i i) Hath oh ie hs RAR SRA RAPER TERE A TESTE abe a] i a ee jc fs. wh rie siti Mp BAO et be ME Re ~ «RR BN Pino Bh re BOON ee = SECIS a Bir, ei o Bes ip er BAN SRL Ay) ; y y a E AD fo ~ KAD att? r SS . © y s Capes 8 LP ae NS! ea 3 iff BNR = hin He) —_ uy 3} : ry ms e LARS 6 - > 1-4 ‘ f N ~ “ L Ml é . 7D gs ~ Pp 3 Le hE OL Sends ‘Hartforad.Conn. By E.B.and EC KELLOGG, Entered, according to Act af Conéress,in the year 1557, © inthe Clerk’s Office of fhe District Court of the District of Connecticut re) ai: ae Animal Mingdom. Lith. ofEB.&£E,C Kellosé, we ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE NATURE IN LIVING FORMS, . ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS PLATES, ADAPTED TO ELUCIDATE THE - CHART OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, | BY AY MS’ REDFIELD, DESIGNED FOR THE HIGHER SEMINARIES, COMMON SCHOOLS, LIBRARIES, AND THE FAMILY CIRCLE, * Ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee; and the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee; or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee ; and the fishes of the sea shall declare untojthee, JVho Cheng of in all these that the hand of the Lord hath wrought this??? (Job xii. 7.) i % . ~ E. B. & E. C. KELLOGG, PUBLISHERS, 87 FULTON S8T., NEW YORK, AND 245 MAIN ST., HARTFORD, CT. mi 1865. | ; DEDICATION. ~® * Tu1s volume has with my aid been prepared by an esteemed and highly competent friend, to whom I am also much indebted for valuable assistance rendered in connection with the publication of the Chart which it is adapted to elucidate. Prepared, as it has been, with the utmost care and exactness; with un- usual regard to order and fullness of explanation as to the terms employed, I am sanguine in the belief it will everywhere meet with a cordial welcome as a suitable accompaniment of the Chart. Though both are capable of being used separately,.each will be found to shed light upon the other. To Teachers, to Parents and Heads of Families, to all who are lovers of Natural History and desire its advancement, I humbly but respectfully ded. icate this volume and the Chart it is intended to explain and illustrate. ANN M. REDFIELD. [NorE.—Since the first edition of this work was issued, that “ friend,’ the Rev. E. D. Maltbie, of Syracuse, N. Y., has been suddenly called away from an extended sphere of varied duty and usefulness on earth, to the exalted employ- ments and contemplations of the heavenly state. Though in accordance with his own desire, his name did not appear in that edition, there seems a propriety. in no longer withholding it from a work to the preparation of which the last two years of his life were so largely devoted, that it cannot but be regarded as an enduring memorial of his labors by a large circle of friends who mourn his un- expected departure. Syracuse, Febuary, 1859.] (Fit t "39 ; ) 2 ‘Pip Wat | ts SEP 42 4908 ‘Eatered according to Act of pcnaters,4 in the year 1858, by usig E. B. & E. C. KELLOGG, gi 7 ' in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut. PREFACE. Tar following work has been prepared as an accompaniment to the “‘ GEN- ERAL View OF THE ANIMAL Kinapom ”—a Cuart which, in the beautiful and harmonious arrangement of its several parts ; its lucid and orderly classifica- tion ; its brief but comprehensive statements and explanations,—presents the subject in an outline so full and consistent as to make it valuable even to the most scientific naturalist, both for convenient private reference, and as a help or guide in public lectures; while the more uninitiated, and such as are just setting out in the study of Natural History, becoming familiar with the details of the Chart, will, it is believed, desire and be prepared the better to appreciate additional information in relation to the subject; such infor- mation it is the aim of this work to impart. The possessor of the Chart might have recourse to works of two kinds—one purely scientific, like those of Cuvier and others, or the works on Natural History published by State authority ; the other, of a strictly popular character, in which not a single scientific or technical term is em- ployed. The array of unexplained technical language in the former class of works, he would, perhaps, deem repulsive and discouraging; the descrip- tions of the iatter class, he might, as related to the Chart, be often at aloss to apply correctly, though presenting to him the appearance of more inter- esting details than those which are found in works strictly scientific. The present volume, being a sort of medium between these two kinds of works, isadapted to meet the exigencies of such a case. It does not give the “characters” and ‘‘ descriptions” with the technicality and minuteness of the purely scientific treatise; to do this was found to be incompatible with the desired limits, as well as the general design of this publication ; at the same time, it is far from ignoring these things, after the manner of some popular treatises; The “characters” of the Classes, Orders, and Families will here be found given with considerable fullness; the main or prominent ones of the genera and species are also usually given: not in all cases in a separate and formal manner, but occasionally are blended with other particulars relating to the general habits of animals, or interspersed ee ee ee eee eee errr nnn Eee eee iv PREFACE. with illustrative anecdote. In most, if not all cases, the reader will, from the statements made, be able to form some correct and consistent ideas as to the genera and species noticed. When more full discriminations are de- sired, reference can be had to other and larger works. The medium character of this volume, and its relation to the extremely wide range of topics presented on the Chart, have increased the difficulty of preparing it within limits so restricted. To have furnished an amusing work composed chiefly or entirely of anecdotes or kindred material, would have been, comparatively, an easy task. In its present form, this work will perhaps not be. unacceptable to such as are already somewhat acquainted with Natural History in its scientific aspects and relations; while others, the young especially, may, from the use of this volume, pass, by an easy transition, to the study of larger works and those more purely scientific. To TEACHERS in particular, is this volume respectfully commended. Ques- tions are added to each section with special reference to its use in Acade. mies and Common Schools. It is proper to remark that this work is not published as containing the results of original observation, excepting to a limited extent: mainly it em- bodies materials newly moulded and arranged, but derived from approved standards, and some of the latest issues relating to the subjects of which it treats. The range of reference and comparison has been extensive ; the results of protracted investigation are sometimes condensed into a single brief paragraph or sentence. This work will be found orderly and harmonious in several respects in which some other publications betray confusion and inconsistency ; in the explanation of scientific terms, also, it is unusually full. Neither on the Chart, nor in this volume has the aim been to give all the different names which may have been applied by nat- uralists to a particular object; for this there was not room; and besides, in the case of some, such a course might have tended to confuse rather than really enlighten. Many of the pictorial illustrations are original, and with the accompanying explanations, will be found to add much to the in- terest and intrinsic value of the work. It is confