitute of limbs, yet some serpents are capable
of rapid advances. On the" surface of the ground, their pro-
gression is made in two ways. The ordinary movement, when
the body is straightened out entirely in contact with the ground,
is by a succession of short steps, taken by the numerous ribs, as

OPHIDIANS. 509

is seen in the millipede ; the ribs moving in pairs, and each pair,
as advanced, carrying forward with themselves, the scales to
which their extremities are fixed, and which serve as so many
points of resistance to a backward movement. But the reptile
makes a more rapid progress by throwing the body into large
curvatures, the fore part being fixed, and the rest brought up by
the action of the muscles and ribs; the hind part of the body
being next fixed, and the fore part thrown forwards, and so on,
alternately.

The most rapid movements are probably made when the entire
body is gathered up into one vertical loop, like a bent spring, the
head and tail being more or less approximated ; the sudden
straightening of this loop or spring, with the tail as the fulcrum
or point of resistance, may enable the animal to spring forward
at one operation, to a distance greater than the length of the
body.

The exceeding flexibility of their bodies enables many spe-
cies to climb trees in pursuit of their prey, and on these, some
are habitually found ; others are constant inhabitants of the
water.

The bones of the face, excepting in a few species, have a high
degree of mobility, and on account of their peculiarities, deserve
special notice.

The lower jaw is not directly articulated with the upper, as in
other animals, but connected with it by two bones which are
movable upon each other. The extremities of the lower jaw
also, instead of being anchylosed, or immovably fixed, are con-
nected by an extensile ligament. Thus, unlike what is seen in
the Mammals, where the bones forming the jaws and face are
firmly locked together, those of the snake have no connection
but that which is made by ligaments and skin. Hence the ser-
pent tribe can swallow their food undivided, and many times
larger in bulk than the circumference of the body. In this pro-
cess they are aided by the expansibility of the skin, the gullet,
and the stomach ; but something additional was needed to com-
plete their capability of swallowing such enormous masses of
food ; how shall such masses be made to pass through the jaws?
Here is a difficulty which, without some peculiarity of structure
must have been insuperable, but which, in the case of these rep-
tiles, is fully met by the attachment of the lower jaw to bones
movable upon each other, and allowing of a sort of natural dis-
location, so that the jaw gives way in the act of swallowing, and
recovers itself when the prey is fairly engulphed. The head
of the snake may hence be pointed to as exhibiting one of the

510 OPHIDIANS.

beautiful and striking instances of marked adaptation and bar-
mony, so extensively apparent in the works of God.

Serpents can hardly be said to have two lungs, one of the two
being generally abortive, or merely rudimentary.

All of them have teeth, but these serve only to retain their
food, and are not adapted to mastication. In the harmless snakes,
(or rather those which are not poisonous,) the upper and under
jaws are furnished with a number of small, but very sharp teeth,
pointing backwards, (Plate XII. fig. 5 ;) the palate is also armed
with two similar rows, so that there are six lines of teeth in the
mouth. The venomous species not only have the jaws very
small and freely movable upon a bony peduncle or footstalk ;
but each branch of the upper jaw has a long, recurved, pointed
tooth, traversed by a canal or tube, leading from a large gland
situated beneath the eye. The fluid secreted by the gland passes
through this tube into the bottom of the wound which the poison-
fang inflicts. When not called into use, the poison-fangs lie
concealed along the roof of the mouth ; but when about to bite,
the snake raises them up, and in the act of biting, compresses
the poison-glands, by means of a peculiar muscle for that pur.
pose, and thus instils a few drops of the deadly fluid into the
puncture. These large fangs are, in truth, the only teeth in the
upper jaw j the others above are arranged in two rows on each
side, along the bones of the palate. The branches forming the
lower jaw are slender, and but partially furnished with teeth.

It is common to hear persons speak of the sting of the serpent ;
but from the explanation here given, it will be noticed that prop-
erly speaking, the serpent has no sting; the fatal wound is pro-
duced by a bite.

Most species of venomous serpents are ovo-viviparous, i. e.,
the young are hatched before exclusion and born alive, whence
the general name of Vipers — a contraction of Vivipares, (born
alive) — though with a few of this division, whether they be so
born or not, seems a matter dependent on the latitude and the
mean temperature of the region in which they dwell. Some of
the non-venomous or harmless snakes are also ovo-viviparous;
the others are oviparous. The eggs are often more than thirty
in number, rounded and agglutinated in bead-like rows, by a
sort of mucous substance. The shells of the egg in oviparous
serpents, although cretaceous, are soft like the eggs of the com-
>mon hen when she has not enough calcareous matter in her food,
called soft eggs. Their color is ordinarily yellowish or grayish
white. The Creator has in this as in other instances, benefi-
cently provided against the increase of dangerous animals, by

OPHIDIANS. 511

assigning a small number of young to the venomous species,
while many of the harmless kinds are extremely prolific. The
females often take care of their young for a time. On the ap-
proach of danger, they have been seen to receive the whole fam-
ily into their throats, and when it has passed, to restore them
again to the open air.

The voice or hiss of serpents, which is often exerted, is more
or less loud and piercing. It is the expression of anger or im-
patience ; the warning of an attack, or the signal of defiance.

Their senses exhibit different degrees of development. They
cannot be said to possess that of touch in a high degree, though
they have what is sufficient to regulate their progression, and
indicate the kind of surfaces with which their bodies are brought
into contact.

The tongue is soft, fleshy, bifid (or divided into two branches)
at its extremity, and working in a sheath. It is never venomous,
as is commonly supposed. As an organ of taste, it cannot be
very susceptible. The prey is swallowed entire, and under cir-
cumstances which afford little or no opportunity for the exercise
of taste by the tongue.

The sense of smell, judging from the structure and habits of
these reptiles, cannot be very acute.

The eyes are generally very small, not protected by movable
eye-lids, nor by a nictitating membrane, so that they always ap-
pear to be fixed or on the watch. It is remarkable that the trans-
parent cornea seems to form part of the skin and epidermis,
with which it is detached at each moult of the reptile. Vision,
excepting for a time previous to a change of the skin, when it is
evidently less perfect, appears sufficiently acute in reptiles of the
present order.

Serpents sometimes grow from a length of twelve or fourteen
inches, when they are first excluded, to that of twenty-five or
thirty feet, and attain 'to a great age. They are extremely tena-
cious of life, often surviving very severe wounds. Instances
have occurred in which the head, severed from the body, has,
after a considerable time, not only retained vitality, but bitten
with fury.

The popular opinion that serpents are capable of exercising a
power of fascination over their intended victims, is perhaps not
well founded. The most eminent ornithologists refer the effects
produced upon birds by the presence of these reptiles, to the fear
amounting to terror which is thus occasioned, and to the instinc-
tive solicitude for their young, which induces them to approach
these reptiles too nearly for their own safety. The serpent

512 OPHIDIANS.

tribes are indeed very generally regarded with feelings of horror
and aversion, for which it would not be difficult to account ; and
yet to some these reptiles have furnished objects of religious
veneration. The ancient Mexicans adored the Boa, and in the
blindness of their superstition, sought to propitiate it with human
victims. Among the bronze relics of the Egyptians, is a figure
of the Cobra, with expanded hood, which was probably regarded
as the image of a divinity, or one of the household gods. Fig-
ures of the Hindoo Chrisna sometimes present him entwined by
a large Cobra, which is fixing its poisoned fangs in the heel; and
again they represent him as crushing the head of the Serpent,
while he triumphantly tears the creature from his body. The
origin of these emblems cannot well be doubted ; they, in all
probability, spring from traditions related to the great prophetic
promise of scripture, Gen. iii. 15. " The serpent stands as an
emblem of the principle of evil to be ultimately destroyed with
the poison of death itself, by the seed of the woman."

The divisions of the present order have been variously given
by systematic naturalists. We like the arrangement of Mr. J.
E. Gray, who divides the order into five families, viz. : (1) Co-
lulrida; (2) Boida ; (3) Hydrida; (4) Viperida ; (5) Crota-
tida. (On the Chart the reptiles of the last two families are,
for convenience, arranged among the Boidce.)

Between three and four hundred species are enumerated, of
which about one-fifth are venomous. But few species of Ophi-
dia have been found in a fossil state.

FIRST FAMILY. Colubrida. (Lat. coluber, a serpent.)

This family of the Ophidians includes snakes the larger por-
tion of which are harmless, but few being provided with poison-
ous fangs. They are distributed over the globe, and are more
numerous, considered both as individuals and species, than any
other family of the order.

Dr. Gray arranges them, together with the Boidce and Hydri-
dee, into the sub-order Colubrina, of which he gives the follow-
ing definition : "Jaws strong, both toothed, sometimes with fangs
in front or grooved teeth behind. Head moderate or indistinct ;
crown often covered with regular shields." The section Colu-
bridtz have the belly covered with broad scales ; the tail conical
and tapering, and rarely compressed ; the nostrils are open and
placed at the side of the muzzle, near the top. The head is
usually covered with large regular plates, the variations of which

OPHIDIANS. 513

as to number and shape, afford good specific distinctions. The
Colubridse are mostly oviparous and carnivorous.

The leading genera of this family as found so numerously in
the United States, are Coluber and Tropidonotus, (Gr. tropis, a
keel ; ndtos, back.)

The genus Coluber includes most of the larger familiar spe-
cies which have smooth scales, without the keel, or longitudinal
ridge along the center, which appears in the Tropidonotus. The
body is usually slender and cylindrical. The snakes of this
genus are rarely seen in water ; they deposit their eggs in de-
cayed wood, sand, or other localities.

Of the well known species found in the United States are (1)
the CHAIN SNAKE, C. getulus, from its quick movements also
called the racer ; length four to six feet ; (2) the MILK SNAKE,
C. eximius, (Lat. select or distinguished,) sometimes, from its
chestnut colored spots and light colored ground, called the
Chequered Adder; also named the House Snake; it is not un-
frequently found in dairies and cellars in which milk is kept,
which it is said to seek with avidity ; length two to five feet; (3)
the GRASS SNAKE, or Green Snake, (see Chart,) C. vernalis,
(Lat. vernal,) is found from Massachusetts to Pennsylvania, has
been numerous in the marshes about Salina and Cayuga, (N. Y. ;)
length from twelve to twenty-four inches ; (4) the RINGED SNAKE,
C. punctatus, (Lat. dotted,) (see Chart;) it emits a disagreeable
odor ; occurs from Maine to Louisiana, under rocks and the
bark of decayed trees ; length twelve to eighteen inches ; (5)
BLACK SNAKE, C. constrictor, (Lat. one who binds together);
abundant in all parts of the land and from three to six feet in
length. It climbs trees with great facility, and moves very rap-
idly over the ground. This, as well as the species above men-
tioned, is called the Racer, on account of its pursuit of terror-
stricken persons fleeing before it, an enemy it were wiser reso-
lutely to face. Its climbing power renders it formidable to birds
and young squirrels in their nests. It has been supposed to ex-
ert a fascinating influence over birds ; we have already inti-
mated that the unusual actings of a bird in its presence may be
occasioned chiefly by the danger threatening its brood, which
the reptile might devour at a single meal ; (6) C. Alleghaniensis,
is -a larger species of Black Snake, from five to eight feet in
length, said, however, to be much more gentle than the other,
seldom showing any disposition to bite, which the Common Black
Snake is very likely to do. Both of these species, and indeed
all the Colubrines in North America, are non. venomous and
harmless. The Black Snakes and some of the other larger spe-

514 OPHIDIANS.

cies are exceedingly bold and resolute, and defend themselves
obstinately when attacked. They even engage in deadly con-
flict with the Rattle Snakes ; and owing to their superior agility,
are generally victors, evading the poisonous thrusts of their an-
tagonists, and seizing the opportunity to strangle them in their
folds, like the Boa or Python ; indeed, the specific name, Con-
strictor, is given in allusion to the mode in which the Black
Snake kills its prey.

The snakes of the genus Tropidonotus, differ from the True
Colubrines, in possessing the power of flattening or depressing
the body. This enables them to swim well, and hence, they are
all more or less aquatic. They are generally viviparous, the eggs
being developed previous to exclusion.

Of this genus, (1) the familiar STRIPED or GARTER-SNAKE, T.
tania^ (Lat. a ribbon,) or T. sirtalis, (two to five feet long,) is
the typical representative. Though frequently found about the
water, or in marshy places, it is as often on high dry ground,
and has been noticed at an elevation of two thousand feet above
tide water. When irritated, without the means of escape, it
raises its scales so as to give the body a roughened appearance ;
and under such circumstances, it will bite, leaving a troublesome,
though not dangerous wound. Its fecundity is so great, that in
one instance, it is said, eighty-one young, each over nine inches
in length, were taken from a single female ; (2) the Water-
Snake, T. sipedon, also called the Water-Adder, sometimes the
Moccasin-Snake, and erroneously thought to be poisonous, is
found rather abundantly in the Northern States, and also, to some
extent, in the Middle States. This Snake is from two to five
feet in length ; it moves in the water with great ease, and may be
said to live in it habitually. In the Southern States, its place is
supplied by the beautiful GREEN-SNAKE, Leptophis, (Gr. leptos,
thin ; aphis f snake,) ceslivus, about two feet in length. Another
species, L. saurita, is found in the Northern, and, to some ex-
tent, in Western States. It is the Ribbon-Snake, or the Little
Garter-Snake, as it is called in New York, of a chocolate brown
color, gentle but very nimble, climbing trees with facility.
Length from one two feet. These are the only species of the
genus Leptophis. Both have long and slender bodies, carinate
scales, and very long tails.

The SAND-SNAKE, Psammophis, (Gr. sand-snake,) jlagettifor-
mis, (Lat. of whip-form,) is a long, slender, and exceedingly
swift species, found in South Carolina and Florida, — its tail
having unimbricated scales, and being one-fourth its length.

The- DIAMOND-SNAKE, Coronella Sayi, is conspicuous for its

OPHIDIANS. 515

minute white specks, scattered over a dark ground. It is one of
the Snakes that often engage in successful conflict with the
Rattle-Snake.

The HARLEQUIN or SCARLET-SNAKE, Elaps fulvus, (Lat. red
or tawny,) is found in Carolina, Louisiana, and Upper Missouri.
It is distinguished by having a fang permanently fixed on each side
of the upper jaw, with which may be connected a rudimentary
poisonous gland; but the animal is considered entirely harmless.
The head is scarcely larger than the body ; the length twenty
inches.

The RED-SNAKE, Calamaria amcena, (Lat. delightful to the
eye,) is a beautiful little serpent, of a reddish brown color, from
six to twelve inches in length, and found in the Eastern and
Middle States, under stones and logs. It has a small head,
smooth scales, and a short, abrupt tail.

The HOG-NOSED-SNAKE, Heterodon, (Gr. different or unequal
teeth,) platy rhinos, (Gr. broad-nosed,) is two feet in length, —
called also the Buckwheat-nose, (from a fancied resemblance
between that grain and its rostral plate,) — and also the Deaf
Adder and Yellow Viper. This species is well known, through-
out the United States, and H. niger, (Lat. black,) is known as
the BLACK VIPER, about three feet in length, and found in
Georgia and Tennessee. Both present a formidable appearance,
from flattening the head and whole body when irritated ; but are
entirely harmless. Passing over many colubrine species found
in the United States and elsewhere, we name the C. quadrilinea-
tus, (Lat. four lined,) which is the largest of the European Ser-
pents, often attaining to six feet in length, and found in Spain
arid Italy. This formidable, though not venomous snake, is
probably the Boa, of Pliny.

We must also not omit to notice an African genus, Deirodon,
(Gr. deire, neck ; odous, tooth,) — which strikingly illustrates
the special adaptations to particular uses and ends, which are
presented in the animal kingdom. This snake is said to live
almost entirely on the eggs of birds, and for this its entire organ-
ization seems expressly designed. The mouth, when full grown,
has no teeth whatever, so that the egg is readily received into
the open jaw, and there is no hazard of its being prematurely
broken. The inferior spinous processes of the seven or eight
lower cervical vertebrae, shoot forward with the gullet or sesopha-
gus, where they are overspread with a layer of hard cement,
and made to resemble long, sharp teeth. The eggs, in their de-
scent, press against these teeth, and are sawed open length-
wise,— then crushed by the contraction of the gullet, and carried

516 OPHIDIANS.

into the stomach ; the shell, as well as its contents, subserving
the purposes of food.

SECOND FAMILY. Boida. BOAS AND PYTHONS.

This family includes species which, although not venomous,
are exceedingly terrific on account of their gigantic size and
amazing strength. In these, the ventral shields are narrow,
transverse, and often six sided ; the pupil is oblong and erect,
excepting in the genus Tortrix. But perhaps the most marked
peculiarity, is their possession, — contrary to the general rule in
serpents, — of hooked. like claws, connected internally with a
series of bones, representing, though imperfectly, those of the
lower limbs. The tail is prehensile, and can be firmly twined
around any object. The Boas are natives of South America ;
the Pythons of Asia and South Africa. Some serpents, kindred
to these, are also seen in Australia.

Imagination finds it difficult to picture more formidable objects
than the reptiles of this group ; and yet, if we can credit the
statements of ancient writers, serpents far more terrific than these,
were once found in the Eastern Continent. Livy refers to one
which "had its lair on the banks of the Bagradas, near Utica,
and swallowed many of the Roman soldiers in the army of
Regulus," and which was finally killed by stones discharged from
military engines. The skin, afterwards taken to Rome by
Regulus, it is said, "measured one hundred and twenty -three
feet ! " This, however, may be an exaggeration, or the term
" feet," is, perhaps, to be understood in a more limited sense than
that which we assign to it.

The Boas, properly so called, sometimes reach the length of
forty feet. In their entwining folds, acting with the combined
energy of thousands of muscles for crushing their victims, they
possess a power which no man or animal can successfully resist.
To climb, to swim, to dart along the ground, are endowments of
these powerful reptiles, and they avail themselves of each as
occasion requires.

In the Boas, the head is covered with small scales to the muz-
zle; and the scuta of the tail are undivided. In the Pythons,
there are plates over the anterior part of the head, and the
scuta of the tail are divided.

The EMPEROR BOA, Boa constrictor, (see fig. on Chart,) is
characterised by a broad chain extending along the back, and
consisting alternately, of large, blackish, and somewhat hexa-
gonal marks, and of pale, oval dashes or spots. The epithet

OPHIDIANS. 517

" Emperor," given to this Boa, indicates the religious veneration
with which it was regarded anciently by the natives in Mexico
and South America. It is more terrestrial in its habits than the
Anaconda; resorting to dry places, among bushes, trees, and
rocks. It climbs trees with great facility, and hangs suspended
from them by its prehensile tail, ready to drop upon and crush
any unfortunate creature that may pass beneath. Its length is
from thirty to thirty-five feet.

The ANACONDA, Boa scytale, (Gr. skutale, a club or rod,) or
JEunectes, (Gr. a good swimmer,) murinus, (Lat. from mus,
mouse.) This species is of a brownish color, with a double
series of roundish, black blotches running along the back. The
spots on the sides are annulated and ocellated, the disks being
white, surrounded by blackish rings. The trivial specific
name, murinus, is given to it, because it is said "to lie in wait for
ice." These, together with fish, frogs, etc., are truly "small
game" to this creature, which constricts, and swallows down
whole Sheep, Peccaries, Agoutis, etc. When the prey is dead,
this, and the other Boas, thrust out their tongue, vibrating in
token of their desire of food ; the jaws and throat become lubri-
cated with saliva, as a preparation for swallowing the enormous
meal. The position of the mass in the alimentary tube indicates
the completion of the process. When gorged with food, the ani-
mal is for some time torpid and defenceless, and may easily be
killed. Occasionally, it is destroyed by shooting, lassoing, etc.
The thick skin is frequently tanned, and converted into leather
for boots and saddles. The Anaconda is said to attain the
length of from thirty to forty feet ; but the common specimens
seen in museums and menageries, rarely exceed ten or fifteen.
Among the other species, are

The ABOMA, Boa cenchris, (Gr. spotted,) — found in South
America and the West Indies, is one of the largest of the family,
sometimes attaining a gigantic size. It is of a yellowish color,
with a row of large brown rings, running the whole length of the
back, and variable spots on the sides.

The BOJOBI of the Brazilians, or the GREEN BOA, B. canina,
or Xiphosoma, (Gr. sword-body,) caninum, (Lat. dog-like,) having
a muzzle which shows some resemblance to that of a do£.

The CORAL-SNAKE, Tortrix corallinus, found as far North as
Florida, and often kept tame in houses, belongs to this family.

The PYTHONS are natives of East India and its islands, and of
Southern Africa. Two species are distinguished by placing
their eggs in a group, and covering them with their bodies.
One of these, is

518 OPHIDIANS.

The TIGER PYTHON or ROCK-SNAKE, Python, (Gr. puthon,)
tigris, a native of India and Java, and elegantly marked. It is
said to be as large as the largest Boa, but more slender, and
greatly to be feared. Stories are told of the tiger falling a prey
to this formidable reptile.

The RETICULATED PYTHON, P. reticulatus, is found in Hindos-
tan, Ceylon, and Java. It is said to increase until it reaches
thirty feet in length, and can " manage a buffalo," crushing it
in its huge folds. It is one of the most brilliant species of the
entire family, "the whole body being covered with a gay lacing
of gold and black."

The Pythons, in the British Zoological Gardens, " are fed with
rabbits, which they destroy by winding round and crushing
them ; they are then easily swallowed ; the expansive power of
the jaws permitting a very small specimen to manage such
animals."

THIRD FAMILY. MARINE SNAKES.
Hydridcz, (Gr. vd^a, hudra, a water- snake.)

The truly Aquatic or Marine Snakes, are all confined to the
intertropical regions. They are mostly found in the seas and
rivers of the East Indies. These singular reptiles, excepting
that they are destitute of fins, are not unlike the eel, particularly
in the form of the tail, which is expanded in a vertical direction,
and flattened laterally, so as to act the part of a paddle. Some
species, however, have conical tails, and these are thought to
live in fresh water. In the Indian Seas, numbers of these snakes
collect together, forming shoals, which may be seen swimming
about in pursuit of fishes and other prey. It is very seldom
that the true sea snakes visit the land. Sometimes they coil
themselves up on the shore, where they lay their eggs. It is
supposed that they live on sea-weed. They are often found
asleep on the surface of the sea, when they are easily caught,
as they are unable to descend without throwing themselves
on their backs, probably for the purpose of expelling the air
from their capacious lungs. They are frequently thrown
ashore in the surf, to the terror of the natives. Occasionally,
they are carried up rivers by the tide; but they cannot long live
in fresh water. The fishermen of the Eastern seas, often take
them in their nets, and greatly dread them on account of the
poison of their bite.

The species are said to be, without exception, venomous. Dr.
Cantor, who was in the service of the East India Company, and

OPHIDIANS. • 519

had favorable opportunities of studying the peculiarities of these
serpents, captured by him in fishing nets, refers to the case of a
British officer, who "died within an hour or two after the bite of
a serpent caught at sea;" and also to numerous experiments of
his own, " in which fowl, fish, and other animals, invariably died
within a few minutes after the bite had been inflicted." We
refer to these facts, because it has been stated, that "the Marine
Serpents are harmless."

Rev. John Williams, in his "Narrative of Missionary Enter-
prises in the South Sea Islands," says : " That in the Samoa
group are water snakes, some of them beautifully marked with
longitudinal stripes of yellow and black, and others with rings
alternately white and black." He adds, "the natives esteem
both the Land and Sea Snakes as good food."

The MARINE SNAKES, in common with the BOIDJE, have nar-
row, elongated scales on the belly, nearly resembling those on
the back; the ventral shields are narrow, hexagonal, or band-
like, — the eyes and nostrils look upwards, the latter usually
placed in the middle of a shield, with a slit or groove on its outer
edge ; the fangs are of moderate size, and intermixed with the.
maxillary teeth ; the pupil is small and round.

Of the species with compressed teeth, or true Marine Snakes,
aretheTwo-coLOREoPELAMYS, Pelamys bicolor, with hexagonal
scales, found in the Pacific Ocean ; and the BANDED SEA-SNAKE,
Chersydrus, (Gr. chersudros, an amphibious serpent,)/ascza/MS,
(Lat. banded,) or C. granulatus, found in meadows. (For figure
of which see Chart.)

FOURTH FAMILY. VIPERS. Sub-order VIPERINA, (venomous
snakes.)

Viperida, (Lat. vipera, a viper.) ».,

This family contains nine genera and twenty species, found
chiefly in Asia and Africa ; none of them have been discovered
on the American continent. Unlike the Colubrine Snakes, these
have few if any teeth in the upper jaw ; but they have, in com-
mon with the Crotalidsa, glands secreting a poisonous fluid, which,
on occasion, they discharge through their fangs in front. These
glands are connected with muscles which are capable of exerting
a powerful compression, and thus of ejecting the venom with
great force into a wound. The shields of the muzzle in this
family, are broad and band-like; the scales keeled, except in
the genus Acanthophis, (Gr. spiny. serpent ;) the tail is short
and tapering.

520 OPHIDIANS.

The Common Viper, of Europe, Vipera berus or V. communis,
is greatly feared, though its venom is said not to be as virulent
as that of the kindred reptiles found in -hotter regions of the
globe. It does not often happen that death follows the bite of
this species in the case of human beings. Ammonia or harts-
horn, given internally, and fomentations applied to the part, to
be gently rubbed afterwards with oil, are the remedies usually
employed. To persons laboring under general debility, or to
children of weak and irritable constitution, especially if the rep-
tile be in full energy, during the heat of summer, the bite of the
Common Viper is known to prove fatal. The surest remedies
for its bite, are the immediate removal of the poison by suction,
washing, excision of the part, &c. The Viper, as already intima-
ted, brings forth its numerous young alive. These, though but a
few inches in length, crawl about, and are as fierce as the parent, —
throwing themselves into an attitude of defence when molested,
and hissing with anger. Mice, lizards, and nestling birds, are
the food of this species.

The ESPING, of Sweden, or Aspic, of England, V. chersia, is
perhaps only a variety of the Common Viper, — but is even more
virulent; seldom, however, more than six inches in length. The
rapid reproduction of the Common Viper, renders ineffectual the
many efforts which are made for its extermination.

The genus Naja contains the HOODED or SPECTACLED SER-
PENTS, Cobra de Capello, — characterized by having the head
covered with large plates, and the skin of the upper part of the
back dilatable, or capable of such expansion as to form a sort of
hood, impressed with a mark somewhat like a pair of spectacles.
(See Chart.) Their bite is deadly in the extreme. They are
found in Ceylon, from six to fifteen feet in length. The hood
and spectacles show themselves when the reptile is enraged and
preparing for an attack. The extension of the membranous
skin serves as a warning to those who are within reach of the
animal. The Naja tripudians, (Lat. dancing,) N. larvata, (Lat.
frightened, distracted,) are species of India. To N. tripudians,
the Portuguese originally gave the name of Cobra de Capelio.
The Naja haje, (see Chart,) is an African species, and indubita-
bly the one which the ancients have described under the title of
the Asp, or Aspis of Egypt, or of Cleopatra. The Najahs of
South Africa are said, when irritated, to expel poison from the
points of their fangs, and are supposed to have the power of
ejecting the poison to a distance.

The Cobras are the serpents upon which the serpent charmers
in India and Egypt chiefly practice their arts, and which are

OPHIDIANS. 521

often taught to dance to their rude music. It should be noted
with reference to the contest in the- presence of Pharaoh between
Moses and Aaron and the magicians of Egypt, (Exodus viii.,
9 — 12,) that it is stated, on good authority, the modern Egyptian
jugglers possess the power of throwing the N. Jiaje into a state
of catalepsy, and rendering it still and immovable, in other words,
changing it into a rod, by pressing the nape with the fingers.

Dr. Cantor has brought to notice a new genus of snakes, nearly
allied to the Cobras, called Hamadrydas, (Gr. hama, together
with ; drus, an oak or any tree,) which has a few maxillary
teeth beyond the poison fangs, thus connecting the venomous
serpents to the harmless, that have a complete row of maxillary
teeth. According to Dr. C., the Hamad rydas feeds upon other
serpents. It is said to be from eight to twelve feet in length, and
exceedingly fierce, not merely ready to defend itself, which is all
the common Cobra does unless greatly provoked, but quick to
attack and to pursue when opposed. Its poison is a "pellucid
tasteless fluid, in consistence like a thin solution of gum arabic
in water," and reddening litmus paper, like that of other mem-
bers of the family.

The Cerastes or HORN SNAKE, (see Chart,) is a native of
Egypt and Lybia, and characterized by having a group of ele-
vated horn-like scales over each eye. Its general length is about
two feet. The color is sandy red, with irregular brownish
markings ; hence it cannot easily be distinguished from the sands
of the desert, in which it dwells ; so that it may be trodden upon
unsuspectingly by man or cattle, and inflict a poisonous wound
before its presence is perceived. It moves with great rapidity
and in all directions, forwards, backwards, and sidewise, which
makes it the more dangerous.

Another most deadly snake, called the DEATH ADDER, and
BLACK SNAKE, Acanthophis tortor, (Lat. torturer,) is found in
Australia. The small woods and sandy heaths around Botany
Bay are largely infested with it, and every where it is greatly
dreaded by the colonists, on account of the mortal wounds which
it inflicts. It is hideous in its aspect and thick in proportion to
its length, which is two or three feet. The genus Acanthophis
links the Viperine group to the Rattle snakes; the tail terminat-
ing in a single horny spine, instead of being invested as in the
Rattle Snakos, with dry scaly pieces, resembling so many bell-
like appendages, and forming a rattle. The head is covered in
front with large plates ; the scuta, or plates beneath the tail, are
double.

22

522 OPHIDIANS.

FIFTH FAMILY. RATTLE SNAKES.
Crotalida, (Gr. xgtiralov, krotalon, a rattle or bell.)

The Crotaline group, including Rattle Snakes, exhibit the fol-
lowing characters : the face has a large pit on each side ; the
head is large behind, crown flat, covered with scales or small
shields ; the jaws weak, the upper with long fangs in front, and
no teeth ; the belly is covered with broad band-like shields, and
there are no spurs or rudimentary feet. The species are all more
or less venomous ; a part of the family are viviparous, the rest
ovo- viviparous.

The Crotalus, or Rattle Snake, is the type genus of this fam-
ily. All the species are distinguished from the others of the
group by the presence of a rattle at the end of the tail, (see
Chart.) This consists of a number of joints of a horny texture,
loosely joined together, so that when rapidly vibrated, they make
a distinct whirring noise, which has been compared to that of
peas shaken about in a dry bladder, or to the sound produced by
the locust, and is heard at some distance. The rattles vary in
number according to age; the basal bell or rattle is the last
formed and the largest ; one is erroneously said to be added
every year. The head is covered with scales, but in one sub-
genus with plates.

Rattle Snakes, especially when irritated, exhale a disgusting
odor. The peccary is said to destroy and devour them, as does
the common hog also ; but horses and dogs avoid them. They
are sluggish and inactive in their movements; and, though
highly venomous, seldom attempt to inflict any injury upon man
unless molested by him. His approach calls forth the noise of the
rattle, which usually precedes any blow. These reptiles never
ascend trees, always capturing their prey upon the ground.
Usually they rest coiled spirally, in paths, or clear spots in the
woods, waiting for their prey, upon which they dart, when
within the proper distance. In mid-winter and during hard frosts
these serpents intertwine themselves together, in ball-like masses,
and become totally torpid. At that season they may be handled
without danger. They eat indifferently all kinds of birds, but
not frogs, to which the Black Snake is so partial. Their food
also consists of small animals, such as rabbits, squirrels, rats,
&c., and sometimes even dogs are killed by them. Two or
three species of the genus Crotalus are found in North America.

The COMMON or BANDED RATTLE SNAKE, C. durissus, is dis-
persed abundantly throughout the United States, though rarely

OPHIDIANS. 523

met with north of the parallel of 45o. It is particularly numer-
ous in the region of the Alleghany mountains. The length is
not often more than four feet.

The DIAMOND RATTLE SNAKE, C. adamanteus, (Lat. adaman-
tine,) is more formidable than the preceding species. This is
found on the coast of the States south of North Carolina. It
has been known to exceed eight feet in length, and in thickness
to equal that of a stout man's leg. Those of this species are
seen much about water, and are therefore called WATER RAT-
TLES, to distinguish them from the common species, which keeps
on dry land.

The CASCAVELLA, C. horridus, is common in South America.
The kindred genus Crotalophorus, (Gr. krotalon, a rattle ; phoreo,
to carry.) has several species in North America, which are usu-
ally termed Ground Rattle Snakes. These have the head cov-
ered with shields, and the rattles very small. The Miliary or
LITTLE CAROLINA RATTLE SNAKE, C. miliarius, though but
twelve or fourteen inches in length, is dreaded on account of the
intensity of its venom.

The MASSASAGUA, C. Kirtlandi, is another species found in
northern Ohio and Michigan. Length twenty-seven inches.

The BOIQUIRA, or as the natives term it, the Queen of Ser-
pents, is found in Brazil.

The MINIM ARU, or Jergon, Lachesis (Gr. name of one of the
Parca, or Fates) picta, is a species found in Peru, having the
head heart-shaped and covered with scales, and a thick upper
lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down its
place is filled by its no less fearful relative, the BUSH-MASTER,
L. rhombeata, (Prince Max,) which is from six to eight feet in
length. The genus is characterized by double scuta beneath
the tail, which ends in a short horny point.

The COPPERHEADS, (genus Trigonocephalus, triangular-headed,)
are perhaps even more to be dreaded than the Rattle Snakes,
since they are equally venomous and give no warning of their
presence.

The COPPER-HEAD, T. contortrix, in length two to three feet,
is most extensively distributed. Damp meadows are its favorite re-
sorts, where it shows itself to the peril of persons who are engaged
in mowing or passing through them. It sometimes finds its way
into damp cellars, where, however, it makes itself useful by des-
troying rats and mice. This and the Banded Rattle Snake are
the only really venomous kinds found in the middle and north-
ern States.

The WATER MOCCASIN, T. piscivorus, (Lat. piscis, fish ; voro,

524 OPHIDIANS.

to devour,) is the pest of southern plantations. This species,
like the harmless water snakes of the Middle States, may be seen
lying over bushes which overhang the water, into which they
plunge on the slightest alarm.

The LANCE-HEADED VIPER, T. lanceolatus, is abundantly dis-
tributed through several of the West India Islands. It attains
six or seven feet, and sometimes even nine feet in length, and
is greatly dreaded. It is said to be remarkable for its activity,
and to abound among the sugar plantations, in which many of
the laborers fall victims to its bite.

What is the 3rd ORDER of REPTILES ? How are they particularly distin-
guished ? What does Cuv. say of them ? What is said of their form ?
What of their covering ? Describe the upper and lower scales. State the
diiference in their arrangement and give their respective names. At what
time and in what manner do they change their skin ? What are the parts
of the skeleton? Describe the vertebral column. How do you account
for the flexibility of Serpents ? What is said of the number of their bones ?
What are their agents of locomotion ? How ? To what may the ribs be
compared ? What is said of their various modes of progression ? Why
do the bones of the face deserve especial notice? How is the lower jaw
articulated? How are its extremities connected? How are these things
related to the serpent's swallowing its food ? Have they two lungs ? What
is said of their teeth ? What is peculiar to the venomous species? Describe
the action of the poison fang ? Does the serpent sting ? What is said of
the young of venomous serpents? What of the non-venomous? How,is
the goodness of the Creator herein displayed? Do serpents care for their
young ? What is said of their voice or hiss ? What of their senses ?
What of their growth and tenacity of life ? What of their powers of fas-
cination? How were they regarded by the ancient Mexicans, Egyptians
and Hindoos? Into how many families does Mr. J. E. Gray divide this
order ? In what family are the last two included on the Chart ? How
many sp. are enumerated? What proportion is venomous? Have any
been found in a fossil state ?

What is the 1st FAMILY ? What does it include ? What family compose
the SUB-ORDER COLUBRINA ? What are the characters of the Colubridae ?
What its leading gen. ? What well known sp. of the gen. Coluber is found
in the U. S. ? Repeat what is said of them severally. How does the gen.
Tropidonotus differ from the true Colubrines ? State what is said of the
two sp. mentioned. What of the other gen. and sp. of this family?

What is the 2nd FAMILY? Why are the sp. of this family very terrific?
What is said of their shields ? Name a more marked peculiarity. Is the
tail prehensile ? Where are the BOAS found ? Where the PYTHONS ? What
statements are made by Livy ? What is said of the size, &c., of the Boa ?
Repeat what is said of the EMPEROR BOA. Of the ANACONDA. Of the
ABOMA. Of the BOJOBI or GREEN BOA. Of the CORAL SNAKE. What two
sp. of Pythons are mentioned? What is said of them? How are the P.
in Zoological gardens of London fed 9

AMPHIBIA. 525

What is the 3rd FAMILY ? Where are they mostly found ? In what re-
spects do they resemble the Eel ? Do true SEA SNAKES visit the land ?
Are they easily caught? Can they live in fresh water? Are they venom-
ous? What is said by Dr. Cantor? What by the Rev. I. Williams?
What kind of scales have the Marine Snakes ? What species of true Ma-
rine Snakes are mentioned ?

What is the 4th FAMILY ? How many gen. does it contain ? Are any
found on this continent? What is said of their teeth and shields? What
is said of the bite of the COMMON VIPER of Europe ? What remedies for
this bite are mentioned? What is said of the young, &c., of the Viper?
What of the Esping or Aspic ? What gen. contain the HOODED or SPEC-
TACLED SERPENTS? How characterized? What is said of their bite?
When do the hood and spectacles appear? What sp. are mentioned?
Which is the ASP OP CLEOPATRA ? What is said of the powers of jugglers ?
What new gen. has Dr. Cantor brought into notice ? What is said of the
Cerastes or Horned Snake ? What of the Death Adder ? What link does
this form?

What is the 5th FAMILY ? By what characteristics are they distinguished ?
What is the type of this family ? How is it distinguished from the others ?
Describe the Rattle Snake. What is said of their habits and movements ?
What is their condition in mid-winter ? What is said of their food? Men-
tion the sp. found in N. A., also those of S. A.

What gen. includes the Copper-heads ? Why are they to be especially
dreaded ? What sp. is found in the Northern and Middle States ? What
are its favorite resorts? What is said of the Water Moccasin? What of
the Lance-headed Viper?

Name and trace those figured or mentioned on the Chart.
SECTION VI.

FOURTH ORDER. AMPHIBIA, (Gr. 'a/ncpi^ios, amphibios^ having
a double life.)

The Reptiles of which we have treated in the preceding sec-
tions, are covered with plates, shields, or scales. In those of the
present order, the skin is naked, smooth, and often moist, or lu-
bricated with a fluid secretion, which, in some cases, is acrid and
apt to irritate the skin of the persons who handle it. As in
snakes and lizards, the skin is frequently shed ; in some species
in shreds; in others entire. In some, as in the frog, the blood,
through the delicate vessels of the skin, as well as in the vessels
of the lungs and gills, undergoes those changes which are nec-
essary for the maintenance of animal liTe. This cutaneous res-
piration can, however, take place only while the skin is kept
moist ; the same remark may be made respecting the gills of
fishes, of tadpoles, and various Crustacea. To meet this exi-

526 AMPHIBIA.

g
fl

ency, the Reptiles have a skin which is capable of secreting a
uid by which it is preserved in a humid condition. The healthy
action of the skin, co-operating with that of the lungs, is really
essential to their existence. Dr. Townson, of England, in his
tracts on the " Respiration of the Amphibia," states from actual
experiment, that a frog, when placed on blotting paper well
soaked with water, absorbed nearly its own weight of the fluid
in the short time of an hour and a half; and, it is believed, these
reptiles never discharge it, except when they are disturbed or
pursued, and then only to lighten their bodies and facilitate their
escape. The form of the Amphibians is variable. Besides the
naked skin, we may mention, as general characters of the pres-
ent order, that the skull is united to the column of vertebrae by
two condyles, (Gr. kondulos, a protuberance or knot on the end
of a bone,) situated on the back of the head ; the teeth are gen-
erally numerous, of small and equal size and close set ; the toes
usually unfurnished with claws ; the ribs either wanting, (Plate
XII. fig. 4,) or rudimentary and not attached to the breast-bone ;
and the animals are oviparous, the eggs having soft, not calcare-
ous shells. A change of form and habit, as we have stated in
our general description of the Reptiles, occurs in many, which
begin their existence with branchiae, or gills, that afterwards be-
come obliterated ; while in others, the branchiae continue through-
out their lives. Several prominent naturalists, including Prof.
Agassiz, are inclined to separate the Amphibians from the Class
of Reptiles, regarding them as possessing the distinguishing
characters upon which classes are founded ; but as this point
seems not perfectly settled, and they have usually been numbered
with the Reptiles, they are so arranged on the Chart.

The Amphibians may be divided into two sub-orders.

FIRST SUB-ORDER. CADUCIBRANCHIATA, (Lat. caducus, perish-
able ; branchia, gills.)

The distinguishing characteristic of this sub-order is that the
Amphibia which it includes, commence life with gills for the
aeration of the blood, i. e., the air effects, through the medium
of the gills, a change corresponding to the arterialization of the
blood through the medium of the lungs, in other animals. The
gills, however, are possessed only in the early or tadpole state ;
they become gradually obliterated, and lungs are developed.

This sub-order includes five families, viz.: (1) CcBciliida,
Csecilia ; (2) Ranidce, Frogs ; (3) Bufoidcz, Toads ; (4) Salaman-
drida, Salamanders ; (5) Amphiumidce, Menopoma, &c.

AMPHIBIA. 527

FIRST FAMILY. Caciliida, (Lat. cacilia, from ccecus, blind ;)
Apodous, (or footless.)

The Reptiles of this family, Cuvier, following Linnaeus,
placed in his third and last family of Ophidians, calling them
naked serpents, and observing that those who placed it among the
Batrachians, "did not know whether the form underwent a meta-
morphosis or not." Muller, however, has proved that the Caecilia
has, at a very early period, gills, which are soon lost. The
name Csecilia was given to these Reptiles on account of their
supposed blindness. The eyes are, in fact, exceedingly small,
and nearly hidden under the skin. Cuvier asserts that in some
species the eyes are wanting altogether. The Caecilia are
named by Dumeril, Ophiosomata, (Gr. ophis, a snake ; soma, a
body.) They have a snake-like body, destitute of limbs, and with
vertebrae resembling those of fishes, short ribs, and no sternum
or breast- bone. They are undoubtedly to be regarded as a con-
necting link between the Ophidians and the Amphibia. Their
skin is smooth, viscous, and marked with a regular series of
ring-like furrows ; and the scales, which are very minute, are
not to be found, except by an examination of the substance of
the skin itself. The head is depressed ; the tongue is thick,
rounded and velvety; the skull united to the vertebrae by two
tubercles or condyles, as in the other Batrachians, whereas there
is only one in snakes. There are both maxillary and palatal
teeth. In their intestines, Cuvier says there is to be found " a
quantity of vegetable matter, vegetable earth and sand." Nine
species of this singular group are described as belonging to
Asia and America. These Reptiles are ovo viviparous, producing
their young alive, to the number of six or seven. Not much is
known respecting their general habits ; they bury themselves in
the soft mud of marshy places, piercing through it, in a worm-
like manner, often to the depth of many feet ; they creep slowly
on the ground, and, when in water, swim like an eel, striking to
the right and left with their tail.

The RINGED CJECILIA, C. annulata, (Lat. ringed,) which is
figured on the Chart, is an inhabitant of Brazil, Cayenne, and
Surinam. It is remarkable for the bluntness of the tail, the dis-
tinctness of the rings, extending from the head over its whole
length to the tail, and for the position of the false nostrils, be-
low and a little before each eye.

528 AMPHIBIA.

ANOURA, OR TAILLESS AMPHIBIA.

This group comprises the Frogs, the Toads, with their allied
forms, constituting, in the whole, a numerous assemblage. In
these animals, the form of the body is short and broad. During
the tadpole state, there are no limbs, but a long compressed tail,
is their organ of locomotion, (Plate XIII. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4;) in this
state it is called a tadpole ; subsequently four limbs are developed,
(figs. 5 and 6,) and the tail disappears, (fig. 8.) The skull is very
short and broad. Ribs are wanting ; the seven or eight anterior
vertebrae only are distinct; the tympanic orifice is open; the
breathing is at first effected by gills, and afterwards by lungs.
Warm and temperate, but moist climates are the localities most
favorable to the Anourous Amphibia.

SKCOND FAMILY. Ranidtz, (Lat. rana, a frog.) FROGS.

In this family of tailless Batrachians, the posterior legs are
long and formed for leaping ; the hind toes are webbed ; teeth
are found both on the upper jaw and on the palate ; the mouth
is wide ; the tongue folded back, broad, soft, fleshy, and notched ;
the eyes are prominent, and they are protected by a movable
membrane well adapted to guard them against those injuries to
which, from the Frogs' mode of life, they would be peculiarly
liable. In the tailless Frogs, which are nocturnal in their habits,
the pupil is linear. The ears are extremely small, yet by the
answers which the Frogs make to each other, even at a great
distance, by croaking, they show that they have powers of hear-
ing which meet their wants. To enter into a more minute des-
cription of these harmless, and in gardens, highly useful Reptiles,
seems unnecessary. All are familiar with their croak, their
mode of leaping and swimming, their bright eyes and their col-
oring. The Frogs, like other Reptiles, pass the colder months of
the year in a state of torpor, buried deep in the mud at the bottom
of ponds or sluggish streams, and so mingled together as to form
almost a continuous mass. In the spring they emerge, when
they begin their singing, which has some meaning besides mere
noise, each male frog having a different note from his neighbor.
The Ranidse are more or less accustomed to dwell in the
water or its neighborhood, voraciously consuming the larger in-
sects, and especially slugs, which are a favorite food. It is,
therefore, the opinion of some, that instead of being wantonly
and cruelly destroyed, they ought to be protected. The Frog

AMPHIBIA. 529

seizes its food with great rapidity, using its tongue for that pur-
pose, which, being quite as long as the animal's body, darts at
prey with arrow-like speed, and it is swallowed entire, secured
by the glutinous adhesive secretion which lubricates the extrem-
ity of that organ. This rapM swallowing seems to indicate
that the taste is not very acute. The focal axis of a Frog's eye
is precisely as far distant as the length of each Frog's tongue,
and at that angle these animals catch their prey.

The eggs of Frogs are gelatinous and numerous ; some natu-
ralists represent the number as thirteen hundred, and even as
many as fourteen hundred. The black points discernible in the
eggs are the germs of the Tadpole, or immature young. The
development is rapid, but few days elapsing, in some places, be-
fore the young is hatched, though where the climate is less mild
it is not hatched before the expiration of a month or more. The
tadpole state is quickly passed, and the metamorphosis becomes
complete. With the disappearance of the gills and tail, the
habits of the animal are changed ; atmospheric air now becomes
the sole element of respiration. While yet tadpoles, they were
the prey of fishes; now they become the prey of the weasel, the
snake, and various kinds of water-fowl, which feed eagerly upon
them. Very few out of every thousand that are hatched survive
the summer. Frogs are capable of being tamed, and instances
are related of their visiting houses regularly at the hour of meal-
time, and partaking of offered food. A story is related by Mr.
Bell of one which had such strong partiality for warmth, that
during the winter seasons, he " regularly and contrary to the
cold-blooded tendency of his nature, came out of his hole in the
evening and directly made for the hearth in front of a good
kitchen fire, where he would continue to bask and enjoy himself
till the family retired to rest . . . frequently nestling under the
warm fur of the cat, whilst the cat appeared extremely jealous
of interrupting the comforts and convenience of the frog."

Besides the change of form in the Frogs, and the power of the
naked skin to act upon the air in such a way as to fulfil, in a
great degree, the office of lungs, and the fact that aerated water
may be made to subserve this process of cutaneous respiration ;
besides, also, their power of long abstinence from food, their hy-
bernation, and their age, as great as thirty-six years, in the case
of the tailless species, startling stories are told of their issuing
forth alive from the heart of trees, or the solid rock, after the
confinement of centuries. The experiments of Dr. Buckland,
however, favor the idea that frogs and toads cannot live more

530 AMPHIBIA.

than one or two years, completely excluded from air and desti.
tute of food.

Sixteen genera of these Amphibia have been enumerated,
three of which are found in North America. It is worthy of
being noted that Frogs were introduced into Ireland from Eng-
land, as late as the year 1696, by Dr. Gwythers, a fellow of the
University of Dublin, (and we add here that still more recently
were snakes imported into that country.)

The BULL FROG, or Croaker, Rana pipiens, (Lat. chirping,)
is peculiar to North America, and found throughout the Union.
It is very large, the body being from six to twelve inches long,
and a half pound or more in weight. Sometimes they have
been known to " measure two feet from one extended extremity
to the other." This species are noted for their bull-like bellow,
ings, which may be heard to a great distance. They are vora-
cious and predatory, devouring insects, fish, and even snakes.
Their hind legs are used for food and are " excellent eating."
These Frogs are sometimes reared specially for the table.

The MARSH FROG, R. palustris, (Lat. marshy,) is one of our
most beautiful frogs, and extremely active. Length, three
inches.

The EDIBLE, or GREEN FROG, R. esculenta, found in Conti-
nental Europe and in parts of Asia and Africa, is essentially
aquatic, inhabiting either running or stagnant streams. The
croak of the male in the summer months, where the numbers are
large, is said to be almost intolerable. The meat of these frogs
is described as delicate and well flavored. In Vienna, (Austria.)
they are considerably used, being preserved for eating, and fat-
tened in " froggeries."

The WOOD FROG, R. sihatica, (Lat. woody.) is found from
Massachusetts to Virginia; it is in length two and a half inches.
It may be at once known in the woods by its wonderful and rap-
idly repeated leaps, which render its capture very difficult. To
this nearly corresponds the Red or Common European Frog, R.
temporaria, (Lat. temporary or changeable. )

In the West Indies and South America is a species Cystignatlms
(Gr. vesicated jaw,) ocellatus, called Bull Frog, and distinguished
by the entire absence of a web on the hind feet, Which can clear a
wall five feet in height. The palm of the hand is provided with
quite large tubercles ; that at the base of the inner finger is the
largest of all. The first phalanges are marked beneath by similar
tubercles. Small tubercles also appear under the articulations of
the first and second phalanges, except under the inner toe. In

AMPHIBIA. E31

the Antilles these frogs are reared in a state of domestication,
and said to become familiar.

The genus Ceratoplirys, (Gr. horned eye-lid,) includes frogs
of beautiful colors, found in South America, having a granular
or tuberculous skin, with the edge of the upper eye-lid prolonged
to a point, resembling a horn. The species C. granosa, (Lat.
full of grains,) is figured on the Chart.

The PAINTED FROG, Discoglossus, (Gr. orb-like tongue,) pic-
tus, is somewhat remarkable for its rounded tongue, and the
markings of its skin.

The THIMBLE FROGS, Dactylethra, are a peculiar kind of
Frogs found in Africa, and deriving their name from having
some of their toes enveloped at their tips by a conical horny
claw or cap.

The TREE FROGS, (Hyladce,) are arboreal in their habits, and
capable of leaping, like birds, among the branches. They are
described as beautiful, both in form and coloring. The foot of
these Frogs differs in its structure from that of the other animals
that make their home in trees ; it is not a grasping organ, nor is
it furnished with claws for clinging, but has suckers somewhat
like those we have described as belonging to the Gecko. The
enlarged and rounded tip of each finger, both of the fore and
hind paws, has an apparatus consisting of a little cushion moist
with a thick glutinous fluid, and applying itself so closely to the
surface it touches, as to support the animal's weight. It disen-
gages or fixes its fingers at will. The cushioned apparatus is like
an air-pump at the extremities of the fingers, giving the animal
the ability to walk on the ceiling, on the polished surface of a
mirror, even to suspend itself by one finger, if so disposed.
Tree Frogs are numerous in some of the Southern, and Western
States. The frogs of the genus Hyla, (Gr. hule, a wood,) differ
from the common frog, (Rana,) in the greater length of the hind
legs, and also in the male having a membranous sac under the
throat, which is distended during their hoarse and oft-repeated
croaking. So alert are these Frogs that they have been known
to clear an interval of twelve feet in descending from one branch
to another. Their leaps are also made with much address and
precision, indicating great distinctness and power of vision.

It must not be supposed that these Frogs pass all their lives
on trees. On the contrary, like others of the race, they are at
first aquatic animals, and when adult, visit the water to deposit
their eggs, which is generally done in April. They also hyber-
nate in the mud at the bottom of lakes and marshes. At this
time their croakings are so loud and discordant, that " they might

532 AMPHIBIA.

be taken for the cry of a pack of hounds in full chase ;" and
in the stillness of night, "the din of their united voices may fre-
quently be heard at the distance of a league, especially on the
approach of rain." After the young are hatched by the heat of
the sun, as in the case of the Common Frog, they continue in
the tadpole state about two months, swimming in the water and
feeding upon insects and worms. When the tail and gills have
disappeared, they, with unerring instinct, take to the woods.
The Tree Frog lives about thirty-six years. It is slow in attain-
ing its full growth, which does not take place until the fourth
year; nor does it breed before this period. Its fine green color
is not perpetual ; after the breeding season, the animal becomes
of a reddish brown, which soon changes to gray, mottled with
reddish ; the color next assumed is blue, and this again changes
to green, which is the summer tint. The agreeable colors and
sprightliness of this frog, occasion it, not unfrequently, to be kept
in cages.

The NORTHERN TREE FROG, H. versicoJor, (Lat. changing
color,) is spread over a large part of the United States. This
Frog is particularly clamorous in rainy weather. Dr. DeKay
says he has been assured "that it possesses ventriloquial powers
in no inconsiderable degree." It appears to assimilate its color
to that of the tree on which it rests. This species is very simi-
lar to H. viridis, of Europe, (see Chart.)

THIRD FAMILY. Bufoida, (Lat. bufo, a toad.) TOADS.

In the Toads, the tailless Batrachian structure has its highest
development. Cuvier distinguishes them as having an inflated
body, a warty or tuberculous skin, and a tumor of variable size
behind each eye, consisting of a gland from the pores of which
exude an unctuous and offensive fluid. They have no teeth; the
hind limbs do not much exceed in length the fore pair. They
crawl rather than leap, and after passing from the tadpole state,
retire from the neighborhood of water to dry situations. Their
saliva has been supposed to be poisonous; but this is a mistake.
There are, however, glands on the skin of the back and sides,
that give out a fluid which in some species is acrid, capable of
producing irritation in a very sensitive skin, and probably intend-
ed for the defence of the Toad against the attacks of carnivorous
•animals.

Toads are nocturnal in their habits, evening and night being
the principal season of their activity, and their favorite slugs then
also creeping abroad. They hibernate in holes in the ground,

AMPHIBIA. 533

the interstices of walls, or other similar retreats, in the spring
emerging from their state of rest and seeking the water in order
to deposit their eggs, in the form of strings of jelly three or four
feet long, with a double row of black dots, when their loud croak
may be heard at a considerable distance. They are two or three
weeks later than the Frogs in depositing their eggs, after which
process they return to the land. In August, the tadpoles, having
completed their transformation, leave their native element for the
land, dispersing themselves in all directions.

Of the genus Bufo, about twenty species are enumerated ;
several are found in the United States, but only one is seen in
the northern parts of the Union. These have simple toes and a
distinct tympanum.

The COMMON AMERICAN TOAD, B. Americanus, (B. vulgaris,
Storer,) is about three inches in length. It is furnished with a
sac for holding the water which it obtains through the skin. The
skin, shed at certain intervals, is, according to Mr. Bell, swal-
lowed as soon as it is detached.

The NATTER JACK, or RUNNING TOAD, B. calamila, is a spe-
cies of toad of a yellowish brown color, with a bright yellow line
running down the middle of the back. It never leaps, nor does
it crawl with the usual toad-pace, but its motions are more like
running. This species is found in Ireland.

The BAHIA TOAD, Phryniscus nigricans, is a species noticed
by Mr. Darwin, at Bahia Blanca. He graphically says of it,
"If we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest
ink, and then, when dry, allowed to crawl over a board freshly
painted with the brighest vermilion, so as to color the soles of its
feet and parts of its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will
be gained." Instead of being nocturnal, like other toads, it
crawls about during the heat of the day, over dry sand-hillocks
and arid plains.

The MITRED TOAD, B. margaritifer, (Lat. pearl-bearing,) re-
ceives its name from the peculiar conformation of the head. It is
an American species.

The SURINAM TOAD, (see Chart,) Pipa Surinamensis or mon-
strosa, is from six to eight inches in length, and four to five in
breadth. It has a large and triangular head, is without teeth or a
tongue ; its tympanum is concealed beneath the skin ; its eyes are
small and placed near the margin of the upper jaw. The skin
is of dirty brown color, thickly studded with reddish tubercles.
The general uncouthness of its appearance is increased by a
phenomenon almost unexampled in the animal kingdom. The
female has the back pitted with a great number of small cells,

5H4 AMPHIBIA.

and in these the male carefully places the eggs which she has
deposited. When this has been done, she repairs to the water :
the skin of the back now swells ; the pits deepen, and in due
time the Tadpoles appear; on the back they pass the Tadpole
state, and do not emerge till they have lost their tail and their
limbs are developed. The female then returns to the land.
<jr This Toad is not unfrequently found in houses. The Pipa is
not restricted to Surinam, but is found in various parts of South
America.

TAILED AMPHIBIA. URODELA. (Gr. otgb, oura, a tail; dtyos,
deles, manifest.)

This division is one of peculiar interest to the naturalist, as
well from the variety of forms which it includes, as from the
successive changes which these forms exhibit. They are charac-
terised by their permanent tail, their rudimentary ribs, the pos-
session of four or two limbs, the absence of a breast bone, the
simple lungs, the teeth in both jaws, and the want of an external
ear. These amphibia are widely dispersed over the northern
temperate portions of both continents. North America and
Japan possess the largest variety of forms.

FOURTH FAMILY. Salamandrida, (Gr. aala/n&vdga, salamandra,
a salamander.)

NEWTS.

Of these, some species are terrestrial, visiting the water only
in the breeding season ; others make it their permanent or nearly
permanent abode. The Tadpoles, or young of the Newts, un-
dergo a transformation, essentially resembling that of the Toads
and Frogs, with this difference, however, that the tail merely
changes its form, and is never lost. In their general appearance,
they resemble Lizards. The jaws have minute teeth, and a
double row also extends down the palate.

LAND NEWTS. (Occasionally found in water.)

The Land Newts, included in the genus Salamandra, have the
tail, when the animals are adult, round and tapering; on each
side of the head is a gland, similar to that of Toads ; the tongue
is short and thick, enlarged above, and attached by a slender
root in the center. The breathing in the first aquatic or tad-
pole state, is by external gills; afterwards atmospheric by lungs.

These reptiles frequent humid places, and take up their abode

AMPHIBIA. 533

in the soft ground, among decayed trees in wooded districts,
in ditches and shady spots, and in caves and old crumbling
buildings. They are sluggish and slow in their movements, not
often quitting their retreat, except during rainy weather, and at
night. The courage in danger for which they have been re-
nowned, is nothing more than stupidity. Flies, worms, slugs, &c.,
constitute their food. Their size varies from two to seven inches,
and they also show great varieties of color. For example, we have
the Yellow-bellied Salamander, with the upper parts reddish
brown ; the Violet-colored ; the Red-backed ; the Slate-colored,
(with orange beneath ;) the Salmon-colored ; the Blotched, (gray,
with large bluish-black blotches ;) the Yellow, (spotted with black,)
otherwise the Long-tailed Salamander; the Granulated, (greenish
above, varied with gray and brown beneath ;)• the Red ; the Scar-
let ; the Black; the Spectacled Salamander, &c. The number of
species is very large, even as found in the United States, and
this general reference to them must suffice.

They are said to pass the winter in a kind of underground
burrow, numbers assembling together, and intertwining them-
selves for the sake of mutual warmth. Like other reptiles, they
shed their cuticle ; they are ovoviviparous, forty or fifty being the
produce at the same time, of a single female. Though tenacious
of life, a little salt or vinegar thrown on the Salamander, pro-
duces convulsions and death. From some species, there exudes
a milky or glutinous secretion, which is occasionally projected
several inches; it is acrid, and of a powerful odor, and is de-
scribed as fatal to small animals. In this fact, we perhaps have
the origin of Pliny's statement, that the Salamander "infects
with its poison, the vegetables of a vast extent of country, and
even spreads death around, like a pestilence." This, arid the
ancient stones of its being a body of ice, and uninjured by the
strongest heat, and of its having Tt deadly bite, are now regarded
as utterly groundless. It may be, however, that larger and
more formidable species formerly existed.

The TRITON is distinguished by its fish-like tongue, which is
attached more or less at its borders, and has only the front ex-
tremity free. Of this genus, there are several species found in
brooks and marshy places, — varying in length from three to six
inches. The TIGER TRITON, T. tigrinus, is of a bluish-black
color, with numerous irregular blotches over the head, body,
tail, and extremities. The length is from six to seven inches,
including the tail, which is longer than the body. Specimens
of this Newt have been obtained from the vicinity of Oneida
Lake, (N. Y.)

536 AMPHIBIA.

The largest Water Newt of England, is the CRESTED TRITON,
T. crislatus, about six inches in length, and which feeds on
aquatic insects, the Tadpole of the Frog, and even the smaller
species of Water Newts. The manner in which the female de-
posits her eggs, is very singular. When present, she chooses
the leaf of the smart-weed, (Polygonum Persicaria.) as the place
for the deposit. "She first applies her head to the edges of a
leaf, and turns it with her snout in such a way that the lower
surface of the leaf is turned towards her breast ; then, with her
fore -paws, she passes the turned leaf beneath her body, seizes
it with her hind-paws, and conducts it beneath the vent, folding
it, at the same time, and forming with it an angle, the opening
of which is directed towards the tail. The egg, in escaping
from the vent, would thus pass through the middle of the angle
formed by the leaf, but the Salamander (or Newt) stops it in its
fall by her hind feet, shuts up this angle with them, and thus
forms in the leaf a fold in which the egg is held. Still, on the
removal of the feet, the egg would fall to the bottom of the water;
but the careful parent, before she quits the leaf, folds it so firmly
with her hind feet, that the gluten with which the envelop of the
egg is surrounded, spreads from the pressure on the two internal
surfaces of the leaf, and prevents the folds from opening." (See
Plate XIII. fig. 9, which represents the Triton on the leaf; also,
for the figures in the same plate, representing the animal as it
appears in the transition from the tadpole to the perfect state, and
the explanations of these figures, as attached to the plate.)

AQUATIC NEWTS.

These are distinguished by having the tail flattened on the
sides, and by the absence of glands from the sides of the head.
The body is covered with watery excrescences.

These reptiles spend nearly all their lives in water. They
are remarkable for the facility with which they successfully
reproduce their tail when it is cut off.

The males, during the breeding season, are distinguished by
a high membranous crest upon the back, and another one along
the upper side of the tail. The limbs are short and feeble, and
progression in water is effected by the paddle-like action of the
tail. It should be remarked, that as the Land and Water Newts
are, some of them, at least, closely alike in anatomical structure,
some naturalists reject this division, and have introduced other
distinctive terms.

AMPHIBIA. 537

FIFTH FAMILY. Amphiumid&9 or Menopomida.

These tailed Batrachians are nearly all found in North Amer-
ica. The gills, after a short time, suddenly disappear, leaving
orifices upon the neck, and the respiration is performed by the
lungs alone. They are not known to undergo any transforma-
tions. Among them are included the genus Menopoma, charac-
terised by having a robust and flattened body, with the head
distinct from the neck, and the skin wrinkled into numerous
folds. The tail is broad and much compressed, and the soles of
the feet have a marginal fold of skin, qualifying the animal for
rapid movement in the water. It rarely leaves that element
except at night. These creatures, sometimes twenty or twenty-
four inches in length, are extremely voracious, feeding on in-
sects, fish, and in some instances, on small mammals. They are
of a slate or blackish color. As they bite at a hook, they are
sometimes caught by the angler, to his disappointment, and per-
haps terror, though, as their teeth are very small, they are not
capable of doing him any serious injury.

The GROUND PUPPY, ALLEGHANY HELL-BENDER, M. Alleglia-
niensis, is a species found in the Alleghany river, corning from
the Mississippi waters. Its tail is nearly as long as its body.

The AMPHIUMA has an eel-shaped body, with the head and
neck continuous. The limbs are exceedingly minute, and di-
vided in one species into two, in another, into three jointless toes.

The THREE-TOED AMPHIUMA, A. tidactylum, (three-toed,) is
found in Alabama and Arkansas. The largest member of the
present family Megalobatrachus, (Gr. great batrachian,) is found
in Japan. Specimens of it have been seen more than three feet
in length, and weighing eighteen pounds or upwards.

SECOND SUB-ORDER. PERENNIBRANCHIATA. (Lat. perennis,
enduring ; branchice, gills.)

The name of this sub-order is applied to Amphibians, respect-
ing some of which diversity of opinion has been entertained,
and still exists. Though they acquire lungs, at least rudiment-
ary ones, respiration is aquatic by means of gills which are
external and persistent, — the animals continuing in a perfect
tadpole state, by an arrest of development. These singular
forms the Chart arranges in one family.

FAMILY. Proteida, (Gr. ITiowTei}?, Proteus, a proper name.)

The name which DeKay gives to these reptiles, is Sirenida,
(Gr. siren.) More recently they have been included in a sub-

538 AMPHIBIA.

order of the Vrodelan Batrachians, termed Trematodera, a name
referring to the perforations or apertures on the side of the neck,
which remain through life.

The first genus we shall notice, is Proteus, of which there is a
single species, P. anguinus, (Lat. snaky.) Few reptiles have
excited more interest than this curious species, — an apparent
link between the amphibia and fishes. Its branchiae are not,
indeed, covered as in fishes, but are exposed, presenting the form
of a beautiful pink tuft on each side of the head ; the body is
eel-like, as are all its movements ; the tail is compressed ; the
eyes are rudimentary, — with small black dots under the skin, (as
has been discovered by dissection ;) the jaws are furnished with
minute teeth. The limbs are very small and feeble, and, in
fact, almost useless ; the toes are three on the front, and two on
each hind limb. The skin is smooth and delicate.

The Proteus dwells in the subterraneous waters of the great
cavern of Adelsburg or "Grotto of the Maddalena," situated near
the main road from Trieste to Vienna, (Austria.) " These sub-
terranean waters communicate with, and supply a small lake in
the celebrated cavern; and it is in this lake, where no sunlight
ever enters, inclosed by barriers of piled up rock, deep in the
bowels of the earth, that the Proteus is found, reposing in the
soft mud, precipitated by the fluid, and lining the rocky basin."
At Sittich, which is about thirty miles from the cavern, it is also
noticed, though rarely, being " thrown up by water from a sub-
terranean cavity."

According to Sir Humphrey Davy, the Protei are seldom
found in dry seasons, but are often abundant after great rains.
The length of a moderate-sized one, is about a foot ; the thick-
ness varies from that "of a quill, to that of the thumb." The
nature of its food is not certainly known ; though its numerous
teeth would indicate it to be carnivorous. The skin is of a pale
flesh color, but when exposed to the light, it approaches olive
brown. The light appears to act upon it with a power that is
too stimulating, and the animals, when exposed to it, creep under
any object that may shelter them from its influence. In the
mysterious nature of the Proteus, and its singular dwelling-place,
how manifest is the hand of the Creator, assigning to everything
the bounds of its habitation, and so organizing every thing, that
it shall accomplish its allotted destiny.

The Menobranchus, (Gr. enduring gills,) or Phanerobranchus,
(Gr. manifest gills,) of Fitzinger, is clearly allied to the Proteus.
It has a body moderately elongated ; the tail is deep and flat-
tened at the sides ; the head is flat and large. There are two

AMPHIBIA. 539

rows of small conical teeth in the upper jaw, and one row be-
neath. The branchial tufts are large. The toes are four on each
foot. The species called the BANDED PROTEUS, or Big Witch
Lizard, M. later alis, (Necturus lateralis,} is of a brownish color,
with blackish spots, and often a dark lateral line. It is stouter
and longer than the Proteus, the length varying from one to
three feet. It is found in the great northern lakes of this
continent. A spotted species, M. maculatus, is found in Lake
Champlain and Lake George ; and a third species,' M. punctatus,
having more uniform markings than the others, lives in Santee
River, South Carolina. The Menobranchus has been found in
the Erie Canal, (N. Y.) The animal appears to move slowly
in the water, but the powerful tail must render it able to move
with much celerity. Though its flesh is white, and perhaps
savory, it is looked upon by fishermen with disgust and aversion.

The term Siren represents eel-like animals, having three gill-
tufts on each side, and utterly destitute of hinder limbs. The
front limbs are feeble; the toes are four in number, small and
clawless. The lower jaw has teeth, the upper none ; but there
are ranges of teeth on the palate. The eye is very small, and
the ear hidden from view. The gills in these animals have less
external development than in the Menobranchus; but, on the
other hand, the lungs perform their part more completely.

The LACEUTINE SIREN, (S. lacertina,) is probably the largest
species, reaching the size of three feet. It is black above ;
dusky beneath ; and found in the muddy marshy grounds of
South Carolina and Florida.

The AXOLOTL, Siredon pisciformis, of Mexico, is common to
the lakes in the vicinity of the city of Mexico. It is found in the
coldest mountain waters. The length of the Axolotl is eight or
ten inches ; its general color green, spotted with black. The flesh
resembles that of an eel, and is considered quite agreeable. The
gills and gill-openings of this animal are highly developed ; a
continuous flap extends across the throat ; the tail is compressed
and fin-like.

Respecting this creature naturalists have been much per.
plexed. Many doubt whether the gills be permanent, and are
of the opinion that the Axolotl is nothing more than the tadpole
of a large species of Salamander, or else of some species, the
perfect form of which is yet to be discovered.

Fossil remains of Amphibia have been found both in Europe
and America. Traces of batrachian foot-marks are thought to be
discernible in the new red sand-stone of Massachusetts and Con-

540 AMPHIBIA.

necticut; and in the coal measures of Westmoreland county,
Pennsylvania, are found foot-prints which are regarded as those
of airbreathing vertebrates.

What is the 4th Order of Reptiles? Describe their skin. How is it ex-
uviated? With what furnished? What kind of changes do the vessels of
the skin undergo? What is necessary in order to their action? How is
the skin moistened ? What is said of its healthy action ? What is the re-
mark of Dr. Townson ? What is said of the form of the Amphibians ?
What other characteristics are mentioned besides their naked skin ? What
changes of form and habit do they undergo ? How do some naturalists
regard them? Into how many orders are they divided? What is the 1st ?
Name its distinguishing characteristics. How many families does it include ?
What is the 1st Family? Where did Cuv. place it? What has been proved
byMuller? Why was the name Caecilia given to these reptiles? How
are they characterized ? What is said of their habits ? What sp. is men-
tioned ? What is said of it ?

What do the TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS include ? What characters of this
group are given ? Name the 2nd Family. Give its characters. In what
condition do they spend the colder months ? Upon what do they feed ?
How do they secure their food ? What is said of their eggs ? What changes
do these animals undergo * Can they be tamed ? How long do they prob-
ably live without air or food? At what time were they introduced into
Ireland ? What Frog peculiar to N. A. is mentioned ? What is said of
it? What other sp. are named? Give some account of them. Describe
the Tree Frogs. In what respects do they differ from common frogs? Do
they never leave the trees? What is said of their young, &c. ? What
sp. are mentioned ? What is the next Family ? How does Cuv. distinguish
them? Is their saliva poisonous? What is said of their skin? Of their
habits ? How many sp. of them ? Which are named ? State what is said
of them? How are the TAILED AMPHIBIA characterized? What is the
4th Family of Amphibians? What division is made of the Newts? Des-
cribe the'Land Newts? What places do they frequent? What is said of
their size and color ? Of the number of species ? What else is said of
them ? How are the Tritons distinguished ? In what places are the sp.
found ? What is said of their size ? Describe the Tiger Triton ? Which
is the largest Water Newt of England ? In what manner does the female
deposit her eggs ? What are the characteristics and habits of the AQUATIC
NEWTS? What is the 5th Family? Where are they nearly all found?
Do they undergo any transformation ? How is the gen. Menopoma char-
acterized? What further is said of these animals? What sp. is referred
to? Describe the Amphiuma? What sp. are mentioned and what is said
of them? What is the 2nd Sub-order? Repeat what is said of it. In
what family does the Chart include these -Amphibians ? Has it received
any other name? What genus is first noticed? Can you give its char-
acter ? What is said of its places of abode ? What does Sir Humphrey
Davy remark respecting it ? What is its size, &c. ? Give the characters
of the genus Menobranchus ? What is said of the Banded Proteus?
What other sp. are mentioned? Describe the animals included in the gen-
eric term Siren. Which is the largest sp. ? What is said of the Axolotl?
What of Fossil Amphibians ?

Name and trace the Amphibians figured on the Chart.

PL.XHT.

MaylSVv.

3100S fS IIOIAHH HTsiroi

EXPLANATION OF PLATE SOL

THE FROG IN ITS DIFFERENT STAGES.

1. Just emerged from the egg, a tadpole, fishlike creature.

2. Gills, in branching tufts, on each side.

3. The blood is seen to course through the gill filaments.

i. The gills begin to disappear, the eyes are formed, and the little tadpole
or pollywog begins to devour vegetable matter with voracity.

5. Ceases to respire water and the hind legs begin to show themselves.

6. The fore legs appear and the tail is being absorbed.

7. It breathes by lungs, the tail has disappeared, and the legs are perfected.

8. The full grown Frog, living upon insects, mice, birds, &c.

GREAT WATER NEWT IN DIFFERENT STATES.

May 6th. The young Salamander Tadpole or Newt just escaped from the egg-
May 18th. The fore feet have lengthened, and the eyes are perceived.
May 28th. The hind feet begin to appear, and the fore feet are well devel-
oped.
June 12th. The hind feet almost developed, and lungs extend half way

down the trunk.
July 18th. It has arrived at the maturity of its tadpole state, and after the

27th respires atmospheric air, having attained its perfect state.
9. The Great Water Newt depositing its eggs on the leaves of the smart-
weed, or amphibious knot-weed, (polygonum persicaria.) She is folding
the leaves over to protect the eggs.

FOURTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

ICHTHYOLOGY. (Gr. **<toff, ickOuu, a fish ; Uyog, logos, a
discourse.)

Class, Pisces. FISHES. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES.

SECTION VII.

WE come now to that part of Zoology which treats of Fishes,
their structure and form, their habits and uses, and their classi-
fication. The Fishes, as a class, possess a greater number of
species than any other of the primary divisions of the Vertebrates ;
and, indeed, the species not improbably exceed in number those of
the Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles taken together. Our limits
will therefore allow us to do nothing more than present a gen.
eral view of this part of the Animal Kingdom, followed by suc-
cinct notices of the orders and families.

The most prominent characteristics of Fishes are (1) that they
generally have cold red blood ; (2) they breathe by gills instead
of lungs; (3) they have a two-chambered heart; (4) they use
fins as organs of progression ; (5) they have the skin naked or
covered with scales of varied structure; (6) they are almost
incredibly prolific.

The blood, generally cold, assumes the temperature of the
surrounding element. It should be stated, however, that in some
of the swift Oceanic Fishes of the Mackerel family, such as the
Tunny and the Bonito, the blood is found to be 10o higher than
that of the surface of the sea, even within the tropics. The
blood-disks are sometimes circular, and sometimes oval ; they
are larger than those of the mammalia and birds, smaller than
those of reptiles, especially the amphibia. The gills consist of
bony or cartilaginous spines, usually placed parallel with each

ICHTHYOLOGY. 545

other like the teeth of a comb, but sometimes arranged in bunches.
These organs are analogous to lungs in terrestrial animals, being
adapted to extract from the air contained in the water, the oxy-
gen which is needed for the renewal of the blood. The breath-
ing apparatus formed by the gills is double in form, placed on
each side of the neck. Most commonly it consists of several
series of laminae, or membranous plates, fixed upon slender
arches of bone. Over these thin membranous plates branch out
innumerable blood vessels, whose walls are so thin as to permit
the fluid contained in them to absorb the oxygen with which they
are brought in contact when the fish takes in water through the
mouth. In order to carry off the water when deprived of its oxy-
gen, and to bring in fresh portions to be successively respired,
a constant current is produced over the surface of the gills, by
the action of the fish while taking in water at the mouth, and
throwing it out on each side, behind the gills, through orifices which
it has for the purpose, called the gill-openings. The apparatus for
breathing is protected by large bony plates, or opercular bones,
making up the chief portion of the sides of the head. These are
four in number, and are termed the operculum, the siib-oper-
culum, the pre-operculum, and the inter-operculum. The first
of these covers the gills. The Iranchiostegous rays, often
mentioned in descriptions, are situated under the opercular
bones. In the Sharks, Squalida, (Lat. squalus, a sea-fish,) and
the Rays, Raida, (Lat. raid, a ray,) the gills are attached at
their outer margin, with a separate orifice to each, through which
the water escapes. The orifices, usually five in number, are,
with the mouth and nostrils, on the under surface, and completely
hid when the fish is laid on its belly.

The heart consists of but one auricle and one ventricle. The
blood collected from the venous system, is accumulated in the
single auricle, thence it is sent into the ventricle, and this drives
it into the gills where it is changed from venous to arterial blood,
and thence circulated through the body in arteries, aided by the
contraction of the surrounding muscular fibres. Hence it will
be perceived the heart never contains any but venous blood, the
arterial first proceeding from the gills.

Most of the bony fishes have a membranous bladder, com-
monly of a lengthened form, placed along the body between the
spine and the bowels, and having a structural relation to the
lungs in the higher Vertebrates. This is filled with air, and
well known as the air-bladder, or swimming-bladder. When-
ever possessed, it aids more or less the process of respiration. It
also serves another important purpose, which is to enable the fish

546 ICHTHYOLOGY.

to vary its specific gravity, and thus float at any desired eleva-
tion in the water. In appearance it varies ; sometimes, as in the
Sea-Porcupines or Hedge-Hog fishes, (Diodon, double toothed,)
and their allies, it is two-lobed ; in the Electric Eels and the Carp
fishes, Cyprinida,(Q\\ kuprinos, a carp,) it is divided by a trans-
verse partition, which in the latter allows of inter-communication,
through a narrow orifice. In the (Pimebdus catus,} or Com-
mon Cat-fish, Family Silurida, (Gr. silouros, a sheat-fish,) it is
divided into four cavities or compartments. In many species there
are closed or blind tubular processes proceeding from various parts
of the surface ; in others the bladder is sub-divided into as many
irregular cells; all this showing it to possess the rudimentary re-
mains of the lungs of air-breathing animals. In marine fishes the
bladder usually contains a gas having in it a greater proportion of
oxygen than of atmospheric air, while in those of fresh water, ni-
trogen predominates. The species which are without the air-blad-
der, or have it only in a rudimentary state, are generally Ground
Fishes, keeping close to the bottom. Sometimes the possession
of an air-bladder exposes fishes to danger; Gurnards, Triglida,
(Gr. trigla,) and Conger Eels, (Anguilla conger,) at times ap-
pear to distend the air-bladder so much that it loses its elas-
ticity or power of contraction, or as fishermen say, these fishes
" blow themselves," becoming unable to sink or to make their
escape. The Sea-Porcupine, (Plate XIV. fig.7;) has the habit of
filling its body with air, and of fl >ating helplessly in this condition
at the surface ; but in the case of this fish, the air is taken, not
into the bladder, but into the huge stomach.

A writer speaks " of a gentleman of his acquaintance who
had a Gold-fish which swam about for more than two months,
with its bell'y upwards, appearing perfectly healthy and lively,"
and who attributed this change in the natural position of the fish
to an enlargement or defect in the air-bladder.

Water is the well known sphere of life and motion to fishes.
The Flying fishes, Exocatus volitans, (Plate XIV. fig. 3,) and
some of the Gurnards can indeed raise themselves into the air and
keep their position there for a few seconds ; some of the Frog-fishes,
Lophida, (Gr. lophos, a neck or crest,) and Eels, AnguittidcB^ (Lat.
anguilla, an eel,) can crawl upon the exposed mud or sand in the in-
terval occurring between the ebb and flow of the tide ; and the An-
abassidae, or Climbing Perches leave the water in order to obtain
food ; but these are only deviations from a general rule. Some in-
habit fresh water only ; some only the sea ; others can exist in both,
either by periodical migration, or at pleasure. Near the city of
Bristol, (Eng.,) the Eels are known annually to ascend the trees

ICHTHYOLOGY. 547

whose branches hang into a pond, pass over to the opposite
branches and drop into an adjoining stream, and thus migrate to
far distant waters. The trees at such times appeared to be quite
alive with the eels. (Gosse.) Eels descend rivers to spawn in the
brackish waters of estuaries. Salmon ascend rocky rivers from
the sea, leaping cascades and overcoming various obstacles to de-
posit their eggs in fresh water.

The form of the fishes is decidedly the one best adapted to facili-
tate progression through such a medium as water, being commonly
that of a spindle, swelling in the middle and tapering to each
extremity. To this, however, there are exceptions. The
Skates, JRaiidce, and Flat-fishes, Planida, are flattened horizon-
tally; the Chaetodons, or Hair-Tooths, Chaetodontidce, and the
famed Dories, Zeina, (Gr. from Zeus, Jupiter,) a branch of the
Scombridce, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel,) are flattened vertically ;
some are of a globe-like form, as the Diodon and the Sun-fish,
Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucking-pig :) some of serpent-like form,
as the Eels and Lampreys, Petromyzon, (Gr. stone-sucker ;) and
some, as the Ribbon-fishes, Cepolida, resemble in length and
thinness the fabric after which they are named.

The organs of motion in this class are fins. These have
the form of a delicate membrane, investing a series of bony
or cartilaginous rays, and which is more or less transpar-
ent. These rays are slender bones, consisting, in some cases, of
a single piece, stiff and spinous ; in other instances, they are
made up of several pieces jointed together, and hence flexible ;
the latter are frequently divided each into two or more branches
at the tip. The bony character of the fin rays affords a basis for
two of the orders, viz. : ACANTHOPTERYGII, Spiny-finned Fishes,
and MALACOPTERYGII, Soft-finned Fishes.

The fins of Fishes are of five kinds, which have received
their names from their position upon the body, viz. : (1) the
dorsal or back fins, (Plate XII. fig. 3a,) usually single, but some-
times divided into two or three fins, at varying distances from
each other ; (2) the caudal or tail fins, (c.) which in the true
fishes are vertical, but in the fish-like mammalia are horizontal ;
(3) the anal or vent fins, (d ;) (4) the pectoral or breast fins, (f;)
(5) the ventral or belly fins, (e.)

The pectorals and ventrals are arranged in pairs, and corres-
pond to the fore and hind limbs in other vertebrate animals ; the
pectorals, for instance, representing the wings in birds ; the ven-
trals the feet. The dorsal or medial fin aids in keeping the body
in a perpendicular position in the water; scarcely any fishes are
without this fin, many have two dorsal fins, and a few, as the

23

543 ICHTHYOLOGY.

Haddock and Cod, have three dorsals. The anal fin corres-
ponds to the dorsal, but is placed beneath the body, just behind
the vent. The principal instrument of motion is the tail fin.
In those fishes which swim most swiftly, the tail is forked, each
division being pointed, as are also the pectorals ; while in those
of less active or sluggish habits, the tail fin, as well as the pec-
torals, is commonly short, even or rounded. The rapid and
powerful strokes of this fin, given obliquely right and left upon
the water, urge the fish rapidly on in a straight course. The
pectorals and ventrals do not appear to be much used for com-
municating motion ; their chief office is to balance the body, or
for turning, and for rising and sinking in the water.

Fins without distinguishable rays, or in which the rays are
covered with a mass of fatty matter, or else entirely absent, are
called adipose. A fin of this description is found on the back
of the Brook Trout, (Salmo fontinalis,) in the rear of the main
dorsal fin.

The bones are less dense and compact in their structure than
those of the other Vertebrates, yet some of the Spiny-rayed
Fishes possess considerable hardness. In the third group, CHON-
DROPTERYGII, or CARTILAGINOUS FISHES, (see Chart,) which in-
cludes the formidable Rays and Sharks, the skeleton is com-
posed of gristle or cartilage instead of bone. Some of the species
of this order seem, however, to make an approach to the osseous
divisions. This is especially true, (1) of the SPOONBILL, Polydon
reticufatus, an extraordinary fish, two feet or more long, found in
the Mississippi, known at once by its snout, which is excessively
prolonged, very flat and lanceolate, and in length nearly equal to
the whole body ; (2) the COMMON or SHORT-NOSED STURGEON,
Acipenser (Lat. a sturgeon,) brcvirostris, which has the body
covered by hard bony tubercles ; (3) the Chimarida, or SEA
MONSTERS, so named from the fantastic shape of their heads,
which have a singular hoe-shaped appendage, tipped with spines
and somewhat-like a crest, upon their snout, (see Chart.) The body
of one species, Chim&ra borealis, which looks almost as much like
a reptile as a fish, terminates gradually in a long slender filament.

The cone-shaped cavities of the vertebra, or joints of the spine,
are in the Fishes filled with a jelly-like substance, continued
through the whole spine, by means of a hole pierced through the
center of each vertebral joint. Though the tubular perforation
is usually small, yet in many of the gristly or cartilaginous
fishes, it is of so great a diameter as to reduce the vertebrae to
mere cartilaginous rings.

Connected with the vertebrae above and below are spinous

ICHTHYOLOGY 549

processes for the attachment of muscles. Within the cavity of
the belly the inferior processes are absent, but are replaced by
lateral ones, to which the ribs are attached. These are usually
numerous, slender and flexible bones, each of which sends off a
branch of almost equal length and thinness. Some species, as
the Herring and Pilchard, Clupida, (from clupea, a shad or her-
ring,) send off thread-like branches from each of the vertebrae,
so that the bodies of these fishes seem to be filled with long and
slender bones.

The form of the skull varies much in the different orders, but
generally it consists of pieces corresponding to those which form
the head in other vertebrates. The line of distinction between
the head and body it is difficult to draw, in consequence of the
entire absence of a neck.

Teeth are very numerous, sometimes being found in almost
all the bones of the mouth. They are usually simple spines,
curved backwards, but the form is often much modified. The
teeth of the voracious SHARKS, for example, are flat and lancet-
like, the cutting edges being notched like a saw. In some spe-
cies of these terrible fish they are so numerous that upon open-
ing the mouth " the eye sees nothing but a forest of pointed teeth,
anyone of -which, if detached, would be sufficient to inflict a
most severe wound." In the Sharks of the genera Prislis, (Gr.
Saw-fish,) and Mustelus, (Hound-fish,) the teeth differ, being flat,
blunt, and tesselated. It is a remarkable provision that in some
species the teeth are arranged in series of rows of which the outer
one only is in use, the others remaining flat in the mouth until
called into exercise by the injury or destruction of the outer row.
The front teeth of the FLOUNDERS, (Platessa,) are compressed
plates; the WRASSES, Labrida, (from Gr. labros, greedy,)
have flat grinding teeth ; the SHEEP'S-HEADS, (Sargus, or Sparus
ovis,) have the grinding surface convex ; the Gilt-heads, Chry-
sophrys, (Sea-Breams,) have round, flat grinding teeth, ar-
ranged like the stones of a pavement, and often with strong
pointed canines in front, able to crush and grind to powder the
shells of the crustaceans and mollusks upon which they feed ;
the beautiful Chaetodons of warm climates, have, as the name
denotes, teeth which resemble bristles; the Perches have teeth
on the upper and lower jaw, slender, minute, numerous and
closely set ; the bold and fierce Pikes have teeth scarcely less
formidable in size, form and sharpness than the canines of car-
nivorous animals.

The number as well as the form of the teeth greatly varies.
While the Pike, the Perch, the Cat-fish, and many others have

550 ICHTHYOLOGY.

the mouth crowded with almost numberless teeth, the Carp and
the Roach, Cyprinida, have only a few strong ones in the throat
and a single flat one above ; and the Sturgeon, the Pipe-fish,
Syngnathus, and the Sand-launce, Ammocates, (Gr. sand-bedded,)
are entirely toothless.

The skin is either naked or covered with scales which appear
in various .states of development, as true imbricated scales, as
isolated scales, as spiny bristles, hard, bony, enamelled plates.
Most of the fishes have on their sides a longitudinal row of scales,
in each of which is a perforation. These perforations were for-
merly thought to secrete mucus ; but Prof. Agassiz has proved
them to be the openings of tubes, which together with similar
tubes opening on the skull, penetrate all parts of the frame and
freely admit water, which serves to counterbalance the external
pressure.

The colors of Fishes, including as they do all shades and lus-
tres, are not surpassed even by those of the Birds. The hues
are, however, evanescent, disappearing immediately after death.
The effect of fear in changing the color of the human hair is well
known. From the statement of a writer in the "New Sporting
Magazine," it would appear to have a similar effect upon some
Fishes, particularly Trout.

The brain is small and the face has not much expression ; the
tongue is mostly cartilaginous, and sometimes covered with teeth.
This, connected with the fact that the food is almost always swal-
lowed whole as soon as it is seized, seems to warrant the infer-
ence that Fishes have not acute taste. The sense of smell they
probably possess in considerable perfection, the olfactory nerves
being very large, and distributed over a great extent of surface.
There is no external ear, nor even an auditory orifice, yet there
is a complex internal apparatus of large size for the reception
of sounds.

The eyes are distinguished by their almost immovable posi-
tion ; the cornea is flat, but the crystalline lens is perfectly spher-
ical ; the latter is familiar in the form of a white globule in a
boiled fish, the transparency being destroyed by heat ; eye-lids
are not present. From the density of the watery medium inhab-
ited by Fishes, a large number of the rays of light are absorbed
and lost in passing through it ; hence the eyes of fishes are very
large, so as to collect as many of the remaining rays as possible ;
they are also of brilliant hues. These hues are owing to a
membrane called the choroid, spread around the back of the eye,
composed, to a large extent, of highly reflecting microscopic
crystals. The eyes of some species gleam like quadrupeds.

ICHTHYOLOGY. 551

Generally they are placed opposite to each other on the two
sides of the head, so as to look sidewise, but in species that ha-
bitually live in deep water, they are placed on the top of the
head, and look upward. In one genus of Sharks, called, on this
account Hammer-heads, the head is enormously widened, so as
to present two long lateral processes, at the extremities of which
the eyes are placed; the shape of the head, much resembling
that of the hammer used in caulking ships, (see Hammer-headed
Shark on the Chart.) We must not omit here to notice the fact
that a species of blind fish, Amblyopsis, (Gr. amblus, dim. opsis,
vision,) spelceus, (Gr. spelaion, a cave.) has been found in the
Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. The Saw-fishes have the snout
prolonged into a straight bony blade, along the edges of which
are set pointed teeth directed outward.

Some of the species are endowed with a property quite pecu-
liar to this class of Vertebrates. This is the power of giving
electric shocks, at will, to other creatures, possessed by the Tor-
pedo, (Plate XIV. fig. 13 ;) and the Gymnotus, or electric
eel. The electric organs consist of numerous six sided cells
containing a number of delicate membranous plates, sepa-
rated from each other by a transparent jelly-like fluid. In
the Torpedo, the plates are placed vertically, and form two masses
one on each side of the head ; in the Gymnotus, they are hori-
zontal and form four sub-organs, one pair on each side of the
body.

The organs of voice are, in fish, entirely wanting. The Cat-
fish, Pimelodus, is, however, said to make a peculiar sound by
the vibration of its cirri, or barbels, (Plate XIV. fig. 8.) The
WEAK FISH, Otolithus regalis, makes a peculiar and seemingly
abdominal grunting when caught, as does also the BLACK DRUM,
Pogonias chromis.

The food of fishes is, for the most part, animal. Some browse
the sea- weeds that wave around the rocks of the coast, and oth-
ers nibble the soft parts of fresh water vegetation ; but the great
majority are carnivorous. The soft- bodied animals of the sea,
such as the Actinia, the Medusa, the Annelida, and the naked
Mollusca, afford food to multitudes ; others are furnished with
strong teeth to grind down the newly formed parts of coral, and
devour the living polyps ; and a large number feed greedily on
Star-fishes, Crustacea, and the Shelled Mollusca. In fresh wa-
ter, worms, leeches, and the larvae of insects satisfy the appe-
tite of many. Besides these sources of supply, Fishes every-
where feed upon Fishes, the larger upon the smaller. Their
voracity is extremely great, no limit to their appetite appearing

552 ICHTHYOLOGY.

but the actual capacity of the stomach.* Some, as the Trout,
act the part of tyrants over their fellows.

Fishes are almost incredibly prolific. One species, the Blenny,
produces its young alive, sometimes two or three hundred at a
time, and able to provide for their own support. A species of
viviparous fish, but two inches in length, inclusive of the caudal
fin, and containing twenty-two perfect fish, has also been found
in a canal connecting with Lake Pontchartrain. Larger speci-
mens have been received by Agassiz from Lake Erie, and also
from California. But, generally, the continuation of the race is
accomplished by means of eggs, called, in the aggregate, spawn ;
and before exclusion, roe. The eggs are deposited in various
places, on sticks, stones, grass, furrows in the sand, etc. In rare
cases, as the Goby of the Mediterranean, some North Amer-
ican Cyprinida or Carps, and the HASSARS, Callichthys, of Dem-
erara, a nest for the reception of the spawn is built, consisting
of a single pile of stones, or else, as in the last named fishes, a
more complicated structure of grass and sticks. The Stickle-
back, (Gasterosteus,) forms of sea- weed and common coralline,
pear-shaped nests, which hang from the rocks, variously inter-
mingled with each other. The Shark, instead of depositing
almost innumerable eggs in a season, like the Cod or the Her-
ring, produces two eggs, of a square or oblong form, (see fig. on
Chart,) the coat of which is composed of a tough, horny and
semi-transparent case ; each corner is prolonged into a tendril,
of which the two which are next to the tail of the enclosed fish,
are stronger and more prehensile than the other pair. The
use of these tendrils appears to be their entanglement among the
stalks of sea-weeds, and the consequent mooring of the egg in a
situation of protection and comparative security. The part of the
skin near the head, is weaker and more easily broken than any
other part, — a provision for the easy exclusion of the animal,
which occurs before the entire absorption of the yolk of the
egg, — the remainder being attached to the body of the young
fish, enclosed in a capsule, which for a while it carries about.
The position of the animal while within the egg, is, with the
head, doubled back towards the tail,— one very unfavorable for
the process of breathing by internal gills. But as a provision

* "At a lecture delivered before the Zoological Society of Dublin, Dr.
Houston exhibited, as ' a fair sample of a fish's breakfast,' a Frog-fish two
feet and a half long, in the stomach of which was a Cod-fish, two feet in
length ; the Cod's stomach contained the bodies of two Whitings of ordi-
nary size ; and the Whitings, in their turn, held the half digested remains of
many smaller fishes, too much broken up to be identified."

ICHTHYOLOGY.

553

for this emergency, on each side a filament, of the substance of
the gills, projects from the gill-opening, containing vessels in
which the blood is exposed to the action of the water. These
processes are gradually absorbed after the fish is excluded, until
which the internal gills are incapable of respiration. This pre-
sents an analogy with the Frogs and Newts. We advert to it
thus particularly as impressively manifesting the Divine benevo-
lence when the object of so much contrivance and care, is the
dreaded and hated SHARK ! The horny cases just referred to
are frequently found on the sea-shore, and are called Sea-Purses,
Mermaids'-Purses, &c. Some species, as the PENNY DOG, Galeus
vulgaris, and the SMOOTH HOUND, (Mustelus favis,) bring forth
their young alive, without any capsule or covering at all.

Some species, as the Pipe-fishes, (Syngnathus,) are ovo- vivipa-
rous. What is very singular, the male Pipe-fish is provided with
a pouch, into which he receives the spawn as it is deposited by his
mate, and in which he carries it about until the young are
hatched. And, as if to make the resemblance to the Marsupials
complete, the young are in the habit of retiring for shelter into
the paternal pouch, for sometime after they are able to leave it
and roam at their own pleasure. It is somewhat remarkable,
that it is the male, generally, who assumes the care of the eggs,
and the construction of the nest. Instances are not wanting, of
striking parental devotedness and foresight.

The following Table of Mr. Harmar, (Phil. Trans.,) shows
the different degrees of fecundity in different species of fishes.

NAME OF FISH.

Weight of
Fish.

Weight of
spawn.

Number of

Eggs.

Carp, ,

ozs. drs.
25 5

grs.
2.571

205,109

Cod

12.540

3 686 760

24 4

2.200

1,357,400

5 10

480 *

36,960

Mackerel,

18

1.223

546,681

Perch,

8 9

7654

28,323

Pike,

56 4

5.100}

49,304

10 6£

361

81,586

Smelt,

2 0

149i

32,278

Sole,

14 8

542*

100,362

Tench,

40 0

383.252

But far more productive than these, is the Salmon, (Salmo
Salar,) for " the ovarium of one female, has been -known to pro-
duce 20,000,000 eggs!"

Prof. Dana estimates the greatest number of eggs in the Thick-

554 ICHTHYOLOGY.

lipped Grey Mullet, (Mugil Chelo,) to be 13,000,000; in the
Cod-fish, (Gadus Morrhua^ 11,000,000; in the Turbot, (Pleu-
ronectes maximus,) 9,000,000 ; in the Plaice, (P. platessa,)
6,000,000; in the Carp, (Cyprinus carpio,) 600,000 to 700,000;
in the Perch, (Perca fluviatilis, ) 71,000.

It has been estimated that the progeny of a single Herring, if
allowed to multiply, undisturbed for thirty years, would not only
be sufficient to meet every demand for this fish, but become even
inconveniently numerous; and that, too, notwithstanding hardly
one among the millions of young Herrings comes to maturity, in
consequence of the ravages made by rapacious fish, and by other
means. Although so extensively used, the supply of this fish is
always found equal to the demand. The same might be said of
the Cod, the Mackerel, the Tench, &c.

The longevity of fishes seems to be undoubted, however it be
true that few reach their natural term of years. Pike and Carp
kept in fish ponds, have been known to live to a great age. A
Pike taken in Prussia, in 1754, bore a ring which testified to its
having been placed in the pond two hundred and sixty-seven
years before ; how old it was when put in was unknown. Carp,
it is clearly shown, have attained the age of a century. Buffon
speaks of one that was one hundred and fifty years old.

"Cartilaginous fishes," says Swainson, "continue to grow all
their lives ; and as many of these, particularly the Rays, habitu-
ally live in the deep recesses of the ocean, and thus seldom run
the risk of being captured by man, we may probably attribute
their enormous and almost incredible size to their great age."
It is thought to be "a rare thing for a fish to die of natural de-
cay." But owing to the ravages made among them, the actual
average of life is with fishes of comparatively short duration.
They are capable of enduring great extremes of temperature, —
a fact which may be regarded as indicating their low place in
the scale of organization. Experiments have shown that several
species of fresh-water fish can live many days in water so hot
that the hand could not be held in it a single minute. Eels have
been alive in hot springs, in which the temperature is pretty
regularly 113o Fahr. But such cases are far less wonderful
than that recorded by Humboldt and Bonpland, who "saw living
fishes, apparently in health and vigor, thrown up from the bottom
of a volcano, with water and hot vapor that raised the thermom-
eter to 210o Fahr., — a heat only two degrees less than that of
boiling water] "

On the other hand, the cold of freezing does not always destroy
the life of fishes. Eels and Perch are conveyed from place to

ICHTHYOLOGY. 555

place in a frozen state, which revive on being thawed. So is it,
according to Dr. Richardson, with the Grey Sucking Carp.
Gold fishes which have been thawed out of a solid body of ice,
have completely revived.

Species which live near the surface of the water, have less
tenacity of life than those which seek the deep waters. Mack-
erel, Salmon, Trout, and Herrings, of the former kind, die almost
as soon as they are taken out of the water; while Carp, Eels,
Tenches, Skates, and the Flat-fishes, which live near the bottom,
and have a low standard of respiration, and a high degree of mus-
cular irritability, with less necessity for oxygen, sustain life for
sometime after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh
continues good for several days.

The Eels, Muraenida, and the Blade-eels, Ophidiada, show
extraordinary tenacity of life ; even removal of the skin, and the
division of the body into parts, not immediately producing death.

The flesh of the larger part of fishes is useful for food ; though
that of some species is somewhat indigestible. Fish of fresh-
water are more generally edible than those of the sea; but as a
whole, are not so savory. Fishes are also valuable for other
purposes: some for the oil which they yield; the air-bladder of
the Sturgeon furnishes the isinglass of commerce ; the roes of
the Sturgeon, Pike and some other fish, furnish caviar; the sha-
green skin of some Placoids is employed for polishing and for
making ornamental coverings. The bones are used for fish-
hooks and other purposes.

The first scientific CLASSIFICATION of Fishes is that of Artedi,
which was made in 1738 ; the next, that of Linnaeus, made be-
tween twenty and thirty years later.

The Classification of Cuvier is generally adopted, and the one
to which the Chart most nearly conforms. The entire class
of Fishes is first divided into OSSEOUS and CARTILAGINOUS.

The OSSEOUS FISHES are sub-divided into SPINE-RAYED and
SOFT-RAYED.

They are also arranged into three sections, — I. Pectinibran-
chii, which have the ~branclii(&, or gills, in continuous, comb-like
ridges, and include all the ordinary and typical fishes. This
section is comprehended in two orders.

I. ACANTHOPTERYGII, (Gr. spine-rayed,) — distinguished by'
having the anterior part of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins,
furnished with simple, spiny rays. The Perches, Mullets, Gur-
nards, Mackerels, &c., belong to this order.

II. MALACOPTERYGII (Gr. soft-rayed,) having all the fin rays

55G ICHTHYOLOGY.

soft and flexible, with the exception, sometimes, of the first ray
of the dorsal and pectoral fins. There are also three Sub-or-
ders, founded either upon the position of certain fins, or their
absence, as (1) the Abdominales, in which the ventral fins are
situated far behind the pectorals, as in the Carp, Tench, Bream,
Dace, Roach, Pike, Salmon, etc. ; (2) the Sub-brachials, or Sub-
brachiati, (terms derived from the Latin sub, under; brachialis,
armlet, or brachium, arm,) in which the ventral fins are immedi-
ately beneath the pectoral fins or armlets, (or even a little before
them,) — as in the Codfish, Haddock and Whiting. To this
group also belong the Flat-fishes, — such as the Plaice, Flounder,
Turbot, Sole, etc.; (3) the Apodes, (Gr. footless,) including the
Eels, which receive this name from their possessing no ventral fins.

The other sections of the Osseous division are, (2) Lopho-
branchia, (Gr. tuft-gills,) including Bony Fishes which have the
gills in tufts, (not pectinated,) and arranged in pairs along the
branchial arches ; (3) Plectognathi, those in which the bones of
the head are closely combined, including the Gymnodontida or
Naked-toothed Fishes, the Balistida, or File-fishes, and the Os-
tracionida, or Trunk-fishes.

The CARTILAGINOUS FISHES are sub-divided (1) into those
which have the gills free, Eleutheropomi, (Gr. free-covers or
operculce.) The gills in these, are pectinate or comb-like, and there
is only a single gill opening. Of these, the Sturgeons furnish
an example; (2) those with fixed gills, (Branchiis fixis,) and
which have more than one gill opening on each side, — including
the Sharks, (Squalidce,) the Rays, (Raiidce,) and the Stone-Suck-
ers, (Petromyzonidcz,)

The division Plagiostomi includes those Cartilaginous Fishes
which have on the under side of the face, and at a greater or
less distance from the extremity, the broad transverse mouth, —
such as the Sharks and the Rays. The gills in all are fixed
with five or six gill-openings.

The Cyclostomi, (Gr. with circular mouths,) are those Cartila-
ginous Fishes which breathe by a "series of cells," the gills
not being comb-shaped fringes, but forming sacs or pouches by
the union of two opposite ones along their edges. Here are
. found the Stone-Suckers, so called because the animal applies its
circular lip to the surface of a stone or other solid body in the
water, and drawing in the piston-like tongue, produces a vacuum
in the mouth, while the pressure of the super-incumbent body
of the water causes the lip to adhere to the stone with immense
tenacity, until, by the protrusion of the tongue, the vacuum is
voluntarily destroyed.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

557

The lowest and most anomalous of all the species of Fishes,
is the BRANCHIOSTOMA or LANCELET, (Amphioxus lanceolatus,)
usually about two inches in length, and generally distributed
throughout the seas of Europe and North Africa. So unique is
the structure of this minute creature, that, on the Chart, it is
dissevered from the Stone-Suckers. " A vertebrated animal
without a brain, a fish with the respiratory system of a mollusk,
and the circulatory system almost of an Annelide," — presents a
combination of characters which has challenged its right to a
place among the Vertebrates, and seems to justify its separation
from the Lampreys,, with which some naturalists have ranked it.

The Myxines, or GLUTINOUS HAGS, of the most Northern and
Southern seas, are almost equally strange in form and structure,
having been classed by Linnaeus and other writers, among the
WORMS.

Their place is filled in the higher parts of the Southern hem-
isphere, by the equally curious and nearly allied genus, Hepta-
trema.*

The Lepidosiren, (Gr. scaly-siren,) is the connecting link be-
tween FISHES and Reptiles, being so dubious in its organization,
that its true position is disputed. Most naturalists of Continental
Europe consider it to be a reptile, while Prof. Owen confidently
maintains its claim to a place among the Fishes. If assigned to
the Reptiles, its position would be as a. fourth order of the Batra-
chians.

Prince Bonaparte divides the Fishes into four orders, viz :
Acanthopterygii , Malacopterygii, Plectognathi, and Cartilaginei.
His arrangement is by many highly esteemed.

Agassiz names the orders of Fishes from their scales, (his
classification being applicable to the fossil as well as the living
forms,) viz :

(1) CTENOIDS, (from Gr. ktenos, a comb,) in which the scales
consist of plates whose posterior or free margin is pectinated, or
comb-like, as in the Perch, Bass, Pumpkin-seed, &c.

* The name Heptatrema (meaning seven apertures or perforations) was
given to this genus by Dumeril. It is found, however, that the number of
apertures varies. Mr. C. Girard describes one of these fishes of the South-
ern Hemisphere, as having fourteen breathing holes. (See " U. S. Naval
Astronomical Expedition,''1 published at Washington, D. C., 1855.) He adopts
the generic name of Miiller, Bdellostoma, (Gr. Bdello, I suck; stoma,
mouth,) founded on the structure of the mouth, and calls the speci-
men which he figures, Bdellostoma poly trema, (Gr. many perforations.)

558 ICHTHYOLOGY.

(2) CYCLOIDS, (from Gr. kuklos, a circle,) those whose scales
are entire, as in the Salmon, Trout, Shiners, &c.

(3) GANOIDS, (from Gr. gar^os, splendor.) having scales of
an angular form, composed of horny or bony substances, covered
with a thick coat of enamel, so that they become teeth-like in
their structure, as in the Gar-pike.

(4) PLACOIDS, (from Gr. plax, a plate or slab.) thus named from
the irregularity which the scaly coverings exhibit, so that the skin
resembles shagreen as in the Sharks, Rays, &c.

What is the fourth branch of Zoology ? Of what does it treat ? What is
said of the number of fishes? What are their most general characteristics?
What is said of their blood? Describe the breathing apparatus and the
circulation of the blood. What have they analogous to the lungs in
higher vertebrates? What purposes does it subserve? State its variation
in different fishes. Of what kind are the fishes which have not the air-
bladder? How does its possession expose to danger? What habit has the
Sea-Porcupine? What is related of the Gold-fish? What fishes sometimes
leave their proper element? Relate facts respecting the migration of Eels.
What is the usual form of fishes? What exceptions are mentioned? What
are the organs of motion? Of what do they consist? What orders are
based upon differences in their structure ? Of how many kinds are the
fins ? Name them, and describe their uses. What additional fin is men-
tioned? How do the bones compare in structure with those of other verte-
brates? What forms the skeleton of the Cartilaginous Fishes? What is
said of the vertebrae of fishes? What of the bones of the Herring and
Pilchard? What of the head? Describe the teeth, with their variations as
to form and number? What is said of the skin? What of its color-
ings? Of the senses of taste, smell, and hearing? Of their eyes? What
causes their brilliant hues? Where are the eyes placed ? Are these organs
wanting in any species of fish? What power is peculiar to some of this
class? Describe the electrical organs. Have they a voice? Do any give
forth sound? Describe their food. Are any fish viviparous? What are
the eggs in the mass called? What before exclusion? Where are they
deposited? What fish construct nests? Are any ovo-viviparous? What
singular facts are mentioned in regard to the male fishes ? What of the
Shark's eggs? Which is the most prolific fish? Give other instances from
the table. What facts show the longevity of fishes? What their capacity' to
endure heat and cold? Which species show the greatest tenacity of life?
What is said of their flesh? Explain the classification of Fishes as given
on the Chart. Which is the most anomalous of all the species? What
other strange fish are mentioned? Which connect the Fish and Reptiles?
Into how many orders are the Fishes arranged by Prince Bonaparte ? Give
their name, and also the orders of Agassiz and Muller ?

Which of Agassiz' orders of fish figured on the Chart has a hetero-circal
or uneven tail or caudal fin ? How has this order been otherwise divided ?
Upon what are these divisions based ? Name the prominent fish in each.
Trace each family upon the Chart, giving some prominent characteristic of
each. Name some of the fish in each family, giving both the common,

ICHTHYOLOGY. 559

generic, and specific names when they are mentioned. Which is the most
numerous family? Which is the smallest? Which most useful for food?

NOTE.

Mailer's classification of fishes (made in 1846) is the most recent, but it
• has since been somewhat modified. This gives eleven orders, viz: 1. DER-
MOPTERI, in which he includes the Amphioxidae or Lancelots, placed in the
sub-order Pharyngobranchii ; and the Myxinoidei, (Myxines,) and Petro-
myzontidas, (Stone-Suckers,) in the sub-order Marsipobranchii ; II. MAL-
ACOPTERI, with sub-orders Apodes, Abdominales ; III. Pharyngognathi,
With sub-orders Malacopterygii, (including Scomberesocidae, and Acanthop-
terygii, (including Chromidae, Cyclo-Labridae, Cteno-Labridaa ;) IV. ANACAN-
THINI, with sub-orders Apodes, (including Ophididae,) and Thoracici, (in-
cluding Gadidas, Pleuronectidae, and Echineida?;) V. ACANTHOPTERI ; VI.
PLECTOGNATHI ; VII. LOPHOBRANCHII ; VIII. GANOIDEI; IX. PROTOPTERI,
which includes the one family Sirenoidei, made up of Lepidosiren paradoxa,
of Brazil, and Lepidosirtn or Protopterus annectens, of the Gambia River,
Africa; X. HOLOCEPHALI, (including Chimaeroidei and Edaphontidae;) XI.
Plagiostomi.

Agassi/, in the "Essay on Classification," contained in his recently pub-
lished work, thus remarks, — '•' I am satisfied that the differences which exist
between the Selachians, (the Skates, Sharks and Chimaera3,)are of the same
kind as those which distinguish the Amphibians from the Reptiles proper,
and justify their separation, as a class, from the Fishes proper. I consider
also the Cyclostomes as a distinct class, for similar reasons ; but I am still
doubtful whether the Ganoids should be separated also from the ordinary
Fishes. This, however, cannot be decided until their embryological devel-
opment has been thoroughly investigated, though I have already collected
data which favor this view of the case. Should this expectation be realized,
the branch of Vertebrata would contain the following classes : —

1st class: Myzontes; with two orders, Myxinoids and Cyclostomes.

2d class: Fishes proper; with two orders, Ctenoids and Cycloids.

3d class : Ganoids ; with three orders, Coelacanths, Acipenseroids and
Sauroids; and doubtful, the Siluroids, Plectognaths and Lophobranch.es.

4th class : Selachians ; with three orders, Chimaerae, Galeodes and Batides.

5th class : Amphibians ; with three orders, Caecilia?, Ichthyodi and Anura.

6th class : Reptiles ; with four orders, Serpentes, Saurii, Rhizodontes and
Testudinata.

7th class: Birds; with four orders, Natatores, Grallae, Rasores, Insessorea,
(including Scansores and Accipitres.)

8th class: Mammalia; with three orders Marsupialia, Herbivora and
Carnivora."

530 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

SECTION VIII.

OSSEOUS FISHES

FIRST ORDER. ACANTHOPTERYGII, (Gr. 'axa^fla, dkantha, a spine ;

pteron, wing.)

The CTENOIDS, or ACANTHOPTERYGIIANS, including three-
fourths of all known fishes, are almost all marine. They are
ornamented with hard, shining, tooth-like scales of beautiful
colors. The spiny fins of most of them are constructed for long
continued motion.

FAMILIES.

(I) Percida, (Gr. perke, a kind of fish.)

THE PERCHES. These comprise one-seventh of all spine-
rayed Fishes. Most of them, including the Gropers or Mailed
Perches, are marine, but the typical species, the Common Perch,
of Europe, (Perca fluviatilis,) with two separated dorsal fins,
the rays of the first spinous, of the second flexible, is found only
in fresh water. To this nearly corresponds the YELLOW Perch,
P. jlavescens, the most conspicuous of the numerous North
American species, and found both in salt water and fresh. In
1825, Yellow Perch were transported from Skaneateles to Otisco
Lake and Onondaga Lake, and appeared to thrive after the trans-
fer. They are common in ponds and streams, and in all the
great lakes. The eggs of the Perch are of the size of a poppy
seed, and joined together by a viscid substance, in long strings.
Among the most remarkable fishes of this group are those in-
cluded in the genus Polynemus, (Gr. polus, many ; nema, a
thread or filament,) distinguished by having the ventral fins in-
serted farther back than the pectorals, and also for having nu.
merous long flexible filaments placed near the latter fins, from
four to ten on each side, and sometimes twice the length of the
body. Interest attaches to these fishes from the fact that the
bladders of several species yield pure isinglass. The SULEAH
Fish of India, P. sele, is the one from which it is said to have been
first procured. Shoals of this species are found in the estu-
aries of the river Ganges ; they are three to four feet in length,
and eight to ten inches in depth. The species P. Americanus
has several rays attached to the pectoral fin. It is about a foot
in length, and of a silvery color. All the fishes of this family

ACANTHOPTERYGII.

agree in the toothed or comb-like edges of the scales, and in
having serrated or spined gill-covers, and fins destitute of scales.

The ROCK-FISH, or STRIPED-BASS, Lalrax Uneatus, is a fish
that has the tongue covered with teeth or prickles; the oper-
cula are somewhat different from those of the Perches proper,
but in other respects it closely resembles them. It is much es-
teemed, especially when taken in autumn. These fishes are
brought into market, (dead,) during the winter, and sold in great
numbers. Like the shad, with which they are taken, they run
from the salt waters into the fresh for the purpose of spawning.
(For other genera and species of this numerous family, see
Chart.)

(2) TriglidcR. (Gr. trigla, a surmullet.)

The GURNARDS, or MAILED CHEEKS. These have enormous
pectoral fins, yet live near the shore. The name Gurnard is
supposed to he derived from the French word grander, to grumble
or emit sounds. Cuvier called them " Fishes with hard cheeks,"
referring to the encasement of the head and face in a solid buck-
ler of bone, which is their most obvious character. Like other
bottom fish, they live for some time out of the water.

The PIPER, Trigla lyra, is rather an uncommon European
species. The RED GURNARD, T. cuculus, a well flavored fish,
occurs 6n the coast of the United States. Other American spe-
cies are found in the genus Prionolus, which closely resembles
Trigla. Among the Gurnards is included the Flying-fish, Dae-
tylopterus (Gr. finger-wings) voUtans^ (Lat. flying,) having very
large pectoral fins divided into two portions and serving as wings;
but it is not so good a flyer as the Flying-fish, Exocatus, belong-
ing to the Pike family. To this family also belongs the genus
Gasterosteus, (Gr. bony-belly,) including quite small, but very
active and voracious fish, found in both fresh and salt water, and
popularly called STICKLEBACKS. They are only from one to two
and a half inches long, butso elastic is the Three-spined Stickle-
back, (represented half the usual size, Plate XIV. fig. 2,) that^.
it leaps nine times its length, in perpendicular height, from the
water. Its extraordinary voracity is shown by the fact that it
has been known to devour in five hours, seventy-four young dace,
and on the following day, sixty-two ; (some dace, it should be
mentioned, are exceedingly small.) Several species of Stickle-
backs are found in the waters of the United States. In some'
parts of England, these fish are so numerous as to be used for
manure. They are so pugnacious as to destroy each other ; and
yet some of them manifest great care in building and watching
their nests.

562 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

(3) Scanida, (Gr. sJciaina, a sea-fish.)

The Maigres. These resemble Perches, but live in the sea,
and attain to a great size. They make a sort of purring sound.
The air-bladder is long, tapering, and fringed along each side,
giving it a singular appearance ; the head is generally enlarged
with cavernous swellings. Among the American fishes of this
family are the WEAK-FISH, Otolithus regalis, abundant on the
Atlantic coast, and an excellent salt-water fish. It is called
Salt-water Trout on the southern shores. The RED-BASS, or Sea-
bass, Corvina oceUala, is taken off the coast as far north as Long
Island Sound, and for food, is highly prized. The LAFAYETTE,
or CHUB, Leioslomus obliquus, abounds on the coasts of the Mid-
dle States, and is in some estimation for food. A species, L.
xanthurus, (Gr. yellow-tail,) known as the YELLOW JACK, or
YELLOW TAIL, is found off the coast of South Carolina. The
KING-FISH, Umbrina nebulosa, distinguished from others of the
family by a cirrus or tuft on the under jaw, is thought by many
to be the best fish which appears in the New York market.
The Drum, Pogonias chromis, (Gr. pogonias, bearded ; chromis,
a fish,) is a large and fine flavored fish.

(4) Sparida, (from Lat. sparus, gilt-head.)

The SEA BREAMS. These fishes have flat grinding teeth,
sometimes strong pointed canines in front. The common Gilt-
head, chrysophris, (Gr. chrusophrus,) aurata, can crush such
thick stony shells as the Periwinkles, Whelks and Turbos, (or
Tops ;) a more voracious fish is scarcely known. The famed
SHEEPSHEAD, Sargus ovis, abundant on the coast, and much es-
teemed for food, is of this family.

(5) Maenida, (Gr. maine, a small sea-fish.)

The MENDOLES. This is comparatively a small fa-mily, (not
mentioned on the Chart.) The common Mendole, Maena vu/ga-
ris, is considered so utterly worthless that the name is used at
Venice as a term of derision. A West India species decom-
poses with remarkable rapidity, the flesh becoming soft almost
immediately after it is dead. The species of the genus Smarts,
(Gr. a sea-fish,) are sought for in the Mediterranean. One spe-
cies is called the KING-FISHER of the Sea, <S. alcedo, in allusion
to its beautiful tints.

(6) Chaetodontida, (Gr. chaite, hair or bristle ; odous, tooth.)
The Chaetodons. These are thus named because their teeth

are so long, fine and slender as to resemble the bristles of a
brush. Cuvier called them Squamipennes, to express the man-
ner in which their fleshy fins are covered with scales, like the
rest of the body, which is flat or round, and thin, with long bat- \

ACANTHOPTERYGII. 553

like fins, The scales reflect the most brilliant hues. The spe-
cies are numerous and tropical. The ARCHERS, Toxotes, (Plate
XIV. fig. 4,) eject water out of the tubular mouth with such pre-
cision as to bring down any insect within their reach. In Java,
they are kept in glass vessels for amusement, an insect being
suspended by a thread above for the fish to shoot at.

(7) Anabassidce, (from Gr. anabaino, to ascend.) CLIMBING
PERCHES.

This family includes but one genus, Anabas, fishes whose res-
piratory organs are so constructed as to enable them to sustain
life for a space of time out of water, by having small apertures
or some receptacle where they can preserve sufficient water to
moisten their gills. There is but one species, A. scandens, (Lat.
climbing.) When a pond is dried up in which these Perches
are found, it is said they are guided by a remarkable instinct in
traveling towards the nearest water. Swainson says the Climb-
ing Perch "quits the water and ascends the roots of the man-
grove trees, (in East India,) an effort it accomplishes by using
its ventral fins as little feet." (These fish are by some natu-
ralists included in the family Labyrinlhibranchice, a name refer-
ring to the vascular membrane, folded together in a number of
laminae, and occupying the upper part of the front branchial
arches, and which serves to retain water for moistening the gills
during the travels of these fishes on the land.)

(8) Scombridw, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel.) This includes
the Mackerels, an important as well as numerous family of al-
most entirely marine fish, found in all seas. Many are pelagic,
(roving far from land.) They are taken in such quantities as to
prove them to be inexhaustible. They live near the surface and
are among the fishes which quickly decompose. The TUNNY,
Thynnus, of the Mediterranean, is from three to four and even
fifteen feet in length. Fried in cutlets, this fish resembles veal,
the flavor being quite as much like that of flesh as of fish. The
BONITA, (Scomber pelamys,) found on our coast, is a species of
Tunny, which in the tropics pursues the Flying-fish.

The SWORD-FISH, Xrphias gladius, the largest of the order, be-
ing from twelve to fifteen feet long, has the beak lengthened
into a long, powerful weapon, which it sometimes drives with
such violence as to penetrate to a great depth into the timbers of
ships. The PILOT FISH, Naucrates ductor, follows vessels, and
thus acts as a guide to the Sharks. Among the other American
fishes of this family found on our coast, are the following ; the
SPANISH MACKEREL, Cymbium, (Gr. kumbion, a small bowl ;)
the CRAB-EATER, Elacate, (Gr. a distaff;) the CAROLINA LTCHIA,

564 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Lichia Carolina; the TRACHINOTE, Trachinolus ; the YELLOW
and SPOTTED MACKERELS, Caranx crysos, (Gr. yellow or golden.)
and C. punctalus, (Lat. spotted ;) the HAIK-FINNED BLEPHARIS,
(Blepharis crinitus,} which is the Zeus crinitus of Akerly, kin-
dred to the well known Dory or John Dory, Z. faber, an Euro-
pean species much esteemed by epicures, and of which strange
things have been often recited ; the SHINER, Vomer, (Lat. a
plough-share ;) the SERIOLE, Seriola, (Lat. a small jar ;) the
BLUE FISH, or GREEN FISH, Temnodon, (Gr. temno, to cut ;
odous, tooth ; so named from the very sharp teeth,) sometimes
called HORSE MACKEREL; the principal species, T. saltator, be-
ing the TAILOR, or SKIP-JACK of the more southern waters,
" twenty of which," it was formerly said, *.* would fill a barrel ; "
the BOTTLE-HEADED DOLPHIN, Coryphcena, (Gr. korus, a helmet ;
phaino, I display,) globiceps, (globe- headed.) The fishes of this
genus, including the fishes generally known as dolphins, and
celebrated for their beauty, are, however, rarely found off the
coasts, being mostly inhabitants of mid- ocean. The species C.
hippuris, is famed for its beautiful play of colors when dying.
The Dolphins are conspicuous enemies of the Flying-fish. Other
fishes of this family are, the Lampugus, a rare and exceedingly
beautiful fish, and the Harvest-fish, Rhombus.

(9) Cepolida, or T&niada, (Lat. tania, a ribbon.)

This is a small family of fishes allied to the Mackerels. They
are chiefly distinguished by an elongated, flattened shape ; their
general appearance being that of a bright silver ribbon. They
have the popular names of Ribbon-fish, Lath or Deal fish. The
body is not thicker, except in the middle, than a sword. Most
of the species inhabit the Mediterranean. The eleven-rayed
Band-fish, Cepola rubescens, (Lat. turning red,) is seen on the
coasts of England ; it displays brilliant colors ; sometimes is
called Fire-flame and Red-ribbon. As showing the appropriate-
ness of the name Ribbon-fish, it is related, that a specimen of
this species, " though nineteen and a half inches in length, hav-
ing been carefully folded up like a ribbon, passed to Belfast, (Ire-
land,) in a franked letter of the ordinary size and legal weight,
viz., less than an ounce." (Magazine of Nat. Hist.) The
Silvery Hair-Tail, Trichiurus, (Gr. hair-tail) lepturus, (Gr.
thin-tail,) having a tapering tail, ending in a filament, is found
oflf the coast of the U. S.

(10) Teuthida, (Gr. Teuthis, a kind of fish.)

This is another, not numerous family, sometimes called Lan-
cet-fish, resembling the Mackerels in appearance and some other
respects, but peculiar for the cutting spines in each side of the

iCANTHOPTERYGII, 5(35

tail, and a horizontal spine before the dorsal fin. They have but
one row of teeth, and are among the small number of the class
that feed entirely on vegetable substances. The DOCTOR-FISH,
Acanthurus, (Gr. spine-tail,) cceruleus, (Lat. dark blue,) has
caudal lancets which are short, hard, and glassy, and are en-
closed in a yellow membranous sheath. It is common on the
coasts of the West India islands, South Carolina and Florida.
The SURGEON-FISH, A. phlebolomus, (Gr. vein-cutting,) is another
species found off the coasts of the United States. The caudal
lancets of these fishes are analogous to the horns of ruminating
animals, and to be regarded rather as defensive than offensive
weapons.

(11) Atherinida, (Gr. atfyerina, from atlier, a thorn.)

This is a family sometimes included in the Mugilida, called
Silver-sides, from the silvery band on the side ; the two dorsal
fins are far apart ; the anterior one spinous. The genus Atherina is
represented by several species of small fishes. Silver-sides used to
be caught in New York Harbor, and sold for bait, under the
name of Anchovies and Sea-smelts. These small fishes were for-
merly supposed to be all included in the genus Atherina, but
Mr. Charles Girard, (see " United States Astronomical Expedi-
tion,") has, within a few years, proposed three additional genera,
of which several species are found in S. A.

(12) Mugilidce, (Lat. mugil, a mullet.)

The Mullets are lengthened, and often cylindrical in form, with
a somewhat projecting snout, and an extremely small mouth,
placed beneath. They inhabit both salt and fresh water; indeed,
a change from salt to fresh water seems necessary to them. A
number of species of the genus Mvgil are found in the United
States. The Common Mullet, M. albula, is throughout the
greater part of the year, taken- in large numbers on our Southern
coast. These fishes have not been considered carnivorous; but
the shells obtained from the stomach of one of them by Mr.
Thompson, of Belfast, (Ireland,) filled a large sized cup. They
swim in large shoals near the surface ; Gosse says that the Grey
Mullets, M\ capita, assemble to feed every evening at a certain
knocking, and are the only fish with which he is acquainted,
that select for food nothing that has life, except that they some-
times swallow the Sand-Worm.

(13) The GoUda, GOBIES, and Blennida, BLENNIES, are, on
the Chart, included in one family, both having flexible and
slender-dorsal spinous rays. They have no swimming bladder.
Some of the Gobies proper, have no visible scales. This numer-
ous family of small unimportant fishes, have riot even beauty to

566 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

recommend them. They are soft to the touch, being invested
with a mucous slime; hence the generic name, Blenna. (Gr.
mucus.)

The WoLF-Fisii, or Sea-Cat, AnarrMcas lupus, is much larger
than others of this family, being a formidable, voracious fish,
from three to eight feet in length, with a broad cat-like face, and
a grinning mouth, bristling with stout, sharp teeth, so strong as
to crush the hardest shells, and even stone.

The genus Zoarces, (with three American species,) has the
dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united.

The Butter-fish, Gunnellus mucronatus, (pointed,) has a long
compressed body, and the ventral fins rudimentary.

The GERMAN DRAGONET, Callionymus lyra, is an exception to
others of the family, in having beautiful colors. It has no visi-
ble scales.

In Italy, Blennies are fried in numbers, like Sprats in Eng-
land, and eaten by the poorer classes. Some species of the
genus, Zoarces, and probably others, produce their young alive
by dozens. The SHANNY, Pholis, (Gr. a scale,) deposits its
eggs on the roofs or sides of cavities in rocks, near the low water
mucks, and being of a bright amber color, with a polished sur-
face, it appears as if paved with round stones. The Physis, of
the Mediterranean, forms a nest of sea- weed in which to deposit
its spawn, and attends upon the young.

(14) Lophida, (Gr. lophos, a crest.)

These are distinguished by the lengthening of the carpal
bone, by which, as on an arm, the pectoral fin is supported.
The family includes some of the most singular looking fishes in
the entire class, such as Frog, or Toad Fishes, &c., grotesque
and reptile-like; without scales ; hiding themselves in the mud,
and attracting their prey by agitating the filamentary processes
on the head. The feet-like pectoral fins assist them to crawl on
the bottom of the sea, and also upon land. These, on account of
the soft and yielding nature of the skeleton, were formerly classed
with other Cartilaginous or Soft-rayed Fishes, (see Lophius
Americanus, Squalidce, on the Chart;) but Cuvier demonstrated
its fibrous structure, and fixed its position among the bony
fishes.

The Antennarius, (Lat. from antenna,) is found in tropical
seas. It is said to crawl about the fields for two or three days
at a time. So tenacious of life are the fishes of this genus, that
they have been transported alive from tropical seas to Holland,
and sold " for twelve ducats a piece." Their voracity is great, —
in fact, they seem to be mostly mouth and stomach. On the

MALACOPTERYGII. 567

coast of Scotland, these "Sea-Devils" are met with, four and
even five feet long. The Mouse-fish and Toad-fish are small
species of this family.

(15) Labrida, (Lat. labrum, a lip,) — a family deriving its
name from the fleshy lips appended to the jaws. It has been
divided into two sections, Cyclo-labrida, having cycloid-scales,
and Cteno-labridcB, having a dorsal fin supported in front by
spines. This family includes the WRASSES or ROCK-FISHES, —
numerous small fishes of brilliant orange and blue color, ar-
ranged in stripes with wavy lines. The genus Ctenolabrus is
represented by the NIBBER or COMMON BERGALL, C. caruleus,
found on the coast from New Jersey northward. On account of
its prevailing color, it is also called the BLUE-FISH, BLUE PERCH,
GUNNER or CONNER, and CHOGSET ; the last mentioned name being
derived from the Mohegan tongue. The flesh is insipid and
watery. The Tautoga Americana, the COMMON BLACK-FISH
or TAUTOG, (in the Mohegan dialect,) much valued for the
table, — is found on the coast between Massachusetts and Ches-
apeake Bay.

SECOND ORDER. MALACOPTERYGII, (Gr, fiahaxbs, malakos, soft ;
mE(>6v, pteron, wing.

The CYCLOIDS. These fishes are a step lower in organization.
Soft-fins or rays distinguish them from those of the preceding
order. The genera and species are less numerous, but as fur-
nishing food for man, the order is the most important of all, in-
cluding such fish as Salmon, Pike, Herring, Cod, Carp, Turbot,
Halibut, &c. The order comprises all the Ground Fishes, —
those which are restricted to fresh waters, and lie in wait for
their prey.

SUB-ORDER. ABDOMINALES.

The fishes of this sub-order have the ventrals behind the pec-
toral fins, and not attached to the humeral or shoulder-bone.

(16) Silurida, (Gr.silouros from seio, I move; owra, the tail.)
This is a family represented by the Cat-fish, Bull-pouts, Bull-
heads, and Horned-pouts, (Pimelodus,) — the last name being
derived from the fleshy filaments, (cirri or barbels,) floating from
the mouth. These cirri are supposed to aid them in obtaining
food, while groping in the mud. They are without scales, and
covered with a slimy coat of mucus. Some South American
species have large angular, bony plates, and are, therefore, said
to be mailed. The Oceanic Cat-fish has only six barbels.

5C8 MALACOPTEilYGII.

The Sheat-fish or Sly Silure, (see Chart,) Silurus glanis, (Gr.
a kind of shad,) is the only species of Europe, and perhaps the
largest of European fresh-water fishes, — attaining the length of
ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet.

One species, Silurus electricus, (the Malapterurus electricus,
of later writers,) an inhabitant of the Nile and of the rivers of
Central Africa, has electric properties similar, or intermediate
to those of the Torpedo and Gymnotus, though the organs are
of much finer texture.

Ofthe American fresh-water forms the most noted are included
in the genus Pimelodus, (Gr. Pimele, fat,) distinguished by having
an adipose dorsal fin. One species, found in the Mississippi, has
been known to weigh one hundred pounds. The genus Noturus,
(Gr. back-tail,) includes the Stone Cat-fish. It has its generic
name from having the back fin confluent with the tail-fin.

The Pimelodus cyclopum, (Humboldt ) of South America, in-
habits the highest regions in which fish are known to live,
occurring at Quito, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. They
are found in subterranean lakes, and sometimes are ejected from
the craters of the Cotapaxi and Tunguaraga volcanoes.

In this family are included the BLIND FISHES, Amblyopsis
spel&us, (DeKay,) of the Mammoth Cave, (Kentucky,) in which
the eyes are invisible, or appear in a rudimentary state, on the
dissection of the fish. It is said "they are acutely sensitive to
sounds, as well as to undulations produced by other causes in
the water." (Silliman's Journal, second series, Vol. XVII.)

(17) Cyprinida, (Gr. kuprinos, a carp.) This family includes
by far the greater part of fresh-water fishes, though the flesh of
not very many is valuable for food. Few of them are found in
tropical waters. The Carps have no teeth in the mouth, but
they appear in various kinds upon the posterior branchial arch*
(or pharyngeal bone.)

The species Cyprinus Carpio, (Lat. a carp,) is highly prized
for food. It is particularly abundant in Europe, and has been
naturalized in waters of the United States, especially in the
Hudson River.*

The GOLD-FISH, Cyprinus auraius, of our parlors, so conspic-

* These fish were first successfully introduced by H. Robinson, of New-
burgh. The spawn is deposited among the grass along the sides of the
ponds or rivers which they inhabit. These fishes reach the size of three or
four inches the first year, and sometimes become quite large, though the
size varies considerably. The Breams are from five to seven inches long ;
the Chubsuckers from seven to twelve ; the Suckers from seven to eighteen.
They, together with the Dace, Sheepshead, Killi-fish, Red-fin, &c., are found
Ln the waters of New York.

MALACOPTERYGII. 569

uous among fresh-water fish for the beauty and variations of their
colors, are of this family. The true home of these fish is a lake
in China, whence they have been taken, and introduced to other
countries. When kept in globes, care should be taken not to
give them more food than they can eat at a time, as the uncon-
sumed portion, dissolving in the water, may affect their breath-
ing. The eggs should be removed to another vessel, or else the
fish will eat them.

The GUDGEONS, C. goibio, appear to delight in slow rivers, and
swim together in shoals. They seize the bait with avidity, and
hence afford excellent amusement to anglers.

The SLIMY TENCH, Tinea vulgaris, is common in lakes of the
European continent, and sometimes found in ornamental waters
and ponds, but is seldom found in rivers, being fond of still and
muddy waters. It is considered a very prolific fish, and of quick
growth. The Tench ranks among the most useful fresh- water
fish of Europe.

The BLEAK, Cyprinus alburnus or Alburnus lucidus, is another
European species, from the scales of which is chiefly obtained
the silvery matter used in the preparation of artificial pearls.

The VARIEGATED or CARP BREAM, Alt amis versicolor, is a
savory fish, sometimes called the Yellow-bellied Perch and Wind.
Fish ; found in the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers, and in other
waters. When a light breeze ruffles the water, thousands of"
these fish are sometimes seen darting to the surface. Near
Peekskill, N. Y., it is called the Dace, from its resemblance to
Dace of Europe, C. leuciscus.

The BARBEL, of Europe, Barbus, (Lat. from ~barba, a beard ;)
vulgaris, — named from the cirri or barbs attached to its mouth, —
frequents the deep and still part* of rivers, — is very numerous
in the Thames, Eng. Its flesh is coarse and unsavory, and held
in little estimation.

Several species of Dace are found in North America. Among
them are the Black-nosed Dace, Leuciscus atronasus, (Lat. black-
nosed ;) the SPAWN-EATER, L. Hudsonius, supposed by fisher-
men to live entirely on the spawn of other fishes, — first described
by DeWitt Clinton, formerly governor of the State of New York ;
the SHINER, L. chrysopterus, (Gr. yellow-finned ;) the SILVERY
DACE, L. argenteus, found in Massachusetts; the PIGMY DACE,
L. pygmaus, which is only an inch long. Other species are
sometimes quite small.

The SUCKERS, Catastomus, (Gr. kata, against; sfoma, mouth,)
embrace many species known by their very fleshy lips, which
can be applied to any object like a sucker. Different names are

570 MALACOPTERYGII.

applied to the several species, such as Mullet, Buffalo-fish, Red-
Horse, &c., &c.

The species of Cyprinidce are extremely numerous in Ameri-
can waters, and many, no doubt, are yet to be described. But
we must not omit to notice two singular species; the first, Cy-
prinodon umbra, remarkable as being one of the inhabitants of
the subterranean lakes in Austria, where darkness perpetually
reigns; the second, the FOUR-EYED LOACH, Anableps tetrophthaL
mus, (Gr. four-eyed,) found in the Brazilian rivers. "It is," says
Mr. Edwards, in his "Voyage up the Amazon," "always seen
swimming with the nose above the surface of the water, and pro-
pelling itself by sudden starts. The eye of this fish has two
pupils, although but one crystalline and one vitreous humor and
but one retina. It is the popular belief that, as it swims, two of
its eyes are adapted to the water, and two to the air."

(18) Esocidce, (Gr. isox, a kind of pike.) The PIKES, (Esox,)
are the most voracious and destructive of all fresh-water fish.
Their lengthened form enables them to live in shallow waters,
and even when considerably large they sometimes are found in
small brooks. The Trout alone can compete with these fishes,
and not often are both found in the same waters. Lacepede calls
them the Sharks of our ponds and rivers. Only one species, E.
luciuS) is found in Europe ; sometimes attaining a length of
nineteen feet, and a weight of seventy pounds. A skeleton of
one has been preserved at Manheim, which weighed three hun-
dred and fifty pounds, and was probably between two hundred
and three hundred years old. The species are numerous in the
waters of this Continent. Those of Lake Erie and other Northern
lakes, as the Muskalonge or Muskellunge, E. nobtiior, E. eslor,
are very large. The more Southern species are smaller. The
American species form two divisions; one of which has the oper-
cular or gill covers entirely scaly, and dark reticulated mark-
ings; the other having scales only on the upper half of the gill
covers, and marked with light spots on a dark ground.

The COMMON PICKEREL, E. reticulatus, abounds throughout the
Eastern and Middle States, and in the waters of Ohio.

The Banded Gar-fish, Belone truncata, has very minute, soft
scales, and the upper part of the body is of a beautiful transparent
sea-green.

The Scomberesox, or Bill-fish, (S. Store-ri, Mass. Report.) has
a broad silvery band on the body ; and is, hence, sometimes
called the Silver-Gar. Both these fish have the head and snout
very much elongated ; the Bill-fish has the dorsal and anal fins
divided into finlets, as in the Mackerel, — hence, the name Scorn-

MALACOPTERYGII. 571

beresox, or Mackerel-Pike. The two last named genera are
sometimes united in a separate family, (ScomberesocidEe.) The
Flying Fishes of tropical seas, Exoccetus, (Gr. ESwxowog,
exokoitos, (sleeping out of the sea,) — were so named because
believed by the ancients to sleep on the beach. They have
the specific name volitans, (Lat. flying,) from having the pectoral
fins so enlarged as to resemble wings, (Plate XIV. fig. 3. ;) when
in the air they move so rapidly as to resemble birds more than
fish. They fly straight forward, remaining out of the water thirty
seconds or more at a time. Two or three hundred of them are
sometimes seen together.

(19) Fistularida, (Lat. from fistula, a pipe or tube.) This
family includes the Pipe-mouthed and Trumpet fishes having
tubular mouths, which, it is thought, they use in drawing up
their food, like a syringe. The genus Fistularia, (the tobacco-
pipe Fish,) has several species on our coast, The Trumpet-
fish, Centriscus, besides the tubular snout, has a short com-
pressed body, of which the head forms the larger portion.

(20) SalmoniddB, (Lat. salmo, a salmon,)

This is the TROUT family, inhabiting both fresh and salt wa-
ter, and the most completely toothed of all the fishes. They
agree with the Herring family in the structure of the upper
jaw, and are distinguished by having a small fatty fin behind
the true dorsal fin. • Their flesh is unrivaled ; all the members
of the family are eagerly sought for by anglers, from the sal-
mon or lake trout, the mackerel trout, the white fish of the large
lakes, and the Bass of Otsego, to the small frost-fish or smelt
caught in Lake Champlain, through holes in the ice, to which the
fish rush in crowds to breathe the fresh air. Different causes
have been assigned for the various shades of color in the flesh
of Salmon. Such as live upon fresh water shrimps and other
small crustaceans, are said to be the brightest; those feeding
upon aquatic vegetables dull, and the darkest of all.

DeKay thinks it doubtful whether any trout feed on vegetables.
Those of ponds are externally dark colored ; those in clear
streams with sandy bottoms, are bright ; and those in salt, brack-
ish streams are not only bright externally, but have the flesh
more of the Salmon color. The most conspicuous species is the
Salmon salar, (Lat. a kind of trout,) which is the true Salmon
found on the northern shores of both Europe and America, and
ascending the rivers in summer ; sometimes attaining a weight
of fifty pounds or more. It is not only valuable for food, but the
women of the Tungooses, in Siberia, tan the skin so as to render
it flexible, for the purposes of clothing.

The BROOK TROUT, <S. fontinalis, is met with from Maine to
24

572 MALACOPTERYGIt.

the southern parts of Virginia. This seldom exceeds four pounds
in weight. Dr. Mitchell speaks of a Salmon of Lake Huron,
which weighed one hundred and twenty pounds, but the Lake
Salmon are not now often found to exceed eighty pounds. To
the prolific nature of the Salmon we have already referred.
These delicious fish were formerly quite abundant; indeed, it
is not many years since they were, in Massachusetts, a perfect
drug. We have read of a boy who was apprenticed in New-
buryport, with the special condition in his indentures, that he
should not be obliged to eat salmon more than three times a
week.

(21) Clupeida, (Lat. clupea, a river fish or shad.)
The fishes of this family, including Herrings. Pilchards, Sprats,
Sardines, Anchovies and Shad, are among those esteemed as
most useful and indispensable. Both the maxillaries and inter-
maxillaries are employed to form the margin of the upper jaw.
These fish are exceedingly abundant. Four hundred thousand
Anchovies are said to have been taken at one haul, on the coast
of Sardinia. These latter fish are preserved with salt, after
removing the head and intestines. They are about the size of
the little finger, and used as a condiment.

Herrings, (Clupea harengus.) are now supposed to live in the
vicinity of the places where they are caught, approaching the
shore to spawn in such numbers that the water is filled with
loose scales rubbed off in the crowd. The Herring fishery along
the coasts of Europe and America, gives employment in sum-
mer to many thousands of people. The consumption in Europe
alone of two thousand millions of these fish, annually, does not
seem to decrease their numbers. They are valuable in com-
merce, either pickled or smoked. To prepare the Red or
Smoked Herring, the fish are sprinkled with salt, and lie about
six days in heaps on a brick or stone floor. Rods are then
passed through the gills, care being taken not to have them touch
each other. These rods are suspended in tiers, in ovens, hold-
ing from ten to twelve thousand, where the herrings are smoked
for a month with hard wood, and after being cooled, are packed
for market. The Emperor Charles V, in 1556, erected a mon-
ument, and ate a herring over the grave of a fisherman of Zea-
land, who had improved the art of pickling herring. Several
species of Herring are caught on the coasts, and in the rivers
of the Atlantic States. Some idea of the extent of the herring-
fishery in Maine may be obtained from the fact that at Treat's
island, there were in five days, caught, salted, and stored up for
smoking, what would make or pack five thousand boxes. Some
kinds of Herring are used instead of guano, for enriching land.

MALACOPTERYGII. 573

SARDINES are a small species of Herring, much prized as a rel-
ish. From forty to fifty thousand are often taken at a
single haul in the Mediterranean, the Baltic and the Atlantic.
The American Shad, Alosa prc&stabilis, (Lat. excellent,) or A.
sapidissima, (Lat. most savory,) is a beautiful and savory fish
which enters our rivers between January and May, the time va-
rying with the latitude, passing to a considerable distance from
the mouths of the rivers in order to spawn. They descend the
Hudson river during the latter part of May, when they are
called Back Shad, and are lean and scarcely fit to eat. Shad
are caught in large seines, and in gill-nets attached to long
spears, and often set in from seven to ten fathoms of water. They
are taken in large numbers in the Hudson and other rivers, and
more especially in Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. In abund-
ant seasons they are sold at from six to ten dollars per hundred,
and packed away in salt. This species is of much finer flavor
than the COMMON SHAD, A. vulgaris, of Europe.

The ALEWIVES, A. tyrannus, appear in great numbers in
Chesapeake Bay, from March to May. In New York waters,
they appear with the shad, about the first of April, but not in
numbers sufficiently large to form a separate fishery. They
are numerous on the coast of Massachusetts, arid very good food.

The MOSSBONKER, A. menhadan, is valuable and largely used
for manure, and in some places as bait for mackerel, cod, and
halibut. This fish also has the names, Bony-fish, Hard-head,
and Menhadan, "the last being the name given by the Manhat-
tans." It is dry, full of bones, and without flavor, and therefore
is seldom eaten.

StJB-BRACHIALS.

These are distinguished by having the ventral fins under the
pectorals, and the pelvis immediately attached to the bones of
the shoulder.

(22) The Gadida, or COD FISH family, have an elongated body,
covered with soft scales not extending on the head. The genus
Morrhua represents the true Cod. The best known species is
the Morrhua vulgaris, found in the seas of Europe as far south
as Gibraltar, and in those of America as far as Newfound-
land ; its maximum size is sixty or seventy pounds. The spe-
cies commonly found through the whole year off the coast of the
United States, and going into deep water in the spring, is M.
Americana, from one to three feet in length. Occasionally it
attains an immense size. Specimens are sometimes taken which

574 MALACQPTERYGIL

weigh seventy or eighty pounds. Dr. Storer speaks of one
which reached the enormous weight of one hundred and seven
pounds ; a cod of fifty pounds, however, is thought to be very
large. The Cod-fishery, it is well known, is extensively followed
in the Eastern States, particularly Massachusetts ; giving em-
ployment to a large number of persons and requiring an amount
of tonnage which ranks only second to that employed in the
whale fishery. Fishing vessels of all nations are found off the
Banks of Newfoundland. Cod fish are taken with hooks or
seines sunk to a considerable depth in the sea. The months of
May and June are the season for securing them. They are pre-
served by simply salting them green, or they are salted and then
dried. The oil, oleum jecori, from the liver of the cod, is quite
largely used as a medicine, and considered to be highly valua-
ble, especially in pulmonary complaints. The roe is also exten-
sively used as bait for herrings. Other fishes of this family are
the POWER COD, M. minuta, from four to eight inches long ; the
TOM COD, or FROST-FISH, M. pruinosa, (Lat. frosty,) a savory
fish, and caught in large quantities ; the Haddock, M. ceglefinus,
nearly as common in our market as the Cod, but inferior in size
and as an article of food ; the WHITING, Merlangus vulgaris, an
European species ; (the name Whiting is also applied to the
American species, M. albidus, Lat. whitish;) the Burbot, Lota
vutgaris, is considerably esteemed ; the Cusk, Brosmius vulgaris,
(Storer ;) the Hake or Codling, Phycis Americanus. These are
all equally palatable with the Common Cod ; the Coal-fish, M.
carbonarius, (Lat. from carbo, a coal,) ranging on both shores of
the Atlantic ; M. purpureus, (Lat. purple-colored,) abundant on
the shores of New England and sometimes on that of New
York, and known under the name of Pollack.

(23) Planida, or Pleuronectida, (Gr. pkuronectes, side-swim-
mer,) the FLAT-FISH FAMILY.

These, from their want of symmetry, really stand alone among
the VERTEBRATES. The eyes are both on one side of the head,
usually one above the other, and often varying in size. The
upper surface of these fishes resembles the ground in which
they lie in wait for their prey ; the under surface, from being
never exposed to the action of light, is white. The upper and
white surface are really to be regarded as the two sides, right
and left, so that instead of being depressed, it is compressed, or
flattened vertically, like the Chaetodons, though the latter, like
other fishes, swim with the back uppermost, notwithstanding their
thinness; but the Turbot swims or grovels along the bottom up-
on its side, the colored side, right or left, being uppermost. To

MALACOPTERYGII. 575

this the term Pleuronectes refers. DeKay designates tne FLAT,
FISH, having the eyes and colored surface on the right, as dex-
tral species, and the FLOUNDERS, which have the eyes and col-
ored surface on the left, assinistral species. Of the latter is the
OBLONG- FLOUNDER, Platessa oblonga, (Plate XIV. fig. 5,) found
on our coast, and from fifteen to twenty inches in length.
The Turbot, Rhombus maximus, is considered the best of Euro-
pean fishes. The SPOTTED or WATERY TURBOT, Pleuronectes
maculatus, or Rhombus aquosus, (Storer,) is found on our coast
and sometimes called the English Turbot, but is distinguished
from that fish by the absence of the numerous tubercles on the
colored side, which characterize the latter.

The Halibut, (Hippoglossus vulgaris,) has a longer body and
sharper teeth than others of the family. Sometimes it reaches
a great size. Dr. Storer speaks of one that weighed six hundred
pounds, though a Halibut weighing two hundred pounds is con-
sidered large. The fins are regarded by epicures as a very
choice part of this fish. There are several species of Flat-fish,
Platessa, most of which are prized for food. The FLOOK, P.
fesus, and the DAB, P. Hmanda, are European species. The
COMMON SOLE, Achirus mollis, is found abundantly on our At-
lantic coast.

(24) Cyclopteridce, (Gr. circular or cup-shaped fins.) The
LUMP-FISHES, or LUMP-SUCKERS.

These are a small family, having the ventral fins so united as
to form a sort of cup-shaped disk, with a funnel-shaped cavity
in the center, by which they adhere firmly to any solid object.
The body is rough, being covered with very bony tubercles.
They are called SUCKERS on account of a curious sort of suck-
ing disk, by means of which they adhere to the rocks of the
bottom, or to any other substance. The skeleton is so soft that
some members of the family are said to dissolve after death into
a mucilaginous jelly, in which hardly any trace of bone remains.
These fish are represented by three genera : Lepidogaster, Lum-
pus, and Liparis, the two latter having American species. The
LUMP-SUCKER, Lumpus anglorum, or Cydopterus caruleus, is
called in Scotland, the COCK-PADDLE. In England it has the
name of SEA OWL, as well as Lump-fish and Lump-sucker. Its
appearance is remarkably grotesque. The ventral unite with
the pectoral fins, and form a single disk. Some of the family
have two disks, one formed by the pectorals, the other by the
ventrals ; hence these fish have been called Discoboli, (Gr. throw-
ers of the DISCUS, or quoit.) They are now sometimes included
with the Blennies. Pennant says that dne of the Lump-fishes

576 MALACOPTERYGII.

thrown into a pail of water, adhered so firmly to the bottom that
the pail was lifted by taking hold of the tail of the fish.

(25) EcheneidcB, (Gr. echo, to hold ; neus, a ship.)

This family is represented by the genus Echeneis, the name
referring to the flattened disk of cartilaginous plates, covering the
top of the head, and enabling the fish to attach itself to other
bodies.

The COMMON SUCKER, E. remora, (Lai. delay,) is found
throughout the Atlantic Ocean. It has sometimes been taken
from the bottom of vessels in the harbor of New York. One
species, the WHITE-TAILED REMORA, E. alUcauda> (Lat. white-
tail,) is called the SHARK-SUCKER, from being frequently found
attached to that fish.

SUB-ORDER APODES, (Gr. footless.)

These are without ventral fins.

(26) Anguillidcp, (Lat. an eel,) or Muraenida, (Gr. muraina,
a kind of fish.)

This is the Eel family, which have long, snake-like bodies
and small scales so imbedded in the soft, slimy skin, as to be
scarcely perceptible. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are
united, and the rays so delicate as to be with difficulty enumer-
ated. They have been estimated to be as many as three hund-
red and twenty, or three hundred and forty. During the season
of its activity the eel is a voracious feeder. Conger or Sea Eels,
Anguilla conger, (Lat. sea-eel,) or Conger occidentalis, (Lat.
western,) are larger than the Common Eels. Yarrell, in his
British Fishes, says that " specimens of Conger Eels weighing
eighty-six pounds, one hundred and four pounds, and even one
hundred and thirty pounds, have been recorded, some of them
measuring more than ten feet long and eighteen inches in cir-
cumference." (See fig. on Chart.)

" The ancient Romans reared these fish with great care, in
consecrated ponds, and they even decorated them with jewels.
Six thousand were served up at one entertainment given to Cae-
sar when he entered upon his dictatorship." The branchial
pouches of Eels enable them to crawl and remain some time out
of water, and thus they can move from one place to another in
search of food, being hardly inferior to any other fish in the
power of enduring abstinence from their native element. They
are strongly susceptible of magnetic or galvanic influence. Their
eggs are so diminutive as to escape observation, which may have
given rise to the notion that these fish are viviparous.

MALACOPTERYGII* 577

The ELECTRIC EEL, Gymnotus (Gr.gumnos, naked ; notes, back,)
electricus, has no tail fin, and the scales are imperceptible. It is
sometimes five or six feet long. By its electric shocks, it knocks
down men and horses, and by repeating its discharges is able to kill
them. It can be obtained only after its electric power has been ex-
hausted by successive shocks. The Indians of South America drive
wild horses into the muddy ponds in which these Eels abound,
in order to secure them. Two specimens, taken in the waters
of the Amazon, have been sent to Professor Henry, of the Smith-
sonian Institute. The Gymnotus, (see Chart,) and the Torpedo are
able either to emit or withhold this electric power.

(N. B. The Electric Eels are sometimes separated from the
Common Eels, and formed into the family Gymnotida.)

SUB-ORDER LOPHOBRANCHII, OR LOPHOBRANCHIA. (Gr. tuft-gills.)

The fishes of this sub-order are characterized by having the
gills in small tufts along the branchial arches, instead of being
comb-like. In this and the following sub-order the internal
skeleton is but partly ossified.

(27) Syngnathida, (Gr. sun> together ; gnathon, jaw.) PIPE-
FISHES.

These fishes have the body covered with angular, bony plates,
so arranged that the body itself is many sided. The gill-covers
are large, but soldered down for the greatest part of their edge,
leaving only a small orifice for the discharge of the water which
has been respired. The male pipe-fish, Syngnathus, has a pouch
or pocket in which he receives the eggs as they are laid. In
this he also carries the young for some time. Some species are
without pouches, but have indentations on the abdomen where
the eggs are placed.

The SEA-HORSE, Hippocampus, (Gr. a sea-horse,) has eyes
which move independently, and is the only fish known to have a
prehensile tail. It is found in the Hudson river from five
to six inches in length. When dried this fish curls up and in
form resembles a horse. (See fig. on Chart.)

The SHORT-NOSED SEA-HORSE, H. brevirostris, is found on
the coasts of Great Britain. It is about five inches long ; some-
times it is found coiled up in oyster shells.

SUB-ORDER PLECTOGNATHI. (Gr. plaited or twisted jaws.)

This sub-order is distinguished by the interior union of some
of the bones of the head.

578 MALACOrTERYGII.

(28) Gymnodontida, (Gr. naked-teeth.) BALLOON and GLOBE-
FISHES.

These can scarcely be said to have real teeth ; but the jaws
are covered with enamel so divided into plates as to answer the
purpose of teeth.

In the SEA PORCUPINE, Diodon, (Gr. two teeth,) each jaw has
a single piece ; hence the generic name. The form of this fish
is somewhat cubical ; it has the singular property of puffing
itself up into a globular ball, (Plate XIV. fig. 7,) and in this
shape floating on the surface. The length varies in different
species, from two to seven inches. In the Puffer or Balloon-
fish, Tetraodon, (Gr. four teeth,) the suture in the middle of each
jaw gives it the appearance of four teeth. Like the Diodon it
can inflate and contract itself at pleasure. When it inflates
itself the formidable spines with which the body is covered, be-
come erected. Its flesh is unwholesome if not poisonous. The
Puffer can bite severely, and can emit water in self-defence; its
spines are also an effectual guard, but the most curious thing
about it is that when handled, it emits a beautiful red excretion,
which stains ivory and paper a permanent carmine red.

The small GLOBE-FISH, Acanthosoma (Gr. spiny body) cari-
natum, (Lat. ridged,) is armed with spines and susceptible of in-
flation, (Plate XIV. fig. 6.) It is quite small, being only one
inch in length. The color is of olive brown above, silvery be-
neath. The GLOBE FISH, T. tevigatus, (Lat. smoothed or pol-
ished,) is from one to two feet in length. The Common Puffer,
T. turgidus, (Lat. swollen,) is from six to twelve inches long. A
species of electrical Globe-fish, T. lineatus, is found in the Nile.
The SUN FISH, or MOON FISH, Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucking
pig,) appears as if the fins were set in or near the head, and the
tail abruptly cut off, so that its aspect is most singular. The
Sun-fishes are without spines, and have not the power of infla-
tion. A species found on the coast of France weighs over three
hundred pounds.

Balistida, (Gr. from balista, a military engine resembling a
stringed bow.) FILE-FISHES.

These are fishes of a less grotesque appearance than the Dio-
dons and Tetraodons, found most largely in the still waters of
tropical seas. The body is compressed and has a lengthened
conical or pyramidal snout, ending in a small mouth having dis-
tinct teeth in both jaws. The skin is roughened with scaly gran-
ulations or prickles ; in the typical forms there are two dorsal
fins ; in others, the front dorsal fin is sometimes represented by a
single spine. The ventral fins are often wanting or else indis-

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

CTENOIDS, (Toothed scales.)

Tig. 1. Perch; a, anal fin; b, ventral fin; c, caudal fin; d, dorsal fin; d2,

second dorsal fin ; e, pectoral fin.
Fig. 2. Three-spined Stickleback. '
Fig. 3. Flying-fish ; a, long wing-like pectoral fins.
Fig. 4. Archer-fish, with a mouth fitted for shooting insects.

CYCLOIDS, (Bound scales.)

Fig. 5. Plaice, showing the eyes both placed on one side, as is usual in the

Flat-fishes.

Fig. 6. Short Head-fish.
Fig. 7. Porcupine or Balloon-fish.
Fig. 8. Bull-pout, or Cat-fish ; a, barbels or cirri.

GAXOIDS, (Enameled scales.)

Fig. 9. Buffalo Bony Pike, or Gar fish ; a, long narrow jaws, covered on the
inside with rasp-like teeth ; a row borders the edge, of bony pointed

PLACOIDS, (Flat-scales.)

Fig. 10. Spiny Dog-fish ; a, branchial openings on each side, in the place
of gills for breathing ; b, the heterocercal tail, as in all Sharks and
Sturgeons ; the back bone runs to a point above the tail, which is
placed below -like a triangular rudder.

Fig. 11. Ray ; body flattened out like a dish; Ml long and slender, with the
dorsal fins upon it ; pectoral fins large, uniting with the snout in front.

Fig. 12. Amphioxus, or Lancelot, the lowest form of Vertebrates.

Fig. 13. Torpedo, or Numb-fish.

582 MALACOPTEKYGII.

tinct. One of the dorsal fins is fronted with a strong bony
spine. The bones or rays of this fin are so contrived as to act
in concert for suddenly elevating it at the pleasure of the
fish. It is a singular fact that if the foremost or largest ray be
pressed ever so hard, it will not stir ; and yet if the last or least
ray be pressed very slightly, the other two immediately fall
down with it, just as a cross-bow is let off by pulling down the
trigger. To this peculiarity there is a reference in the name
of the typical genus Balistes; The fishes of this genus are cov-
ered with large and hard rhomboidal scales. The DUSKY BAL-
ISTES, B.fuliginosus, (Lat. dusky,) twelve inches long, is found
off the coast of the United States. The MASSACHUSETTS FILE-
FISH, Monocanthus, (Gr. a single spine,) has very small scales, and
a single large spine in place of the first dorsal fin. Its length is
from three to five inches. The LONG-TAILED UNICORN-FISH,
Aluteres cuspicquda, (Lat. pointed or spear-tailed,) has the skin
covered with small and almost invisible granules. Length from
six to nine inches.

(30) Oslracionida, (Gr. ostrakion, a shell' or covering.)
TRUNK FISHES.

These are a group of singular fishes, found principally in the
American and Indian seas. They are enveloped in a bony
crest or covering, so united as to form an inflexible shield, leav-
ing only the tail, fins, mouth, and a small part of the gill-open-
ings capable of motion, passing through openings in the Arma-
dillo-like shield. There are no ventral fins, and but one dorsal.
These fish have little flesh, but a large liver, abounding in oil.
The surface, in some species, is armed with spines. There is but
one North American genus, Lactophrys. The species L. cameli-
nus, (camel-like,) has the back elevated into a spine, and is three
and a half inches in length.

GANOIDS.

These are characterised by having the scales bony, and
covered, externally, with enamel, generally angular and contin-
uous. Most of them are extinct species.

(31) Saurida. This name has been employed by Agassiz to
designate the fishes of this group, which also comprises the
Polypterus, (Gr. polus, much or many ; pteron, fin,) of the Nile.
This latter (fresh-water) fish is usually about eighteen inches in
length, and partakes both of the osseous and cartilaginous kinds;
but is thought by some to be " most nearly allied to those species
of the genus Esox, which are furnished with large, long, and
bony scales." Its color is sea-green. It is called by the Egyp-

CHONDROPTERYGII.

583

tians, Bichir, and is said to be one the best of tbe Nilotic fishes
for the table. The back has a long row of finlets. (See Chart.)

The ALLIGATOR-GAR, Lepidosteus, (Gr. lepis, scale; osteon,
bone ) is confined to North America. The scales are smooth and
of adamantine hardness; the upper jaws consist of many
pieces. (Plate XIV. fig. 9.)

The BUFFALO BONY PIKE, L. bison, is sometimes three feet in
length.

The FLAT-NOSED BONY PIKE, L.^platyrhynchus^ (Gr. broad-
snout,) is two feet in length, and found in Florida and the West-
ern rivers.

PLACOIDS. (Gr. jrAdl, plax, a plate or tablet.) Plate-like scales.

r|tjj

CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. CHONDROPTERYGII, (Gr. cartilage-
winged.)

The skeleton in these fishes is not entirely destitute of calca-
reous matter, but this is arranged in separate grains, and does
not form fibres or plates. The gelatinous substance, which in
other fishes, fills the intervals of the vertebra, and communicates
from one to other by a small hole, forms in several genera of
this division, a continuous cord, which perforates them all.

FIRST ORDER. ELEUTHEROPOMI, (Gr. eiei5^og, eleutheros, free ;
,, poma, cover.)

The fishes of this order have pectinated or comb-like gills,
which are free, as in ordinary fishes, with one large external
opening on each side, furnished with a strong operculum or
cover; they are without rays; the upper jaw, formed by the
palatial bone, is firmly united to the maxillary ; the intermaxil-
lary bone is rudimentary.

(32) Chimcerida, (Gr. chimaira, fabulous monster,) SEA-
MONSTERS.

These are so called from the fantastic shape of the head,
which has a singular hoe-shaped appendage, tipped with spines
upon the snout. The second dorsal fin extends to the tip of the
tail, which is drawn out into a long slender filament. The eggs
are large, coriaceous, and have flattened hairy margins ; these
are esteemed by the Norwegians, who use them mixed up with
their pastry. The only species of the genus Chimcera, viz : C.
monstrosa, is abundant in the Arctic seas. (See Chart.)

(33) SturionidcR. The STURGEONS.

These fishes have the body covered by hard bony tubercles or

584 CHONDROPTERYGII.

plates. The mouth, situated beneath the head, is small and
toothless; it is placed on a sort of foot of three joints, by means
of which it can be protruded and retracted at pleasure. On its
under surface, as in most cartilaginous fishes, are several cirri,
beard or worm-like appendages, which hang down in front. It
is so much like India-rubber, that boys put pieces of it in their
balls, to make them bound. The body is long and tapering,
ending in a tail unequally forked, the upper lobe being consid-
erably the longer. Sturgeons live on small fishes and worms.
They grow to a great size, many of them measuring more than
twenty feet long, and some weighing more than two thousand
pounds. The roe is remarkable for its quantity of eggs, con-
taining sometimes one hundred and fifty millions, and weighing
one-fourth of the whole fish. It in fact constitutes its chief value,
as from it caviar, — so much prized, is furnished. For preparing
it, the roes, taken out and placed in tubs, are cleansed with
water; the fibrous parts, by which the eggs are connected, being
removed, the spawn is rinsed in white wine or vinegar, and
spread to dry. It is then put into a vessel and salted, being
crushed down at the same time with the hands, and afterwards
inclosed in linen bags to drain off the moisture. Lastly, it is
packed in tubs, pierced in the bottom, that any remaining moist-
ure may yet drain off, and closed down for domestic use or ex-
portation. Sometimes it is said to be preserved, after having
been salted and seasoned, by being rolled up into large balls,
and immersed in vessels of oil ; or the rolls are inclosed in wax,
so that the air may be more effectually excluded. (Gosse.) The
flesh of the Sturgeon is another article of considerable com-
merce. It is smoked or broiled in slices, and pickled, and in
this form exported. So fat and unpalatable, (as some regard it.)
it was deemed by the ancient Romans one of the most sump-
tuous dishes; and at all "great dinner-parties, this fish was
always carried by servants decked with garlands and flowers,
and attended by a band of musicians. On the Hudson River, it
is called "Albany Beef," from its frequent exposure in the
markets of that city. The swimming bladder of the Sturgeon is
also profitable. If cut open and washed, and its silvery glutinous
skin be exposed for some hours to the heat of the sun, and sepa-
rated from the external skin, it furnishes the best isinglass, the
value and uses of which are well known. They migrate during
the early summer months, deposit their spawn, and return again
to the sea. Those of North America are almost fresh- water fish..
The chief species are the COMMON STURGEON, Acipenser, (LaL
a sturgeon,) sturio, of the seas and rivers of Europe ; the BE-

CHONDROPTERYGII. 585

LTTGA or ISINGLASS STURGEON, A. huso, of the Caspian Sea,
probably the largest species, sometimes weighing, it is said,
three thousand pounds, and from which the caviar of commerce
is made in great quantities ; the STERLET, A. ruthenus, of the
Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas, which is said to yield
caviar of a very superior sort; the LAKE STURGEON, A. rubicun-
dus, (Lat. ruddy,) four feet long, of a yellowish red on the
back, and olivaceous red on the sides, found in Lakes Ontario
and Erie, and the upper lakes ; the Sharp-nosed Sturgeon, A.
oxyrhincus, (Gr. sharp-nosed,) seven feet long, and found in the
rivers of the United States. A species of the genus Scaphirhyn-
cus, (Gr. boat-nosed,) viz: the SHOVEL-FISH, S. platyrhynchus,
(Gr. broad-nosed,) is found in the Mississippi river. Of the
genus Polyodon, (Gr. many toothed;) is the Spoon-bill, P.
folium, (Lat. a leaf,) (previously referred to,) and also an inhabitant
of the Mississippi. This fish has an enormous gill-cover, with
a large branchial aperture, nearly like that of the generality of
fishes; and it is also furnished with an air-bladder: hence,
though placed next to the Sharks, Svvainson appears to doubt the
propriety of such a position of it. It has a snout greatly ex-
tended, much dilated, and, together with the head, nearly as long
as the body ; the tail is highly heterocercal, and the skin entirely
naked.

SECOND ORDER. PLAGIOSTOMA. (Gr. Mfiog, plagios, trans-
verse ; o-T<ty*a, stoma, mouth.) Gills not free.

The fishes of this order have a cartilaginous cranium, in which
the parts are not separately discernible. The cartilaginous,
teeth-bearing jaws are attached to the skull, also by cartilages.
The gills are fixed by their external .edges, with five small ex-
ternal openings on each side. The face is prolonged in front ;
and on its under side is situated the broad transverse mouth ;
the ventrals and pectorals, soft and fleshy, like the other fins, are
always present ; the pectorals, in the male, having long append-
ages on their internal margins. The covering of these fishes
consists of shagreen, or of plates variously modified. The
swimming-bladder is wanting ; the teeth are placed on the roof
of the mouth and the lower jaw. The order includes two fami-
lies, Squalida, (Sharks,) and Raiidce, (Rays.)

(34) SquaKda, (Lat. squalus, a kind of sea-fish.) The SHARKS.

This dreaded family of fishes are distinguished by having the
branchial openings lateral, the eye-lids free, the pectoral fins
distinct from the head, the body slender, and somewhat spindle-

585 CHONDROPTERYGII.

shaped. The mouth is generally placed far beneath the end of
the nose; and the upper part of the tail is longer than the lower.
These fish are generally of a large size, sometimes almost
gigantic. They are carnivorous, and very voracious. Some
of them are universally dreaded on account of their ferocity,
their appetite for human flesh, their strength, and the formidable
array of teeth with which their mouth is furnished. These are
triangular, finely serrated, and exceedingly sharp, lying quite
flat in the mouth ; but when seizing their prey, are raised by
the action of muscles by which they are joined to the jaw. To
this, and the singular method in which these formidable creatures
are continued, we referred, however, in the general description
of the Fishes. The most useful part of these fishes is the liver,
from which oil is obtained ; a Shark twenty feet in length, yield-
ing about two barrels. The rough skin is used for polishing
ivory and wood, and for making thongs, &c., for carriages; con-
verted into shagreen, it serves for covering snail cases and
boxes. The flesh is not eatable, being coarse, and of a disagree-
able flavor.

The WHITE SHARK, Carcharias, (Gr. marine-dog,) vulgaris or
Squalus Carcharias< found in tropical seas, has been known to
cut a man's body in twain at a single snap; and it is stated that
human bodies have been found entire in the stomachs of these
terrible monsters. It is suggested, that their insatiate voracity
may result from the great quantity of gastric juice with which
they are supplied, causing them to digest with great rapidity,
and from the tape and other worms which abound in their intes-
tines. Their sense of smell is acute, so that they discover their
victims at a distance ; and they follow in the wake of ships for
the purpose of devouring whatever may be thrown or fall from
them into the sea. The White Shark is said to measure, some-
times, thirty feet in length, and to exceed one thousand pounds
in weight.

The THRESHER SHARK, Carcharias vulpes, has the upper part
of the tail nearly as long as the body, or even longer. The tail
is its principal organ of defence; it literally threshes its enemies.
Sometimes it is called the Fox-Shark, and the SWINGLE-TAIL.
This species, which is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, is
found on the coasts of North America as far North as Nova
Scotia.

The SMALL BLUE SHARK, C. obscurus, from two to six feet in
length, is frequently taken on our coast.

The MACKEREL PORBEAGLE or MACKEREL SHARK, La?nna, (Gr.
a plate,) punctata, has a pyramidal snout, with the nostrils

CHONDROPTERYGII. 587

under the base, and the gill-openings all in front of the pectorals ;
there are no pectoral orifices. Its general color is a dark slate.
The oil of its liver is much esteemed by curriers. The length
is from four to ten feet. The surface under the lens, exhibits
numerous minute plates ; to this its generic name has reference.

The HOUND-FISH, Mustelus canis, has blunt teeth, forming a
closely compacted pavement in each jaw, with temporal orifices.
The lower lobe of the tail-fin is short. Its length is from two to
four feet.

The BASKING SHARK, Selachus maximus, has the gill-openings
all before the pectorals, long, and nearly surrounding the neck;
it has no air-holes behind the eyes; the teeth are small, of vari-
ous forms, but generally conical. This species is over thirty
feet in length. It is said its liver will yield eight barrels of oil.
It has the popular name of Basking Shark, from its habit of con-
tinuing for some time in one place. It is sluggish, inactive, and
less fierce than the other species, and inhabits the Northern seas,
but is occasionally seen off our coast.

The SMALL SPOTTED DOG-FISH, Scyllium canicula, has a prom-
inent and slightly pointed jaw, with the nostrils pierced near the
mouth, and a cylindrical shaped body. It keeps near the bottom
of the water, and feeds on fish and small crustaceans. This, and
the larger Dog-fish, Scyllium catulus, are found on the British
and French coasts. The larger species is three or four feet in
length, and does much damage to the fisheries on account of its
voracious habits. In Scotland, these fish are said to form no
inconsiderable part of the food of the poor. The species S. ca-
tulus, is sometimes called the Rock-Shark. This, or a similar
species, is found on the coast of the United States.

The SPINY DoG-Fisn, Spinax acanthias, (Storer,) is easily
recognized by the spiracles or air-holes which are placed, one
on each side of the temple, just behind the eye. It has a sharp,
strong spine in front of each of the two dorsal fins. (See Plate
XIV. fig. 10.) Its teeth are in several rows, small and cutting.
The color is slate ; the length from one to three feet. This
species is very numerous about Cape Cod, where they are much
sought for the oil which they furnish. Of the immense numbers
of them found in tropical seas, some idea may be formed from
the fact, that in the single harbor of Kingston, (Jamaica,) from
one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand are destroyed
annually. Twenty thousand, it is said, have been taken in a
seine at one time.

The ANGEL-FISH, Squatina angelus, seems, in its form, to unite
t ^gether the Sharks and the Rays. Swainson includes it with

583 CHONDHOPTERYGII.

the Rays, remarking that this and the species S. Dumerili, found
on the American coast, have the two dorsals and the caudal fin
in shape and situation the same as what is seen in the Torpedoes.
The length of the American species is from three to four feet.
It is said to have acquired the name of Angel-fish from its ex-
tended pectoral fins having the appearance of wings; and it is
called MONK-FISH, because its rounded head appears as if envel-
oped in a hood.

The SAW-FISH, Pristis, (Gr. pristis, a saw,) has the body
flattened in front, with the gill-openings beneath, as in the Rays;
but they are chiefly distinguished by a very long snout, which is
in form like the blade of a two-edged sword, and armed on each
side with pointed bony spines. This saw-like weapon, the fish
often buries in the flesh of the whale and other marine animals.
The Saw-fish is sometimes included with the Rays.

(35) Raiida, the RAYS.

These are a family of fishes which have the body flattened as
in the Saw-fish, and the pectorals greatly enlarged, as in the An-
gel-fish, both which, in their structure, seem to approach the pres-
ent group. In the Rays, the pectorals are very broad and
continuous with the head, sometimes stretching out in front of
it in the form of lobes, so that these fishes present an appear-
ance disk-like, or more or less rhomboidal, the snout forming one
corner, and the projecting tail another ; the other two corners
being the angles of the pectoral fins ; the ventrals, in the males,
have appendages like those of the Sharks; the dorsal fins, two,
sometimes three in number, are small, and placed far back on
the slender tail. The eyes are on the upper surface, as are also
the temporal spiracles ; the mouth, the nostrils, and the gill-open-
ings are placed in the under surface, and thus concealed from
view. The mouth is small and set with numerous teeth, which
are placed in close array, like paving stones. As in many of
the Sharks, the eyes have a nictitating membrane or skin which
can be drawn over the eye at pleasure, and serves as an eye-lid.
The young of the Rays are enveloped at birth in capsules of
a thin horny or leathery substance to which filaments are attached.
The prolongations of the angles of the envelope give it^some re-
semblance in shape to a hand-barrow. But the most distinguish-
ing peculiarity of the Rays is their barbs or prickles, varying in
length, according to the size of the fish, by which they are able
to tear the flesh and inflict severe wounds. These fishes are
strictly ground feeders, groveling along on the soft muddy bot-
tom, and moving with a peculiar undulating action of the pecto-
ral fins.

CHONDROPTERYGII. 589

Some of the species of the tropical seas grow to a great size
and are proportionally ferocious.

The RAYS PROPER, Raia, include several species, some of
which are found on our coast, such as the CLEAR-NOSED RAY,
R. Diaphanes, (Gr. clear,) from one to three feet long, caught
with cod-fish, and sometimes eaten ; the PRICKLY RAY, R. Amer-
icana, from one to two feet long, (Plate XIV. fig. 11 ;) the SPOT-
TED RAY, R. ocellata. When captured, this species whips its
tail about with great activity, and hence has the name of Whip
Ray; the HEDGE-HOG RAY, R. erinaceus, length about eighteen
inches; the PRICKLY-STING RAY, Pastinaca, (Lat. sting-ray,)
hastata, (Lat. from hasta, a spear,) having two or more spines
or barbs in the tail, which is longer than the body ; the whole
length is from five to eight feet; this species is numbered among
the edible rays ; the SMOOTH SKATE, Raia lavis, in length from
two to four feet ; the THORNBACK, R. Clavata, (Lat. knotted or
thorned,) has large and numerous spinous tubercles.

The EAGLE RAYS, Ceplialoptera, (Gr. head wings,) often grow
to an enormous size, specimens having been seen twenty-five
feet in length and thirty in breadth. One was taken at Barba-
does a few years ago, which weighed thirty-five hundred pounds
and required seven pair of oxen to draw it on shore! (Kirby.)
The Eagle Rays are nearly or quite as dangerous to man as the
Sharks. They are known to fishermen under the name of
"Devil Fish." The species C.vampirus,ihe OCEANIC VAMPIRE,
is from sixteen to eighteen feet in length. It is very powerful,
sometimes seizing the cables of small vessels at anchor, and
drawing the vessel for several miles, with great velocity. Pass-
ing by some other divisions, we must refer to the

ELECTRIC RAYS, or TORPEDOES. Torpedinidce, fishes which have
long been celebrated for their electrical powers, while their shape
is so singular that they look more like gigantic tadpoles than
fish, (Plate XIV. fig. 13.) The head is entirely surrounded by
the pectoral fins, which give to it in some species, a completely
circular appearance ; the tail is thick, fleshy, and only moder-
ately long, terminated by a distinct, large, and triangular fin.
The electrical organs constitute a pair of galvanic batteries,
arranged in the form of perpendicular hexagonal columns,
placed on each side of the head and gills, the small cells being
filled with mucus. These fishes are less powerfully electrical
than the Gymnotust but can benumb the arm of a person touch-
ing one of them*

690 CHONDROPTERYGII.

THIRD ORDER. CYCLOSTOMI, (Gr. xtxhog, kuklos, a circle ; or6,«a,
stoma, a mouth.)

The fishes of this order have already been referred to as hav-
ing sac or purse-shaped gills. These are fixed and open out-
wards by several apertures. The mouth consists of a circular
fleshy lip, with a cartilaginous ring supporting it; this peculiarity
gives name to the order.

(36) Petromyzonida, (Gr. stone-suckers.) These have length-
ened, cylindrical, eel or worm-shaped bodies, destitute, both of
pectoral and ventral fins, but having foldings of skin above and
below, serving the purpose of dorsal, caudal and anal fins,
though without any supporting rays.

The SEA LAMPREY, Petromyzon Americanus. In making its
furrow, preparatory to spawning, it uses its sucker-like mouth ;
with it separately removing stones of large size, and thus quickly
constructing a large furrow. It is from two to three feet in length.

The MUD LAMPREYS, Ammocates, (Gr. sand-bedded,) include
several species which differ from the true Lampreys chiefly in
the form of the mouth, which is not suctorial, but composed by
the projecting upper lip, the lower one being transverse.

These fish are found in large numbers, in sand or mud flats.
They are from three to four inches in length, varying in thick-
ness "from that of an earth worm to that of a swan's quill."
They are dug up from a depth of four or five inches below the
level of the water, and used as bait for fishes.

The MYXINOIDS or Glutinous Hags, Myxynoidei, approach the
lowest form of the Vertebrates, and by Linnaeus and other writ-
ers, are classed with the Worms. These curious animals are
eel-shaped, and measure, when full grown, about a foot and a
half. The head is scarcely distinguishable from the body, and
is obliquely truncated in front, ending in a large round mouth,
the frame-work of which is a membranous, maxillary ring, fur-
nished above with a single tooth. The tongue has in each end
two rows of strong teeth. The Hag has no eyes ; the branchial
openings are two in number; the skin is covered with slime,
furnished from a row of pores on each side of the belly. An
obscure fin runs along the hinder portion of the back ; and is
continued round the compressed tail. The color is of a dark
bluish-brown above, and whitish beneath.

The HAG or BORER, M. glutinosa, is found in the northern
seas of Europe. It does mischief by entering the mouths of
fishes caught in the lines of the fishermen and eating up all
the fleshy parts of their bodies, leaving only the skin and bones.
The name Borer is given to it, because, as is said, it pierces a

CHONDROPTERYGII. 591

small aperture, and thus makes its way into the body of Cod, of
other fishes which it attacks. (See general account of Fishes.)

FOURTH ORDER. BRANCHIOSTOMA, (Gr. branchia, gills ; stoma,

mouth.)

The term here used to designate an order, is sometimes em-
ployed as generic, and the name Amphioxida, (37,) given to the
family of which it constitutes the sole genus. Miiller, (see his
classification,) ranks it in the sub-order PHARYNGOBRANCHII,
(Gr. throat-gills.) a name referring to the position of the branchial
sac. This extraordinary animal, at an early period thought to
be a mollusk, was first discovered on the British coast, during
the latter part of the last century. Muller is no doubt correct
in saying, " it is evidently a vertebrated animal and a fish,"
though it has mare the aspect of a worm than a fish. Yarrel
in his "History of British Fishes," calls it the LANCELET, Am-
phioxus lanceolatus,, (Plate XIV. fig. 12.) It has a naked skin
and no fin except the dorsal, which extends over the entire length
of the back. The mouth is entirely inferior, elongated or circu-
lar, the margins having a row of filaments.

The vertebrae are reduced to a single, cartilaginous column
or thread, flexible, transparent, and scarcely to be distinguished
from the horny pen enveloped in the flesh of some of the Cut-
tle-fish. There is no trace of a brain, and the heart " presents
entirely the form and distribution of blood vessels and extends
over wide spaces," characters of themselves sufficient to distin-
guish the Branchiostoma from all other fishes. The blood is
white. Muller considers it connected with the Cyclostomatous
fishes through its dorsal chord and the absence of jaws ; but as
inferior to them in not having a distinct brain and in the pecu-
liarities of its respiratory system. The Lancelet is only about
two inches in length, and lives in sandy ground at a depth of be-
tween ten and twenty fathoms of water. It probably buries
itself in the sand. Other curious particulars could be given
relating to this lowest of the Vertebrates, did our limits permit,
but here we close our account of the Fishes and of the sub-king-
dom VERTEBRATES, to which they belong.

It is difficult to state with accuracy the number of species be-
longing respectively to the several families of Fishes, as new
researches, made from time to time, vary the assigned numbers.
The following tabular view is given, however, as an approxima-
tion to a true account :

592

CHONDROPTERYGII,

1 Percidse,

2 Triglidaj,

3 Scienidae,

4 Sparidse,

5 Maenidae,

6 Chaetodontidse,

7 Anabassidae,

8 Scomberidae,

9 Cepolidae,

10 Teuthidae,

11 Atherinidae,

12 Mugilidae,

13 Gobidae,

14 Lophidae,

15 Labridae,

16 Siluridae,

17 Cyprinidae,

18 Esocidas,

600 species.

19 Fistularidae,

260

20 Salmonidae,

250

21 Clupidse,

240

22 Gadidae,

61

23 Pleuronectidae,

150

24 Cyclopteridae,

1

25 Echeneidae,

400

26 Anguillidae,

84

27 Syngnathidae,

80

28 Gymnodontidae.

60

29 Balistidae,

80

30 Ostracionidae,

400

31 Sauridae,

60 "

32 Chimaeridae,

500 "

33 Sturionidae,

400 "

34 Squalidae,

723 "

35 RaiidEe,

120 "

36 Amphioxidae,

20 species.
132
180
110
150

40

20

175 "
100 "
100 "
110 "

30 "

24 "

114 "
130 "

"What is the 1st ORDER of OSSEOUS or BONY FISHES ? What other name
has it ? How is it characterized ? What is the number of the PERCH Fam-
ily ? Are they marine or fresh water fish ? Which is the typical species ?
What other sp. closely resemble it? What is said of the Striped Bass?
Which are among the most remarkable fishes of this group ? What is said of
them. In what respects are all the perches alike? How are the GURNARDS
characterized? Whence is the name derived? What did Cuv. call them?
What sp. are mentioned ? What two remarkable fish are found in this family ?
State what is said of them. What is the 3d FAMILY ? What is said of
them ? What of the 4th and 5th Families ? Why are the CHAETODONS so
called? What does Cuv. name them? Why? What is peculiar in the
Archers ? What gen. includes the CLIMBING PERCHES ? What is said of
them? What is the next Family? What is said of their numbers?
What is said of the Tunny, Bonito, and Sword-fish ? Name the other sp.
What is said of the Bottle-headed Dolphin? Which is the 9th FAMILY?
Why are they called Ribbon-fishes ? What fact shows the name to be ap-
propriate ? What sp. is found on our coast? What is the next Family?
What fishes do they resemble ? What is said of the Doctor-fish ? What
of the Surgeon-fish? What is the llth FAMILY? State what is said of
it. Name the next Family. Repeat what is said of them. In what respect
are the Blennies and Gobies alike ? What other characters are given ?
State what is said of the sp. referred to. How are the LOPHID^E distin-
guished ? What singular looking fishes does this family include ? What
is said of the Antennarius ? Why are the Labridae so named ? What two
sections do they include? What is said of the Wrasses or Rock-fishes?
What sp. are mentioned ?

Name the 2d ORDER of FisHES. What is said of their organization ?
How distinguished from the preceding order? Why is it esteemed impor-
tant? What SUB-ORDER is first mentioned? How characterized? What
is the 16th FAMILY ? What fishes represent it ? What is said of the Horn-
pouts? Of the Sheat-fish or Sly-Silure? What is peculiar to the S. electri-
cus ? What is said of the gen. pimelodus ? What large sp. is referred to ?
What remarkable S. American sp. ia mentioned ? What is said of the

CHOSDROPTERYGta. 503

^Le4 °F ^y

BLIND-FISHES? What is the 17th FAMILY? How ntrfeeei-fc&re tfiey ? Are
they found in Tropical waters ? What is said of their teeth ? Where is
the sp. Cyprinus carpio particularly abundant? Who first introduced it
into American waters? What is said of the Gold-fish, the Gudgeon, and
the Slimy Tench? What fish furnishes the silvery matter for artificial
pearls ? Name other fishes of this family. What remarkable sp. are found
in Austria and Brazil ? How are the PIILES characterized ? What does
Lacepede call them ? What is the only European sp. and what is said of
it ? Are the American sp. numerous ? How are they divided ? What sp.
are mentioned ? What is said of the BILL-FISH ? What of the FLYING-FISH
or Exoccetus? What family includes the Pipe and Trumpet fishes? What
is said of them ? Which is the 20th Family ? How are they character-
ized ? How regarded by anglers ? What is said of their color ? Which
is the most conspicuous sp. ? What is said of the BROOK TROUT ? What
of their numbers in former times? What is the 21st FAMILY? How are
they esteemed? What is said of their abundance? What of the HER-
RING fishery ? How are the Red or Smoked Herring prepared ? For what
are the H. used besides food? What is said of SARDINES? What of
SHAD, &c. ?

How are the SUB-BRACHIALS distinguished? Which is the 22nd FAMILY?
Which is the best known sp. ? Which is common on the U. S. coast ?
What is said of it ? What other sp. are mentioned ? Which is the next
FAMILY? In what respect do they stand alone among vertebrates?
Describe them. How does DeKay designate the FLAT-FISH? How the
FLOUNDER? What sp. of Turbot are mentioned? What is said of the
HALIBUT? What is the 24th FAMILY? How are they characterized?
Why called SUCKERS ? What genera represent them ? What is said of
the Lump-sucker? What does Pennant state? What is the next Family ?
What gen. represents it? To what does the name refer? What sp. are
mentioned? What is said of them? What is the next SUB-ORDER? Name
the 26th Family ? How are they characterized ? What is said of the num-
ber of fin rays ? Which sp. are the larger ? What does Yarrell say ?
What enables these fish to remain out of water ? What is said of their
eggs ? Repeat what is said of the Electric Eel ? What is the next SUB-
ORDER ? How is it characterized ? What is the 27th FAMILY ? Give their
general characters ? What is remarkable in the male PIPE-FISH? What
in the SEA-HORSE ? What is the next SUB-ORDER? How distinguished?
What is the 28th FAMILY? Have they real teeth? What have they instead?
What is said of the SEA PORCUPINE? What of«the Puffer, or Balloon-fish?
What of the small Globe-fish? What other Globe-fishes are named? What
is said of the Sun-fish? Mention the next Family? What is said of it?
What is said of the Trunk-fishes? How are the GANOIDS characterized?
What is the 31st Family? What is said of the Polypterus of the Nile?
What other sp. of this family are mentioned ?

What is said of the PLACOIDS or CARTILAGINOUS FISHES ? Name the 1st
ORDER? How is it characterized? What is the 32d Family? What is
said of it? What is the next Family? What is said of their covering?
What of their mouth and body? Of their size? In what respect is the
roe remarkable ? What valued food does it furnish ? How is it prepared ?

594 CHONDROPTERYGII.

From what part of the Sturgeon is isinglass obtained, and how is it pre-
pared ? What sp. of Sturgeon are mentioned and what is said of them ?
What is the 2nd ORDER of CARTILAGINOUS FISHES ? How is it character-
ized? What is the 34th FAMILY? What is said of their size, voracity,
&c.? What is said of the White Shark? Of the Thresher S.? What
other sp. are mentioned? What is said of the Spiny Dog-fish and the
Spotted Dog-fish ? Of the Angel-fish and Saw-fish ? What is the 35th
FAMILY? Give their characters? What sp. of RAYS PROPER are mentioned?
What is said of the EAGLE RAYS ? Of the Electric Ray ? What is the 3d
ORDER of CARTILAGINOUS FISHES? What peculiarity gives name to the
order? What is the 36th FAMILY? What is said of this FAMILY ? What
of the Sea Lamprey ? What of the Mud Lamprey ? Of the Myxinoids or
Glutinous Hags ? What is the 4th ORDER of CARTILAGINOUS FISHES? How
is the term sometimes employed ? What Family does it include ? How
does Miiller rank it? What is it called by Yarrell ? Describe this fish.

Name and trace from the Chart some of the largest fish, giving a sketch
of each from the book. Which is the largest of the Mackerel Family?
Which next? Which is the largest of the Flat-fishes? In what do they
diiFer from all other fish? Which of the Placoids is the largest? How do
the caudal fins of this order differ from those of other orders ? What fam-
ilies present the most singular forms ? Which are nearly round ? Which
long and slender? Which three or four sided? Describe the Sun-fish and
Chimaera from the Chart. Which fish crawl upon land or climb trees, and
in what orders are they found

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.

INSECTS WITH BITING JAWS.

Fig. 1. Larva of a beetle, usually consisting of thirteen segments ; a, the
head; b, the three segments of the thorax, to which the legs and winga
are attached ; c, the nine segments of the abdomen.

Fig. 2. The Lady-bird or Lady-bug, Coccinella septempunctata ; a, pupa
with the outer case, b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, complete insecE

Fig. 3. Wasp-fly, Stylops.

Fig. 4. Earwig, Forficula ; a, the large posterior wings ; b, anal forceps ;
c, the antennae with fourteen joints.

Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, belong to the four sections of the Order Orthoptera.

Fig. 5. Cockroach, Blatta orientalis.

Fig. 6. Walking-leaf Insect, Phy Ilium slccifolium ; a, foliaceous expansions
upon the feet ; b, the true wings, far exceeding in size the wing covers.

Fig. 7. Praying Mantis, Mantis religiosa, named from the attitude they as-
sume while waiting to grasp their prey with their raptorial feet, a.

Fig. 8. Walking-stick, Walking-beetle or Spectre, Spectrum femoratum,
without wings or wing covers, can scarcely be distinguished from the
branch on which they rest.

Fig. 9. Katydid, Platyphyllum concavum; a, the curved ovipositor, about
one-fourth of an inch long.

Fig. 10. Caddis-fly, Phryganea; a, front wings, fibrous with branching
nerves ; the hind wings are largest, but folded when at rest.

Fig. 11. Dragon-fly or Darning-needle, Libellula; the compound eyes,
nearly cover the entire head, and contain about 12,000 lenses.

Fig. 12. Hornet, Vespa crabro ; a, antennae; b, head; c, thorax; d, abdo-
men; 1, the coxa or hip joined to the body; 2, trochanter, or second
joint of the leg; 3, femur or thigh; 4, tibia or shank; 5, tarsus, com-
posed of five or less joints, and terminated by two hooked claws.

WITH MOUTHS FOR SUCKING, PUMPING, OR PIERCING.

Fig. 13. Cabbage Butterfly, Pontia brassica ; a, the knob at the end of the
antennae, distinguishing butterflies from moths or millers, whose anten-
nae are feathery or saw-like ; b, anterior wings ; c, posterior wings.

Fig. 14. Cochineal Insect, Coccus cacti ; a, the male, with red body, white
wings and two setae or bristles c, at the apex of the abdomen ; b, the
female, without wings, having shorter antennas, and a beak of which the
male is destitute.

Fig. 15. Blow or Blue-bottle Fly, Musca vomitoria; a, the only pair of
wings, which are transparent and without scales or dust. There are
no wing covers, as the lower wings are reduced to two small knobbed
threads, called hajterers or poisers.

Fig. 16a. Flea, Pulex irritans; b, Jigger or Chigoe, P. penetrans, feet
long, bristly, and adapted for leaping.

Fig. 17a. Louse, Pediculns ; b, Lepisma.

Fig. 18a. Thousand-legged Worm or Millipede, lulus terrestris, has usually
two pair of feet to each segment, each foot ending in a claw. The
feet in different sp. vary from 12 to 300 pair, b, Brush-tailed Centi-
pede.

Fig. 19a. Scorpion, Scorpio afer; the extended tail-like abdomen ending
with the sting ; b, Spider, Arachnida ; no distinct head, eyes from
two to eight, neither wings, antennae, or upper lip ; c, Tick Ixodes.

SECOND SUB-KINGDOM.

ARTICULATES. (Lat. articulus, a joint.)

SECTION I.

IN leaving^ the Vertebrated Animals, we, in the descending
scale, first come to the class of ARTICULATES, (articulata.) These
rank first among the INVERTEBRATED Group, or those animals
that are destitute of a back bone. They are so named because
the different parts of their body are composed of movable
pieces articulated or jointed to each other. They deviate from
the Molluscous animals in generally possessing a skeleton ; but
the skeleton, unlike that of the Vertebrates, is exterior instead of
interior, being composed of a series of rings, protecting the in-
ternal parts, and serving as points of attachment for muscles.
Though exhibiting considerable diversity of character among
themselves, the Articulates are usually provided with a skin,
which is either soft, as in the leech and earth-worm, or horny
and crustaceous, as in the crab and craw-fish. Some families
are destitute of feet, but the greater portion possess these mem-
bers. When limbs are present, they are never fewer than six.
Articulated animals have the trunk of the body, for the most
part, long, cylindrical, and divided transversely into segments.
In the lowest of the series, where there are no appendages for
locomotion, and all the movements are effected by the body
itself, as in the common worm, — the segments appear to be per-
fectly simple, but, as ascending in the scale, we observe that
gradually, the segments develop lateral organs, which are of
kinds quite various, according to the character of the animal.

In many of the Annelidans, and in the Myriopoda or Centipede
tribe, especially, the articulated character of these animals is
conspicuous, the segments being numerous, and all of nearly
equal size, and each possessing a short pair of legs, which are
themselves also jointed. In the Crustaceans and the Arachnida
or Spiders, — the divisions are reduced to eight or ten in number;
and in the Insects, to six. Where the design is to lighten the

ARTICULATES. 599

body, there the segments are reduced in number and size, as in
the insects and the crabs ; in the Annelidans, as the Earth-worms
and Lug-worms, we find the number of segments increased.

The animals of this class are active; hence, their skeletons
are light and thin. The muscles or organs of motion are at.
tached to the interior of the skeleton ; but as this is hard and
unyielding, it is necessary that it undergo a process of exuvia-
tion, which occurs in all the Articulate animals, going on through
all the stages of their existence. Phosphate of Lime, which
enters into the bones of the vertebrate classes, constitutes also
the material out of which the skeletons of a majority of these
animals are formed. Considering their size, it may be doubted
whether any other animals possess so large an amount of muscu-
lar power as the Articulates. The bulk of their bodies is really
made up, in great part, by the muscles which move them.
Throughout the animal kingdom, the muscular power corres-
ponds with the amount of respiratory action, and the development
of animal heat ; in various forms of the Articulates, this law is
remarkably displayed.

The strongest resemblance to each other, exhibited by these
animals, exists in the nervous system. The brain is extremely
small. Two nervous cords, surrounding the oesophagus or gul-
let, run along the centre of the lower surface of the animal ;
these cords are studded, at regular intervals, with knots or
ganglia, forming so many centers from which the nerves pass off
to the different segments.

The head also has its ganglia, in which the cords terminate
anteriorly. In cases where the members are not distributed
along the entire body, but limited to one part, as in Insects,
Arachnidans, and the higher Crustaceans, there is a corresponding
concentration of the ganglia in that particular part; indicating
by its degree, the elevation of the animal in the series.

The organs of sense are very imperfectly developed, and in
some instances, entirely wanting, excepting that of sight.

No organ of smell has been discovered, unless it be assigned
to the antennse. Some naturalists have described organs of
hearing in the insects, while others regard the antennse as instru-
ments for the exercise of that sense, and also of feeling.

The digestive apparatus is, for the most part, in accordance
with the carnivorous habits of the Articulates. Where animal
food is eaten, the process of digestion is less complicated than
where vegetable food is used.

The lengthened form of these animals impresses its character
upon their digestive, and also upon their circulating apparatus.

25

GOO ARTICULATES.

In most of the Articulates, the blood moves forward in one or
more large dorsal arterial vessels, from which side branches are
given off, terminating in various trunks that convey the blood
backwards to the dorsal vessel. The blood is more highly or-
ganized, has a deeper color, and contains a larger quantity of
corpuscles and fibrin than in either the Radiates or Mollusks.

Respiration is accomplished by organs which, in all cases, are
perfectly symmetrical in those of this class which, like the Crus-
taceans, habitually live in water by means of branchiae or gills ;
in others, by means of trachea or air-tubes, which receive air by
certain lateral openings, called Stigmata, (Gr. dots or marks.)
In rare instances, there exist cellular cavities, analogous to lungs.
The ARTICULATES may be arranged into the following classes :
I. INSECTA, Insects; II. MYRIAPODA, Thousand-legged Worms,
&c. ; III. ARACHNIDA, Spiders, &c. ; IV. CRUSTACEA, Crabs and
Lobsters; V. CIRRHOPODA, Barnacles; VI. ANNELIDA, Anneli-
dans or Worms. (Plates XV. and XVI.)

FIFTH PART. ENTOMOLOGY. (Gr. IVro^aa, entoma, an insect;
, logos, a discourse.)

First class of ARTICULATES. Insecta, (Lat. from inseco, to cut
into. ) INSECTS.

The name given to this class refers to the divided structure
of the body or trunk of the animals which it includes. This is
generally composed of thirteen (sometimes fourteen) sections, of
which one forms the head; three the intermediate thorax, and
nine the abdomen. The head of a perfect insect has usually
three pair of jointed appendages. The first pair are called
antenna or feelers. They are affixed to the sides of the head
for the most part, between the eyes and the mouth, and have
from one to sixty joints or articulations.

All true insects have six jointed or articulated legs, attached to
the thorax, and, usually, two or four wings, situated upon its
three rings. (Plate XV. fig. 12.) The abdomen, which is fur-
nished with many rings, contains the digestive organs. The
breathing process is accomplished by means of spiracles or pores,
on the side of each ring, for admitting the air, which is thus
made to permeate the whole body.

Insects have a circulating apparatus, of which the central
organ, corresponding to the heart or the aorta in the higher orders
of animals, is a vessel or tube running beneath the skin of the
back, from which the white and cold blood is distributed in tis-

ARTICULATES. 001

sued channels or veins. The corpuscles have forms like those
which are found in animals of the superior grades. The ner-
vous system consists of a symmetrical arrangement of nervous
threads in two lines, situated on the face of the abdomen, and
connected by knots or ganglia, at every ring of the body.

The mouth of insects, although made up of the same essential
parts, has these modified into two principal forms of structure,
one of which is adapted to chew, and the other to suck food.
The former are named mandibulate, (from Lat. mando, to chew;)
the latter, haustellate, (from Lat. haustellum, a sucker.) In the
order Hymenoptera, however, biting mandibles are united with
sucking jaws. (Plate XV. fig. 12b.)

But the most striking peculiarities of insects relate to the
changes or metamorphoses which they undergo during their stages
of growth, corresponding, in some degree, with the developments
made in other animals, yet differing from them in being station-
ary at certain periods. (Plate XV. fig. 2.)

By far the largest part are oviparous. The eggs are generally
oval, but they are seen in other forms, — sometimes round and
sometimes cylindrical. Some are smooth and shining; others
are beautifully sculptured. They vary as to color, but white
and green predominate.

The Flesh -Fly, Musca carnaria, is ovoviviparous, the eggs
being hatched within the body.

The larva state of insects commences when the egg is con-
verted into a footless worm, resembling the higher Entozoa, or
the inferior Annelidans, in its organization, and continues until
the wings begin to appear. The term larva, (a mask,) was ori-
ginally adopted by Linnseus, who regarded insects, while under
this form, as masked. It is applicable to the young of all insects.
In the Scaly- winged Insects or Butterflies, (Lepidoptera,) and
most of the Sheath-winged Insects or Beetles, (Coleoptera,) the
larva, at the time of its escape from the egg, has the rudiments
of three pair of legs upon the thorax, — though these are little
more than simple claws, except in the Carnivorous Beetles. The
«eoft, white larvae of the Beetles are called Grubs; those of certain
Flies or Two-winged Insects, (Diptera,) are called Maggots ;
those of Butterflies, Moths, and Millers are termed Caterpillars.
The young of the HEMIPTERA, including Bugs, Cicada, Plant-
Lice, &c. ; and of the ORTHOPTERA, including the True Locusts,
Crickets, Cockroaches, &c., do not emerge from the shell until
they have a close resemblance to the parents in every thing,
excepting wings; and they can hardly be regarded as having
the characteristics of real larva.

602 ARTICULATES.

In the larval state, insects eat most voraciously, — indeed, their
entire energy seems to center in the eating process. Their
growth is great, and often rapid. The comparative weight of
that remarkable insect, the Great Moth, Cossus ligniperda, to
that of the young one that has just crept out of the egg is, as
7*2,000 to 1, — an increase of seventy-two thousand times! This
insect occupies three years in attaining to its perfect state. The
Maggots of Flesh-Flies are said to increase in weight two hun-
dred times in twenty- four hours. Caterpillars, in the same time,
consume three times their weight of food.

Larvae are subject to moultings, or changes of the skin ; the
number varying with the species. This moulting is most strik-
ingly exhibited in the Silk- worm, Bombyx mori, which casts its
outer skin five times in a month. While undergoing this pro-
cess, the larva does not eat, but it absorbs the fat beneath the
outer skin, which favors casting it off.

The larval state is the one in which insects continue the
longest, varying, however, in duration, from hours to months
and years.

The Caterpillars of several Butterflies and Moths, live in large
societies, in habitations or tents, sometimes of a pyramidal
form, and which are constructed by their united skill.

When the worm has fixed itself in some suitable and secure
retreat, the pupa is formed, and encased in the last skin, which,
in two winged insects, becomes more rigid ; or else a new and
beautiful case is made, — a robe of silk, impervious to water,
being laboriously woven from a single thread, which is formed
and spun from the juices of the body, — impressively illustrating
the instinctive power of the insect as related to its successive
developments.

The name of the third state, pupa, (child or doll,) refers to the
swathed appearance of most insects during its continuance, it
resembling, in miniature, a child trussed up in swaddling
clothes.

This state has two modifications. (1) That of those which,
in general form, resemble their larvae; (2) That of those which
are entirely unlike their larvae. Of the first kind are the He-
miptera, &c., — which have the pupa somewhat incomplete, and
possess rudimental wings; also those which have an incomplete
pupa, and are also without wings, as Lice, Pediculus, which,
and the Spring-tails, Podura, together with some other wingless
insects, undergo no metamorphosis, corning forth from the egg,
almost in the condition in which they remain all their lives.

ARTICULATES. 603

Of the second kind, are those which undergo a complete met-
amorphosis. These include those in which no trace of a future
insect can be perceived, as in the Fly, Musca, and others of the
dipterous or two-winged insects; those in which the thorax and
abdomen are distinct, and enclosed in a horny case, as in the
Butterflies ; and those in which the parts are covered by a mem-
brane, but distinct, as in the order Hymenoptera, and some of
the Two-winged Insects.

In the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, and '
some of the Neuroptera, the pupa state is one of complete inac-
tivity as to all manifestations of animal life, while yet the interior
formative processes are carried on with extraordinary energy.
In the egg, the development in the case of these insects, was only
carried far enough to enable the larvae to come forth, and to
obtain their own food. In the pupa state, it is continued at the
expense of the nutriment which they had collected and stored
up within their bodies, so that the passage into the pupa state
might almost be compared to a second entering into the egg.

Of those which are not, like the Silk-worm, protected by a
cocoon, some suspend themselves by their -hind extremity ; others,
as the Butterfly, Papilio, attach themselves, with the head above,
and a thread around the body to keep it in its position. Some of
these hanging pupae exhibit bright colors and golden spots, whence
the name Chrysalis, (from Gr. chrusos, gold.)

In the Ant-tribes, the Neuters do not acquire wings. Some
of them, which are two or three times as large as the rest, and
somewhat differently formed, are named "soldiers," it being
their special office to defend the nest, rather than to nurture
young; and in the White Ants, Termites, the "soldiers" appear
to be pupae arrested in their development, while the "workers"
have the characters of permanent larvae.

The period of inactivity in the pupa state, greatly varies in
duration ; some insects remaining inactive for years or months,
while others pass through that state in a few days or hours, and
reach the fourth or last stage, when the insect is called Imago,
(Lat. image.) Now, having laid aside its mask, and cast off its
swaddling bands, it becomes a proper image or representative of
its species. Whenever an insect is spoken of without the restrict-
ing terms larva and pupa, it should be remembered, the imago
state is meant. In this state, the three principal parts of head,
thorax, and abdomen, are distinctly perceptible ; the insect now
eats much less food than when in its first state. Some, indeed,
live so short a time as to need no food, as the Silk- worm and the

604

ARTICULATES.

Gad-flies. The May-fly or Day-fly, (Ephemera,) commits its
eggs to the water, and dies in a few hours, though including its,
larva and pupa states, it had previously lived two or three
years. The Butterfly needs only a little honey ; the Fly daintily
. sips its food, while the larvae of both eat most voraciously.

Some insects are able to endure abstinence from food for a
long time. The Ant-lion, Myrmeleon, (Gr. murmex, ant; leon,
lion,) can remain for six months, uninjured, without food, thought
daily devouring an insect of its own size when it can be obtained ;
Beetles have been known to live two or three years without food
of any kind. Most insects feed themselves, but the young of
those which live in societies, and continue longer than most oth-.
ers in the adult state, as the Bees, Wasps, Ants, &c., are fed by
the older ones, which also store up food for future use.

Most insects are extremely prolific. They are, as we have
seen, produced from eggs laid by the female ; though there is
one remarkable exception to this rule in the Aphis or Plant-lice,
(order Hemiptera,) which increases by a process of gemmation
or budding, somewhat after the manner of the Polypi, — females
being thrown off at once for several generations, of which each
has the power to multiply its kind in the same way. — even to
the seventh or ninth generation ; when eggs are again laid, and
the gemmating or budding process is again renewed. Accord-
ing to calculations based upon observation, the whole brood in a.
season from a single Aphis, will amount to the immense number
of 1,000,000,000,000,000,000! but the insect is extremely fee-
ble; "the touch destroys it; the winds, rains, and cold, sweep
off its numbers by hundreds of thousands." (Emmons.)

The Queen-Bee, Apis mettifica> (Lat. honey-bee,) lays fifty
thousand eggs; the female White- Ant, Termes bellicosa, has an
abdomen fifteen hundred or two thousand times as large as the
rest of the body, and lays eighty thousand eggs in twenty-four
hours, and forty or fifty millions in a year.

Insects usually deposit their eggs where the young larvae may
find appropriate food. Thus, the Silk-worm places hers on the
leaves of the Mulberry, Morus multicaulis, (Lat. many-stalked
mulberry.) The Hessian-fly, Cecidomya destructor, deposits its
eggs upon the young leaf of 'the wheat, where it joins the stem
or straw (culm) near the earth ; while the Wheat-fly, C. tritici,
places hers in the wheat-head ; the Gad or Horse-Fly, Oestrus,
(Gr. oistros, a gad-fly,) equi, (Lat. of a horse,) deposits hers in
hundreds upon the hairs of the horse. Ichneumon-Flies, Ichneu-
monidce, deposit theirs in or upon the bodies of Caterpillars and
other larvae, by means of a sharp and strong abdominal tube or

ARTICULATES. (505

ovipositor (egg-placer) of great length. The larva ofthe Pimpla
lunator, according to Prof. Emmons, sometimes, in company with
the Sirex, deposits its eggs in young maple trees, introducing the
ovipositor into the wood, sometimes to the depth of three inches.
There is indeed scarcely any organized substance upon which
insects are not adapted to prey. Growing vegetables and living
animals are alike subject to their attacks, — these, when dead,
also supply with food many kinds of insects; and even when
such substances are decomposed or much decayed, they furnish
nutriment to particular species. Hence, though sustaining much
damage by the injury which the insects do to plants and trees,
man also derives important benefit from them, by their removal
of putrid substances, the noxious exhalations of which would
poison the air, and thus detract greatly from his health and com-
fort. They are frequently useful to plants in bringing the pollen
to the pistils, and thus effecting the continuance of the species in
•cases where it could not be done except by extraneous methods.
Large Grasshoppers are in the Levant, dried and consumed for
food ; some savage nations eat the large grubs which are found
in rotten wood. The Great-Moth, Cossus, which the ancients
esteemed as a delicacy, was a larva of some kind ; and a species
kindred to this one is at this day eaten in Brazil. Ants are also
eaten by the natives in that country. While attending to these
uses of insects, we may also refer to that which is made of the
Cantharides or Blistering Flies, — to that beautiful dyeing mate rial,
cochineal, furnished by insects ofthe genus Coccus, — to the galls
formed on oak trees by the genus Cynips, and which are em-
ployed in the arts; to the art of Caprification or causing figs to
ripen by suspending upon the trees branches of the wild Fig-
tree, (Caprificus,) which is infested by an insect that pierces the
fruit and hastens its maturity ; and to manna, used as an agreea-
ble food in the East, which, though not directly produced by
insects, is made to flow from the Tamarisk mannifera, (manna
bearing,) by the puncture of a small species of Coccus. The de-
struction of the larvae of some insects by those of others, is in
some instances, actually enormous, so that the undue multiplica-
tion of insects, which might result from the very great number
of their eggs, and from their rapid growth, is counteracted not
only by the influence of the many beasts, birds, reptiles and
fishes, which feed upon them, but also by the numerous onsets
which insects make upon each other. In these, they sometimes
show considerable contrivance, availing themselves of traps, ex-
cavated in the sand, by which they secure their prey, as in the
case of the Ant-lion, an insect, in its perfect state, resembling the

606 ARTICULATES.

Dragon-fly. If by any means any poor, unwary insect, found in the
neighborhood of the Ant-lion larva, seems likely to escape, jets
of sand arrest his progress, and carry him to the bottom of the
pit-fall, where he is instantly seized; his juices sucked out, and
the body jerked out of the den, which, if injured, is soon re-
paired, and ready for another victim. A plan quite similar to
this is also adopted by the larva of a Fly, (Leptis vermileo.)

The locomotive powers of insects are unsurpassed by those of
any other animals. These are peculiarly conspicuous in the
Dragon-flies, Termites, Bees and Ants. Even the Swallow is
unable, in this respect, to match the Dragon-fly or Darning-
needle, which can elude its pursuer by flying backwards and
forwards, right and left, without turning its body. Its twenty-
four thousand eyes guard it against surprise, by enabling it to
see in all directions. The wings of Musquitoes are said to
vibrate three thousand times a minute.

The organs of sense in Insects have a high degree of devel-
opment. This is more particularly true of the sight. Of the
two kinds of eyes found in adult insects, compound and simple,
the latter, termed ocelli, (eyelets,) and stemmata, (stems,) are
alone present in the larvse, though these are sometimes entirely
without visual organs. In perfect insects, the eyes are com-
pound, that is they consist of many eyes, each of which is per-
fect in itself, having the proper humors and lenses necessary for
the exercise of vision. In addition to the compound eye, which
often fills up the largest part of the head, Insects sometimes have
simple eyes upon the forehead, generally three in number, set in
the form of a triangle, which are suited to view only such ob-
jects as are near. The compound eye is immovable, round,
oval, or kidney-shaped, and examined under the microscope, ap.
pears reticulated, this appearance being occasioned by the hex-
agonal lines which bound each eye or lens. The number of
lenses, each fitted for vision in its own sphere, is almost incred-
ibly great. The number in the Dragon-Fly has already been
mentioned ; that of the common Fly is 4,000 ; of the Butterfly,
from 6,000 to 30,000 ; and of the Mordella Beetle, 25,000 ;
while that of the ant has but fifty lenses.

There seems no doubt that insects have the sense of hearing,
for though the precise organ which is subservient to it has not
been fully ascertained, there is abundant evidence that they are
guided and influenced by sounds, one of the most striking in-
stances of which is that the male of some Insects, such as Cica-
da, Crickets, &c., emit peculiar sounds, which attract the fe-
males to them. A nocturnal butterfly, Acherontia atropos, pro-

COLEOPTERA. GQ7

tluces a plaintive cry which is said to proceed from the head.
These sounds are produced entirely by mechanical means, and
cannot be considered vocal.

It is thought by some naturalists that the organ of hearing is
situated in the base of the antennae. These are supposed to be
also the chief organs of touch. (Plate XV. fig. 4c.)

Insects seem to possess the sense of smell. The Flesh-fly
deposits eggs in the thick fleshy petals of the Carrion-flower,
(Stapelia,} deceived by its odor, which resembles tainted meat.

Many insects, particularly the Coleoptera, which include the
Snap-Bug, Elater, and the Fire-fly, Lampyris, are luminous at
night. Several North American species of the Sphinx, or Hawk
Moth, seem to be phosphorescent, by dim candle-light, or when
shaded from direct light. When the light is extinguished, noth-
ing appears, however, excepting a peculiar reflection.

Insects are essentially terrestrial, but many, as the Whirligigs
or Water-Fleas, (Gyrinus,) swim on fresh water; and some, as
the Skippers, (Hydromelrida,) walk with the body raised above
it, the tips of their feet touching the surface ; and a genus Halo-
bates, (Gr. haZs, the sea ; baino, to go,) is seen in the Southern
Atlantic, far out from the land.

The Insects are divided by Kirby and Spence, into twelve or-
ders, as presented on the Chart, viz. :

1. Coleoptera.

2. Strepsiptera.}

3. Dermaptera.

4. Orthoptera.

5. Tricoptera.

6. Neuroptera.

7. Hymenoptera.

8. Lepidoptera.

9. Hemiptera.

10. Diptera.

11. Aphaniptera.

12. Aptera.

FIRST ORDER. COLEOPTERA, (Gr. xolsbg, koleos, a sheath;
TtxsQbv, pteron, a wing.) BEETLES. Mouth mandibulate.

These insects are almost incredibly numerous, between seventy
and eighty thousand species being found in the cabinets of col-
lectors. In the Royal Museum at Berlin, Prussia, is a single
collection of forty thousand species. The singular forms and
brilliant colors of many of these insects, the size of their bodies,
the solid texture of their integuments, which renders preserva-
tion comparatively easy, and the nature of their habits, which
affords every facility for their capture, have combined to render
Beetles objects of peculiar attention and interest to entomologists.

The upper wings of these Insects are horny or leathery, and
shield or sheathe the lower ones ; the metamorphosis is perfect,

COS COLEOPTERA.

the pupa being torpid ; the mouth is mandibulate or chewing.
The wing-cases are called elytra, (Gr. coverings,) and are un-
suited for flight. Many of these Insects, particularly in the lar.
va state, are quite injurious to vegetation ; but at the same time,
they are, as a whole, very useful in diminishing the numbers of
other noxious or destructive insects, and in removing fungous
and offensive matters.

(1) The TIGER BEETLES, Cicindetida, (from gen. Cicindela,
Lat. a glow-worm.) so called on account of their fierceness and
voracity, are found in sandy localities and dusty roads. They
feed upon other insects, are good runners, and fly with facility.
Those of the genus Cicindela are the most numerous.

2. GROUND BEETLES, Carabida, (from gen. Cardbus, a crab,
i. e., crab-like,) are those which are commonly found under
stones and rubbish, and generally, but not always, nocturnal.
They are predaceous, feeding upon insects and larvae. The
colors are black, with blue and purple hues.

The CATERPILLAR HUNTERS, Calosoma, (Gr. beautiful body,) in-
elude species having colors in which green and blue predominate.
They are found in trees, and lessen the number of injurious in-
sects which infest them.

3. The DIVING BEETLES, Dyticida, (from gen. Dyticus, a
diver,) are large hardy insects, sometimes seen in water bordered
with ice. They feed upon minute fish, larvae and worms.

4. The LADY BIRDS, or Lady Bugs, Coccinelhdce, (gen. Cocci-
nella, from Gr. kokkos, a berry, i. e., berry-like,) are well known,
small, hemispherical insects, having bright colors and often marked
with spots. (Plate XV. fig. Id.) They feast on gourd-like plants,
such as melons and pumpkins, but are of great service, both in
their larva and perfect state, in destroying the Plant-lice. The lar-
va is of a long oval shape, with a pointed tail ; of a black color,
with red and white specks, and a rough surface, (Plate XV. fig.
2b.) It changes to a short, blackish, oval chrysalis, or pupa
spotted with red, (a, c,) and which gives birth to its beautiful
inmate in May or June, (d.) The eggs of these insects may be
seen upon the under surface of leaves, in a cluster of thirty or
forty, placed in contact and gummed by one end to the leaf.
These hatch within a few days.

5. The WATER-LOVERS, HydropJiilida, (gen. HydropUlus, Gr.
water-lover,) are found in ponds and ditches, or in stagnant
waters, which they seem to prefer.

6. CARRION BEETLES, Silphida, (from Gr. silphe, a cockroach,
i. e., cockroach-like.) These include the Sexton Beetle, Necro-
phorus, (Gr. nekros, a dead body ; phoreo, I carry.) This is

COLEOPTERA. C09

about an inch in length, of a black hue, and extremely fetid.
It is noted on account of its finding the carcases of small ani-
mals, such as mice, rats, birds, frogs, &c., shortly after death,
burying them by working the earth from beneath them, and af-
terwards covering them. In these dead animals, the Sexton Bee-
tle deposits its eggs.

7. DUNG BEETLES, Geotrupidce, (Gr. ge, the earth; trupao, to
bore.) These, with other similar families, are, in their larva
state, incapable of much locomotion, and generally live in the
ground.

8. SCAVENGER BEETLES, Scardbaida, (gen. Scardb&us, from
Gr. Skarabos, a beetle or scarabee.) These Beetles use the
flat shield of their heads for working in the ground and in the
dung upon which they feed. One species labor in pairs, the one
beetle pushing their ball backwards with the hind feet, and the
other walking up the ball on the opposite side, thus making it
roll. The Copris rolls together a small ball which it immedi-
ately buries.

9. STAG BEETLES, Lucanida, (gen. Lucanus,) include some
very large sized beetles, distinguished by having the antennae
terminated by a large jointed club. The males of Lucanus cer-
vus have singular horns affixed to the head and thorax. (Plate
II. fig. 8.)

10. GIANT BEETLES, Dynaslida, (gen. Dynastes, Gr. a ruler.)
These include some of the largest of the order. The males
have horns or tubercles arising from the head or thorax. A most
remarkable species is the Hercules Beetle, Dynastes Hercules,
found in South America, measuring sometimes not less than five
or six inches in length, having a horn of enormous length in pro-
portion to the body, proceeding from the upper part of the
thorax. Its larva continues about six years, and is three or four
inches long. It is sometimes eaten fried, and esteemed a luxury.

11. ROSE BEETLES, Cetoniida, (of which Cetonia, is a prom-
inent genus,) form an extensive group, including several which
are distinguished for their brilliant colors. The common ROSE
CHAFER, C. aurata, may be cited as an example, found in roses
and upon the flowers of the privet, an insect nearly an inch
long, of a shining green color above, and copper-red beneath,
with white marks in the elytra. In its larva state, it feeds upon
moist rotten wood, and is often met with under ground, in ants'
nests.

12. SPRINGING BEETLES, Elaterida, (gen. Elater, a charioteer.)
These have a strong spine situated beneath the thorax, which fits
at pleasure into a small cavity on the upper part of the abdomen ;

610 COLEOPTERA.

thus enabling the insect, when laid upon its back, to spring up
with great force and agility, in order to regain its position.
Their larvae are known in New England and Nc3W York, by the
name of Wire-worms, and are injurious to corn and herbaceous
roots. One species, Elater noctilucus, (Lat. shining by night )
is one of the most brilliant of the fire-flies which inhabit South
America and the West India islands. In Cuba, ladies use these
phosphorescent insects as ornaments for the hair. (See Chart.)

13. WOOD-BORERS, Ptimda, (genus Ptinus,] is a rather nu-
merous family of insects, of small size, oval form and destruc-
tive habits. They are of obscure colors, and counterfeit death
by withdrawing their head arid antennae, and contracting their
legs. The Wood-Borers are found in old houses, which their
larvae perforate in every direction ; also among furniture,
books, &c.

The DEATH-WATCH, Anobium, (Gr. and, I end ; Uos, life,)
tessellatum, (tesselated or checkered,) is of this family. It
strikes its jaws upon the wood in which it has its abode, so as to
imitate the ticking of a watch. The generic name we suppose
to refer to the superstitious notion that when its beating is heard
it is a sign that some person in the house will die within a
year, and hence is derived the name Death Watch. (See Chart.)

14. FIRE-FLIES, or GLOW-WORMS, Lampyrida, (leading genus
Lampyris, Gr. lampuris, a glow-worm ) have a lengthened,
depressed body, and flexible elytra. In some species the
females are wingless, and in others they have only short elytra.
They prey, in the larva state, upon the bodies of snails, and not
upon plants. When alarmed, they draw in their antennae and
legs, and remain motionless, as if dead. The common Glow-
worm, seen in the Middle States of the Union, is the female of
the species Photuris, (Gr. phos, light; oura, tail.) versicolor,
(Lat. of changeable color.)

15. CORN and NCJT WEEVILS, Curculionida, (Carculio, a corn-
worm or weevil.) This family of Snouted Coleopterous insects
includes the Diamond Beetles and other splendidly colored spe-
cies, as well as the Corn or Grain Weevils. The Nut Weevil,
Bitaninus,(Gr. from balanos, acorn or nut.) nucum, (Lat. of nuts,)
see Chart, is often found in the Chinquapin nut, and sometimes
renders worthless almost the entire crop, which, in a short time,
become wormy.

16. COCKCHAFERS, Melolonthida, (leading gen us Melolontha,)
are well known and destructive insects. An instance is given of a
farmer whose crops were completely destroyed by the larvee of

STREPSIPTERA. Gil

the common Cockchafer, " of which eighty bushels were gathered
up."

The genus Phyllophaga, (Gr. phutton, a leaf; phago, to eat,)
includes several species, which are furnished with strong jaws
for cutting the leaves of plants. They are injurious both in the
larva and the perfect state ; in the former, eating the roots of
grass, &c., and in the latter, the tender leaves of fruit and other
trees. Formerly they were included in the genus Melolontha.
They are well known by the name of Horn Bugs, though their
more appropriate name is MAY BEETLES.

17. PEA BUGS, Wheat Weevils, &c., Bruchidce, (genus Bru-
chus, Gr. bronchos, a locust — locust-like.) The Pea-bug, Bru-
chus, is a small hairy insect, gray and rather egg-shaped, which
deposits its eggs in the pea-pod in its early state, and in which
they are hatched. Multitudes of the larvae are destroyed in pre-
paring green peas for the table. The Calandra granaria, or
Corn Weevil, of Europe, is a species that has been introduced
into this country from Europe, in samples of grain, to which it is
very hurtful. Linnaeus calls it Curculio granaria.

18. BLISTER BEETLES, Cantharida, (Gr. Kantharis.) Among
these are the C. vesicatoria, (Lat. from vesica, a blister,) of a
beautiful changeable or metallic green color, about three-quarters
of an inch in length, and well known for its medical uses. In
Spain, Portugal, and Italy, these insects are abundant. Potato
vines and other plants are, in mid-summer, often infested by in-
sects allied to the Spanish-flies.

N. B. The above account includes all the families of Beetles
to which the Chart refers, though but a small part of the entire
number.

SECOND ORDER. STREPSIPTERA, (Gr. vTQSTtTbg, streptos, twisted ;
TiTegbv, pteron, wing.)

This order of insects is named by Latreille, Rhipiptera, (Gr. fan-
wings.) They have the front wings replaced by a kind of twisted
halterers ; the posterior are large and folded like a fan. (Plate XV.
fig. 3.) The tarsi have from two to four articulations. The mouth
is armed with two slender acute jaws wide apart, and two pointed
palpi, or feelers. The order includes a limited number of insects,
arranged in the two genera Xenos, (Gr. a guest or stranger,) and
Stylops, (Gr. stulos, a stylos or graver ; ops, face.) The larvae
are vermiform, and have six feet. The pupaB are inactive.
They are all small, mite-like creatures, the largest not being a

G12 ORTHOPTERA.

quarter of an inch in length. The larvae are parasitic on the
bodies of the wasps and bees, where they lose their feet and be-
come larvae of a different form — an instance of retrograde met-
amorphosis. The perfect insects are very short-lived, but very
active. They were first observed by Kirby.

THIRD ORDER. DERMAPTERA, (Gr. <%ua, derma, skin ; meqbv,
pteron, wing.)

The insects of this order are by some included among the
ORTHOPTERA to which in the organs of the mouth they corres-
pond, and which they resemble also in being active and in feed-
ing during the pupa state. But they differ from them in the struc-
ture of the wings, which fold both longitudinally and transversely
to bring them under the elytra, (wing-covers.) This order in-
cludes the EAR WIGS, (Forficula.) Plate XV. fig. 4, which live
in damp places and feed on vegetable food. These insects have
the tarsi three-jointed ; their antennas are long and slender and
made up of many articulations. The Ear- wig sits over her
eggs and assiduously watches the young when they appear.

FOURTH ORDER. ORTHOPTERA, (Gr. dgddg, vrihos, straight ;
TtTsgov, pteron, wing.)

In this order the metamorphosis is imperfect, the elytra, or
wing covers are coriaceous and veined, with the inner margins
overlapping ; in some cases the wings are wanting, or so small
as to be entirely useless ; the mouth is mandibulate, (with jaws,)
and this organ and the thorax are much like those of the Bee-
tles. The body is generally long ; the head vertical, and the
antennas slender. The feet are well developed; but though
some are very active, others are remarkably slow in their move-
ments. The order includes (1) COCKROACHES, BlattidcR, (genus
Blaiia, Plate XV. fig. 5,) hiding by day and seeking food by
night, and in tropical countries extremely troublesome. Scald-
ing or fumigating them in their hiding places is one of the best
methods of exterminating them. They sometimes even penetrate
the brick walls of buildings, destroying both animal and veget-
able substances ; (2) the PRAYING INSECTS, Mantida, (Gr.
Mantis, a prophet,) which use their fore legs as arms and hands,
and when waiting for their prey, raise their feet as if in suppli-
cation, (Plate XV. fig. 7,) whence their name. They eat other
insects, are great fighters, and when confined will eat each other.
The smaller kinds of these insects are seen occasionally in New
England and New York ; (3) SPECTRES, Phasmida, (Gr. phasma,

ORTHOPTERA. G13

a spectre or apparition,) These have the wings somewhat unde-
veloped or entirely absent. They eat leaves, live upon trees,
and present some very curious forms. Some are called walking,
sticks, from their resemblance to a stick. One species, found in
the Moluccas, is ten inches long. Phy Ilium, (Plate XV. fig. 8,)
is a genus that has wings which look like a leaf, whence the
name, which means a Walking-Leaf. One or two of these re-
markable insects are met with in New York and in some of the
Eastern States ; (4) the CRICKETS, Achetidce, (acheta, a chirper,)
which, although they present a general likeness to the Grass-
hoppers, differ from them in their habits, being entirely terres-
trial, and having, more or less, the power of burrowing. They
appear to live both upon vegetable and animal food, which they
search for at night. The Crickets are good runners, but do not
fly as well as the Grasshoppers ; (5) LOCUSTS, Locustida, (Lat.
locusta, a locust.) ' The abdomen of the female has a sharp, flat-
tened ovipositor; the males make a loud stridulation, or whiz-
zing, by means of their upper wings. These insects are quite
arboreal in their habits, and from the green color of many of
them, they are hardly perceptible among the foliage. They
sometimes appear in great numbers; (6) Grasshoppers, AcridiidcB,
(Gr. akris, a locust.) The female is without an ovipositor.
The males of these insects make their peculiar noise by rubbing
their hind-thighs against the wing-covers. To this family be-
longs the KATYDID, Platyphyllum, (Gr. broad -leaf,) concavum,
(Lat. concave or hollow,) — ranked among the Grasshoppers.
This singular insect is of a grass-green color, and derives its
name from the notes which it sends forth. It reaches its perfect
state in September, depositing its row of e^gs upon the twigs of
the trees in which it dwells. (See Plate XV. 9, and explana-
tions.)

This order has been divided into four sections, founded on differ-
ences of habit arising from the peculiar construction of the
organs of locomotion, (Plate XV. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.) (1)
The Runners, (Orthoptera cursoria;) (2) the Graspers, (Orthop-
tera raptoria ;) (3) the Walkers, (Orthoptera ambulatoria;) (4)
the Jumpers, (Orthoptera saltatoria.) The RUNNERS include the
Cockroaches ; the GRASPERS, the Praying Insects ; the WALKERS,
the Walking Sticks, &c. ; the JUMPERS, the Grasshoppers and
Locusts.

614 NEUROPTERA.

FIFTH ORDER. TRICHOPTERA, (Gr. %£, ihrix, hair, msgov,
pteron, a wing.)

The genus Phryganea, (Plate XV. fig. 10,) which is the only
one of this order, is by some joined with the genera Hydropsyche
and Limnophilus, to form the family Phryganeidae, and referred
to the order Neuroptera. The insects of this order have four
membranous and reticulated wings ; the posterior pair are the
larger; the front pair are generally hairy, — hence the name of
the order. The name of Caddis -flies has been given to these
insects which come from the various species of case-worms.
The larvae are inactive, residing in water, in a case formed of
bits of shells or sticks, or of sand or saw-dust. The pupa is
inactive. The Caddis -fly is often used as a fish bait.

SIXTH ORDER, NEUROPTERA, (Gr. VBVQOV, neuron, nerve; megbv,
pteron, a wing.)

This order of mandibulate insects exhibits a considerable
variety of characters. According to Westwood, it includes
twelve families. It is estimated to include not far from a thou-
sand species. These insects have usually four reticulated
nervures, (wings with horny divisions, thin, and lace-like.) The
wings are of unequal size ; instead of the hind-wings, there are
sometimes only pedicles or stems. The antennas are usually
short and bristly. The pupae are sometimes active and sometimes
torpid ; the larvae are six-footed and very active, mostly predaceous,
and either terrestrial or aquatic.

The DRAGON-FLIES, Libellulidce, (genus Libettula,) include
nearly two hundred known species. To these we have already
referred. While on the wing, they deposit their eggs in water
and in it pass both their larva and pupa state, gliding through it,
or crawling about in the mud at the bottom. The hinder part of
the body has several leaf-like processes, which can be drawn
together or opened at pleasure. These close the opening of a
cavity having very muscular sides. When the Dragon-fly
wishes to move rapidly, it opens this cavity, which thus becomes
filled with water ; then by contracting the walls of the cavity,
it throws out the water forcibly, like a stream from a syringe ;
aided by the re-action produced by the jet against the surround-
ing fluid, the creature shoots forward, with its legs closely
packed along the sides. The pupa is no less active, fierce and
voracious than the larva, differing from it only in having upon
the thorax the rudiments of wings, which in the perfect insect

NETJROPTERA. 615

are so admirable for their firmness, transparency and gloss.
Even after it has reached the imago state, its ferocious manners
still continue. It has even been known to devour its own body,
when confined and deprived of musquitoes and the other insects
upon which it usually feeds.

The ANT-Liows, Myrmeleonida, (genus Myrmeleon, Gr. ant-
lion.) are distributed throughout the world. These are terrestrial,
spider-like in their appearance, and short and thick, having man-
dibles strongly toothed on the inside, so that the insect may suck
the juices of its victims, and so constructed that it can hold its
food firmly, though unable to chew it. To the curious devices
which the larva of this insect employs for entrapping its prey,
we have already alluded.

The Ant-lions have been found under the limestone ledges of
Schoharie, and the larvae have also been seen beneath such
ledges near Burlington, Vt. (Emmons.)

The MAY-FLIES, Ephemeridce, or Ephemeral-flies, are so
named from the Greek word ephemeras, (diurnal,) in allusion to
the extreme brevity of their existence. Their larvae live in the
water; they take refuge under stones, and in the earth and mud,
feeding upon its slime. In their perfect state these insects gen-
erally live but a few hours, taking no nourishment ; but if the
sexes be kept apart, it is said, they will live from one to three
weeks. Sometimes they issue forth in such numbers that "the
ground is covered by their bodies when they die, to such a
thickness as to make it worth while to cart them away as ma-
nure. The swarms of one species with white wings have been
so abundant as to resemble a fall of snow."

The TERMITES, Termitida, which include the genus Termes,
(Gr. terma, an end,) are distinguished by wings having few
transverse nervures or horny divisions, and folding horizontally ;
the tarsi are four-jointed; the antennae short and moniliform ;
the body is white and oblong in shape.

The head of the White Ants, as they are called, though differ-
ing from the true ants, is large and rounded ; and besides the
ordinary compound eyes, they have three ocelli or simple eyes,
situated on the upper surface ; the antennas are long, and com-
posed of about eighteen joints.

The Termites are chiefly confined to the tropics, though some
few species extend into the temperate regions. Swainson, Kirby
and Spence, and other writers who have observed the operations
of these ants, either in Africa or South America, present many
interesting particulars respecting their wonderful economy and
habits. These insects unite in societies, composed each of an

GIG NEUROPTERA.

immense number of individuals. In the warmer regions, the
ravages of some species are often fearfully great. A species
discovered by Latreille at Bordeaux, (Fr.,) frequently attack the
wood work of houses, in which they form innumerable galleries,
all leading to a central point. In building, they avoid piercing
the surface of the wood-work ; and hence it appears sound, when
the slightest touch is sometimes sufficient to cause it to fall to
pieces.

One of the largest and best known species is the Termes 'belli-
cosus, or Warlike Ant, (see Chart,) found on the coast of Africa.
These Ants build conical nests or edifices, sometimes of enor-
mous size, nearly as hard as stone, and very commonly twelve
feet in height, (see Chart.) They are often quite numerous, ap-
pearing almost like huts of savages.; and Mr. Cummings says,
" are of the greatest service to the hunter, enabling him to con-
ceal himself with facility on the otherwise open plain."

The male and female, or King and Queen, have their royal
chamber near the center of the hillock, and never leave it.
They are both perfect insects, but the wings which they once
had are lost soon after their admission to their place of abode.
To the almost numberless eggs dropped by the Queen-mother,
we have already referred. In times of scarcity, the Hottentots
feast upon these eggs, which they call rice, on account of their
resemblance to that grain. They usually wash them, and cook
them with a small quantity of water, declaring that they are
savory and nourishing. When they find out a place where the
nests are numerous, it is said they soon become fat from eating
the eggs, even when previously much reduced by hunger.
"Sometimes they will get half a bushel out of a single nest."

The larvae, in their full grown state, are perhaps a quarter of
an inch in length. They are far the most numerous and the
workers of the colony, building, foraging and nursing. The
soldiers or fighters are comparatively few, not more than one to
a hundred of laborers ; but they are many times larger, and
armed with sharper and more formidable jaws. They appear
as defenders when the nest is assailed, and will even attack the
assailants, biting with considerable force. The species T.fron-
tails, of South America, works galleries in logs and stumps of
trees, and in the ground also, plastering them with a hard
mixture of clay.

HYMENOPTERA. C 1 7

SEVENTH ORDER. HYMENOPTERA, (Gr. fv^v, humen, a mem-
brane ; TiTsgovj pteron, a wing.)

In the insects of this order, inferior in numbers only to the
Beetles, the nervures, or veins of the wings, form the basis of
numerous sub-divisions. The wings differ from those of the
Neuroptera in being of a less delicate construction, and having
fewer nervures. The mandibles are distinct, but better fitted for
imbibing nourishment by suction than by mastication ; the body
is of a hard consistence ; the antennae are variable, but for the
most part slender, showing twelve articulations in the male, and
thirteen in the female ; the tarsi are generally pentamerous or
five-jointed. These insects are also peculiarly distinguished by
the prolongation of the body in the case of the females, into an
organ which in some is a sting, in others an ovipositor, or instru-
ment for depositing the eggs — usually having the power of bor-
ing a hollow for their reception. The Hymenoptera are
among the most remarkable of the class, for their instinctive fac-
ulties, their social qualities and habits, and their powers of loco-
motion. The Bees, the Wasps, the Ants, the Saw-flies, the Ich-
neumons and the Gall-flies have, from the remotest periods, been
objects of attention to the observers of nature.

The order is sometimes arranged into two sections, viz. : the
TEREBRANTIA, in which the female has a saw or borer for the
deposition of eggs ; and the ACULEATA, in which the abdomen
of the females and neuters is possessed of a sting, which is con-
nected with a poison reservoir. The former section includes
seven families ; the latter seventeen.

TEREBRANTIA — BORERS.

The SAW-FLIES, Tenthredinidce, (Gr. Tenthreddn, from tentho,
to gnaw,) are the only ones of the order which have feet. The
larvae feed upon leaves or vegetable matter. The ovipositor of
the female appears to combine the properties of a saw and file.
The Saw-fly, Tenthredo, is also named Cimbex ulmi, (Lat. of an
elm,) because it inhabits the Elm.

The WOOD- WASPS, or Horn-Tails, Urocerida, (from Gr. owra,
a tail ; keras, a horn,) are a family of insects which often do great
mischief to fruit trees and also to forest trees, especially resin-
ous ones. The females have an ovipositor in the form of a slen-
der horn, consisting of five pieces — two outside grooved and
forming a hollow tube ; the other and inner pieces are nee-
dles, with which the trunks of trees are pierced to make a

CIS HYMENOPTERA.

place of deposit for the eggs. The grub-like larvae burrow in
the green solid matter of trees and eat the wood.

The ICHNEUMON-FLIES, Ichneumonida, (Gr. ichneumon,) have
narrow bodies and rather long antennae; the feet are long and
adapted for running, and the ovipositor is straight. These insects
fly and move about in a restless manner, keeping their antennae
in a constant vibratory motion. They perform a useful part in
preventing an undue multiplication of Moths and Butterflies,
upon the larvae of which these flies deposit theireggs, but through
so small an opening as not to check the growth of the larvae.
When the larva passes into the pupa state, the eggs of the ich-
neumon hatch, and the progeny feed upon it, so that, in the end,
instead of a butterfly, there comes forth a brood of ichneumons.
This is a very numerous family, including thousands of species.

The GALL-FLIES, Cynipida, (genus Cynips.} are a small family
of insects, the larvae of which are parasitic in plants, where they
cause the excrescences called galls.

The family Evan'tida, (genus Evania,) includes the AMERI-
CAN HATCHET WASP, Pelednus (Lat. a hatchet) politrumtor,
(Lat. a furbisher or polisher,) (see Chart,) which is seen by the
road sides in the fall of the year, flying slowly, as if borne down
by its long and slender abdomen.

The SNAKE WASPS, Ophidian, (from Gr. ophis, a serpent.) (see
Chart,) of which there are several species, have the abdomen
three times as long as the thorax, and the antennae nearly the
length of the insect, which is about one inch. This wasp is seen
late in the summer or the beginning of autumn, hovering over
brambles, &c., looking after caterpillars as a place of deposit for
its eggs. The genus Evania is parasitic in ship Cockroaches.

ACTJLEATA-STINGERS.

The Spider Wasps, Sphecida, (genus Sphex, Gr. a wasp,)
have an elongated body ; the abdomen is attached by a long,
slender peduncle, (see fig. on Chart,) and armed with a sting.
These wasps are extremely active and difficult to capture.
In the perfect state, they suck the fluids of flowers, but the
larvae are furnished with animal food by the adult.

The WASPS, Vespidce, (genus Vespa, Lat. a wasp,) like the bees,
include males, females and workers. Like the bees also, they
are social and dwell in small communities, though there are
some solitary species, among which no neuters are found. The
Wasps and Hornets are natural paper makers, societies of them

HYMENOPTERA. 6 1 9

living, during summer, in nests divided into hexagonal cells,
opening downwards, formed of paper-like material, which is
impervious to water. During a season, two or three broods are
raised successively in the same set of cells. The nests may be
seen on trees, sometimes from twelve to sixteen inches in diame-
ter. The small " Yellow Jackets," as they are termed, build
under ground.

The Paper-Wasp, Polistes (Gr. the founder or chief of a
state,) fuscata, (Lat. swarthy,) either fastens its comb to the
branch of a tree, or to the shelving parts of a house.

The PASTE-BOARD WASPS, Chartergus, (Gr. paper- work,) make
their nests of a solid and rather thick paste-board. Their struc-
tures have been seen in Pennsylvania, but are more common in
South America.

The Common Hornet, (Plate XV. fig. 12,) V. crabro, (Lat. a
hornet,) is considerably larger and more formidable than the
Wasp, building its nests in decaying hollow trees, or beneath
their roots, and in timber yards, or under the eaves of barns, etc.
Its sting, as is well known, often produces serious consequences.

The LARGE AMERICAN HORNET, V. maculata, (Lat. spotted,)
often enters houses to catch flies.

The ANTS, Formicida, (formica, an ant,) a well known and
interesting family, to be distinguished, however, from the White
Ants already described, as belonging to another order. In addi-
tion to the males and females, which form a small part in any
community of ants, and which are alone furnished with wings,
there are neuters, or workers, by which the labors are chiefly
performed, not only constructing the nests, but feeding and tak-
ing care of the young grubs. These alone survive the winter,
in our climate remaining torpid during that season ; but it is
otherwise with them in the torrid zones. There they are active,
night and day, during the entire year ; to these the words of
inspiration, (Proverbs vi.,) have particular reference, — so inde-
fatigable is their industry — that to them the indolent and inactive
may well be pointed for lessons of instruction. " Go to the ant,
thou sluggard, consider her ways and be wise."

The RED ANTS, Formica rubra, construct their nests upon the
branches of trees. These are said to be the only ones which
feed upon their own species. Extremely lively representations
have been given of the wars sometimes carried on between two
or three Ant-cities, equal in size and population, and situated at
about one hundred paces from each other.

Of this ant a minute species, M. domestica, is found in com-
panies, either under stones, or else in old galls upon oak shrubs,

G20 HYMENOPTERA.

which they enter by the opening that is made when the Cynips
leaves. A few of these, which have large heads, appear to be
the workers. These ants often swarm in houses.

The SLAVE-MAKING or Rufescent Ants, F. rufescens, make
war upon other ants, for the sole purpose of procuring slaves to
labor for them. Most of the slave dealers are reddish, while
those who are captured to become their servants are black. Be-
sides adults, however, larvae and pupaa are seized, and brought
up by their captors, commencing their labors when they reach
their perfect state ; yet their masters do some part of the work.
According to Westwood, the large Yellow Ant of the United
States, makes slaves of the Black Ants.

Certain Ants, called COW-KEEPERS, are very fond of the
liquid matter which is given out by the Aphides, or Plant-lice,
and actually attend upon these " Honey-flies," as Swainson calls
them, for the purpose of obtaining it. They even have the
power of making them yield it at their pleasure, by patting the
abdomen of the Aphis alternately on each side ; and thus they
" milk their cows." They are called " Cow-keepers," for the
reason that they sometimes seem to claim a right to the Aphides
inhabiting a particular branch or stalk, and resist the approach
of strangers. To rescue the " Cows " from their rivals, they
will take the Aphides into their mouths, keep guard around them,
sometimes enclose a certain number in a tube of earth, or other
materials near their nests, so that they may be always at hand
to supply them with the desired food. The most remarkable
Cow-keeper is the Yellow Ant, F. flava, of Gould, which secures
within the common nest, a large number of Honey-flies of the
species Aphis radicum, (Lat. of roots,) which derives its food
chiefly from the roots of grass and other plants. The Yellow
Ants, it is said, bestow upon these little creatures care and solic-
itude equal to that which they give to their own offspring. In
-India, the honey-like secretion which the Aphides cast upon the
ground, is so abundant in quantity that the natives collect it when
dry, and sell it in the country bazaars as a sweetmeat. The
honey, it is said, may be kept for seven or eight years, without
losing its sweetness. In Brazil, the insects not only furnish ants
with milk, but, ruminant-like, have horns growing out of their
heads ; and hence are called the "cattle ".of the ants.

The DRIVER ANTS, of South Africa, according to the observa-
tions of Dr. T. S. Savage, an American missionary to that re-
gion, include in their communities, Neuters, Soldiers, Workers,
and Carriers. These do not construct nests, 'but live tempora-
rily in crevices, sometimes " ranging about in vast armies," and

% EYMENOPTERA. G21

when they enter houses, causing rats, lizards, &c., and even
man himself to flee. They travel at night or in cloudy weather,
as the direct rays of the sun are almost immediately fatal to
them. "I know of no insect," says Dr. Savage, "more fero-
cious and determined upon victory. It may literally be said
they are against everything, and everything against them.
« Conquer or die,' is their motto." They are useful in keeping
down the more rapid increase of other noxious insects, and also in
consuming much dead animal matter.

The SOLITARY BEES, Andrenidtz, consist only of males and
females. The species of the genus Andrena, are quite numer-
ous. They make their appearance in the early spring and sum-
mer months, and have very much the appearance of Hive-bees.
The females collect pollen from the stamens of flowers, rather
by means of the general hairiness of the body than with the pos-
terior tarsi. They burrow in the ground in sandy districts,
especially, if exposed to the sun, often to a considerable depth.

Of the Bees proper, Apida, (Lat. apis, a bee,) there are sev-
eral groups, differing from each other, to some extent, in their
qualities and habits. The HUMBLE (Bumble) BEES, Bombus,
(from Gr. bombos, a humming or buzzing,) construct their nests
under ground, in fields and pastures. The females, which are
unlimited as to number, assist the neuters in working. The
larger females alone survive the winter, and in the first fine
days of spring, construct their cells, and rear a brood of workers,
which, in due time, assist in the construction of new cells. The
honey which these bees collect, is of an inferior kind, and their
wax is not so clean, or so capable of fusion as that of the True
Honey-Bees.

The MASON BEES, Megacliile, (Gr. great lips or jaws,) mwr ana,
(Lat. from murus, a wall,) build their cells by agglutinating
grains of sand and gravel.

The UPHOLSTER BEES, M. papavefis, (Lat of a poppy.) line
the holes which they excavate for their young in the earth, with an
elegant coating of leaves or flowers, preferring, for this purpose,
the brilliant scarlet furnished by the leaves of the wild poppy.
The species M. centuncularis, (from Lat. centunculus, patch-
work,) coat their dwelling with the leaves of trees.

The CARPENTER BEES, Xyclopa, (Gr. Xulon, wood ; kopto, to
cut,) bore with great labor out of solid wood, long cylindrical
tubes, and divide them into various cells, in which the young are
placed with a quantity of pollen-paste.

The VIOLET CARPENTER BEE, X. violacea, is common about
Paris, arid in the garden^ of Southern Europe. Among these

622 HYMENOPTERA.

bees, the females perform all the labor; the males have no stings.
The species X. victima, is found in the United States, and bores
in the lower surface of white-pine structures.

But the most important, and, indeed, the most interesting of the
family, is the Common Hive Bee, Apis mellijica^ (Lat. mel,
honey ; facio, to make.) The Hive includes three kinds; the
Female; the Male or Drone; and the Worker, (see Chart for
figures showing the relative size, &c., of each.) The bees col-
lect honey, pollen, and propolis, feeding their young with the
former two, and using the latter for filling up crevices in their
cells, and for the needed repairs. The wax is secreted by the
workers, and appears between the segments of the lower side of
the abdomen, in the form of small scales.

Every hive is under the government of the Queen Bee. She
is lady paramount, and suffers no other queen to share her do-
minion. At the swarming season, the old queen becomes so
sadly disturbed by the encroachments of the young queens, that
she rushes forth from the hive, attended by a large body of her
subjects; thus, the first swarm is formed. In seven or eight
days afterwards, the queen next in age departs, also taking with
her a supply of ^subjects. When all the swarms have left the
original hive, the remaining queens fight until one gains the
throne. The Queen Bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs.
About eight hundred of these prove males or drones, and four or
five queens; the remainder are workers. The cells are six-
sided. Those in which the drones are hatched, are much larger
than the cells of the ordinary working bees. The royal cells
are much larger than any others, and are of an oval shape.
When a worker larva is placed in a royal cell, and fed in a
royal manner, it imbibes the " principles of royalty, "and becomes
a queen accordingly. This practice is resorted to if the Queen
Bee die, and there be no other queen to take her place.

The form of the cells is such as to afford the greatest space
and strength, with the least amount of material. How the bees
are enabled to give them this form, unless by a divinely im-
planted instinct, it is difficult to tell. Three figures will admit
the junction of their sides without vacant spaces between them,
viz : the square, the equilateral triangle, and the hexagon, the
last being the strongest and most convenient. And this is the
very form in which the bees build their cells. The bottom of
each cell, on one side, meets three on the other, and is supported
by the divisions between them; and it is formed by three plates
that mret at an angle, which profound mathematical investigation
demonstrated to be the very angle which combines the greatest

LEPIDOPTERA. 623

strength with the least material. Kirby and Spence say, —
** Maraldi calculated that the great angles were 109o 28', and
the smaller ones 70o 32'; and Konig calculated that they ought
to be 109o 26', and 70o 34', to obtain the greatest strength with
any given amount of material." But subsequent examination
showed that the bees were right and Konig wrong.

EIGHTH ORDER. LEPIDOPTERA. (Gr. hems, lepis, a scale;
', pteron, a wing.)

These insects, comprehending, perhaps, one-fourth or one-sixth
of the entire tribe, have a suctorial mouth and rudimentary man-
dibles. Their metamorphosis is complete. The beautiful Butter-
flies are the representatives of this order, and also of all those
winged visitants that flit about our lamps during the evenings of
summer; the one are diurnal; the other nocturnal. They all
have four membranous wings, usually covered with minute scales ;
the mouth is suctorial, consisting of a tubular thread-like organ,
which, when not in use, is rolled into a compact spiral coil ;
their bodies are soft and covered with hair; the feet are penta-
merous, (have the tarsi five-jointed ;) generally, they are hairy
and of equal length; though sometimes the front pair are so
small as to be of no use in walking. The Lepidoptera feed upon
the juice of flowers, but, in the perfect state, they sometimes
need none. They may be arranged into three great divisions :
(1) the Butterflies Proper, Papilionida, (Papilio,) which have
thread-like antennae and bear a knob, (Plate XV. fig. 13;) (2)
the Sphingidce, (Sphinx,) or the Hawk- Moths, which have the
antennae, thick in the middle, and at the tip often hooked; (3)
the Moths (in general) having the antennae somewhat naked, of
bristle form or else feathered on the sides.

I. The Butterflies Proper include at least three hundred spe-
cies, sometimes most gorgeously colored, of which large diurnal
ones are found in the United States. The Butterfly, P. turnus, is
one of the most common species ; in its markings and forms, re-
sembling the P. machaon, or Swallow-tailed Butterfly of Europe.
(See Chart.)

CABBAGE BUTTERFLIES, Pontia, (Gr. a sea-green surface,)
Brassica, (Lat. cabbage.) These are common and destructive
in our gardens, (Plate XV. fig. 13.) The eggs are yellowish
and laid on the under side of cabbages, turnips and radishes; the
pale green worms come out in about a week, and attain their
full size of an inch and a half, in three weeks.

The HAIR STREAKS, genus Thecla, derive their name from the
26

621 LEPIDOPTERA.

delicate, straight, or zig-zag lines on the under side of the rings.
Some species frequent hedges, others the oak and ash trees.

The NymphalidtjB, (Nympha, a nymph,) include many beauti-
ful Butterflies, called Red and White ADMIRALS, PAINTED LADIES,
FRITTELARIES, the front legs of which appear incomplete, but in
their ability for strong flight, they are more than compensated for
the deficiency of their feet. The genus Vanessa includes many
species, of which V. lo, PEACOCK BUTTERFLY, is pictured on the
Chart.

The TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY, V. urlica, (Lat. of a nettle,)
nearly resembles the Peacock Butterfly. The Caterpillers live in
societies, changing their skins frequently, and constructing a new
tent on another part of the plant at each moult, until the last, when
each individual feeds by itself, and the society is dissolved.

The SKIPPERS, Hesperiidce, (leading genus Hesperia,) have
the four hind shanks furnished with two pairs of spurs. They
have a jerking kind of flight, from which their popular name is
derived ; and in many respects, they approach the moths.

The TITYRUS SKIPPER, Eudamus tityrus, often strips the locust
tree of its foliage. It forms its habitation of the leaves of that
tree bound together by silken threads, and also feeds upon its
leaves.

II. The Hawk- Moths, Sphingida, (leading genus Sphinx,) are
also named Humming-Birds, being capable of flying for a long
time, and of poising themselves in the air, like the Humming-
Bird. (See Chart for figures of Sphinx ligustri, or Privet-Hawk-
Moth, in the larva, pupa, and imago or perfect state.) Many
beautiful species of Hawk-Moths are seen on fine summer
evenings. The Philampelus, (Gr. vine-lover,) Satellitia^ is of
this family, (for figure of which see Chart.)

III. MOTHS.

The TIGER-MOTHS, Arctiida, (Arctia,) have the feelers and
tongue usually short and thick, and the antennae doubly feath-
ered; both the Caterpillars and Moths are downy. They fly
only at night. The family includes different genera, but we
can only name the American Tiger-Moth, A. virgo, of a pink
red color, with two central, triangular spots, and other markings ;
and the GREAT-TIGER MOTH, A caja, (see Chart.) an English
insect, but one that is represented in the A. Americana, which it
closely resembles. The latter has the base of the fore wings
marked with white branching spots, which partly resemble a
cross ; the wing beyond the middle is also marked with a white
irregular cross, something like an X.

HEMIPTERA. 625

The SILK- WORMS, BombycidcB> (leading genus Bortibyx,} rep-
resent some of the largest and most beautiful species of nocturnal
Butterflies ; among which is the Atl.acus luna, or GREEN EMPEROR
MOTH, which is about five inches in the expanse of wings, (see
Chart;) the Caterpillar is also of a bluish green color; when in
motion, three inches in length, and in feeding, preferring the
leaves of the hickory. For figures of the Bowlyx ?nori, or Silk-
Worm in its different stages, see Chart. The larvae have sixteen
feet, — feed upon leaves ; and spin the silken cocoon out of a
single thread, with the assistance of a gummy matter, which soon
hardens. Other species than the Bombyx mori, (Lat. of the mul-
berry,) are reared for the silk, and more of it might be obtained,
if warm water dissolved the gum of the cocoon, as it does in the
true Silk- Worm. The Tineidce, (Tinea,) are the smallest Moths
in the section. These infest woolens, furs, etc. The best way
to protect such articles against these Moths, is to put them to-
gether with tobacco-leaves, camphor, or turpentine, in a tight bag
early in the spring, before the eggs of this insect are laid.

The HONEY-COMB MOTH, T. cerel/a, (Lat. from cera. wax,) is
notorious for its depredations upon the wax of the Bee-Hive.

The LEAF-ROLLERS, Tortricidce, ( Tortrix, i. e., twister or roller,)
comprehend many, species of insects, the larvae of which do great
damage to the fruit of apple and the foliage of forest trees. The
larvae of the Carpocapsa, (Gr. fruit-eater,) pomonella, (Lat. from
pomum, fruit, apples, &c.,) known as the Apple-Worm, came to
this country with the apple, and this worm has become natural-
ized among us.

NINTH ORDER. HEMIPTERA, (Gr. "yfuavg, hemisus, half;
pteron, wing.)

•This order is distinguished by having the rostrum or jaw
compounded, i. e., formed for piercing and sucking. The insects
which it includes, live upon vegetables and animal juices, those
feeding upon vegetables being the most numerous. The name
Hemiptera, first used by Linnaeus, refers to a characteristic of
some of the order in having a thickening on the basal part of the
anterior wings, while the other part is thin and transparent.
Others apply to it the term Rhynchota, (Gr. rhunchos, beak or
gape,) having reference to the character of the mouth. The
metamorphosis in this order is only semi-complete, both the
larva and pupa being active, and, at all times, taking food.

The order includes two sections, viz: Homoptera, (Gr. like-
wings,) and Heteroptera, (Gr. different wings,) — in the first of

626 HEMIPTEBA.

which the wings are of a uniform ; in the second, of a varied
texture. (To the section Homoptera, Latreille gives the name
Hemiptera, while Leach calls it Omoptera.) — Westwood divides
the Homoptera, which he considers a distinct order, into three
sections, viz : Trimera, (.Gr. three parts,) Dimera, (two parts,)
Monomera, (one part or division,) — these terms having reference
to the divisions of the tarsi; and the Heteroptera into two sec-
tions, Hydrocorisa, (residents of water,) and Aurocorisa, (resi-
dents of air.)

Of the Homopterous division, having the four wings all of a
firm membraneous texture, are the BARK-LICE, or SCALE-INSECTS,
Coccida, (typ. gen. Coccus.) (Plate XV. fig. 14.) Of these
there are several species, — found on the leaves and bark of dif-
ferent plants. The Coccus cacti (of the cactus,) is, on account
of its beautiful crimson color, used as a coloring-matter. It is a
native of Mexico, and feeds upon a particular kind of Cactus,
called Indian-fig, and extensively cultivated for the express pur-
pose of rearing it. The annual amount of Cochineal exported
to Europe is, according to Humboldt, eight hundred thousand
pounds; and it requires about seventy thousand insects to make
a pound. Lac or Shell-lac, employed for making sealing-wax,
is the product of a species of Coccus. The Mealy-Bug, Coccus
adonidum, (of Adonises or flowers,) found in hot-houses, is red-
dish, but covered with a white, powder-like substance. The
Coccida belong to Westwood's Monomera.

The PLANT-LICE, or Vine-fretters, Aphida, (leading genus
Aphis,) infest the roots of vegetables, (often doing them great
injury,) and also the leaves of most plants, such as roses, asters,
apples, pears, peaches, cabbages, &c., — each plant having its
own peculiar species. Their bodies are soft, of an oval form
and have upon the abdomen two tufts or pores. The females
are usually wingless, but not always. The upper wings corres-
ponding to the wing-covers in the Hemiptera Proper, are the
larger and used for flight or as aids in leaping. To the prolific
powers of the Plant-lice reference has already been made. A
young leaf that curls, or that has an unhealthy appearance, is
probably infested with these lice. Fumes of tobacco, turpentine
or sulphur, are a remedy against them, and also against the
Mealy -Bugs. The Aphida belong to the Dimera.

The WOOL-FLY, or the Apple-tree-blight, Eriosoma, (Gr. erion,
wool ; soma, body.) is an insect of a woolly appearance ; without
wings, but wafted from tree to tree by its cotton envelope. Its
microscopic eggs, — covered with the same soft, downy.substance
as the body, are found in the crotches and chinks of trees, where

HEMIPTERA. 627

they hatch, and produce the Apple-tree-blight. The wounds of
this insect produce warts and excrescences on the surface of the
trees, and finally result in its death.

The JUMPING PLANT-LICE, Psyllidce, (Psylla, Gr. Ps-dlla, a
gnat,) are similar to the Plant-lice, but more active. These are
dimerous; they have ten articulated antennae, and the females
have an ovipositor.

The LANTERN-FLIES, Fulgorida, (Fulgora* Lat. from fulgeo,
to shine,) include a' number of trimerouu species of bright colors
and large size. Many of them have a curious prolongation of
the forehead, sometimes nearly as large as the rest of the body.
Whether they are luminous or not. is a point not positively set-
tled. They probably give out light at particular seasons. The
species F. candelaria, (Lat. from candela, a candle,) is yellow, and
the elytra black, marked with yellow spots. It is said a Chinese
edict exists against young ladies keeping Lantern-flies.

The HARVEST-FLIES, Cicadida, (Cicada,) are distinguished by
their robust body, their large and triangular head, with three
stemmata, their prominent eyes; the antennae short and thin,
with six articulations, and, usually, by large transparent wings.
The Harvest-flies are trimerous. They have long been partic-
ularly noticed on account of the noise made by the male, differ-
ing in different species. The species which has attracted most
attention, is C. septendecim, (Lat. seventeen,) the SEVENTEEN
TEARS LOCUST, which often does very great damage to trees.
The female, with her ovipositor, inserts her eggs in their tender
branches, which causes them to die, so that the tops of the forests,
sometimes, on this account, look as if they had been scorched by
fire. Miss M. A. Morris has ascertained that trees also suffer
much from the larva of these locusts, which penetrate six inches
under ground, and reach the roots. She says further, that the
larvse are destroyed by those miners, the Moles. ,

The DOG-DAY HARVEST-FLY, C. canicularis, (Lat. from canicula,
the dog-star,) — according to the observation of Mr. Harris, has,
for many years in succession, been regularly heard at Cam-
bridge, on the twenty-fifth day of July, between the hours of ten
in the forenoon and two in the afternoon. Its body is thicker
and proportionably shorter than that of the Seventeen Years
Locust, but its habits are quite similar.

The HETEROPTERA, which have the upper wings partly thick,
and partly thin, include several families. Among these are the

Notonectida, (Gr. back-swimmers,) the TRUE WATER-BUGS,
(Hydrocorisa,) — named from their habit of swimming with the
back befcw. These, from the peculiar appearance of the body,

629 HEMIPTERA.

are sometimes called Boat flies. The hind feet are long and
fringed, held out when at rest, like a pair of oars, and used like
them in swimming. The larvae and pupse differ from the perfect
insect only in their smaller size and the absence of wings.

Hydromttridce, WATER-MEASURERS, or SKIPPERS, (Aurocorisa.)
These live on the surface of standing or running waters, and
sometimes move with great rapidity.

The boat-shaped insects of the genus Hydromelra, (Gr. hudor,
water; melron, measure,) are furnished with fore feet suited to
locomotion. These move over the water rather slowly. Their
larvae have the abdomen extremely small, which is also true of
the Oceanic Halobates, (Gr. hals, the sea; baino, to go,) which
seems to confirm the general idea of Agassiz, (see our account
of the Turtles,) that fresh- water forms are of higher grade than
the marine.

Reduviida, (Genus Reduvius.) These are another family
of SKIPPERS, which are active and predaceous, their strong beak
or rostrum enabling them to pierce insects that have a covering
tolerably hard. The puncture which they make is said to be
rather poisonous.

Cimicida, or Land Bugs, (Aurocorisa,) include the Bed-bug,
Cimex lectularid, (see Chart,) so odious, and so widely spread.
It is said this bug was "unknown in England until after the
Great Fire of London, in 1666, when it was introduced in the
fir-timber imported for rebuilding the city." Westwood, how-
ever, asserts, it was known there as early as 1503.

Coreida, (genus Corns.) These are small, elongated bugs,
found in small fruits, some of them of a red and yellow color
bordering the elytra and upper surface. One species is the
SQUASH-BUG common on the leaves of the squash and pumpkin,
which lays its eggs about the last of June. It should be crushed
with the foot before that time.

ScutelleridcR) (genus Scutellaria.) 1. These insects derive
their family name from having the scutellum, (dimi of scutum, a
shield,) so large as to cover the abdomen and wings. These are
the bugs of unpleasant smell, found on strawberry-vines and
other berries. Some of them are above the medium size of in-
sects, and not a few are clothed in bright colors. Those of the
genus Pentatoma, (Gr. five sections,) are among the most com-
mon. Like others of the family, they secrete an ill-scented
fluid. The antennse are divided into five joints, — whence the
name.

DIPTERA.

TENTH ORDER. DIPTERA, (Gr. dig, dis, twice or two ;
pteron, wing.)

These insects are distinguished by the possession of only two
wings and a pair of small knobbed appendages, (as in the com-
mon fly and the musquito,) called halterers or poisers. The
wings are membranous, and without any covering, except a few
hair-like scales, which, in some species, appear at the base.
They are never folded upon themselves, remaining expanded
when at rest, as in the insects of the preceding order. Their
nervation is quite different from that exhibited in the other orders.
The mouth is suctorial, and in many, has a fleshy proboscis, that
encloses lancets capable of penetrating flesh, or the softer parts
of vegetables. In a flfw genera, as the Oestrus or Gad-fly, the
mouth is closed. These insects are all small ; but what is
wanting in size is made up in numbers. They are every
where, and also are attendants upon man, — sometimes to his
great annoyance ; but it should be remembered, they are highly
useful in cleansing the earth's surface of impurities, both animal
and vegetable. In this order the transformations are imperfect.
The pupae sometimes take the incomplete form, — having the
limbs visible, and without a cocoon. The larvae are white and
fleshy, cylindrical in shape, and without feet. They are seen
in carrion and in galls; or in living caterpillars; and sometimes
among vegetables pickled with vinegar, and in the brine of salt
works. We can only refer to some of the more conspicuous
families.

1. Culicida, represented by the genus Culex, (Lat. a gnat.) This
family includes the numerous Gnats and Musquitoes, C. pipiens,
(Lat. peeping.) distinguished by the tufted antennae of the males.
The pupae of these are active ; the larvae are inhabitants of water ;
hence, these insects are abundant, chiefly in damp situations.
Mankind are attacked by the female gnats alone ; the lancets of
the mouth being in the males fewer and weaker. These insects
lay two or three hundred eggs in stagnant water, joined together
so as to form a little raft floating upon the water, where they
hatch in about three days, producing small greenish worms, that
in fifteen days become the wrigglers of open rain-water casks and
stagnant pools, breathing through the tail, and darting first one
way, and then another. From this pupa state, they emerge as
full-grown Musquitoes, Gnats, Midges, &c., breathing through
openings in the sides, and ready to pierce the flesh, suck the
blood, and instil their inflammatory poison into the wounds made
by their pointed proboscis ; — four or five generations may be

G30 DIPTERA.

produced in a summer. A few small fish kept in a cistern or
open water cask, destroy the larvae of the gnats as fast as they
hatch, and prove a sure defence against these annoying insects,
so far as this source is concerned.

In warm climates, these insects are a serious trouble ; it there
becomes indispensable to protect beds against them at night by a
netting of gauze, called a Musquito-bar.

2. Tipulida, (Lat. tipula, a water-spinner,) known asthe DADDY-
LONG-LEGS. These, in their slender body and feet, considerably
resemble the gnats. Their antennae have, usually, from fourteen
to sixteen articulations. Among them are found the insects
which do the most serious injury to the crops of the farmer.
These are represented in the genus Cecidomyia, including the
HESSIAN-FLY, C. destructor, (Lat. destroyer;) the WHEAT-FLY,
the pest of wheat-fields, C. tritici, (Lat of wheat;) the WILLOW-
FLY, C. salicis, (Lat. of a willow,) — found in a reddish gall upon
low willow-bushes.

The WHEAT MIDGE PARASITE, Pfatygaster, (Gr. broad-
belly,) tipulce, (Lat. of the tipula,) — a minute fly, somewhat re-
sembling the Winged Ant, — performs the part of a public bene-
factor, by depositing its eggs in the larvae of the Wheat-midge, —
(a single egg in each,) and thus preventing the development of
great multitudes of them in the perfect form, though, like some
other benefactors, it has been charged with committing the very
injuries which it has instrumentally limited. There have been
collected in Europe twenty thousand species of insects preying
on wheat.

3. Muscida, (Lat. musca, a fly.) This is a well known and
numerous family, as may be inferred from the fact that not much
short of eighteen hundred species are described as existing in
Europe alone, which is probably not half the entire number.
Meigen, a German, described six hundred species which he col-
lected in a distance of ten miles circumference. The type of
the family, is the common House-fly, Musca domestica,) but
great diversity is exhibited in the habits of different species.
Among the various kinds, are the FLESH-FLIES, Sarcophagy
(Gr. flesh-feeding;) the CHEESE-FLIES, Prophila, (Gr. very fond.)
casei, (Lat. of cheese,) — the larvae of which skippers infest
cheese ; and the species, P. petasionis, (Lat. of gammon.) are
found in smoked hams.

PLAGUE-FLY. During the prevalence of the Yellow Fever in
Norfolk, Va., not very long since, the PLAGUE-FLY, as it is called,
made its appearance there in large numbers. This is a flat in-
sect, with black back and red belly, and has very large wings.

APHANIPTERA. 03 1

Its presence, during the time of pestilence, is regarded as a good
omen, it being supposed to devour the malaria.

BOT-FLIES.

4. OestridcB, (Lat. oestrus, a gad-bee,) The flies of this
family, the larvae of which are known by the name of bots,
infest different quadrupeds, and a species fouud in Peru, as-
sails man himself. The horse licks them off his coat ; they
are then hatched by the warmth and moisture of the mouth, and
conveyed to the stomach ; sometimes they are laid in the skin of
the ox, Antelope, etc., and on the head of sheep. They are
called gastric, cutaneous, and cervical, according to the place in
which they breed. From the Oestrus bovis, (Lat. of an ox,) oxen
run to the water for protection. The Oestrus tarandi deposits its
eggs under the skin of the Rein Deer. The presence of these
insects occasions much annoyance and terror to these and other
animals, upon whom the larvae are deposited.

GAD-FLIES.

5. Tabanida, (Lat. tabanus, an ox-fly, or gad-fly.) This family
includes the largests insects of the order, having prominent eyes,
and a mouth which, in the female, has six, and the male, four
piercers. Many of the perfect insects are greedy of flesh and
insects, — and some are so even in the larva state. They often
become a great pest to cattle. In Africa, it is said, even the
lion is afraid of them. The males of these insects draw their
nourishment from flowers ; the females alone are blood-suckers.

ELEVENTH ORDER. APHANIPTERA. (Gr. ayavrig, aphanes, not
manifest; rtTsgbv, pteron, wing.)

This order includes the tribe of Fleas, Pulicida, (Lat. pulex,
a flea,) having no proper wings, but simply two scales on each
side. All of them are very minute in size, and similar in their
habits. In their perfect state, they are parasitic. The larvae of
Fleas, (Pulex irritans, (Lat. provoking,) issue from the egg in
the form of very small worms, that attain their full size in about
twelve days, and feed upon animal matter. In the silken cocoon
which they weave for themselves, they pass in quiet the pupa
state. The CHIGOE, JIGGER, &c., P. penetrans, (Lat. piercing,)
is numerous in the West Indies and South America. It often
buries itself deeply in the skin, both of men and animals, depos-
iting an immense number of eggs, which, when hatched, are
extremely irritating, and sometimes produce ulcers and death.

632 AFTER A.

Against these insects, wormwood is a remedy. For this order
Latreille proposed the name SIPHONOSTOMA, (Gr. siphon, or
sucker-mouth.)

TWELFTH ORDER. APTERA, (Gr. tinTsgog, apteros, wingless.)

These wingless insects Latreille arranges into two orders, —
(1) THYSANAURA, (Gr. thusanoi, hairs ; oura, tail,) — which in-
cludes the SUGAR-LICE, &c., Lepismida, (from Lepisma, a scale,) —
so named from their minute silver colored scales. They have a
row of movable appendages, resembling false legs, on each side
of the abdomen, which is terminated by long jointed hairs or
bristles ; and also the SPRING-TAILS, Podurida, (from Podura,
Gr. pous, a foot; oura, a tail,) that have the abdomen lengthened
into a forked tail, by which they are enabled to make surprising
leaps. Some species are found on trees or among moss ; others
beneath stones, or, at the time of a thaw, they are sometimes
seen hopping about on the snow.

(2) PARASITA, which includes the different kinds of lice, Pedicu-
lidcB, (from Lat. Pediculus, a louse,) — almost entirely destitute
of eyes, most prolific and most disgusting ; — their very name
presents a warning against a want of cleanliness; also Bird-lice,
Nirmid(B< which infest birds, not feeding upon blood, but ob-
taining their food from the feathers, in which they are found.

Which is the SECOND SUB-KINGDOM ? Why are they so named ? How
do they differ from the Vertebrates and Mollusks ? What is said of their
skin, limbs and body? In which division is the articulated character of
these animals most conspicuous ? How is it in the Crustaceans, Spiders,
&c. ? What is remarked of their muscles ? Of what material is the skele-
ton of most of them formed ? What is said of their muscular power ? In
what respects do these animals most resemble each other? Describe it.
What is said of their senses ? Of their digestive apparatus, &c. ? Into how
many classes may they be arranged ?

What is the FIFTH PART OF ZOOLOGY ? What is the FIRST CLASS OF AR-
TICULATES? To what does the name INSECTS refer ? Of how many sections
is the body usually composed ? What is said of the antennae? How many
legs and wings have true insects ? What contains the digestive organs ?
How is the breathing accomplished ? Describe the circulation and nervous
system. What is said of the mouth ? What forms the most striking pecu-
liarity? What is said of the eggs? When does the larva state commence?
What is said of it as related to different insects ? What is the third state ?
Name its modifications. Describe it as presented in the different orders.
What is the insect in its last or perfect state called? How does it differ
from the insects as existing in the other states ? Can insects long abstain
from food ? What facts illustrate their prolific nature ? Where do they
deposit their eggs? In what respects are they beneficial, and in what inju-

MYRIAPODA. 633

rious? What is said of their locomotive powers? Of their organs of

sense ? Are they all terrestrial ?

What is the FIRST ORDER OF INSECTS? What is said of its number ? Of
its various forms, colors, &c. ? What characters of this order are given?
What is said of the Tiger Beetles? Give particulars respecting the other
families named? What is the SECOND ORDER? What characters are given?
In what two genera are its insects included? What is said of them? What
is the THIRD ORDER? In what other order are these insects sometimes in-
cluded? Why? How do they differ from it? Describe the EARWIGS.
What is the FOURTH ORDER? Give its characters. Name the sections into
which the order has been divided. Upon what are they founded ? De-
scribe the families referred to. What is the FIFTH ORDER? What genera
does it include ? Describe the wings of these insects. Why called Caddis-
flies? What is the SIXTH ORDER? What characters are given? How
many families is it said to include? What is said of the DRAGON-FLY? Of
the ANT-LION? Of the May-flies? State particulars respecting the TER-
MITES. What is the SEVENTH ORDER? What chaiacteristics can you give?
In what respects are these insects remarkable ? What two sections does
this order include ? What is the chief peculiarity of each ? What is said
of the SAW-FLIES ? Describe the different species of WASPS. Of ANTS and
BEES. What is the EIGHTH ORDER? What are its leading characteristics ?
What division of insects does it include ? What are its leading characteris-
tics? Give some account of the Butterflies. Of the Hawk-Moths and
Moths Proper. What is the NINTH ORDER ? How is it distinguished ?
What two sections does it include? How are the Homoptera characterised?
What is said of the Bark-lice? Of the Plant-lice? Of the Harvest-flies or
Cicadidae? Of the Tree-hoppers? How are the Heteroptera characterised?
Describe the Families mentioned. What is the TENTH ORDER? How are
these insects distinguished, &c. ? Describe the families referred to. What
does the ELEVENTH ORDER include? What is said of them? What is the
TWELFTH ORDER? How does Latreille arrange it? What is said of the
Sugar-lice ? Of the Spring-tails ? Of the Lice-Tribe ?

SECTION II.

SECOND CLASS. MYRIAPODA, (Gr. [ivQlog, murios, innumerable ;
novg, pous, a foot.)

The Articulates of this class occupy a position between in-
sects and worms. They agree with the Annelidans in the
lengthened extension of their trunk, in the similarity of the seg-
ments from one end of the body to the other, and in .their cylin-
drical form. They, however, have more complete eyes than
any of the Worms ; and in their breathing apparatus and other
parts of their organization, are more like the Insects. From the
latter they differ in the absence of wings, and in having the body
divided into a series of segments, each of which is provided with
a pair of legs.

634 CHILOPODA.

The Class is divided into two orders": I. CHILOPODA ; II. Cm-

LOGNATHA.

In both orders, the first segment, or head, is furnished with nu-
merous eyes on each side, and also with a pair of jointed anten-
nae ; the mouth is fitted for mastication, being provided with a
pair of powerful cutting jaws ; in the centipede and its allies it
has also a pair of appendages formed by a metamorphosis of
the legs of the first segment of the body. These are adapted
not only to hold and tear its prey, but to convey poison into the
wounds thus made, the poison being ejected through a minute
aperture near their points, (Carpenter.) The covering of these
animals is firm and of a horny character. The number of feet
varies from twelve pair to upwards of three hundred.

The muscular apparatus consists of a series of distinct mus-
cles for moving the segments and legs. When the young is
hatched, it consists of but few segments, but these increase in
number until it is fully grown, by the sub-division of the last
segment but one. The first number of segments is eight or nine ;
but they continue to increase until the number is sixty or seventy.
The larva has no legs, these organs not appearing until after the
first exuviation of the skin. During their growth, the Myria-
poda have considerable power to reproduce lost portions of their
body, such as the legs and antennae, but this power is lost when
their development ceases. The bite of these animals is said to
be more injurious than that of scorpions, but not often fatal.
Ammonia is the best remedy.

FIEST ORDER. CHILOPODA, (Gr. #erk>?, cheilos, lip ; novg, pous,
a foot ; i. e., lip formed from foot.)

CENTIPEDES.

This Order contains sixteen genera, including about one hund-
red species, and arranged into four families. The name Scolo-
pendrida, was formerly given to it, but is now appropriated to one
of the families of which the leading genus is Scolopendra.

The CENTIPEDE, Scolopendra, (Gr. centipede) has four pair of
eyes, a flattened body containing, with the head, twenty-two seg-
ments, and one pair of legs to each segment. Under the second
lip, which is formed by the second pair of dilated feet, and ter-
minates in a sharp hook, is an opening through which a poison-
ous fluid is thrown out. These animals are nocturnal ; and in
the West India Islands and the hot parts of this continent, they
are formidable pests. They often find their way into beds, in
the most cleanly houses. Their bite is extremely painful when

CHILOGNATHA. 635

first given, and is followed by local inflammation and fever. The
Centipedes of this genus live upon animal matter, and run rap-
idly. They grow to be five or six, and even twelve inches in
length.

The ELECTRIC CENTIPEDE, GeopJiilus, (Gr. loving the ground,)
electricus, possesses electrical properties, giving out at night a
light nearly equal to that of the glow-worm. Some species of
this genus will live a day or two in water, and for the space
of two weeks, parts of the body will stir after being separated.

The CENTIPEDE, Scutigera, (Lat. shield-bearing,) coleoptrata,
is widely diffused on the Eastern continent. It is found in the
United States, to which it is supposed to have been introduced in
shipping.

Other prominent species are the LONG-HORNED CENTIPEDE,
(see Chart,) and the Brush-tailed Centipede, (Plate XV. fig. 18b.)

SECOND ORDER. CHILOGNATHA, (Gr. xsifos, cheilos, a lip ;
yvdOos, gnaihos, a jaw ; i. e., lip formed from the jaw.)

MILLIPEDES.

This order includes the Millipedes, which have two pair of
.feet, (Plate XV. fig. 18a,) attached to each of the numerous seg-
mentSj and usually terminated by a simple claw. They are
nearly allied to the Centipedes, but the body, instead of being
flattened, is often cylindrical.. These animals move slowly;
when disturbed or at rest, they roll themselves up into the form
of a ball. Their eyes are composed of numerous hexagonal
lenses, as in the insect tribes. The spiracles or breathing holes
are situated behind each pair of feet. Besides these, there are
outlets for odoriferous glands, situated on the sides. The Milli-
pedes usually feed upon putrescent matter. They are included
in fourteen genera, with about eighty species, embraced in six
families.

The GALLY-WORM, or THOUSAND- LEGGED WORM, lulus ter-
restris, (see Chart,) has about forty segments, to which are at-
tached innumerable feet, in pairs or fours. When disturbed, this
worm gives forth a fluid of a very disagreeable odor, from the
orifices on the sides of the body.

There are five species of the genus lulus. The BORDERED
IULUS, /. marginatus, (Lat. bordered,) is about three inches long,
blackish, with a rufous border on the segments. This is com-
mon in the United States.

The PILL CENTIPEDE, Glomeris, (a ball,) is a myriapode re-
sembling the wood louse in its form, and its habit of rolling itself
into a ball.

630 ARACHNIDA.

THIRD CLASS. ARACHNIDA, (Gr. ^&%v^, arachne, a spider.)

These animals, including Spiders, Mites, and Scorpions, are
separated from Insects on account of their external form, struc-
ture and habits. They differ from Insects in having no antennse,
in the eyes, which are in most species eight, and even when two
in number, are never placed on the side of the head; in the legs,
which are usually eight, though in some species six, and in others
ten in number ; in the breathing apparatus, consisting of radiated
wind-pipes, communicating with a sort of gills inclosed in pouches
in the lower part of the abdomen.

The skin of the Arachnida is in general rather leathery and
horny ; like the bones of the larger animals, giving support to
the soft parts, and attachment to the muscles, the legs being ex-
ternally united to a common breast plate, from which they radiate.

The greater portion of these animals are carnivorous, and
furnished with organs adapted to their predatory life.

Nerve-knots, or ganglia, make up the nervous system of the
Arachnida. These are uniform in their composition, and more
concentrated than in the Insects.

The organ of hearing in these animals is not known ; though
it is certain that they hear. The eyes of Spiders and Scorpi-
ons, externally formed in exactly the same manner, " are smooth,
glittering, and without divisions ; and are as much dispersed as
those that are disposed at random over the body. The Wolf-
Spider, which catches its prey by leaping on it, has its eyes
placed in the same manner."

Male spiders are uniformly much smaller than the females,
being often not one-fourth as large.

The female spider lays nearly one thousand eggs in a season.
These are soft and compressible, before they are laid, lying in
the ovarium, or egg-bag, within the spider's body, squeezed to-
gether in a flat manner, but when laid, assuming a round form.
The eggs are excluded unlike those of birds, from a cavity just
behind the breast. Here there is a hook-like organ which the
spider can move in such a manner as to direct each egg to the
exact spot in the nest cup where it would have it placed. The
sense of touch in this organ must be very acute,- as by touch
alone it can be guided, the eyes being so situated in the upper part
of the head, that they cannot be brought within sight of the nest.

Latreille arranges the Arachnida into two orders: —

I. Pulmonaria, (Lat. pulmo, a lung,) which have pulmonary
sacs or air-pipes for respiration, similar to those of Insects, and
from six to twelve eyelets. These include the COMMON SPIDERS,

ARACHNIDA. 637

Araneida, (Lat. araneida, a spider,) usually having eight feet,
(Plate XV. fig. 19b.) The palpi or feelers resemble small feet,
without a claw at the tip. The frontal ones are terminated by a
movable hook curving downwards, having on the under side a
slit for the emission of a poisonous fluid which is secreted in a
gland of the preceding joint. Though much is said of the ef-
fects of spider-bites, "there is still wanting evidence on which to
rest the charge of poisoning man by biting him," even against
spiders of tropical climates. Sometimes, however, the bite of
the larger ones produces unpleasant inflammation. At the same
time, people " have been known to eat them with bread, as a great
delicacy."

The most remarkable office of spiders is that of weaving their
webs, by means of a silken thread drawn from fleshy warts sit-
uated on the abdomen, four to six in number, containing thou-
sands of openings, from each of which descends a thread, so
thin as to be invisible to the naked eye until all are formed into
a common thread. One set of warts or spinnerets is employed
in producing threads which are glutinous, while another set pro-
duces those which are smooth. This maybe shown by throwing
some dust upon a spider's web like that of the GARDEN SPIDER,
Epira (Gr. peiro, to affix,) diadema, which weaves one of the
strongest, when it will be found to adhere to those which are spi-
rally arranged, but not to those which radiate from the center,
which are the stronger ones. Their webs have been manufac-
tured into stockings and gloves ; to obtain one pound of spider's
silk, however, the webs of six hundred thousand spiders would
be needed.

A curious thing in the natural history of spiders is their
power of reproducing their limbs after they have been broken
off; in such cases it is never a part of a leg which is reproduced ;
but if a part of a leg be removed, it proceeds to throw off the
residue, and after the next moult, the missing limb again appears.

The Mason, or TRAP-DOOR SPIDER, Mygale, (Gr. mugale, a
mouse-spider,) ccementaria, constructs a sort of tube in which it
dwells and lies in wait for such animals as come within reach.
Some of the holes or tubes are closed by a trap door. The
largest species is found in South America.

The Lycosa (Gr. lukos, a kind of spider,) tarantula, the TA-
RANTULA of Italy, is the poisonous species the bite of which, it
has been supposed, could be cured by music. Some species of
the same genus are found in the United States.

The Pedipalpi, (Lat. feelers to the foot,) differ from the Spi-
ders proper, chiefly in the great development of the palpi or feel-
ers, which form long arms, ending in a pincer-like claw.

633 TRACHEARIA.

The Scorpions, Scorpionida, form the larger part of this di-
vision. These have a jointed, tail-like extension of the abdo-
men, ending in a curved spur. (Plate XV. fig. I9a.) They are
found in temperate as well as tropical regions, living under stones,
in damp places, and even in houses. They are particularly fond
of the eggs of spiders and insects. Their sting is said to be-
come increasingly poisonous as the animal grows older.

The generality of Scorpions, as Scorpio Europaus, have six
eyes ; but there are some of the most formidable kind, as Scor-
pio afer, the AFRICAN SCORPION, which have eight.

SECOND ORDER. TRACHEARIA, (Gr. TQa%eia, tracheia, a wind-

pipe.)

This includes those forms of the class which have two or four
eyes, and breathe by means of trachial tubes or air-pipes, simi-
lar to those of Insects. These include, (1) the various forms of
Mites, Acarida, such as the CHEESE- MITES, Acarus, the Itch-
Mite, A. scabiei, (of itch,) named from the cutaneous disease of
which it is the origin ; the Su&AR-MiTE, A. saccharinum, found
in the brown sugar of commerce ; the RED SPIDER, A. tellarius,
the pest of hot houses and green houses, &c. Camphor and
sulphur are the best remedies for removing these minute, and
some of them almost microscopic animals. These are not now
considered as ranking among insects, differing from them as they
do, in structure, and having in most cases, like spiders, eight feet,
while no insect has more than six feet. (2) TICKS, Ricinia,
while no insect has more than six feet. (2) TICKS, Ricinia, (Lat.
ricinus, a tick,) embracing the genus Ixodes, (Gr. sticky,) (PI.
XV., fig. 19.) some species of which are free, and others parasitic.
The latter are without eyes. They are well known from attack-
ing sheep, cows, horses, dogs, and even tortoises, burying their
suckers so deeply in the skin that they cannot be reniDved with-
out tearing the flesh. They deposit a prodigious quantity of
eggs, which are discharged from the mouth. (3) SHEPHERD
SPIDERS, or Harvest-men, Phalangida, genus Phalangium, (Lat.
a spider,) of which the greater part live upon the ground, on
plants, or at the roots of trees, and are very active ; others, which
are less active, hide themselves between stones, or in mosses.
Their legs are long and slender, the tarsi consisting of more than
fifty joints. These spider-like creatures are known as Harry-
long-legs. (4) The SEA SPIDERS, Nymphonida, are also in-
cluded in this order, though sometimes referred to the class
Crustacea,. Our limits do not allow us to enumerate all the
families, or to- give any further particulars respecting those
which are mentioned.

PT..XVT

CRUSTACEANS.
Entomosiraca. , _ Tetradecapoda.

C v 1)

1 2

d c

ANN ELI DANS, OR WORMS.
TubulibraiLchiates . Dorsibraitchiates. Abranchiates .

5

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVL

CRUSTACEANS.

Fig. 1. A. KING CRAB, MOLLUCCA CRAB or HORSE FOOT; a, the opening
through which the animal emerges when casting off the old shell ; b,
small feet in front of the mouth, considered by some naturalists as
antennce, or feelers ; c, the other five pair of true feet surrounding the
mouth, used for walking and mastication ; d, triangular shield cover-
ing the body to which the five pair of false feet or swimming legs are
attached ; e, long pointed tail.

B, Branchipus stagnalis, in road-side ditches and cart-wheel ruts.

Fig. 2a. Sow BUG, or WOOD-LOUSE ; b, Limnoria terebrans; c, Fluvicola;
1, under side ; 2, upper side, d, Trilobite, found only in a fossil
state.

Fig. 3. CRAW-FISH, or FRESH-WATER LOBSTER; (Astacus fuviatilis ;) a,
five pair of true feet ; b, inner antennae, supposed^ to be the organs
of hearing ; c, outer and longer antennae, organs for smelling ; d,
five broad caudal plates, by which the animal is assisted to dart about
so rapidly.

Fig. 4. A, DUCK BARNACLES, Pedunculated or Stalked Cirripedes ; a, pe-
duncle or stalk by which they are attached to submerged substances
after the third moult; b, shell of five or more valves; c, six pair
of feathery cirri for obtaining its food; B, Acorn Barnacles, (Ses-
sile Cirripedes,) composed of six valves, with an operculum or cover
of four pieces, between which the curly tentacute protrude.

ANNELIDANS, Or WORMS.

Fig. 5. Vermilia, fa,) lives in an irregular twisted tube, attached by its

whole length to shells, stones, &c.
Fig. 6. Sea "Centipede, or Nereis; organs and gills distributed throughout

the body ; each of its numerous feet has two tubercles, two bundles of

bristles, and a cirrus above and beneath.

REP-^LOODED WORMS.

Fig. 7. A. Medicinal Leech ; a, the mouth, with three sharp teeth disposed
in a triangle ; no distinct head ; moves by the adhesion and detach- '.'
ment of the sucking disks at each extremity.

B. Earth or Angle Worm ; eight retractile bristles on the under side
of each ring, assisting in their contractions and dilations, enabling it to
creep at a pretty good pace; no distinct head, but the fore part, (a,)
acts as a sort of awl in penetrating the earth.

ENTOZOA, INTESTINAL, Or WHITE-BLOODED WORMS.

Fig. 8. Fluke, Distoma; a, upper side; b, under side; an inch long;
two eyes ; two suckers ; infests the liver of animals. In sheep it pro-
duces or aggravates the disease called the rot.

Fig. 9. Tape worm ; flat or ribbon-like : sometimes 60 or 100 feet long,
with 500 divisions, each of which adheres to the intestine by a strong
sucker, and may become a separate and perfect^ animal. The seg-
ments dimmish in size so as to form a thin neck with a small globose
head, (a,) mouth very indistinct.

SIXTH BRANCH OP ZOOLOGY.

CRUSTACEOLOGY. (Lat. crustaceq, ; Gr. tyos, logos, a
discourse.)

CLASS CRUSTACEA. (Lat. from crusta, a shell or crust.)

SECTION I.

THIS Class includes animals, some of which dwell on land,
others in fresh or salt water, and which are covered with a soft
shell or crust. They are oviparous, and divided into segments
or rings, articulated into each other, to the inside of which their
muscles are attached. The outer covering generally possesses
a considerable degree of hardness, containing no small propor-
tion of carbonate of lime. Its solidity varies; sometimes it is
membranous.

The way in which the animals free themselves from the old
shell is quite singular ; they generally manage to get out of it
without occasioning the least change in its form. When the
shell is first stripped off, the surface of their bodies is extremely
soft; and it is some time before the substance which has been
exuded from the pores on the surface of their skin, acquires a
hard consistence.

They generally have a distinct heart and a circulatory system
or blood vessels, but no internal skeleton, properly so called.
They breathe by means of gills or branchial plates, or else by
the skin. The breathing apparatus is adapted to aquatic rather
than aerial respiration. In those genera in which the head is
not separated from the thorax, the shield protects the whole of
the thorax. Other genera have the head distinct from the body,
which is divided into seven segments, to the lower sides of which

MALACOSTRACA. G43

the feet are attached ; these, for the most part, have a tail, con-
sisting of many segments. The limbs vary from six to four-
teen, each having six articulations. The two front limbs, and
sometimes even three on each side, are provided with pincers
at other times they are terminated by simple hooks, and not un«
frequently, they have appendages which fit them for swimming.
There are two mandibles, a lip below, and from three to five
pairs of jaws ; these small, leg-shaped appendages are not
adapted to locomotion, but being placed near the mouths, assist
in the operation of feeding.

The eyes vary in number, usually being compound, seated on
peduncles, which are sometimes movable, and at others fixed.
Some of the parasitic species are destitute of eyes in their per-
feet state, though possessing them when young and able to swim
about. The Crustacea have the senses of taste and hearing,
probably also have that of smelling, though the precise location
of its organ has not been ascertained. Some of them have the
power of emitting light in the dark. Others are able not only
to detach one of their limbs when seized upon by an adversary,
but can reproduce the severed limb. This, however, is always
of a less size than the others, until it has once or twice changed
its crust.

The Crustaceans include five orders.

FIRST ORDER. MALACOSTRACA, (Gr. [lalaxbg, malakos, soft ;
oor^axor, ostrakon, shell ;) or Decapoda, (Lat. ten-footed.)

This Order is divided into two sections. (1) Brachyoura,
(Gr. short-tailed,) including the CRABS, the species of which are
various in size, color, and modes of living, having bodies covered
by an external skeleton or calcareous crust, with ten articulated
limbs, adapted for swimming and for walking also, (with oblique
steps,) and breathing by gills. They have two pincer-like claws,
and jointed antennae, and throw off their crust annually, at the
end of spring. When they have lost a pincer or foot, it is repro-
duced with the new shell, and also at other times. When their
legs or claws become injured or are touched with a hot iron,
they themselves cast them off. The material out of which the
new shell is hardened, is furnished by two calcareous con-
cretions, called Crabs' eyes, found in summer on both sides
of the stomach. These animals live on dead bodies, pu-
trid flesh, and all descriptions of worms and insects found in
water. Our references to species must be confined chiefly to
those noticed on the Chart. The EDIBLE CRAB, of England and

644 MALACOSTRACA.

Western Europe, Cancer pagurus, (Gr. pagouros, a crab,) some-
times attains a large size, weighing ten or twelve pounds. It
casts its shell between Christmas and Easter.

The CORIMON EDIBLE CRAB of the "United States, Lupa has-
tata, (Lat. from hasia, a spear,) is of smaller size. In forty-
eight hours after the old shell is cast, it is renewed and firmly
consolidated. In the interval, these Crabs are termed "Soft-
shelled," and eagerly sought after. They are abundant in the
muddy shores of bays and inlets.

LONG-TAILED CRUSTACEANS.

(2) The Macroura, (Gr. long-tailed.) are so named from the
large and well developed tail, ending in a fan-shaped fin, which
assists them in swimming. They walk well, but are best adap-
ted for swimming, shooting backwards through the action of the
abdomen and the tail fin. The antennae are usually long, the
first pair not being received into a cavity as in the Crabs.

The Palinurus, is a large crab, shaped much like a lobster,
but is more cylindrical with none of the feet cheliform or claw-
like. It is armed with a very hard crust, and is in general use
when in season, as an article of food. Prof. Dana, (Silliman's
Journal.) speaks of two gigantic species of this genus, P. vulgaris,
of the Mediterranean, (see Chart,) and P. lalandii, of the Cape of
Good Hope, each a foot and a half long, independent of the an-
tennae. The COMMON PRAWN, Palamon vulgaris, found near
our coasts or at the mouths of rivers, is nearly allied to the
Prawn of England, P. serratus, (Lat. saw-shaped ;) these are
esteemed a great delicacy ; also allied to the species P. squiUa, (a
prawn,) of the European continent. The Common Prawn is
not more than an inch and a half in length ; but the RIVER
Prawn of the Carolinas and Florida, P. jluviatilis^ is seven or
eight inches long.

The RIVER CRAY or CRAW FISH, Astacus, (Gr. astakos, a
kind of lobster. )jluviatilis, (Plate XVI. fig. 3, with explanation,)
may be regarded as the Fresh Water Lobster. It is found in
the fresh waters of Europe and the north of Asia, placing itself
in holes of the banks, or under stones, where it lies in wait
for small mollusks, little fishes, the larvae of insects and decom-
posed animal substances upon which it subsists. It is said that
it will live for upwards of twenty years, and becomes large in
proportion to its age. The eggs, when laid, are collected under
the lower part of the body or tail ; the young, which at birth are
very soft, take refuge under the tail of the parent for some days.

TETRADECAPODA, 645

Several species of the River Lobster are found in the United
States.

The LOBSTER, Astacus marinus, is very abundant and of great
commercial value. Good sized ones are four and a half inches
long, from the tip of the head to the end of the back shell. The
pincers of one of the tail claws are furnished with knobs, and
those of the other claw are serrated. With the former it keeps
firm hold of the stalks of sub-marine plants, and with the latter,
it cuts and minces its food very dexterously. The fecundity of
the Lobster is very great. Dr. Baster says that "he counted
12,444 eggs under the tail of one female lobster, besides those
that remained in the body unprotruded." In a boiled lobster
they are bright red and called the coral. Lobsters are very
voracious, and are caught at night in pots or traps made of twigs
baited with garbage, (refuse flesh, entrails, &c.,) or in nets let
down into the sea, the place being marked by a buoy. Some-
times they are taken by torch light, with a pair of tongs or for-
ceps of wood. Their eyes are placed so that they can see in
every direction. When alarmed, they spring to a surprising
distance. Usually they weigh one or two pounds, but sometimes
four or even six.

The COMMON LOBSTER of this country, Homarus, (Astacus,)
AmericanuS) (see Chart.) is, however, much larger, averaging in
weight four pounds, and sometimes reaching the weight of fifteen,
twenty, and even thirty pounds. The Common Shrimp of Europe,
Crangon, (Gr. krangon, a shrimp ) vulgaris, is closely allied to
the shrimp of our own country ; it is of a pale greenish color,
about an inch and a half or an inch and three-fourths in length.
The C. septemspinosus, (Lat. seven-spined.) is known by the
name of Bait shrimp, and extensively used. It is found from
Florida to the Arctic regions.

(3) Anomoura, (Gr. anomalous tail.) This is a section inter-
mediate to the two preceding, including crabs having the front
part of the body crustaceous; the lower part soft and rolled
upon itself. They are in the habit of resorting to the dead shell
of a univalve mollusk, which is exchanged for a larger one as
they increase in size, and seem to prefer the shells of the Tro-
choida, (see Chart.) Hence they are called HERMIT CRABS.

SECOND ORDER. TETRADECAPODA, (Gr. fourteen-footed.)

This includes several families of small Crustaceans, some of
them marine or fresh-water species; some of them terrestrial or
parasitic, which, from the number of their feet, may be referred

646 TETRADECAPODA.

to the present order. We folbw Prof. Dana in placing here
(1) the WOOD-LICE, Oniscida, (Gr. oniskos. a wood-louse,) —
sometimes referred to the order Isopoda, (Gr. equal-footed.)
These have fourteen slender feet, adapted to walking, and the
first pair of antennae rudimentary ; the second pair being alone
complete and conspicuous. The species Oniscus asellus, (Lat.
a chee-slip or sow-insect,) (Plate XVI. fig. 2a,) is the COMMON
SOW-BUG, found under stones and decaying wood. The fourteen
feet gradually increase in size from the front; the antennae have
eight articulations. The Sow-bug feeds upon decomposed veg-
etables. It carries its eggs in a sac beneath the body. The
color is dusky brown above ; beneath greyish white. The Porcel-
lio, (Lat. a sow-bug or wood-louse,) spinicornis, (Lat. spiny horns,)
is very similar to the Oniscus, but its antennse have only seven
articulations. The third joint of the antennse is armed with an
acute spine. This also has the popular name of Sow- hug, and
is found in similar situations with the preceding. The species
P. granulatus, (Lat. granulated,) or Hog-louse, is black and un-
spotted. . It is roughened with small elevated grains, — whence
the specific name.

To the Sow. bugs are similar, in most respects, those of the
genus Armadillo, which, from their habit of rolling themselves
into a ball, are known by the name of PILL-BUGS. These are of
dull lead color, with three lines of large yellowish spots on the
upper part.

The WHALE-LOUSE, Cyamus ceti, (see Chart,) referred by La-
treille to the order L^EMODIPODA, (Gr. throat or jaw-footed,) — the
Oniscus ceti, of Linn., has at least twelve feet, of which eight
are perfect, and the others in the form of slender, jointed append-
ages. It attaches itself to whales, and occasionally to tunnies
and other large fish.

(2) The SAND, or BEACH FLEAS, Gammarida, — sometimes re-
ferred to the order AMPHIPODA, (so named from having two kinds
of feet, cheliform or claw-like, and simple.) The family in-
cludes several genera and species. Orchestria, (from Gr.
orchevomai, to leap,) longicornis, (Lat. long horned,) is a species
having the lower antennas longer than the body, and the four
front feet terminated in a compressed claw. They subsist upon
dead animal substances. They are found on the shores of Long
Island, where, to conceal themselves, they dig holes in the sand.
Other Sand or Beach Fleas are included in the genus Talitrus.
Of this is the species T. quadrijidus, (Lat. four-cleft,) which
have a body composed of thirteen segments, exclusive of the
head ; and the antennse shorter than the body. The tail has

ENTOMOSTRACA. 647

three appendages terminating in four spines, — whence the spe-
cific name. These are of a dark horn color, and frequently
found hidden under stones and sea-weed,

The genus Gammarus includes FRESH-WATER SHRIMPS, which
are very active, and common in running streams. They may
often be found under stones and pieces of wood. These have
the last joint of the antennae composed of numerous minute ones ;
the upper antennae are as long as the lower, and sometimes
longer, with four articulations, the last ending in a bristle, — the
lower antennae have five articulations ; the tail has small, bundle-
like spines.

We can barely na*me the parasitic Cymothoids, (genus Cymo.
thoa,) which are fourteen footed, — formerly arranged with the
Isopoda, most of which attach themselves to the mouths and
gills of fishes, — and of which the Seriolis has been thought to
present, at first sight, a resemblance to the extinct form of the
Trilobites.

Ligia is another genus of the present order, having an oval,
oblong body, with transverse segments, and two short append-
ages at the end of the tail. The two outer antennae are quite
conspicuous. (See figure of L. oceanica, Plate XVI. fig. 2b.)

Limnoria is another marine genus, which has the head nearly
as large as the first segment; the tail has six distinct rings
with two appendages on each side. The species L. terebrans,
(Lat. boring,) can roll themselves up into a ball. These, and
the Ligia oceanica, both in great numbers sometimes attack the
timbers of ships, docks, etc., and soon render them useless.

THIRD ORDER. ENTOMOSTRACA, (Gr. evTopa, entoma, an insect;
, ostrakon, a shell, i. e., shell insects.)

This term is applied to Crustaceans for the most part inhabit-
ing fresh-water. In these, the nervous knots which supply the
place of the brain, consist of one or two globules merely. The
heart assumes the form of a long vessel. The gills are com-
posed of hair-like processes, forming a portion of the feet, or of a
certain number among them, and sometimes the mandibles and
upper jaws. The number of feet varies, and in some genera is
said to be over a hundred. Nearly all have a shell, consisting
of one or two pieces, generally almost membranous and
transparent, — the coverings are like those of the insects, rather
horny than calcareous. The antennae, varying much in form
and number, serve in many species for swimming.

Dr. Baird says, most of them are "essentially carnivorous."

648 ENTOMOSTRACA.

In this he discerns a decided fitness, as tending to prevent the
hurtful effects of putrid air that might attend the decomposition
of the amazing number of these animals abounding in ponds and
ditches. These Crustaceans, however, in their turn, become the
prey of other animals. They form a considerable part of the
food of fishes; and it is thought that the quality of some of the
fresh-water fishes, of which a species of trout may be particularly
mentioned, may, in some degree, depend upon the abundance of
this portion of their food. Among the genera belonging to this
order, we refer first to the Cyclops, (see Chart,) (Gr. circular or
rounded eye,) — a fresh-water genus, in which the body is pear-
shaped, and the upper, or larger pair of antennae, are employed
as aids to locomotion. Species of these may be seen jerking
themselves along in springs and stagnant waters. When they
lose part of an antenna, it reappears as, in the case of some others
of the class, at the time of the next moult. They are carnivo-
rous, and when without other food, even eat up their own young.
Some of the kindred marine species appear to be phosphorescent.
These minute Crustaceans are very prolific. They are tena-
cious of life, reviving after having been frozen, though they soon
die when removed from water and dried. Many of them furnish
food to the water larvae of insects.

(2) Daphnia, (Gr. a laurel-berry,) — the ARBORESCENT WATER-
FLEA. In this genus the body is enclosed in a bivalve shell,
though the head is exposed, having a compound and somewhat
movable eye. These Crustaceans are found in stagnant waters
in company with the Cyclops, which they resemble in their move-
ments. They are sometimes so numerous in water as to give it
"a muddy hue, like the red dust of iron, or as if blood had been
mixed with it." On the back of the shell is seen, at certain sea-
sons, a black saddle-shaped appendage, containing two eggs, from
which, in the spring, the species are reproduced.

(3) Cypris, (see Chart.) This is likewise enclosed in a
bivalve shell, with a dorsal hinge. The antennas are four, — the
second pair large, and fitted to aid in swimming. Many species
may be seen in summer-time swimming about in stagnant pools,
and they often show beautiful variations of color.

(4) Limulus or Polyphemus, — this is sometimes referred to the
order XIPHOSURA, (Gr. sword-tail,) — a name referring to the long,
hard, and sharp tail-spine of this creature, which, in some places,
is used for pointing spears. The body is covered with a large
carapace shield, (Plate XVI. fig. 1 ;) is rounded in front, having
the hind part smallest, with spines on the sides, and deep notches
behind ; the gill-feet are appended to the abdomen. Six feet,

CIRRIPEDES. 649

strongly articulated and adapted to walking, are attached to the
thorax. The common name of these Crustaceans, is the King.
Crab or Horse-foot The first name refers to its size, the last to
its shape. They feed on animal substances, and are gathered as
food for hogs and poultry, and also used as manure. Lamarck
calls them giant branchiopods, in allusion to the gigantic stature
of Ronii'. of the species. The color is of a uniform dark brown.
To this order we assign the TRILOBITES, (sometimes arranged in
a separate order,) — fossil animals, the knowledge of which is
limited to the shell or crust. (Plate XVI. fig 2d.) Feet have
not been found in connexion with their remains, so that it cannot
be certainly known whether or not they possessed these mem-
bers. Agassiz remarks, "there is an incompleteness and want
of development in the form of their body that strongly reminds
us of the embryo among the Crabs." Their food is supposed to
have been small water animals ; their habitat the vicinity of
coasts in shallow waters, where they lived gregaTiously in vast
numbers. We here also place Fluvicola Herricki, a singular
Crustaceous animal which has been found adhering to rocks in
and near the water of West Canada Creek. "It is detached
with considerable difficulty, and when so detached, partially rolls
itself up." (DeKay.) The locality in which they are found, is
noted for fossils and petrefactions ; and, as De Kay intimates, it
is a singular coincidence that it should furnish animals so strongly
resembling the extinct trilobites, see Plate XVI. (fig. 1 and 2c,) —
which presents fi'gures of some of these animals that were found
in Clinton, Oneida county, N. Y., in a ravine a little North of
Hamilton College. They seem to be allied to the present order.

FOURTH ORDER. CIRRIPEDES, (Lat. cirri, ringlets or tufts;
pedes, feet,)

These animals were ranked by the earlier naturalists among
the Mollusks, and they certainly possess many characters in
common with rome of those animals, yet exhibit greater sym-
metry of form. The body is prolonged, and from each side pro-
ceed long and slender feet, curving together into a kind of curl, —
whence the name Cirripedes, curl or tuft footed. They are in-
closed in a shell, which is more or less conical. These animals
are subject to a metamorphosis, the young having two valves
like the bivalve Mollusks, and capable of swimming about until
they become permanently affixed. In this state, they are able
to protrude the limbs from the fore part of the shell, the front
pair being of considerable size, and furnished with a sucker and

27

£50 ROTATORIA.

hooks for attachment to submarine substances. The six hind
pair of limbs are used for swimming. The shell is not made up
of simple layers, as in the Mollusks, but is traversed by a com-
plex series of canals, through which nourishment is conveyed.

The Cirripedes are divided into two principal groups, — the
pedunculated and the sessile, both of which are widely distributed
by ships, floating wood, sea-weed, mollusks, turtles, whales, etc.

I. CAMPYLOSOMATA, (Gr. xapnvkog, kampulos, curved ; crwua,
soma, body.) The division contains the pedunculated forms,
that is, those which are furnished with stems, (Plate XVI. fig.
4A,) by which they attach themselves to wood or other ob-
jects,— among them are the Anatifa, (Lepas,) COMMON BARNA-
CLE, consisting of five pieces, of which two are large valves,
somewhat like those of a muscle ; two smaller are articulated to
those near the point ; and one unites the valve along the back
edge ; and thus they envelop the whole of the mantle. Barna-
cles often adhere to-the bottoms of ships in such numbers as to
impede their sailing.

II. Acamptosoma, (Gr. ftxapnTos, akamptos, uncurved ; crwwa,
body.) This section includes the sessile or unpedunculated forms.
It is represented by the Balanus, (Lat. acorn,) or ACORN-SHELL,
(Plate XVI. fig. 4B,) so named from its resemblance to the acorn,
it being short and conical in form. The mouth is protected by
an operculum, consisting of two or more valves. These animals
are found in great numbers on rocks and piers along the coast.
The species B. psittacus, (a parrot,) is quite large ; it is eaten
by the natives of Chili. The Coronula attaches itself to the backs
of whales, imbedding itself in the skin.

FIFTH ORDER. ROTATORIA, or ROTIFERA. Wheel-bearing
Animalcules.

This order includes animalcules not to be distinctly perceived,
except with the microscope. They receive their name from
peculiarities of structure, and are wonderfully minute, — some of
them being less than the five-hundredth part of an inch in length.
Nearly all of them are aquatic in their habits; their bodies are
transparent; hence, their general structure can, with the help of
the microscope, be easily recognised. They have usually an
elongated form, similar on the two sides ; and at the front ex-
tremity are one or two rows of vibra-tile c?7m, usually arranged
in a circular manner, which, when in motion, appear like re-
volving wheels. The posterior extremity is prolonged into a
tail, possessing three joints, each of which has a pair of prongs

EOTATORIA. 651

or points. The circular arrangement of the cilia forms what are
called the wheels. By the successive vibration of these, the ap-
pearance of a continual rotation is produced ; and their action
creates rapid currents in the surrounding fluid, by which the
supply of food is obtained, — consisting of other animalcules of
still smaller size, and less complex structure. Between the
wheels, the head is occasionally protruded, bearing two red spots,
supposed to be eyes; on its under surface there is a projecting
tubular spike, which is believed to act as a syphon conveying
water into the general cavity to aid perspiration. The vital
power of some specie? Is extraordinarily great, they having been
known to revive after being kept in dry sand for four years.
The wheel-animalcules do not propagate by spontaneous division,
but by eggs inconceivably minute, so that they can be raised in
the air with vapor, and transported in every direction. Much
diversity of opinion has existed in relation to the proper classifi-
cation of these animalcules, of the wonderful structure and variety
which the microscope has made such interesting revelations ; but
the lengthened form of their bodies, the location of the mouth and
eyes at. one extremity ; the occasional appearance of cross or
transverse lines shadowing forth a division into segments ; and
especially the character of the nervous system, so far as it can
be ascertained, are among the proofs that they should have a place
with the Articulates. With these, Dr. Grant was one of the first
to place them. Leydig proposed to call them CILIATED CRUSTA-
CEANS. We follow the suggestion of Prof. Dana in placing them
next the Cirripedes.

The common species, Rotifa vulgarls, is remarkable for the
two circles of vibratile cilia or vibrillse, referred to above, and
for the posterior forceps or pincers. One species (Melicerta
ringens) has the power to withdraw itself into an outward case;
and has the vibratile cilia distributed into four divisions.

SEVENTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

HELMINTHOLOGY. (Gr. "e^s* helmins, a worm ; ioyoff,
a discourse.)

Class ANNELIDANS or WORMS.

This lowest division of the ARTICULATES is arranged by Cu-
vier and other naturalists, into two sections ; the one embracing
the class Annelidans, or Red-blooded Worms, and ranked with
the Articulates ; the other, including the Intestinal or White-
blooded Worms, is ranked by them with the Radiates. Agassiz
considers the nervous system of the latter Worms, which has
been made a ground of their separation, though somewhat differ-
ent, as yet essentially the same with that of the Articulates.
We follow him as well as other distinguished naturalists, in
placing all the Worms in this latter class.

FIRST DIVISION. ANNELIDA, (Lat. annulus, a ring.) RED-
BLOODED 'WORMS.

These always have their bodies formed of a great number of
small rings nearly equal in size, varying in number from twenty
or thirty to more than five hundred, according to the length of
the animals. Their skin is soft and pliable ; and their bodies,
not having any external skeleton, are also soft, and in general
more or less cylindrical. The head is usually distinct, furnished
with two or four eyes ; the sides have attached to them feet, or
rather bristle-like projections, which are used for locomotion, and
vary widely in different species. Most of the anneiidans are
marine ; but some live in fresh water.

TUBULIBRANCHIA. 653

FIRST ORDER. TUBTTLIBRANCHIA, ( Tululicola, dwelling in tubes,
Cuvier.) SEDENTARY ANNELIDANS.

These are characterized by having their branchiae in the
form of plumes, or of small tree-like figures, attached to the
head or fore part of the body. Nearly all inhabit tubes, which
are calcareous, sandy, or membranous. The order may be ar-
ranged into two families.

First Family Serpulida, (Lat. serpula, a small snake.)

Worms, the tubes of which are calcareous and singularly
twisted. They have the branchial tufts separated into two dis-
tinct parts by a pendunculated operculum, or else protected by
a solid one when they are drawn into the shell.

1 . Serpula. This genus includes worms which adhere to stones,
shells, and other sub-marine substances. The branchiae are of
a beautiful red, or variegated with yellow and violet, and used
in taking the minute living objects upon which the worm sub-
sists. They are found in the Mediterranean and European seas.
This genus has been estimated to embrace sixty or more re-
cent and fossil species. (Fig. on Chart.)

2. Vermilia, — Worms so named from the red line on each side
of the ridge which appears upon the back. (Plate XVI. fig. 5.)

3. Ditrupa, — Worms free, living in a tubular shell, open at
both ends, with twenty -two branchiae, in two sets, and feathered
with a row of cilia. These are nearly allied to the Serpula.

SECOND FAMILY, Amphitritida*

Worms which have around the mouth numerous thread-like
tentacles ; and tubes formed by a mucous secretion to which are
attached fragments of shells, etc.

1. Amphitrite. These have the thread or straw-like processes
in the form of a comb or that of a crown.

2. Sabetla, — Worms about the size of a finger, living in tubes
composed of sand, clay or fine mud. The plumes are highly
brilliant and delicate, sometimes of a rich orange color.

3. Terebella, — Worms living in tubes of similar composition
with the preceding, having on the neck arborescent, not fan-shaped
gills.

G54 ABRANCHIATA.

SECOND ORDEE. DORSIBRANCHIATA, (Lat. dorsum, back ; Iran-
chia, gills.)

These Annelidans have their organs, and especially their
branchiae, distributed nearly equally along the whole or a part
of the body. All the species are aquatic and worm-like, swim-
ming with facility and active in crawling. The head is distinct
from the trunk ; they are furnished with two pair of rudimen-
tary eyes. The order includes the Sea-Mice and the Sea-Centi-
pedes, arranged into several families or groups.

FIRST FAMILY. Aphroditida, (Gr. from Aphrodite, Venus.)
SEA- MICE.

These include species oval in form, some of which are su-
perbly colored. Usually they have two pairs of jaws. The
gills are concealed under two rows of scales covering the back,
and hidden by a kind of flocky down or tow, from which issue
brilliant spines or bristles. The species Aphrodite aculeata,
(Lat. prickly,) is six or eight inches long, and two or three
inches wide. Cuvier says that these Sea-mice do not yield in
beauty either to the plumage of the Humming-birds, or to the
most brilliant precious stones.

SECOND FAMILY. Eunicida.'

These are represented by the genus Eunice. This is fur-
nished with tuft-like gills, and has the trunk armed with three
pairs of horny jaws. Each of the feet has two cirri and a bun-
dle of bristles ; there are two tentacles on the head, above the
mouth, and two on the neck. The GIGANTIC EUNICE, E. gigan-
tea, found in the seas around the Antilles, is sometimes upwards
of four feet in length, being the largest annelidan known.

THIRD ORDER. ABRANCHIATA, (Lat. a, priv. or without; Iran-
chi&, gills.)

The Worms of this order are without branchiae, respiration
being accomplished by means of the skin. The order includes
two principal groups, of which the one is terrestrial, the other
aquatic.

ABSANCHIATA. 655

FIRST FAMILY. Lumbricida, (Lat. lumlricus, an earth-worm.)

The EARTH or ANGLE WORM has a body composed entirely
of numerous rings ; is of a reddish or bluish hue, and of a shin-
ing aspect. It secretes a viscous or glutinous substance which
protects the body and greatly facilitates its progress through the
earth. This worrn is enabled to creep at a good pace, by con-
trading and dilating its rings, the retractile bristles on the under
side of each ring assisting locomotion. The fore part of the
head in earth-worms acts as an awl in penetrating the earth,
which they loosen, enrich, and prepare for the labors of the
farmer by admitting the air and water. By their castings, which
so annoy the gardener, they, in a few years, cover a barren
waste with vegetable, or rather animal mould. Not improbably
every particle of earth in old pastures has passed through the
intestines of worms. They are known as coming to the surface
in wet weather and at night. The power of reproducing mu-
tilated parts is very great in this entire family, of which more
than twenty species have been described. The eggs are in cap-
sules, or membranous cocoons. Each egg produces two worms.
The species Lumbricus terrestris (Plate XVI. fig. 7b,) attains
nearly a foot in length, and has a hundred and twenty rings.

SECOND FAMILY. Hirudinida, (Lat. hirudo, a leech.) LEECHES.

These include various genera, both marine and fresh water.
All are without limbs or bristles, but have a sucker at each end
of the body, which enables them to move about and to adhere
to living bodies, penetrating the skin, by means of their three
jaws and teeth, and drawing the blood, upon which they were
formerly supposed to subsist.* Two species of Leech are al-
most exclusively medicinal ; the GREEN LEECH, Hirudo offici-
na.hs, and the BROWN LEECH, (spotted underneath,) H. medici-
nalis. Other species are, however, sometimes used. Fresh-
water leeches soon die after having been removed from the
water. Many leeches have eight eyes. There are several ma-
rine species which attach themselves to Torpedoes, Turtles and

* It is very remarkable that blood is not the natural food of the Leech ;
and that the fluid which it so greedily swallows, does not pass into the
intestines, but remains in the stomach for many months, and what is still
more curious, it does not coagulate during' the whole of that time, as it
would do in an hour if exposed to the air, but continues to retain its fluid-
ity. (Gosse.)

656 ENTOZOA.

Fishes, particularly the Skate. Leeches are so much used for
medicinal purposes that methods have been adopted for cultivat-
ing them. Some enterprising Frenchmen have recently leased
marshes in Ireland, and sowed them broad cast with leeches, in
the hope of thus deriving large profits. The value of those
annually used in France, is estimated at from one to one and a
half million of dollars. The species H. geobdella, (Gr. earth-
leech,) frequently leaves the water to pursue earth-worms.

FOURTH ORDER. ENTOZOA, (Gr. svrog, entos, within; £ax>y,
20 on, an animal.)

This order includes the various minute animals which are
produced and developed within other living beings. They are
exceedingly various in form and organization, having but one
character in which they mostly agree, viz. : that they are para-
sitic, living within and at the expense of the bodies of other ani-
mals.

Some species, both in their appearance and internal structure,
so closely resemble individuals placed in other classes, that they
can be said to differ from them only in respect to the localities in
which they are found. They have been discovered in all the
Mammalia, from man down to the Cetacea ; and they are even
more numerous in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes than in the Mam-
mals. The invertebrated animals have also parasites peculiar
to themselves. They have been found in Insects, Mollusks, and
even the Acalephs. They fix themselves, according to the spe-
cies, in various parts of the bodies which they infest, such as the
intestines, brain, liver, kidneys, muscles, blood, and bones. In
some cases, the same species are found in water, as well as
within animals.

FIRST SUB-ORDER. NEMATOIDEA, (Gr. r^ua, nema, a thread ;
eidog, eidos, form.) ROUND WORMS.

These are the highest in organization of the Entozoa, having a
round, long, and elastic body, and a complicated structure, there
being a true intestinal canal. The mouth, by its varieties, af-
fords generic characters ; the females are longer than the males,
and for the most part oviparous. They have been divided into
eleven genera. We have room to notice only (1) those of the
genus Ascaris, which include the COMMON ROUND WORM, A.
lumbricoides, so named from its general likeness to the Lumbri-
cus, or Earth- Worm. This occurs in the hog and ox as well as

ENTOZOA. 657

in man, and chiefly inhabits the small intestines. The male is
smaller and more abundant than the female. This worm is
white, from six to twelve or fifteen inches long. It is frequently
fatal to children, in which it penetrates to the stomach, and even
to the mouth. Five hundred have sometimes been passed from
a child in the course of seven or eight days ; also Pin-Worms or
Thread Worms, A. vermicularis, (Lat. from vermiculus, a little
worm.) These are very minute, the male seldom exceeding
two lines, and the female five lines in length, and being propor-
tionally slender.* They dwell in the large intestines, sometimes
in immense numbers and producing great irritation.

2. Filaria, (including the GUINEA WORMS,) of which three
species inhabit the human body. Some are found in various
animals including insects and their larvae. These are long worms,
smooth and thread-like, and of a somewhat rigid texture. The
GUINEA. WORM, F. Medinensis, occurs in Arabia, Upper Egypt,
Guinea, the West Indies, and other hot climates. It is generally
white, but sometimes of a brown color. The length varies from
six inches to twelve feet, and it is about as thick as the string of
a violin. It infests the muscles and subcutaneous tissues, prin-
cipally of the lower limbs ; sometimes it locates itself about the
eye and under the tongue. Occasionally it makes its way to
the surface of a skin, creating a pustule or sore, when it may be
taken hold of and cautiously and gradually extracted. If broken
off, however, the part remaining enclosed produces inflammation,
and may render amputation indispensable. Within the tropics,
people sometimes seem to be affected by it almost epidemically,
nearly half the men in a regiment of soldiers, having at the same
time been attacked by it. It seems that it may exist under the
skin many months or even a year without being detected. The
Guinea worm is said to be sometimes seen swimming in the wa-
ters of the countries which it inhabits.

Species of the Filaria have recently been found in the blood
of dogs. The HAIR-WORMS, Gordius aquations, (see Chart,)
are nematoids found in free water, or as internal parasites of
insects. The latter swallow the eggs of the Hair Worm, after
they have been deposited in water; and "in this position the egg
is hatched, producing the Gordius, which becomes impregnated,
and escapes from the insect into waters where it deposits its eggs."
It has erroneously been supposed to be developed from a horse
hair.

* The line here referred to is the twelfth part of a French inch.

658 BNTOZOA.

SECOND STTB.ORDER. ACANTHOCEPHALA, (Gr. from ayavda,
akantha, a thorn ; xeqpaXj?, kephale, a head.) HOOKED WORMS.

This order contains but one genus, Echinorhynclms, (Gr. echi-
nos< a hedge-hog ; rhunchos, beak,) with numerous species. The
generic name refers to the chief character, which is a straight,
round trunk, armed with rows of recurved tooth-like hooks.
These Worms are generally found in the intestinal canal ; some-
times in the neck under the skin. They occur in all vertebrates
except man, sometimes boring through the intestines and passing
into other parts of the body. The species E. gigas, which is
from three to fifteen inches long, infests hogs, particularly such
as have been shut up to be fattened. •

THIRD SUB-ORDER. TREMATODA, (Gr. from T^wa, trema, a for-
amen or hole.) FLUKE WORMS.

These worms have a soft and rounded or flattened body. The
head is indistinct, with a suctorial foramen ; one or more sucto-
rial pores appear on the surface of the body, furnishing the ba-
sis of their subdivision into genera. They have no intestinal
canal. The Fasciola, (Lat. a small bandage,) hepaticum, (Gr.
hepaticos, of the liver,) is a representative of this group, — a
worm that infests the liver, gall-bladder, and sometimes the con-
tiguous veins or ducts ; is frequently found in numerous rumi-
nant and other animals. It is particularly common in sheep, in
the disease called the rot. This worm has sometimes been found
in the gall-bladder of man. Its shape is considerably like that
of a melon seed, (Plate XVI. fig. 8.) These worms have two
pores, one in front, the other ventral ; hence they are sometimes
denoted by the generic term, Distoma, (Gr. two-mouthed.)

Some Trematods occur in birds and fishes.

FOURTH SUB-ORDER. CESTOIDEA, (Gr. from xecrros, kestos, a
band ; eidos, eidos, form.) TAPE WORMS.

Of these worms eight genera have been described. The
head varies greatly in the different genera ; generally it has two
or four pits or suctorial orifices, and sometimes four retractile
tentacles. There is no trace of an intestinal canal, unless it be
connected with vessels proceeding from the suckers. Two gen-
era contain species that infest the human body :

1. Bothriocephalus, (Gr. lothros, a groove ; kephale, head.)
This is a long, flat, jointed worm, with two longitudinal grooves,

ENTOZOA. G59

one on each side of the head ; infesting birds, fishes, and rep-
tiles. The species B. latus is common in the intestines of man,
in Switzerland, Russia, parts of France, &c. It is distinguished
from the Tania by the form of its segments, which are broader
than they are long, and by the openings of the ovaries, which are
beneath instead of at the sides.

2. Tcenia, (Lat. a band.) This genus also has the body flat, long,
and articulated, but the articulations are so small and indistinct
for some distance from the head, (Plate XVI. fig. 9a,) that its
existence was for a long time unknown, and it was supposed the
worm obtained its nourishment through the lateral pores. The
head is round, with four suckers forming a square about the
mouth.

The COMMON" TAPE WORM, T. solium, inhabits the human
intestines, but not with equal frequency in all countries. It is,
however, more widely distributed than the B. latus. The length
to which this worm attains is considerable, but it may be difficult
to assign its limit. Sometimes it is twenty feet and even more,
in length. One species, T. cateniformis, (Lat. chain-like,) about
an inch long, infests the cat.

FIFTH SUB-ORDER. CYSTICA, (Gr. xtfcms, kustis, a bladder.)

These worms are either flat or round, terminating behind in a
transparent cyst or bladder filled with a perfectly clear fluid ;
the head is retractile and provided with two or four pits, or four
suckers and a circle of small hooks, or with four unarmed ten-
tacles. This is the lowest group of the class, nothing is known
of its nutritive and some other organs. They are represented by
the Hydatida, or Hydatid, which consists of a globular bag,
composed of condensed albuminous matter, of a laminated or
plate-like texture, and containing a clear and colorless fluid.

The young are developed between the layers of the parent
cyst, and thrown off internally or externally, according to the
species. Some have doubted whether it be an animal. Its struc-
ture resembles that of the lowest forms of Alga, or Sea-weed,
as the Red Snow, (Protoc&cus nivalis,) of the arctic regions.
Acephalocysts have been found in almost .every structure and
cavity of the human body. Some species live in the brain and
spinal cord of sheep, and in the brain of oxen, giving rise to the
disease called " staggers."

G60 ENTOZOA.

What is the position of theMYRiAPODA? In what respects do they agree
with the ANNELIDANS, and how do they differ? In what respects do they
resemble and how differ from Insects? Into how many ORDERS are they
divided? Describe their characteristics. Into how many families is the 1st
ORDER arranged ? Name and describe the CENTIPEDES referred to. Also
those of the 2nd ORDER. What is the 3d class? Why separated from
Insects ? State how they differ. Describe the characteristics and habits
of SPIDERS. Which is the 1st ORDER ? Repeat what is said of the Common
S. What is said of the Mason or Trap-door S. ? Of the Tarantula? How
do the Pedipalpi differ from the Spiders proper ? What family forms the
largest part of this division? What is said of them? Which is the 2nd
ORDER ? What forms does it include ? Repeat what is said of the Mites.
Of the Ticks. Of the Shepherd Spider. What other sp. are referred to ?

What is the 6th BRANCH of ZOOLOGY? Describe their characteristics
and habits? How many orders do they include ? What is the 1st ORDER?
Give the characters, &c., of the Crabs, or Short-tailed Crustaceans. What
sp. are mentioned and what is said of them ? What is said of the Long-
tailed or Second Section ? What is said of the Shrimps ? Of the River
Prawn? Of the Cray or Craw-fish? Of the Lobster, Astacus marinus ?
How does the Common American Lobster compare with it in size ? What
sp. of Shrimps are mentioned? What Crabs are included in the 3rd Sec-
tion, and what is said of them ? What is the 2nd ORDER? What families
does it include ? Which is first mentioned ? What is said of it ? Name
and describe thesp. referred to? What is the 2d family mentioned? What
gen. and sp. are named ? What is said of them ? What is the 3rd ORDER ?
What are its characteristics, &c. ? What is said of the Cyclops ? Of the
Daphnia? Of the Cypris? What is said of the King Crab, or Horse-foot?
What of the Trilobite ? What singular Crustacean is next spoken of?
What is the 4th ORDER ? How ranked by the earlier Naturalists ? Give
their characters, &c. Into what two groups are they divided? What is
said of the Barnacles? Of the Acorn-shells? What is the 5th ORDER?
What is said of them? Name the sp. referred to.

What is the 7th BRANCH of ZOOLOGY ? How was the class Annelidans
arranged by Cuvier and others ? How again by other naturalists ? Give
the characters of Red-blooded Worms. Which is the 1st ORDER? How
distinguished? What Family is first named ? How distinguished? What
gen. are mentioned? What is said of them? What Family is next men-
tioned? Repeat what is said of it. Also of the 2nd Family. What is 'he
3d ORDER ? What leading character is noticed ? How is the Order di-
vided? What is said of the Earth Worms? What of the Leeches? What
is the 5th ORDER? Give the general account. What is the 1st Sub-order?
Repeat what is said of Round Worms. What is said of Hooked Worms?
What of the Fluke ? Of the Tape-worm? What of the Cystica, or Hyda-
tids? Name the White and Red-blooded worms found upon the Chart?
By what forms are they distinguished ? Where do they live ?

PL. XVII.

ST.

A imp

Plaits.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

1, 2, 3. Round or Hard Clam, Venus Mercenaries, showing the different
parts of a bivalve shell.

U. Umbones or bosses. The swelling part of bivalve shells near the beaks.
The highest points of the beaks are the summits.

L. Lunule, a crescent-like mark or spot near the anterior or posterior slopes
in bivalve shells, sometimes called areola.

D. D. Dorsal or superior border, near the bosses or beaks.

V, V. Ventral or inferior border, or border lip, at the base of the shell, oppo-
site the beaks.

A. Anterior or oral extremity, the part in which the ligament is not placed.
In a univalve it is the greatest distance from the apex.

P. Posterior or anal extremity, that side of the bosses containing the ligament.

Le. Length in bivalves is taken horizontally, or from the posterior to the an
terior margin ; in univalves it is takea perpendicularly or from the
apex to the base.

Disk, the middle part of the valves.

H. Heighth. T. Thickness, through the shell from disk to disk.

Lig. Ligament, an external substance, uniting the two valves, and which in
fact is the true hinge ; the internal or cartilaginous part is often contin-
ued between the teeth.
The hinge is composed of the ligament, the cartilage and the teeth.

C. Cardinal teeth, i. e. the serratures or dentations beneath the bosses.

Lat. Lateral teeth, at the sides of the cardinal teeth.

A. imp. Anterior muscular impression. P. imp. Posterior muscular im-
pression ; these indented marks upon the shell show where the adductor
muscles are attached.

Pal. imp. The Pallial or marginal impression formed by the mantle of the

animal.

4. A Multivalve Shell, one composed of many pieces, as the Chiton.

5. Fusus. A spindle-shaped UNIVALVE SHELL, showing the different parts.
Ap. Apex, or posterior part of a univalve shell, the point or nucleus of a

shell, the top of Limpets and all univalves, and the bosses or beaks of

bivalves.

Sp. The Spire includes all the volutions except the body whorl.
S. W. Spiral whorls ; each complete turn is termed a whorl or volution.

B. W. Body or basal whorl, is the last and usually much the largest.

S. Suture, the line where the whorls of spiral shells meet or fit into each

other. When grooved or furrowed it is said to be canaliculated.
Col. Columella or Pillar, the internal support round which the whorls wind.

C. Lip. Columella, inner or pillar lip, folds over the lower part of the columella.
0. Lip. The outer lip is the external edge or termination of the last whorl.

A. or M. Aperture, mouth or front, from which the body can protrude.
Ca. Canal, groove, or furrow in the beak as in Fusus, Murex, &c. ; in the

Buccinum, Harpa, &c., it is only a notch, as in fig. 8.

B. Beak, or rostrum, the continuation of the body whorl.
B. or A. The base or anterior part.

6. A Turbinated Shell, (Paludina vivipara,) with the young shells.

7. The OPKRCULUM, (door or cover,) closing the mouth, found in nearly all
predaceous univalves, and always attached to the foot of the live animal.

8. Tiara, showing a turreted shell, with plaits or folds on the pillar; S, striee ;

N. notch at the base, R. ribs, and T. tubercles.
9. Physa, showing the reverse or sinistral aperture.
10. Snail, (Helix anastoma depressum^ showing the reflexed lip and the teeth.

EIGHTH BRANCH OP ZOOLOGY.

MALACOLOGY. (Gr. fialaxos, malakos, soft ; ttyo$, logos,
discourse.)

THIS is the science of the structure and habits of soft animals,
or Mollusks. Many of these, from the number, variety, and beauty
of their shells, invited attention at an early period, under the
name of CONCHOLOGY, (Gr. konche, a shell ; logos, a discourse ;)
but in order to a natural classification, and a knowledge of the
habits of the class, it was found that the entire animal must be
known ; hence, Conchology has been merged in MALACOLOGY.

THIRD SUB-KINGDOM. MOLLUSC A, (Lat. moths, soft.) MOLLUSKS.

The Mollusks are, as a whole, inferior to the Articulates in
their organization and faculties, but yet are superior to the Ra-
diates, thus ranking as the third series in the Animal Kingdom.

In their external form, they are exceedingly various. Their
internal parts are always soft, fleshy, moist, and cold ; although
a small number of them have some solid internal pieces intended
for the protection of certain organs. The nervous system, in-
stead of being developed in the form of a spinal cord, is com-
posed of ganglia and nerves, which are dispersed, more or less
irregularly, in different parts of the body. A few species have
organs analogous to the ear; many are furnished with eyes; but
it is not certain that they possess any sense of smell. Many of
them appear to have no other organs than those subservient to
touch and taste. The sense of feeling is probably most acute in
the tentacula. The organs of sense and locomotion are generally
arranged with symmetry. The muscles are attached to the
skin ; and by the alternate elongation and contraction of certain
parts, the animals crawl on the ground, swim on the water, and
lay hold of objects; but, as their limbs are not supported by
bones or other solid parts, their motions are usually very slow.
They are never furnished with feet arranged in series on each

MALACOLOGY. 663

side of the body, as in the vertebrates and insects ; but many
possess a fleshy tongue-like appendage, called a foot, which is
used, in some cases, either for progression, as in the snail, or
adhesion, as in the limpet and chiton, (see Chart, and Plate
XVII.) The location of this organ, on the lower part of the body
of univalve Mollusks, (see figures of Harpa, Buccinum, and a
Haliotes, on the Chart,) suggested the distinctive term for the
order, GASTEROPODA. The organs of respiration are always dis-
tinct, and present the form of gills, i. e., blood-vessels dividing
into parallel branches, which are brought into contact with the
air contained either in the atmosphere or in the water.

The blood of the Mollusks is white, bluish, or limpid. There
is always a heart in them, but it is singularly placed; indeed,
some of them seem to have several hearts. In no other animals
is the circulation more unequal ; but always, however, there are
blood-cavities into which the blood-vessels open, and from which
other vessels arise and diffuse again the blood into the organs.
The stomach is sometimes simple ; sometimes divided into sev-
eral parts ; there is always a large liver.

In some, the' sexes are separated ; and in others united ; all
of them produce eggs, — which, in some cases, are deposited ex-
ternally ; in others, hatched within, so that Mollusks are either
oviparous or ovoviviparous. The young of all have, from the
first, nearly the form which they present when mature.

The soft, and usually sensitive skin, frequently forms plaits or
folds enveloping the body either wholly or in part. The portion
of covering thus formed, is termed the mantle. It is often almost
entirely free, presenting two large laminae or lobes, which cover
the rest of the animal, as in the Cyprrea; or the two laminae
unite so as to form a kind of tube, as in the Solen or Razor-
Shell. Sometimes the mantle forms a sort of disk, of which the
margins only are free ; or it surrounds the body in the form of
a bag.

In a large number of Mollusks, the soft skin is protected by a
sort of calcareous crust, which is secreted from the mantle, in
deposits of successive layers, composed of a kind of glutinous
substance, mixed with carbonate of lime, — differing, as Prof.
Dana has shown in his admirable work, (see Narrative of Ex-
ploring Expedition,) from the Polyps, (Radiates,) — in which the
limestone portions form a part of the animal, and are not mere
excretory matter, resembling shell. Sometimes the whole shell
appears to be horny, but most commonly the calcareous portion
predominates, and the inner surface is more compact than the
other.

663 MALACOLOGY.

In some cases, the shell is internal, or lodged in the skin, but,
generally, it is external, and affords complete protection to the
animal.

Mollusks which, like the Cuttle-fish, (see Chart,) have no
outer shell, are said to be naked; those having a shell, are
called Testaceous or Conchiferous. The shell varies in form,
the shape being determined by the animal itself. Sometimes
it resembles a shield that covers the back of the Mollusk,
but more frequently it is like a conical tube spirally twisted;
or it may be composed of two distinct pieces united by a joint ;
hence, the arrangement of these animals into Univalves and
Bivalves. The first, or the MOLLUSCA CEPHALATA, have a dis-
tinct head, bearing lips or jaws, and are furnished with eyes
and tentacula; the Bivalves, or the MOLLUSCA ACEPHALA, have
a more simple organization. These have no distinct head,
and are destitute of jaws, and other hard parts of a mouth.
The shells are often ornamented with colors variously dis-
posed, the animals themselves being furnished with the materials
for beautifying as well as constructing their outward cover-
ings. The skin is full of pores, containing colored fluids, which,
penetrating the calcareous substance before it hardens, form its
variegated tints. The regularity of the markings is admirable.
It is accounted for by the fact, that the pores containing the col-
ored matter are arranged in the skin of Mollusks with undeviating
order, as the spots upon the leopard, or the stripes upon the tiger.
When the liquid exudes, it stains the shell ; and the uniformity
of pattern in the shell results from the order in which the pores
are placed in the mantle. The numerous spines or digitations
found in many of the shells, (see Murex and Pteroceras, on the
Chart,) are formed by the prolongations of the mantle bearing
upon its edges the material for this calcareous deposit.

The parts of a univalve shell, are (I) the body or lower part;
(2) the spire or tapering portion; (3) the turns or whorls-,
(when the lower whorls of the spire are pressed into the body
whorl or turn, they are said to be refuse;) (4) the suture or line
of junction of the turns; (5) the columellar or pillar, the axis of
the shell ; (6) the mouth or aperture with its peristone or margin,
which may be complete or not, and may be described as forming
an outer lip, and an inner lip; (7) the lid or operculum, (from
operior, to cover,) — the plate or door with which some species
close the aperture. The spiral turns may be smooth, or vari-
ously marked with striae, laminae, ribs, nodosites, or spines, the
markings being longitudinal or transverse. In its natural posi-
tion, the mouth is beneath and forward, the spire painting back-

MALACOLOGY. C67

wards and to the right side. Some shells have the mouth on the
left side and are called sinistral ; those of the ordinary form have
the mouth on the right side, and are called dextral.

BIVALVE shells are composed of two pieces, kept together by
a sort of hinge. When the two valves are equal, the shell is said
to be equivalve ; when unequal, unequivalve. They may be
round, elliptical, ovate, linear, or of various forms. The more or
less prominent part of the valve at the joint, is the umbo. When
the umbo is nearly in the middle, the shell is said to be isomeral
or equilateral; when not, anisomeral or inequilateral. The
hinge may be plain, but it generally presents various promi-
nences, called teeth, with depressions, the teeth of one valve filling
the depressions of another. The valves are farther kept together
by an elastic fibrous ligament, which tends to throw them open.
They are brought near to each other by a pair of strong muscles
extended internally from one valve to the other, and leaving
strong impressions on the inner surface. The teeth are distin-
guished into cardinal or central, and lateral. The surface may
be convex in various degrees; concentrically striate, laminate, or
rugose, or radiated from the umbones (or bosses) with striae,
ridges, grooves, ribs or spine. In the natural position, the hinge
is uppermost on the back ; that end of the shell to which the lig-
ament is nearest, is above, and is called the posterior end ; the
other or lower, toward which is the head of the animal, is the
anterior end ; the thin edges of the valves are their ventral mar-
gins. On the inner surface of the valves are seen the impres-
sions made by the muscles, and that left by the mantle. (See
figures of Plate XVII. together with the explanations of the
same.)

Some shells, as the Pearl Oyster, Avicula margaritifera, the
Pinna and the Modiola, (see Chart,) fix themselves by silky fila-
ments called a byssus; some by a sort of cement, as the Oyster,
(Ostrea ;) others by forming a vacuum, as the Tatella or
Limpet, and still others attach themselves to rocks by the
same substance as that of which the shells are made, as the
Vermetus. The shells, which by any of these means are ren-
dered stationary, are called fixed shells, subsisting upon the
little animals which are brought near by the motion of the
water; the other shells are called free. Mollusks are also (1)
terrestrial. These feed on vegetables, have always four ten-
tacula, and their eyes placed at the tip of these organs ; (2)
fluviatile or fresh-water shells, that have only two tentacula,
which are flat, and have eyes at the base ; (3) Marine, which are
most numerous, most beautiful, and most highly prized. We

683 MALJ OOLOGY.

find the shell and the habits of the Mollusks wisely adapted to the
situations which they occupy.

Some that belong to rapid streams, have an exceedingly hard
and substantial shell, adapted to contend with the most boisterous
elements. Others, by their very levity, are enabled to float on
the surface of the water, and offering no resistance, are carried
along on the surface of the waves. The Pimvi anchors itself by
its byssus to rocks, and thus is secure against all dangers. Oth-
ers, as the Nautilus and Argonaut, by adding to the weight of
their bark, can descend and seek a shelter in the ocean's bed.
There are numerous and beautiful contrivances for their pre-
servation. Breaches will, however, sometimes be made in the
outer coverings ; but these they have the power to repair, by ex-
uding a calcareous matter similar to that with which the shell
was first constructed. They are peculiarly abundant in warm
climates; being larger and more brilliantly colored, the greater
the light and heat to which they are subjected. Including the
soft, naked species, as well as those protected by a hard calcare-
ous shell, it is believed the number of species will not fall short
often or twelve thousand, and this, exclusive of the fossil species,
which are thought to be still more numerous. It is said there
are scarcely eight hundred living shells found in the Mediterra-
nean, or on the French shores of the Atlantic Ocean, but more
than twelve hundred fossil shells have been found in that stratum
of limestone in which the city of Paris is built, and of which
such extensive deposits exist in the neighborhood. " In that
single stratum is found, at this day, one third more fossil shells
than live on the whole extent of the French shores." (Agassiz.)

We had designed to follow this general description of the
Mollusks, with explanations of the various sub-divisions, after the
manner adopted in the preceding sub-kingdoms; but already
this volume has swelled far beyond the limits originally assigned
to it. Hence, we are constrained to close our account of shells
here, referring to the Plates found in this work, and to the Chart,
with its numerous figures and explanations, for further illustra-
tions; also to Manuals of Conchology, already published, until,
if circumstances should hereafter warrant, we may be able to
prepare a volume in which the Articulates, Mollusks, and Radi-
ates, shall be presented in a manner corresponding in fullness to
the view herein presented of the VERTEBRATES.

What is the Eighth Branch of Zoology ? Of what does it treat ? Under
vehat name was the science of shells formerly known? Why was it

MALACOLOGY.

changed ? Which is the THIRD SUB-KINGDOM ? What is said of their ex-
ternal form? Of the internal parts? What of the nervous system? Of
their organs of sense ? To what are the muscles attached ? How are the
animals enabled to crawl, swim, &c. ? Why are their motions very slow?
What is said of the organs of respiration ? Of the blood, stomach, &c. ?
What is meant by the mantle? How does it vary ? How is the skin in
many Mollusks protected ? Is the shell always external ? Wl at are those
called which have no shell? What those which have a shell? How is the
shape of the shell determined? Whence the divisions into UNIVALVES and
Bivalves? What other names have these divisions received? What is
said of them? What is said of the coloring of shells? Name the parts of
a Univalve Shell, &c. Give the explanation of Bivalve shells as furnished
by the text and Plate XVII ? What are fixed shells ? What are free
shells ? What other division of the Mollusks are given ? What is said of
the adaptation of the shell and habits of Mollusks to their respective situa-
tions ? In what climate are they most abundant and most brilliantly col-
ored? What is said of the number of species?

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

CLASS ECHINODERMS.

Fig. 1. Sea-Slug or Sea-Cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, a Holothurian

eaten by the Chinese ; a, the branching tentacula which surround and

fringe the mouth ; b, the five rows of perforations for the sucker-like

feet ; c, the vent.
Fig. 2. Sea-egg or Sea-urchin; the vent at the apex. The mouth is beneath

and central. The large tubercles in wide rows support the large spines ;

the small perforations are for the passage of the sucker-like feet which

assist in locomotion.
Fig. 3. Five-finger, radiated Star-fish, or Cross-fish, Asterias ( Uraster) san-

guinolenta ; a, the eye spots at the extremity of each ray.
Fig. 4. Asterias ( Uraster} rubens ; a, both mouth and vent on the under side.
Fig. 5. Pentagonal Star-fish, Asterias tesselata.
Fig. 6. Medusa's-head, Gorgonocephalus, or Euryale, having five arms,

which in some individuals branch off into 5,000 filaments.
Fig. 7. Pentacrinus Briareus, — a, shows the head and arms; b, the upper

part, half the natural size, with the arms entwined around the plated

integument of the abdominal cavity, which terminates above by a sort

of proboscis.
Fig. 8. Stone Lily, Lily Encrinite, Encrinus liliiformis.

CLASS ACALEPH.

Fig. 9. Rhizoxtoma, Cuvieri ; a common jelly-fish of European seas; a,

pedunculated mass depending from four roots in the center.
Fig. 10. Lymnorea triedra ; a, side view; b, view from above; c, eight

finely divided appendages surrounding the long center proboscis.
Fig. 11. Rhodophysa helianthus ; a, the short bladder-like body ; b, rib-like

gelatinous bodies, from which filamentous processes, c, depend.
Fig. 12. Callianira triploptera ; a, wing-shaped appendages fringed with

a double row of vibrating cilia ; b, a pair of long, branched, tentacu-

lar-like appendages ; c, tubular body.

CLASS PHYTOZOA, OR POLYPS.

Fig. 13. Sea Anemone, Actinia.

Fig. 14. Hydra fusca, a common fresh water polyp, highly magnified.

Fig. 15. GaryopkgUea, with two series of numerous tentacula putting forth
from multiradiate cells.

Fig. 16. Warty Gorgonia, or Warted Sea-Fan, Gorgonia verrucosa ; a, rep-
resents the sucker-like feet ; b, the same magnified.

Fig. 17. Sea-pen, Pennatula grisea. The blanches put out on each side of
the central axis, like the barbs of a feather ; on these branches the
Polyps are situated, and by their tentacula its course seems to be di-
rected.

Fig. 18. Madrepora abratanoides ; a, twelve tentacles protruding from deep
cells.

Fig. 19. Thick tentacled Fungia, swarming with numerous tentacula, all
belonging to one animal.

Fig. 20. Fungia patellaris, Mushroom coral.

CLASS PROTOZOA.

Fig. 21. Rhizopods, Low forms allied to mollusks by their shells, as Fora-

minifera, &c.

Fig. 22. Polygastrica, (Animalcules, or microscopic animals.)
Fig. 23. Sponges Spongia ; a and b, sponges of commerce; c, tube sponge.

ECH I NOD ER M S
a

PHYTOZOA,OR POLYPS.

PORJ FERA^OR PROTOZOA,

FOURTH SUB-KINGDOM

RADIATES. (Lat. radius, a ray.)

THIS includes animals so named from the arrangement of the
parts round an axis somewhat as in plants ; hence they were
called by Cuvier, ZOOPHYTES, Plant-like animals. These intro-
duce us to the

NINTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY.

ACTINOLOGY, (Gr. axTlv, aktin, a ray ; Aoy6?, logos, a discourse.

RAY-LIKE ANIMALS.

The terms which are here employed are not, by any means,
equally applicable to all the beings included in this last sub-divis-
ion of the Animal Kingdom. While in some of them the radiated
arrangement of the parts is very easily seen, in others it can
be traced only by a close microscopic examination. Agassiz says
it can be perceived in all with "sufficient observation." Such
are the differences of form and in the degree of organization
among the Radiates, that instead of undertaking to present addi-
tional characters, describing them as a whole, we shall at once
proceed to consider the four classes into which they are divided.

I. ECHINODERMS, (Gr. s^o?, echinos, a sea-urchin ;
derma, skin.)

These are all marine, and characterized by having a well or-
ganized skin, under which or attached to which are often found
plates of solid matter, forming a kind of skeleton, and some-
times joined together like the stones of a pavement. They
have a digestive andx vascular system. A circular nervous sys-

674 HOLOTHURIDEA.

tern has been detected in many of the species. Some of them
have the bodies raised upon a footstalk, the base of which is
fixed ; others have no pedicle, and can move freely, though
slovvjy along the bottom. Of the latter kind the Star-fish, Aste-
rias, is an example, which drags its slow pace along with the
aid of more than eight hundred sucker-like feet. In these, at
the extremity of the rays are dots, which, according to Ehren-
burg, are eyes. The Echinoderms usually have the mouth
armed with hard bony teeth. Both the mouth and the gullet are,
in the Star-fish, extremely dilatable, and admirably fitted for se-
curing the Crustaceans and Shell-fish upon which they feed.
When the prey is over large, the gullet, together with part of the
stomach, can be protruded and turned over so as to draw the de-
sired food into the cavity. In this way, shell-fish are swallowed
whole by these animals ; living specimens have sometimes been
taken out of the cavity.

The sudden and violent dismemberment by which mnnyofthe
Echinoderms save their central disk at the expense of their rays
or arms, is a striking peculiarity ; the length of time during
which these severed parts still continue to be endowed with mo-
tion, is also remarkable. These animals have great power of
reproducing lost parts, but they do not seem to be able to increase
individuals by gemmation, as in the Acalephs and Protozoa.

FIRST ORDER. HOLOTHURIDEA, (Gr. oloOovgiov, holothourion.)
SEA-SLUGS, or SEA-CUCUMBERS.

These animals have a more or less lengthened and sometimes
worm-like body ; it i» soft, leathery and contractile, with earthy
matter deposited about the mouth, but without any outer shell.
When irritated, the contractile power of the body seems to be
increased. The general form is quite variable. Over the body
are spread numerous pores for the secretion of mucus, and per-
forations for the exit of the sucker-like feet. When not generally
distributed, these latter organs are arranged in five rows or fur-
rows, representing what are fancifully termed ambulacra or ave-
nues. The mouth is bordered with tentacles which can be
withdrawn. Mariners have named these animals Sea-Cucum-
bers, from the resemblance of their form and prickly surface to
the garden cucumber. Of the genus Cucumaria, there are sev-
eral species, differing in quality, known among the Malays un-
der the name of Trepang, or Biche-de-mer. Commodore Wilkes,
(Exploring Expedition,) says "the most esteemed kinds are found
on the reefs in water, one or two fathoms deep, and are caught

ECHIN1DEA. C73

by diving. The natives also fish the Uche-de-mer on rocky co-
ral bottom by the light of the moon or of torches, for the animals
keep themselves drawn up in holes by day, and come forth by
night to feed, when they may be taken in great numbers. The
motions of the animal resemble those of a caterpillar, and it
feeds by suction, drawing in with its food much fine coral and
some small shells.

The prepared article finds a ready sale in the China market,
where it is used as an ingredient in soups. When brought on
shore, the animals are placed in bins where they remain the next
day ; the entrails are then removed ; the larger kinds are cut along
the under part for three or four inches to make them dry more
rapidly ; then thrown into pots of the form of sugar boilers, con-
taining from one hundred to one hundred and fifty gallons, and
boiled fifteen or twenty minutes, after which they are thoroughly
dried in a large building. This process makes the slug lose
two-thirds of its weight and bulk. When cured it resembles
smoked sausage. The biche-de-mer is sometimes taken to Can-
ton, but more usually to Manilla, whence it is shipped to China."

Sometimes it is as much as two feet in length, and from seven
to eight inches in circumference; but a span long, and two or
three inches in circumference is the ordinary size.

SECOND ORDER. ECHINIDEA, (Gr.'sxivog, echinos, a sea-urchin ;
eldog, eidos, form.) SEA- URCHINS OR SEA- EGGS.

These furnish complete examples of the type of radiated ani-
mals. Their hard covering and habits of living in the sand have
preserved them in many rocky strata, so that in their fossil as
well as living forms, they are objects of interest to the naturalist.
Their usually oval or circular form has suggested for them the
name of Sea-eggs. Their more or less rounded form, without
any arms, distinguishes them from other Echinoderms. Within
their integument calcareous matter is deposited, forming a series
of regular plates, studded with tubercles which are jointed with
spines varying in form and size, according to the genus to which
they belong. These spines " have a beautiful microscopic struc-
ture, being composed of cells which are arranged around a com-
mon center, almost in the same manner as the zones of wood in
a tree." The plates run in vertical rows or avenues, twenty in
number, two of which are wide and two narrow, alternately, the
tubercles of the wide pair supporting the larger spines ; the nar-
row ones have vertical rows of minute perforations, which allow
the passage of the sucker-like feet, that in addition to the spines,

676 ASTERIDEA.

perform the office of locomotion. The ovarium-holes are situ-
ated on the apex, and from these the eggs are extruded. The
forms of this order vary from that of the CAKE-URCHINS, ScuteUa,
(Lat. a salver,) slightly convex above, to the sub-globular
Echinus, (Plate XVIII. fig. 2.) This, with other genera having
large spines, is found on the bottom of the sea ; while the Cake-
Urchins, having short, bristly spines, burrow in sand.

The HEART-URCHIN, Spalangus, (Gr. spatangos, a kind of sea-
urchin,) has a thin, delicate shell, of a lengthened, gibbous form,
with the vent posterior and placed upon the upper surface, (see
Chart.) The structure of the mouth in the Sea-urchin deserves
special notice. It is formed of ten series of hard plates, fur-
nished with teeth which are moved by very distinct muscles, and
put in motion by a complicated nervous system ; armed also
with five jaws so arranged as to correspond with the ten series of
plates. So powerful are these jaws that they are able to crush
shell-fishes and the hardest bodies. According to Agassiz, a
more complicated organization is scarcely to be found in the
Animal Kingdom. The mechanism of these five jaws, with
their singular array of arched teeth, Aristotle compared to a
lantern ; hence the Echinus has been called "Aristotle's Lan-
tern."

Professor Forbes informs us that "in a moderate sized urchin,
there are sixty-two rows of pores in each of the ten avenues ;
and as there are three pairs of pores in each row, the total num-
ber of pores is 3720 ; but as each sucker occupies a pair of pores
in each row, the total number of 'suckers is I860." He says
also that "there are above three hundred plates of one kind, and
nearly as many of another, alJ dovetailing together with the
greatest nicety and regularity, bearing on their surface above
four thousand spines, each spine perfect in itself and of a com-
plicated structure, and having a free movement in its socket."
" Truly," he adds, " the skill of the Great Architect of Nature
is not less displayed in the construction of a sea-urchin, than in
the building of a world."

THIRD ORDER. ASTERIDEA, (Gr. a<n%, aster, a star; eldos,
eidos, a form.) STAR-FISHES.

This order o.f Radiates is distinguished by having the body-
more or less lobed, and the lobes chaneled beneath for cirrhi,
which act as suckers, and are organs of motion. In some
genera the arms, instead of having lateral cirrhi or filaments,
separate into branches. The Euryale or Gorgonocephalus, (Gr.

CRINOIDEA. 677

gorgon-headed,) (see Chart,) is remarkable for its five arms divid-
ing into pairs of branches, which terminate in curled filaments,
and form a sort of net work. So numerous are these branches,
it is said, they may number eight thousand in one individual.

The STAR-FISH, Asterias, has almost innumerable perforations
through which the cupping-glass feet protrude, enabling the ani.
mal to crawl up a surface as smooth as glass, and also assisting
it to hold its prey. The rays are so much enlarged as to become,
on that account, less flexible, and not so well fitted for locomo-
tion, but for this the animal is compensated by numerous per-
forations.

The SCUTELLATED STAR-FISH, A. scutellata, has an angular
body, the lobes or rays of which are short, not exceeding the
diameter of the disk ; other species have a body furnished with
elongated rays, whose diameter exceeds the diameter of the disk.
The genus Ophiura, (Gr. ophis, a serpent; owra, a tail,) in its
long, slender arms, shows a resemblance to the tail of a serpent,
(see Chart.) These arms are flexible; and by giving them a
waving motion, the animal is able to swim. A number of spe-
cies of Star-fish are found on our coast, — some of which have
proved very destructive to the oyster beds. The Providence
(R. I.) Journal, in reference to some in that vicinity, says, "It is
impossible to estimate the injury that has been done by the Star-
fish ; probably not less than twenty thousand bushels of oysters
have been destroyed, — and unless it disappears, oystermen will
hardly be willing to plant their beds."

FOURTH ORDER. CRINOIDEA, (Gr. XQIVOV, krinon, a lily ; eftfoj,
eidos, form.) ENCRINITES.

This order includes species by far the larger portion of which
are extinct, but which are found abundantly in limestone or the
lower rocks. In the fossil state, they are known by the name
of Encrinites, — a name suggested by the stony stem, and a
crown of rays bending in sigmoid curves, like the Greek letter
sigma, (a.) resembling "the stalk and elegant bell-shaped blossom
of a liliaceous flower." The living species are very rare. The
form of the body is oval or cup-like, protecting the internal soft
parts, and composed of numerous plates. The arms are five or
more in number, simple or branched, with lateral jointed append-
ages, and situated around the upper margin of the body, the
mouth being placed between them. It is when the arms are
closed that some of the species assume a lily-like appearance.
(See Encrinus liUiformis, on the Chart.) The joints composing

28

678 ACALEPHS.

the rounded stem have perforations in their cavities by which
they can be strung as beads, "which," says Dr. Buckland,
(Bridgewater Treatise,) "caused them in ancient times to be
used as rosaries." In the northern parts of England, they are
still called "St. Cuthbert's beads." They are also known by
the name of Wheel Stones.

The Pentacrinus Europceus, found in the Irish coast, is now
considered to be the young of the Rosy-feathered Star-fish, Com-
alula. (See Chart.)

The P. Briareus, (see Chart,) is a fossil species, having great
length of stem and numerous side-arms, — whence the specific
name. It is frequently found in contact with masses of drifted
wood. (See PI. XVIII.)

The PEAR-SHAPED ENCRINITE, Apiocriniles, (Gr. apion, a pear,)
rotundus, is so named from the form of its body. The figures
on the Chart represent it with its expanded and closed arms. It
is fixed by a jointed peduncle. The surfaces of the joints of the
vertebral column are striated with rays.

The Pentacrinites have pentagonal stems, and are found in the
more recent strata. Besides the species found in the Bay of
Cork, above referred to, a larger one, Holopus, (Gr. holos, whole ;
pous, foot,) rangei, is found in the West Indian seas.

SECOND CLASS. ACALEPHS, (Gr. oxalifo?, akaUplie, a nettle.)

This class derives its name from the stinging power possessed
by a large portion of the animals composing it, and sometimes in
so high a degree as to be a terror to bathers. They are known
by the names SEA-NETTLES, MEDUSA, SEA-JELLIES, &c. Having
the power of free motion, they float in all seas, especially those
of the warmer latitudes. They are not like the Echinoderms,
enclosed in a thick integument ; but, on the other hand, one of
their most striking peculiarities is their extreme softness. Some
of them attain considerable size, but almost all are without any
internal support or skeleton. Their soft tissues give them the
appearance of a mass of jelly, — a mere net work of animal fila-
ments, the intermediate spaces of which are filled up with sea-
water. Hence, although some of the largest reach the size of
two feet, and a weight of fifty or sixty pounds, yet, when they are
dried, the pounds become grains. Many of the Medusse are ex-
tremely beautiful, reflecting the prismatic rays. DeBlainville
represents their form as "nearly always circular, sometimes dis-
coidal or spheroidal, but most frequentlv hemispherical."
They quite commonly have a form like that of our umbrellas;

PULMONIGRADES. 679

the ceatral part being thickest, and the under surface concave.
In some cases, cirri or tentacles, varying in length, form, and
number, are attached to the circumference. Some of the tenta-
cles have a colored spot (thought to be an eye) at their base. It
is quite certain that they are sensible to light. Some of the
smaller Medusse have been "known to shun a bright light, and
to sink into deep water to avoid it." The chief seat of touch
seems to be in the tentacula or cirri, which are also capable of
wonderful expansion and retraction. Many of these Medusse
make no sign when wounded in the umbrella or disk. The food,
consisting of small fishes and marine animals, is conveyed to the
mouth, not by the tentacles and cirri alone, but also probably
by contractions in the disk. These animals appear, in most cases,
to be bisexual, i. e., the two sexes are often united in the same
individual. Like some other lower organizations, they have
the power of producing their offspring by gemmation. " Fancy,"
says Prof. Forbes, "an Elephant with a number of little
Elephants sprouting from his shoulders and thighs, — bunches
of tusked monsters hanging epaulette- fashion from his flanks in
every state of advancement. The comparison seems grotesque
and absurd, but it really expresses what occurs among our
Naked-eyed Medusae."

The phosphorescent or luminous appearance of the sea, and
which is shown in Southern latitudes with such brilliancy and
beauty, is to be chiefly ascribed to multitudes of these animals.

FIRST ORDER. PULMONIGRADES. Lat. pulmo, a lung; gr&dior,
to advance.) MEDUSA or JELLY-FISH.

The name of this order above given, refers to the contractile
and expansive power of the umbrella-shaped disk belonging to
the animal which it includes, and which in the exercise of this
power, resembles the breathing lungs. The order is also, with
reference to the umbrella or disk, named DISCOPHORA, (disk-
bearing.) As illustrating this order, we simply refer to the
genera and species noticed on the Chart, with the figures and
explanations there given.

6SO

PHYSOGRADA.

SECOND ORDER. PHYSOGRADA. (Gr. yva&co, phusad, to inflate ;
Lat. gradior, to advance;) or SIPHONOI>HORA, (Gr. CTKJPW^,
siphon, a pipe or sucker, yogta, phoreo, to bear.)

This order is composed of animals which are supported and
capable of moving in the water, by the possession of one or more
bladders, which they inflate with air at will. With reference to
this means of support, Cuvier called them Hydrostatic Acalephs.
When several air-bladders exist, instead of a single large one,
they are usually affixed to the same stalk, like currants upon
the stem, and rise out of the tentacular apparatus.

The PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR, Physalis, (Gr. water-bubble,)
pelagica, (Physalia pelagica. Linn.) This noted Acaleph (for
which see Chart,) has a very large air-vessel, beneath which the
digestive apparatus is arranged. The sac is surrounded by a
sort of crest or sail, which is usually elevated entirely above the
water, when the animal is floating at the surface. It has a
small orifice at each end, from which the air can be expelled
when the animal wishes to sink, and it is distended when it
wishes to rise. From the under side of the air-sac hangs a mass
of flask-shaped tentacular appendages terminated by suckers, and
sometimes hanging down like fish-lines, to an extent of fifteen or
sixteen feet. This creature possesses an active stinging power,
and is also very contractile, so that it is able to draw up its prey.
It would seem the short suckers are attached to the bodies of the
entrapped animals, and that the Physalis derives its nourishment
by imbibing their juices through the pores of its numerous cirri.

The Physophora, (Gr. bladder-bearer,) Muzonema, has two
series of vesicles, and very numerous tentacles and filaments.
(See Chart.)

The RHIZOPHYSA, (Gr. root-bladder,) has a very contractile
body with an aid-bladder at one extremity, and is provided
throughout its length with tentacular appendages covered or
mingled with filaments. (See Chart for figure of R. filiformis.)

The Apolemijo, Urania has an elongated worm-like body pos-
sessing in the fore part two rows of numerous swimming organs,
and behind solid scaly organs, between which come forth tenta-
cle-like cirri furnished with vermiform suckers.

The Rliodophysa, (Gr. rhodon, a rose; phusa, a bladder,) Tieli-
anthus, (Gr. sun-flower,) has a short cylindrical and fleshy body,
swollen above into an air-bladder, and having below a number
of gelatinous rib-like formations with appended filaments. (See
Chart and PI. XVIII. fig. 11.)

CILIOGRADA CIERIGRADA. 68 1

THIRD ORDER. CILIOGRADA. (Lat. cilia, eye-lashes, or vibratile
hairs ; gradior, to advance,) or CTENOPHORA, (Gr. xxeig, kteis,
a comb; qpo^e'uj, to bear.)

This order is named from its flat phosphorescent vibrillse or
rows of cilia, arranged lengthwise upon the surface of the body,
and by means of which it is propelled through the water. It is
supposed by some that the cilia are organs of breathing as well
as of locomotion. The genus Beroe varies in form from globular
to cylindrical ; the cilia also vary in length and position. The
species B. ovata, (Lat. egg-shaped,) exhibits the greatest celerity
in the movement of its delicate organs, and the most beautiful
variety of colors, (see Chart,) as these organs play to. and fro in
the rays of the sun. The oval-shaped body is open at the large
end, transparent, and of a firm gelatinous consistence; easily
contracting and widening, but always open and expanded when
in motion. The species Beroe, (Cydippe,) pileus, (Lat. a cap or
hat,) has a regular body divided into eight sections by rows of
cilia. From an internal cavity issue a pair of long retractile
appendages, (see Chart,) furnished with vibratory cilia. These
beautiful forms are said not often to exceed three inches and a
half in length, and two inches and a half in the transverse
diameter. Callianyra triploptera, (Gr. triple- winged,) seems in
its structure and general character, not far removed from Beroe.
It has two pair of winged-shaped appendages, fringed with a
double row of filaments upon the edges. (Plate XVIII. fig. 12.)

The GIRDLE OF VENUS, Cesium Veneris, has a ribbon-shaped
body, (see Chart,) sometimes six or eight feet long, its breadth
not being as many inches. The margins are fringed with beau-
tifully colored phosphorescent cilia, which at night gives it the
appearance of a band of flame in motion along the water. Some
naturalists add a

FOURTH ORDER. CIRRIGRADA. (Lat. cirri, locks or tufts ; gra-
dior, to advance.)

In this order the form is discoidal, and there is an internal dis-
coidal skeleton distinguishing these animals from the Pulmoni-
grades. They are named from the cirri which are attached to
the disk upon which the organs are arranged. Some of the cirri
are tubular and furnished with suckers. The Velella, (Lamarck,)
in addition to the oval, sub-cartilaginous skeleton, is surmounted
by a vertical and oblique crest. This form is widely diffused.
The animals are met with far out at sea, often in considerable
masses. Sailors are said to fry and eat them.

682 PHYTOZOA.

THIRD CLASS. PHYTOZOA, or ZOOPHYTA. (Gr. cpvwv, phuton, a
plant; ^woy, 20071.) PLANT-LIKE ANIMALS.

The larger part of the animals composing this class are ma-
rine,— some species are fixed to the soil. None of them are
properly free, swimming animals, although some of them can
move at will from their location. Portions of them are uncon-
nected with others, — independent and single ; others are joined in
large societies, having the base of the stems in union. Some
have no hard-support ; others secrete a stony skeleton, termed
corallum, (coral,) thus constructing the well-known coral reefs
and islands, — modifying "the shades of the ocean's depth, and
forming whole mountain ranges." The corals cannot properly
be regarded as the shells with which the animals cover them-
selves, the hard parts being, in reality, a part of the internal
structure. Prof. Dana, in his magnificent and standard work
on the Zoophytes, — says "the corallum is entirely concealed
within the polyp, as completely as the skull of an animal beneath
its fleshy covering. All corals are more or less cellular, and
through the cellules, the animal tissues extend." In some in-
stances, however, the coral is exposed, i. e., when the increase
occurs from a terminal secretion upon a separate stem. As the
stem increases in length above, the part below dies. This in-
crease and disappearance of vitality above and below are com-
mon ; and thus are formed the huge masses of coral. The most
common species engaged in the production of coral banks, are
the Meandrina labyrinthica, (Brain Coral,) the Caryophyllia,
Madrepora, Forties, and Astrea, especially the latter. (See
Chart.) A solid dome of the Astrea, twelve feet in diameter, has,
according to Prof. Dana, a living exterior not more than a half or
three-fourths of an inch in thickness. "It is a well-known fact,"
he says, (Silliman's Journal, Jan., 1837,) that corals cannot grow
above the surface of the water; and that reef-building corals
cannot grow at a greater depth than from ten to twelve fathoms,
or above the surface of the water at low tide ; therefore a coral
reef cannot be more than sixty or seventy feet thick." As a
condition of coral growth, "the sea-water must be pure and
transparent. Corals will not grow, therefore, on muddy shores,
or in water upon the bottom of which sediment is deposited."

Some of the Polyps increase both by eggs and buds ; but not
all of the latter can in their turns produce eggs. They seize
their food with their tentacles; their whole surface is covered
with vibratory cilia so exceedingly minute as to be discernible
only through the aid of the microscope. These minute hairs are

ACTINOIDA. 683

perpetually in motion, producing a continuous current of water.
They are not under the animal's control from the period of its
escape from the egg. Even in the egg, and when the animal is
at rest, these cilia are in motion, — their action wafting small por-
tions of organic matter to the mouth of the animal, itself incapa-
ble of going after other food, and thus supplying its wants. By
means of their tentacles, however, Polyps are able to seize upon
larger prey.

FIRST ORDER. ACTINOIDA, (ACTINOIDS,) (Gr. dxxJj/, aktin, a ray,
Ray-like,) SEA- ANEMONES and CORALS.

The name given to these animals refers to the radiated dispo-
sition of the tentacles, which, when expanded, sometimes resem-
ble the petals of a flower ; when contracted, the mass assumes
a lemon-like shape. The order includes, however, not these
actiniae or flower-shaped genera alone, which do not secrete a
coral, but others also, which are coralligenous.

The exterior surface of the Actinoids is either fleshy or leath-
ery, — slimy, and exceedingly sensitive. The mouth is simple
and bordered with tentacles, — it is situated above, while in the
Star-fish, it is beneath. Each of the tentacles is a tube, the walls
of which are formed of longitudinal muscular fibres. By the
contraction of these fibres, the animal can shorten the tentacles
in all directions. Around the entire tube are circular fibres.
These pull the tentacles in succession, so as to elongate it to three
or four times its usual length, thus enabling the animal to seize
its larger prey. The interior cavity or stomach, is a simple sac,
which the animal contracts or shuts at pleasure. The digestive
power is great and rapid, commencing to act as soon as the food
is within the cavity. Fish, Crabs, and Shell-fish, are speedily
assimilated, the harder parts being ejected in the course often or
twelve hours; and the juices produced by the influence of the
walls of the stomach, are diffused in the lower cavity, into which
the water which came in with the food is also poured. The
Actinoids have " no blood, no vessels, no respiration proper,
though the contact of water produces a sort of respiration."

he reproduction is both by division and by eggs. At first,
the young have but five or ten tentacles, but these steadily in-
crease until they become almost innumerable, though uniformly
" multiples of five." Lost parts, especially the tentacles, are
soon replaced. If the body be cut into several parts, each may
survive and become a complete animal. Actiniae can endure

684 ACTINOIDA.

water hot enough to blister the hand ; they can be thawed out
alive after having been frozen ; though to dip them in fresh-
water is said to kill them immediately. "A strong light incom-
modes, noise startles them, and they are affected by odors."
Recorded facts show that the duration of life in these inferior
forms, is often quite considerable. Gosse, in a note found in
" Life in its Lower forms," speaks of one that was living in
1856, which attained the age of thirty. five years.

The Actiniae are "found in every sea — some suspended from
the walls of sub-marine cliffs ; others covering the more exposed
sides of rocks with a flower-like tapestry, and some confining
themselves to the smooth sands, on the surface of which they
spread out their tentacula, and even slowly withdraw under the
sand when danger threatens. Some of them have a stinging
quality. Many are used for food in tropical countries, on the
coasts of which they are more numerous than in cold climates.

The order ACTINOIDA is divided by Prof. Dana into the Sub-
orders, 1. ACTINARIA ; 2. ALCYONARIA. We refer first to gen-
era and species figured on the Chart belonging to the first (non.
coralligenous) family, Actinidce.

The lluanthus (Gr. mud-flower,) Scoticus, has a round mouth
surrounded by numerous filiform tentacula. The body tapers
to a point which is probably buried in the soft mud in which it
lives.

The SUN-FLOWER ANEMONE, Actinia helianthus, has the mouth
encircled by tubulous tentacula, giving it somewhat the appear-
ance of a sun-flower.

The PURPLE SEA ANEMONE, or ANIMAL-FLOWER, A. equina,
has a soft skin, finely striated, usually of a beautiful purple,
often clouded with green. The tentacula, which number one
hundred, vary much in color.

The WHITE SEA-ANEMONE, A. plumosa, (A. dianthus,) Plate
XVIII. fig. 13, is four or more inches broad ; it has the margins
of the mouth expanded into lobes, all furnished with innumerable
tentacula. There is an inner row of these, still larger.

The LARGE LEATHERY SEA-ANEMONE, A. senilis, (A. crassi-
cornis, thick horned,) is three inches broad, with a leathery, un-
equal envelope, of an orange color. The tentacula are in two
ranges, usually marked with a rose colored ring. Its abode is
commonly in the sand. This species occasionally masters and
swallows a victim even much larger than itself. Dr. Johnston,
in his "History of British Zoophytes," thus remarks: "I had
once brought to me a specimen of Actinia crassicornis, that might
have been originally two inches in diameter, and that had some-

ACTINOIDA. 685

how contrived to swallow a valve of the great scallop, Pecten
maximus, of the size of an ordinary saucer. The shell fixed
within the stomach, was so placed as to divide it completely
into two halves, so that the body stretched tensely over, had be-
come thin and flattened, like a pancake. All communication
between the inferior portion of the stomach and the mouth was
of course prevented, yet, instead of emaciating and dying of an
atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had
been a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and
its chance of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with two
rows of numerous tentacula, was opened upon what had been
the base, and led to the under stomach ; the individual had, in-
deed, become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater intimacy
and extent in its unions."

The SEA ANEMONE, Edwardsia veslita, (Lat clothed,) is one
of the last discovered species, named after a distinguished natu-
ralist. It forms for itself a shell or clothing, into which it can
retire at pleasure, or when in shallow water the tide recedes,
leaving it exposed to the air. (Plate II. fig, 3.)

The genus Lucernaria, (Lat. the plant verbascum,') includes
animal flowers which are bell-shaped, free or fixed to sea-weeds
by a narrow disk or stalk, from which they expand to a broad,
eight-sided disk, in the center of which is a quadrangular mouth,
and at each angle a bundle of tentacula ; surrounding the mouth
are festoons of ovaries. The largest are about an inch in height.
They are of various colors, but usually pink. The species fig-
ured on the Chart is L. auricula, (Lat. the ear-lap.)

The other genera of the sub-order noticed on the Chart are
nearly all coralligenous. The forms which the corals assume
are extremely various, such as those of trees, shrubs, leaves,
obelisks, domes, etc. Their substance consists principally of
carbonate of lime. The surface is usually "covered with radi-
ated cells, each of which marks the position of one of the polyps ;
and when alive, animals appear like plants on every part of the
Zoophyte." The frame work or skeleton is called Polyparium,
or Polypary, (Polyp-structure.) It should be remembered it is
made, not as the bee constructs its cell, but by secretions of the
animal tissues, increasing without the consciousness of the polyp,
in the same rrjanner as the bones and other structures in the
higher orders of animals.

FAMILY ASTR-EID^. These Actinoids have the corolla calca-
reous with marginal tentacula, excavated cells, and circumscribed
stars. Of these are the Astraa ananas, PINE- APPLE CORAL, (see
Chart.) Prof. Dana says : " calculating the number of polyps
that are united in a single astrsea dome of twelve feet in diarn-

C86 ACTINOIDA.

eter, each covering a square inch, we find it exceeding 100,000 ;
and in a Porites of the same dimensions, in which the animals
are under a line in breadth, the number exceeds five and a half
millions. There are here, consequently, five and a half millions
of mouths and stomachs to a single zoophyte, contributing to-
gether to the growth of the mass, by eating, and growing and
budding, and connected with one another by their lateral tissues
and an imperfect cellular or lacunal communication."

The BRAIN CORAL, Meandrina labynnthtca, (see Chart,) is of
this family. Recent species belong to the South Atlantic and In-
dian Oceans. Fine specimens have been received from Bermuda.

Family Fungida, (Lat. fungus, a mushroom.) These have
the tentacles short and scattered ; when aggregate, the disks
are confluent The surface of the coral is without proper
cells and stellate. There are nine recent species, mostly
from the Indian seas, and as many fossil ones. One spe-
cies is the MUSHROOM CORAL, (see Chart,) Fungia patellaris,
(F. fungites, Linn.,) a circular coral with radiating plates
like the under surface of some mushrooms. The Thick-tentacled
Fungia, jP. crassitentacula, shows the animal on the external sur-
face, (Plate XVIII. figs. 19 and 20,) with the protruding tentacles.

Family Caryophyllida, (genus Caryophylha.) These have the
radiating cells or plates striated externally and collected into a
solid conical polyparium fixed at the base, (Plate XVIII. fig. 15.)
See Chart for figure of C. cyathus, (Gr. kuathos, a cup or ladle.)
The Oculina, a white coral, is of this family.

Family Zoanthida, (Animal flowers.) These have the exte-
rior of a somewhat leathery consistence, and short marginal ten-
tacles, in two or three species, in the midst of which the mouth is
situated. For the Animal-flower, Zoanthus Solanden, see Chart.
This family is not coralligenous.

Family Madreporida, (Fr. madre, spotted, and pore, from Gr.
poros.) These have deep cells extending to the center of the coral-
lum, which is very porous and fixed. The tentacles are twelve.
The species Madrepora abrotanoides, (Gr. southern wood-like,)
Lamarck, or M. muricata, Linn., is an example — see Chart and
Plate XVIII. fig. 15. (The figure on the Plate gives this species
in magnified, that on the Chart in diminished size.)

The Chart names several other Madreporic corals, living and
fossil, which we have not room to notice particularly. The fos-
sil genus Catenipora, (chain coral,) is found in transition rocks.
The animal is unknown, contained in tubular cells united later-
ally in a calcareous polypary, of a conical form. (For figure
of C. eschnro'df.s lattice-like, see

ACTINOIDA. 687

STTB.ORDER ALCYONARIA.

Family Pennatulida. SEA-PENS. This interesting family of
Corals is represented on the Chart by Pennatula phosphorea?
which has a stony axis and is free or has the base sunk in the
mud. From the axis a series of lateral branches passes off on
each side, resembling the barbs of a feather, whence the generic
name. On these branches the polyps are situated. This spe-
cies, when disturbed, emits a phosphorescent light. By the
movement of the eight tentacles, the animal seems to have power
to direct its course.

Family Gorgonida. SEA-FANS. These have the polyp mass
rooted and tree-like, consisting of a central axis backed with a
polypiferous crust. The axis is horny or fasciculate, but not cal-
careous. These include many beautiful fixed corals. Some Gorgo-
nias found on the Atlantic coast, when stripped, have the appearance
of Whale-bone. The WARTY SEA-FAN, G. verrucosa, is somewhat
fan-shaped, and when dry, backed with a white warted crust.
The species G. flabellum, (Lat. a small fan,) is reticulated with
the branches inwardly compressed. It is found in the warm seas
of India and America, and three feet in length.

The RED CORAL, Coralium rubrum, (see Chart,) has the entire
stem converted into a stony axis ; the flesh is external, and in
this alone are the polyp cells. This species is branched, one
foot high, varying from a deep red to a beautiful rose color. It
takes a high polish, and is employed for purposes of ornament.

Our limits render it necessary to omit details of other families
of Corals, some of which are found in American seas ; also many
particulars respecting the wonders wrought by the Coral-insects.
The statements of Prof. Dana contained in our general remarks,
preclude the idea that the coral islands, of which so much has
been said, are exclusively the work of these insects. In many
instances the coral extends to a much greater depth than these
animals are known to live ; in other instances it presents a sur-
face considerably elevated ; but corals " cannot grow above the
surface." Com. Wilkes, (of U. S. Exploring Expedition,) and
others, regard them as in part at least, of volcanic origin. Some
subterranean movement must have lifted these islands from the
bed of the ocean ; the coral being in some instances not less than
eight or nine thousand feet high. Agassiz, it is said, has for the
first time succeeded in preserving alive in this country, some co-
ral insects. They were kept in water, carefully and frequently
changed. Lady Wortley, (see her " Travels in the United States,"

688 HYDROIDS,

1851,) says she "hardly dared to breathe while looking at them,
for fear she should blow away their precious lives ; it was most
interesting to watch them as they flung about what seemed their
fire-like white arms, like microscopic opera dancers or wind-
mills ; and most curious to mark their complexions and contor-
tions, all the twistings and twirlings, and flingings and wringing?
of these curious little creatures."

THIRD ORDER. HYDROIDS, (Gr. f™%*, hydra.)

This order contains animals, some of which have, and others
have not the coralline matter. In these the internal cavity is tu-
bular ; some of them have the power of moving from place
to place. The coral or hard material varies in different genera,
sometimes merely showing itself in calcareous granules diffused
through the body.

The eggs of the Hydroids hang in bunches externally from the
lower end of the upper cavity, in graceful forms and sometimes
beautifully colored. Prof. Dana divides this order into four fam-
ilies. 1. Hydrida, not coralligenous ; 2. SertutandoB, with cor-
neous coralla ; 3. CampanularidcR, with corneous bell-shaped
corolla ; 4. Tubularida, with coralla tubular and corneous.

I. HydridcE. It will be noticed that hitherto our attention has
been given to marine radiates. This family comprises minute
fresh water polyps which are soft and naked. Numbers of them
are seen often in stagnant pools and ditches, clustering upon
aquatic plants, etc. Their structure consists of a fleshy tube,
the aperture of which serves as a mouth to receive and exclude
food ; it is bordered with from six to eighteen extremely flexible,
thread-like arms. These are so fine as to appear like gossamer,
and may be stretched six or eight inches. The Chart names the
Green Polyp, H. viridis, (Plate XVIII. fig. 14,) and the Yellow
Polyp, H.fusca. When in search of prey, the Hydra permits
its arms to float loosely through the water, and thus succeeds in
obtaining a supply of food. If any of the minute crustaceans
or aquatic insects but touch one of these tentacles, the thread is
suddenly "thrown into cork-screw coils," other threads are also
coiled around the victim, and it is soon borne quite motionless, to
the mouth. At the bottom of the fleshy sac is a saucer-shaped
body, " in the center of which is a small, oval, solid body, bear-
ing on its summit a calcareous dart, pointed al the extremity, and
bifid, or sagittate at its base." The darts are thrust out with
force, ejecting, as is thought, a subtle, poison at the same time ;

PROTOZOA. 639

and hence " worms and the larvse of insects die suddenly from
the touch of these gelatinous threads."

The Hydridae increase by minute gemmules or buds developed
from the common substance of the body ; but unlike some of the
Zoophytes, the point of union becomes more and more tender,
and they are finally detached. These polyps may be artificially
increased. If the body be divided, each segment will become a
new animal, and even " a small portion of the skin soon grows
into a polyp. If cut off pieces be placed in contact, and pushed
together with a gentle force, they will unite and form a single
one." One species, it is said, "can be actually turned inside out
like a glove, and yet perform all the functions of life as before,
though that which was the coat of the stomach is now the skin
of the body, and vice versa." (Gosse.) This power of repro-
duction gave to this polyp the name of Hydra, in allusion to the
fabled monster whose heads sprouted as often as they were cut
off by Hercules.

FOURTH CLASS. PROTOZOA, (Gr. Ttgaws, protos, first, or lowest;
£wo*>, zdon, animal.) INFUSORIA. FORAMINIFERA. RHIZO-
PODS.

The above several names are applied to minute animals which
have been observed and studied since the discovery and improve-
ment of the microscope. Leeuwenhoek, in 1675, first observed
them in standing water, though he was not then certain as to their
animal nature. They are termed PROTOZOA, because regarded
as the first manifestations of animal life. Being found in infu-
sions of vegetable and animal substances, they are called INFU-
SORIES, though infusion is not essential to their production. Some
of them are minute shells, consisting of one or more chambers,
united by a small perforation or foramen, and are hence named
FORAMINIFERA. The term RHIZOPODS, (Gr. rhiza, a root ; pous,
a foot,) is also applied to these latter animals.

The Infusories have been divided into the " illoricated " and
the " loricated," the former composed of a single, homogeneous,
soft substance, analogous to fine membrane and unshielded or
naked ; the later covered by a siliceous or calcareous lorica, or
external shield, in which the animal is enclosed. The pellucid
membrane of the animal contains, according to Ehrenberg, a
long curved intestine, with numerous globular bodies suspended
to it somewhat like grapes. These he regarded as so many
stomachs, and therefore called the animals POLYGASTRICA, (many-
stomached,) dividing them into two legions : 1. ENTERODELA,

690 PROTOZOA.

(with the intestines apparent,) and 2. ANENTERA, (without intes-
tines,) each legion including both naked and coated species.

These Polygastrica seem to be universally diffused, one set of
forms inhabiting salt water, another fresh. Every mineral fount
has its peculiar inhabitant. They are found with the red snow
of the Alps and the poles, and in the waters of hot springs. In
a word, wherever organic matter exists in a decomposing state,
there they abound, " acting as scavengers in devouring in the state
of comminution and decay, those particles of decomposing veg-
etable matter, which, if left to be diffused throughout the atmos-
phere, might be productive of the most pernicious malaria."

Of the Enterodela an example is had in Bursaria truncateHa.
This is found in ditch water, and is so large as to be seen by the
naked eye, resembling an egg in shape, with one end deeply hol-
lowed ; and from one-fourth to one-third of a line long. (N. B.
The line employed in Natural History is the twelfth part of a
French inch.) Of the Anentera we name of the genus Monas,
the species M. crepuscidum, the TWILIGHT MONAD, one of
the most minute and most simple of all the living beings made
known by the most powerful microscopes, resembling a mere
ciliated cell, and in size only the twelve thousandth part of an
inch. If a few stalks of hay be tied together and suspended in
a jar of water, the contents remaining untouched, the second day
after, there will appear a sort of scum on the surface of the
water, that has become turbid and slightly tinged with green.
When a minute drop of this liquid is examined with a micro-
scope having a magnifying power of about two hundred diame-
ters, the water is found' to swarm with immense multitudes of
minute round or oval atoms, which move rapidly with a gliding
action. These are MONADS.

All infusions of vegetable and animal substances are found to
be speedily filled with animals resembling these or others of the
genus Vibrio, the latter bearing some likeness to an eel, (now
placed among the Intestinal Worms-) Upon these minute crea-
tures strong poisons seem to have no immediate effect, though a
few drops of alcohol suffice to strike dead the five millions of
living beings found in a barrel of vinegar.

All the Infusoria seem to be provided with a mouth, generally
terminal, but sometimes placed near the middle of the body. The
breathing organs, so far as known, are simple openings. The
sense of feeling perhaps has its appropriate organs in the mouth
and the vibratile cilia by which it is surrounded. The eyes are
supposed to be the dark red or black stigmas which the micro-
scope reveals as situated in front, on the upper side. Most of

PROTOZOA. C91

the Polygastrica have a single stigma ; some, as the Distigma,
have two. They never sleep, and are most tenacious of life.
The reproduction occurs by spontaneous division and by gem-
mation or budding. The division goes on with wonderful rapid-
ity, either transversely or lengthwise, each half forming an
independent animal. Ehrenberg asserts that the Hydatina seta,
increased in twelve days to sixteen millions, and another species
in four days to one hundred and seventy billions.

The Infusoria are generally colorless and translucent; but
some are green, some yellow, and a few red. The colored spe-
cies give their peculiar tinge to the water. The shape is globu-
lar, oval, spindle- like, cylindrical, or vermiform. Some are
continually changing their form, as those of the genus Amceba
or Proteus, belonging to the ANENTERA. This -'consists of a
mass of clear jelly-like matter, with a few granules, two or three
supposed stomachs, and a contractile bladder," and from its
power of changing its form, has u long been celebrated among
naturalists."

The term FORAMINIFERA, or RHIZOPODS, is restricted to ani-
mals of low organization, '• consisting of a slimy, transparent
jelly, invested with a hard,»usually calcareous shell." They
are found in sea-sand, and amongst marine refuse dredged up
from deep water. Owing tp the spiral form of many of their
shells, these creatures were long erroneously regarded as mol-
lusks, and as allied to the Nautilus. Ehrenberg thought them to
be allied to the Bryozoa or Moss-corals, (minute animals aggre-
gated in great numbers like the coralligenous Zoophytes, having
a distinct stomach, and an intestine curved upon itself, with an
outlet near the mouth, " the tentacles of which are covered with
vibrillse, and covered with a membranous, horny, or calcareous
tube ; now referred to the Tunicates or lowest class of Mollusks.")
But the true position of the Foraminifera is probably between the
Ameeba on the one hand, and. the sponges on the other. The
Foraminifera in the calcareous shell, present various appear-
ances. Sometimes they are comparatively large and conspicu-
ous ; at others so small that their existence can be shown only
by means of high magnifying powers. Through the foramina,
long delicate processes of the soft animal, termed pseudopodia,
(or false feet-like,) are protruded. These are probably used to
some extent, " for tactile, prehensile, and locomotive purposes, or
for the imbibition of nutritive fluid."

The Foraminifera have peculiar interest for the geologist.
Recent strata owe their origin to the long continued accumula-
tion of these minute atoms. White chalk rocks are mainly com-

692 PROTOZOA.

posed of them. Below these their numbers decrease. They
exist, however, in every formation from the Silurian to the Ter-
tiary. In most countries Silicious infusorial shells abound in
salt-marshes and the superficial marls which are associated with
peat. The fertilizing power of the guano is in part attributable
to the silicious shells of infusorial Diatoms with which it is filled.
Their remains constitute the Berg-mehl,or Mountain meal, which
in Swedish Lapland is, in seasons of scarcity, used, mixed with
flour, for sustaining life. With the silicious shields of the Dia-
toms are also found the calcareous shields of Foraminifera.

Prof. Bailey has described a bed of infusorial earth at West
Point, N. Y. Thirteen or more similar deposits have been discov-
ered in other states, sometimes fifteen feet in thickness. These
American fossils are mostly found under banks of peat. The
forms of this country are similar in character to those of Europe.

The true position of Sponges, Spongia, is not easily fixed.
Like many of the Polypifera, they have a firm horny or stony
skeleton, immersed in a soft gelatinous living mass. If they be-
long to the Animal Kingdom, they are at the very lowest point,
showing no sensation when pierced, torn, burnt, or acted on by
acids ; so that in respect to sensitiveness, they are surpassed by
some kinds of plants. The species of Spongia are very numer-
ous, one hundred and fifty having been described by Lamarck.
Their forms are also exceedingly various, (see Chart and Plate
XVIII. fig. 23a, b, c.) They are mostly marine, though some
are found in fresh water. The best known species and the one
seen in shops, S. officinahs, is found attached to rocks in the
Mediterranean, and gathered by divers. The cup-shaped sponge,
S. usitissima, is found in American seas.

Agassiz, in his recent work, expresses the decided opinion that
the division of the Animal Kingdom called PROTOZOA, differing
from all other animals in producing no eggs, does not exist in
nature ; and that the beings which have been referred to it,
might be divided and scattered, partly among plants and partly
among animals. It would however be premature to suppress the
entire class until further results have been attained.

What is the 4th and last Sub-Kingdom ? What does it include ? What
is the 9th branch of Zoology ? How is this term derived ? Is the radiated
form equally manifest in all ? Into how many classes are the Radiates di-
vided? Name the first. Give the general characteristics of the Class.
What is the 1st Order? What are its leading characters? Why have the
animals been called Sea-cucumbers ? What does Com. Wilkes say of them ?
How large are they? What is the 2nd Order? Give its characters. How
do the forms vary? What is said of the Cake and Heart Urchins ? What

CONCLUSION. CC3

of the mouth ? Repeat the remark of Prof. Forbes. What is the 3rd Or-
der ? How distinguished ? What is said of the Gorgon-headed Star-fish ?
Of Asterias ? Of Ophiura ? To what mollusks are Star-fish peculiarly des-
tructive ? What is the 4th Order ? Are there many living sp. of this or-
der? What are the fossils called? What is said of the body, arms, &c. ?
What is said of the joints of the rounded stem? For what were they an-
ciently used ? What are they still called ? What sp. are mentioned and
what is said of them ? What is the 2nd Class of Radiates ? Why is it so
called ? What are their common names ? Give their characters and habits.
Which is the 1st Order? To what does the name refer? Has it any other
name? What gen. and sp. are noticed on the Chart? What does it say
of them? What is the 2nd Order? What animals does it include? What
did Cuv. call them? What is said of the Portuguese Man of War? What
other Radiates of this order are mentioned? What is said of them? What
is the 3rd Order? Why so named? What are the uses of the cilia? What
sp. are mentioned ? What is said of them r What 4th Order is added by
some naturalists? What is said of it? What is the 3rd Class? Give the
substance of what is said respecting it. Which is the 1st Order? Des-
cribe their characteristics, &c. Into what Sub-orders does Prof. D. divide
it? What sp. of the family Actinidae are mentioned? Give particulars
respecting them. What is said of the forms assumed by Corals, &c. ? What
2nd family is mentioned? What does Prof. D. say of the Astreea dome,
&c. ? What 3rd family is named? What is said of it? Name the other
families of this Sub-order. What families of the 2nd Sub-order are men-
tioned? What is said of them? Are the Coral islands entirely the work
of the Coral insects ? What has been said of these islands by Com. Wilkes
and others? Have the Coral insects been kept alive? Repeat the extract
from Lady Wortley's Travels. What is the 2nd Order? What is said of
it ? Into what families does Prof. D. divide it? Give the substance of what
is said of the Hydridae. What is the 4th Class? What several names have
been applied to these animals? Why termed Protozoa? How have the
Infusories been divided ? Of what are the former composed ? How are
the latter protected ? Why did Ehrenberg name them Polygastrica ? Into
what two legions did he divide them? What example is given of the first?
What gen. of the second is mentioned ? What is said of the Twilight Mo-
nad? Of the Vibrio? What are the breathing organs of the Infusoria?
What is said of their senses, reproduction, &c. ? . To what is the term For-
aminifera restricted? What is said of them? What of the Sponges?
Give a general view of these animals as presented on the Chart.

CONCLUSION.

We thus terminate our sketch of " Nature in Living Forms."
The reader or student of this volume, while surveying these
' Forms," in their structure, their organs, and their variations
from a common type, beginning with MAN, who stands in high
pre-eminence at the head, and passing downward until reaching
the group we have last contemplated, in which are discoverable
but the faintest traces of animal existence, and marking, too, in
his progress the adaptation of all to the stations and offices for

694 CONCLUSION.

which they were severally designed, has been presented with
developments of a plan of being, beautiful and harmonious in its
various parts and gradations, essentially unaffected by lapse of
time or changes of locality and climate, and having its origin in
the far-reaching intelligence and unbounded goodness of the In-
finite Creator.

We have in this volume but attempted to lift from the face of
"Nature" a portion of its mysterious veil. May those who
are induced to examine the present work, not only derive
from it motives for still further research in the interesting depart-
ment of Natural History, but also for increased diligence and
fidelity in performing their own incumbent offices as parts of the
wondrous whole, cultivating towards each other feelings of true
affection and brotherhood, and above all, binding themselves by
cords of supreme love and obedience to the one common Father,
extolling

"Him first, Him midst, and without end."

INDEX

Aard-Yark, 115 Antelopes,

231 iBatrachians, 528

Aard-Wolf, 70

" of the Desert

, 240 Bears, 80

Abdominales, 667

" of the Fields,

232 Beaver, 133

Abranchiates, 654

Ant-Lion,

615 Bee-Eaters, 308

Acalephs, 656

Apes,

32 Bees, 621

Acanthocephala, 658

Aphides, 604, 6 20-6 26 j Beetles, 607

Accipitrinae, 287

Aphrodita,

654 Bell-Bird, 323

Acanthopterygii, 560

Aphaniptera,

631 Beroe, 679

Acipenser, 684

Apiocrinites,

678 Bimana, 21

Acorn-shell, 650

Apodes,

576 Birds, (Gen. desc.) 268

Actiniae, 684

Apple-tree Blight,

626 Bison or Buffalo, 212

Actinoids, 683

Aptera,

632 Bittern, Botaurus, 397

Actinology, 13, 671

Apteryx,

388 Bivalve Shells, 667

Adjutant, 399

Aquatic Birds,

391 Black-Bird, 316, 332

Agouti, 138

Aquilinae,

281 Blennies Blennidae, 565

Albatross, 432

Arachnida,

636 Blind-Fish, ' 551,568

Alcidse, 424

Archer-fish,

663 Blister Beetles, 611

Alcedinidae,(Alcedo) 302

Articulates, 14,

598 Boa, Boidae, 516

Alligator, 478

Ardeidse,

395; Boat tails, 332

A. Gar, 583

Argali,

226 Boobies, 443

A. Tortoise, 466

Argonaut,

668; Bos taurus, 217

Alaudinae, 343

Armadillos,

116 Bovidse, 216

Alpaca Llama, 189

Arctomydse,

127 Bos moschatus, 222

Amoeba, 691

Ass,

169 Bottle-h'd Dolphin, 664

Anentera, 690

" Wild,

170 Box Tortoises, 464

Amblyopsis, 551, 568

Astacus,

644 Brahmin Bull, 218

American Goldfinch, 341
American Monkeys, 39

Asterias,
Asteridea,

677|Branchiostoma, 657
676 Brush Turkey, 375

Ampelidae, 322

Astrseidse,

685 Bucerotidae, 347

Amphibia, (mammals) 91

Auchenia,

187 Bufoidae, 532

" (Batrachians)525

Auks,

424 Bugs, 628

Amphioxidse, 691

Avicula,

665 Bull Frogs, 530

Amphisbsena, 501

Axis,

205 Bull-heads, 567

Amphiuma, 537

Axolotl,

539 Buntings, 338

Amydas, 649
Anabassidse, 663

Aye-Aye,
Baboons,

48 Bursaria, 690
36 Butcher Birds, 324

Anaconda, 617

Babyroussa,

152 Buteoninae, 285

Anatifa, 650

Badger,

86 Buzzards, 285

Anchovy, 672

Balamidse,

255 Butterflies, 623

Annelidans, 598-652

Balloon-fish,

578 Cachalot, 254

Anemones, 6S4

Baltimore Oriole,

332 Caducibranchiates, 526

Anguillidae, 576

Banca Tarsier,

48 Caddis-flies, 614

An. King, how div'd 11

Bandicoots,

105 Cteciliida?, 527

Anoplotherium, 165

Barnacles,

650 Cepolidse 564

Ants, 615

Basilisk,

490 Cake-Urchins, 676

Ant-Eaters, 113

Bats,

60 Callianira, 681

090

INDEX

Calosoma, 608

Cicadidae, 627

Crotalus, 622

Camel Camelidae, 180

Ciliated Crustaceans, 651

Crows, Corvidse, 327

Camelopards, 192

Ciliograda, 681

Crustaceans, 642

Canary Bird, 276

Cinnyridae, 353

Crustaceology, 13

Canis, Canidae, 63

Cirrigrada, 681

Ctenoids, 557, 560

Cantharidaa, 611

Cirripedes, 649

Ctenophora, 681

Capercaillie, 380

Cinosternoidae, 465

Cuckoos, Cuculidae, 367

Capridse, 227

Civets, 62

Culex, 629

Caribou, 211

Classification of

Curassows, 374

Carnivora, 60

Fishes, 555

Curlews, 404

Carrier Pigeon, 371

Cliff Swallow, 308

Cursores, 384

Cartilaginous fishes, 548

Climbers, 360

Cuttle-fish, 666

556, 583

Climbing Perches, 563

Cyclops, 648

Caryophyllaea, 686

Clupeidae, 572

Cyclostomi, 556

Cashmere Goat, 228

Coati-mondi, 85

Cycloids, 567

Castoridae, 133

Cobra, 520

Cydippe, 681

Cassowary, 387

Coccinella, 608

Cypris, 648

Caterpillar-Hunters, 608

Coccus Cacti, 623

Cyprinidse, 568

Cats, 56

Cockatoo, 364

Cynocephalus, 575

" Domestic, 61

Cock of the Plains, 380

Cystica, 659

" Tiger, 60

Cockroaches, 612

Daddy-long-legs, 630

" Spotted, 60

Cod-Fish, 573

Darter, 442

" Wild, . 60

Cold-blood'd Anim'ls451

Dasypodidae, 116

Catadontidas, 253

Coleoptera, 607

Decapoda, 389, 643

Caviadse, Cavies, 137

Colics, Coliadae, 344

Death Watch, 610

Cebidaa, Cebus, 41

Colubridse, 512

Deer Family, 202

Cephalata, 666

Columbidae, 370

Delphinidae, 247

Cephaloptera, 589

Colymbidae, 423

Demoiselle, 396

Cerastes, H'd Snake, 521

Comatula, 678

Dentirostres, 312

Cercopithecus, 39

Conchology, 664

Desman, 99

Certhiadze, 357

Condor, 290

Didunculus, 389

Cervidas, 202

Condylura, 101

Digitigrada, 56

Cervine Antelopes, 237

Cone-billed Birds, 326

Dinornis, 388

Cestum Veneris, 681

Coney, 163

Distoma, 656

Cetacea, 244

Conirostres, 326

Divers, 423

Chaetodons, 562

Copper-head, 523

Dizigguetai, 170

Chalcidaj,

Coralium, 687

Dodo, 389

Chameleons, 484

Coral, 687

Dog Family, 63

Chamois or Gems, 238

Cormorants, 440

" Domestic, 64

Charadriadae, 392

Coronula, 650

Domestic Poultry, 378

Chatterers, 322

Corvidae, 327

Dolphins, 247

Cheetah, 60

Coryphaena, 664

Dormouse, 132

Cheiroptera, 50

Cougar, 58

Dorsibranchiates, 654

Chelonians, 456

Cracidae, 874

Dotterel, 394

Chelyoidae, 467

Cranes, 395

Double-Walkers, 501

Chevrotain, 201

Cray or Craw-fish, 644

Dragon, 492

Chilognathi, 635

Creepers, 357

Dragon Fly, 614

Chilopoda, 634

Crested Red-bird, 342

Dromedary, 183

Chimaeridae, 583

" Triton, 536

Ducks, 417

Chimpanzee, 32

Crickets, 613

Dugong, 265

Chinchilla, 132

Crinoidea, 677

Eagles, 281

Chionidse, 119

Crocodile, 479

Earth-worm, 655

Chondropterygii, 583

Crossbills, 345

Earwig, 612

Chuck-will's-Widow, 304

Crotalidae, 622

Echidna, 109

INDEX

697

Echinidea, 675

Gibbons, 34

Eleart Urchin, 676

Edentata, 112

Giraffe, 192

Hedge-hogs, 98

Eel, 576

Glires, 122

Helminthology, 13, 652

Elk or Moose, 209

Globe Fish, 578

Hemiptera, 625

Elephant, 142

Glutton, 87

Herbivero's Cetacea, 261

Elcutheropomi, 583

Glutinous Hags, 557-590

Herrings, 572

Ericrinites, 677

Gnats, 629

Herons, 395

Enterodela, 689
Entomology, 13, 600

Gnathodon, 389
Gnu or Gnoo, 240

Herpetology, 13, 451
Hessian Fly, 630

Entomostraca, 647

Gnawers, 122

Hippopotamus, 159

Entozoa, 656

Goat Family, 227

Hirudinidas, 665

Ermine or Stoat, 72

Goat-like Antelopes, 238

Hirundinidae, 305

Falconidae, 280

Goat-suckers, 302

Hog, Domestic, 150

Fallow Deer, 208

Gobies, Gobidae, 665

HolothuridaB, 674

Felidse, 56

Golden Eagle, 281

Honey-eater, 356

Ferret, 0 76

Goldfinch, 341

Hooked Worms, 658

File-Fishes, 578

Gold Fish, 568

Hoofed Animals, 150

Finches, 333

Goosander, 422

Hoopoe, 352

Fire Flies, 610

Gorgonia, 687

Horn-bill, 347

Fish-Hawk, 283

Gorgonocephalus, 676

Horned Horse, 240

Fissirostres, 302

Grallatores, 391

" Monkey, 42

Fishes, 644

Grampus, 251

" Owl, ' 295

Flamingo, 413

Grass-hopper, 613

Hornet, 619

Fiat-Fishes, 574

Great-foots, 375

Horse, 166

Fleas, 631

Great Auk, 425

Horse-foot, 64«

Fluke Worms, 658

Grebe, 424

Howlers, 39

Fluvicola, 649

Greenlets, 320

Humming B. 354

Flies, 630

Greenland Whale, 256

Hump-b'd Whales, 258

Fly-catchers, 318

Green Turtle, 470

Hvsenas, 62

Flying-Fish, 671

Grizzly Bear, 81

Hydride, 68S

Flying Squirrel, 126

Grosbeaks, 342

Hydraspidae, 467

Foraminifera, 689

Ground Puppy, 637

Hymenoptera, 67

Fossil Cervidee, 215

Grouse, 379

Hyrax, 163

Marine Lizards, 481

Guacharo, 304

Hystricidae, 134

Crocodiles, 480

Guanaco, 189

Ibex, 230

Geosaurus, 494

Guinea-Fowls, 378

Ibis, 401

Megatherium, 119

" Pig, 138

Ichneumon, 63

Ichthyosaurus, 481

" Worm, 655

Ichthiology,

Fr gate Bird, 443

Gulls, 434

Icthyosaurus, 481

FringillidEe, 333

Gurnards, 561

Iguanidae, 488

Frogs, 528

Gypaetus, 292

Iguanodon, 483

Frog or Toad Fish, 566

Gyratores, 370

Infusories, 689

Fungia, 686

Haddock, 574

Insects, 600

Gadidse, 573

Hair-WormorSn'ke, 657

" General descrip-

Galagos, 47

Hair-fin'd Blepharis, 564

tion, 598

Gallinacese, 369

Halibut, 575

Insectivora, 98

Gannets, 443

Haliaetus, 282

Insessores, 298

Ganoids, 682

Hand drinker, 43

Jabiru, 400

Gar-fish, 583

Hare Family, 138

Jackals, 69

Gavials, 480

Harp Seal, 94

Jay, 329

Gazelle, 233

Harpy Eagle, 283

Jelly-Fish, 679

Geckos, 486

Harriers, 284

Jerboa, 128

Genets, 63

Harvest-flies, 627

Jer-falcon, 287

Geese, 421

Hawks, 287

Jumping Mouse, 137

698

INDEX

Kanch'il, 201

Man, 21

Myrmeleon, 615

Kangaroo, 107

Mandril, 36

Myxines, 55*7

Kestrel, 287

Marine Snakes, 518

Nat. History, 9

King Fishers, 302

Marmot, 127

Narwhal, ' 249

King Crab, 649

Marsupialia, 10?

Natatores, 416

Kites, 284

Marten, (Mammals) 74

Nautilus, 668

Kivi-Kivi, 288

Martin, (Birds) 305

Nectarinidae, 353

Kudoo, 242

Mastodon, 149

Nematoidea, 656

Labridaa, 567

Megapodiidse, 375

Neuroptera, 614

Lacertidae, 497

Megatheriadae, 119

Newts, 534

Lammergeyer, 292

Meliphagidae, 356

Nightingale, 314

Lampreys, 590
Lancelet, 657

Mendoles, 562
Mephitic Weasels, 72

Night-jar, 302
Nylghau, 242

Land Tortoises, 460
Land Birds, 28C

Mergansers, 422
Merlin, 287

Nymphalidaa, 624
Ophidians, 607

" Newts, 634

Meropidae, 308

Opossums, 105

Laniadae, 824

MerulidEe, 316

Orang Outang, 33

Lantern-flies, 627

Mice Family, 136

Orioles, 332

Lapwing, 392

Milvinae, 284

Ornithology, 13, 268

Larks, 343

Mink, ( 75

Orthoptera, 612

Leathery Turtle, 472

Mino Bird, 333

Oryx, 237

Leech, 655

Moa, 388

Osprey, 282

Leaf-rollers. 625

Mocking Bird, 317

Osseous Fishes, 560

Lemurs, Lemuridae, 44

Mohr, 234

Ostrich, 384

Leopards, 60

Mole, 100

Otter, 76

Lepas, 650

Mollusks, 14, 664

Ovidas, 224

Leporidse, (Lepus) 138

Honad, Monas, 690

Oxen, 216

Lily Encrinite, 677

Honkeys Am., 39-44

Oysters, 667

Limulus, 648

tfonotremata, 109

3wls, 293

Linnet, 340

tfoose Deer, 209

:*aco, 188

Lion, 67

Moschidae, 196

:*achydermata, 142

Lizards, 497

Moths, 624

^alaeotherium, 164

Limnoria, 647

Mother Carey's Chick-

3anda, 89

Llama, 187

ens, 432

^angolin, 115

Lobster, 645

Motmot, 311

^anther, Puma, 58

Locusts, 613

Moufflon, 226

'apilionidas, 623

Long-armed Ape, 34

Mud & Musk Tort'ses, 465

'aradiseadae, 329

Lophidae, (Lophius) 566

Mud Lampreys, 590

Carrots, 362

Lophobranchia, 577

Mule, 170

'artridge, 380

Loris, 46

Mule-Deer, 206

'assenger-Pigeon, 372

Loxiadae, 345

Mullet, Mugilidse, 565

'asserine Birds, 298

Lumbricidae, 655
Lump-fishes, 575

Muntjack, 214
Murida3, (Mus) 136

'eacocks,(Pavoninae)376
'eccaries, 154

Lynx, 60

ttuscicapidae, 310

'ediculus, 632

Macaw, 364

Muscidae, 630

'eechi, 171

Mackerel Family, 563

Musk-Deer, 196

5elicans, Pelicanidae,438

Macropidse, 107

" Ox, 222

'enguins, 425

Madagascar Cats, 45

" Rat, 134

'entatoma, 628

Malacology, 13, 664

tfusophagidae, 348

'erches, (Percidae) 560

Malacopterygii, 547-567

Husquetoes, 629

'erching Birds, 298

Malacostraca, 643

Mustelidae, 71

'erennibranchiata, 537

Mammalogy, 13

Mylodon, 121

'etrels, 429

Mammalia, 19

Hyriapoda, 633

5halanger, 106

Mammoth, 149

tfyrmecophagadae, 113

'halarope, 408

INDEX.

C99

Pharaoh's-Rat, 63

Rattle Snakes, 622

Sea Egg, 675

Phasianidae, 376

Raven, 328

Fan, 687

Pheasants, 376

Rays, Raidae, 688

Horse, 677

Phebe Bird, 320

Red Bird, 343

Jellies, 678

Phocidae, 91

Red-blood'd Worms, 652

Lampreys, 690

Physograda, 680

Red Deer or Stag, 207

Mice, ' 654

Physophora, 680

Red Poll, 340

Monsters, 683

Phytozoa, 682

Reed Warblers, 314

^ Nettles, 678

Pichiago, 119

Rein Deer, 211

Otter, 78

Pigeon, 370

Reptiles, 451

Pie, 393

Picidse, 365

Rhinoceros, 155

Porcupine, 678

Pikes, 570

Rhinolophina, 65

Slugs, 674

Pilot-Fish, 563

Rhodophysa, 680

Spider, 636

Pipe Fishes, 677

Ribbon-fish, 564

Turtles, 469

Plagiostomi, 556
Planidae, Pleuronec-

River Tortoise, 468
River Cray-FisTi, 644

Urchin, 675
Seals, 91

tidae, 574

River Horse, 159

Secretary Vulture, 292

Plantain Eaters, 348

Robin, 317

Semnopithecus, 37

Plantigrada, 80

Robin-Red-breast, 315

Serpula, 653

Plectognathi, 677

Roe-buck, 206

Serpents, 607

Plesiosaurus, 482

Rodentia, 122

Shad, 573

Plover, 392

Rollers, 309

Sharks, 685

Polar Bear, 82

Rorquals, 259

Sheath-bill, 381

Polygastrica, 689

Rostridse, 400

Sheep, 224

Polyp, 682-685

Root-Eaters, 108

Shore Finches, 840

Porcupine, 134

Rotatoria, Rotifera, 650

Shrews, 98

Porpoise, 250

Ruff & Reeve, 407

Shrikes, 324

Portuguese Man of

Ruffed Lemur, 46

Shrimps, 647

War, 680

Ruminantia, 175-243

Silk-worm, 625

Pouched Rat, 137

Runners, 884

Siluridae, 567

Prairie Dog, 127

Sajou, 41

Silver-sides, 565

" Hen, 380

Salamanders, 634

Simiadse, 31

Prawn, 644

Sand-pipers, 407

Siphonophora, 680

Proboscidae, 142

Sapajou, 39

Skink, (Scincus) 502

Procellaridae, 429

Sauria, 475

Skunk, 73

Proteidae, 537

Saw-fish, 588

Sky-lark, 344

Protozoa, 689

Scale of Birds' brains,

Slender-tongued

Pterodactylus, 483

278

Lizard, 497

Puffins, >26

Scansores, 360

Sloths, 112

Pythons, 516

Scaenidae, 562

" Fossil, 119

Pulmonigrades, 679

Sciuridae, 124

Snake-Birds, 442

Quadruraana, 31

Scolopacidse, 403

Snapping Turtle, 466

Quagga, 172

Scolopendra, 634

Snipes, 403

Quail, 380

Scomberesox, 670

Soft-shelled Tort'ses, 468

Quesal, 311

Scorpions, 638

Solitary, 390

Rabbit, 140

Scratchers, 369

Spermaceti W. 254

Racoon, 83

Sea Anemones, 683

Spectre Insects, 612

Radiates, 14, 673

Bear, 95

Spiders, 636

Rails or Coots, 413

Breams, 662

" Monkeys, 40

Rallidaj, 412

Cow, 261

Ppiny Dog-fish, 587

Ramphastidae, 361

Cucumbers, 674

Split-billed B'ds, 302-31 2

Ranidce, 528

Pens, 687

Spongia, 692

Raptores, 280

Ducks, 419

Spoon-bill, 400

Rats, 137

Eagle, 283

Squalidse, 685

733

INDEX

Squirrel, 124

Tiger, 69

Venus-girdle, 681

" Monkeyj, 42

" Cats, 60

Vermetus, 667

Star-fishes, 676

Tinamous, 382 Vermilia, 653

Sticklebacks, 561

Titlarks, Titmice, 315 Vertebrates, 14

Stingers, 618

Toad-fish, 560 Vespertilionidae, 55

Stoat, 72

Toads, 632 'Vibrio, 690

Stilt-Birds, 891

Todies, Todidae, 309 Vicugna, 191

Stonechats, 314

Tooth-billed Birds, 312 Vinegar Eel, 690

Storks, 89S

Toothed Whales, 253

Viperidae, (Vipers) 619

Strepsiptera, 611

Torpedoes, 689

Viverridoe, 62

Strigidae, 293

Tortoise, Shell T. 471

Vulturidae, 289

Struthionidae, 384

Toucans, 361

Waders, 391

Sturgeon, 583

Touracos, 349

Wag-tails, 315

Sturnidae, 331-3

Trachearia, 638

Walking-leaf, 613

Sub-brachials, 573

Trematoda, 658

Walrus, 95

Sucking-Fishes, 676

Tribolites, 647

Wapiti, 205

Suidae, 150

Tringa, 404

Warblers, 313

Sun Birds,* 353

Trionychidae, 468

Wasps, 618

Sun-fish, 578

Triton, 535

Water-Hen, 412

Surgeon-fish, 565

Trochilidae, 354

" Measurer, 628

Surinam Toad, 533

Trogons, Trogonidse,310

" Ouzel, 317

Swallows, 305

Troglodytes, 32

" Shrew, 99

Swans, 418

Tropic Birds, 444

Waxwings, 322

Swift, 306

Trout Family, 550, 548,

Weasel tribe, 71

Swimmers, 416

571

Weak Fish, 651

Sword-fish, 663

True Antelopes, 233

Weavers, 337

Silviadee, 313

" Parrots, 363

Weeper, 41

Syngnathus, 650

" Whales, 255

Web-footed Birds, 416

Syrian Goat, 229

Trumpet Fish, 571

Weevils, 610

Tailor Bird, 314

Trunk Fishes, 582

Whale Tribe, 244

Tantalidae, 401

Tubulibranchiata, 653

Whalebone W. 255

Tape-Worm, Taenia, 658

Turbot, 675

White W. (Beluga) 250

Tapir, Tapiridse, 161

Turkey, 377

Whip-poor Will, 304

Tarantula, 637

Turnstone, 393

White Ants, 615

Tardigrada, 112

Turtles, 456

White-fish, 571

Tarsiers, 47

Turtle Dove, 372

Widow-Birds, 337

Tatlers, 405

Twilight Monad 690

Wild Ass, 170

Teal, 419

Unguiculata, 140

Wild Boar, 150

Teidse, Teguixins, 495

Ungulate, 142

Worms, 652

Tenrec, 98

Univalve Shells, 666

Xiphias, 563

Tenuirostres, 351

Upupidse, 352

Xyphosura, 648

Termites, 615

Urchin, 675

Yak, 222

Tern, 436

Urodela, 534

Yellow Bird, 314

Terrapin, 464

Ursine Howler, 40

Zebra, 171

Testudinina, 460

Ursidce, 80

Zebra Wolf, 104

Tetraonidae, 379

Vampire, 55

Zebu, 218

Tetradecapoda, 645

Varans, 493

Zerda, 67

Thin Billed. Birds, 351

Varieties of the

Zeuglodon, 265

Three-toed Gulls, 434

Human Race, 28

Zoanthus, 686

Thrushes, 316

Velella, 681 Zorilla, 73

Ticks, 638

1

fc~-

/ OF THE )^\

1 UNIVERSITY J

UNIVERSITY OK I'ALIKOKXIA LIBRARY

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

SEP 14 1915

30m-l,'15

as*

/II9//

QU50

THE UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY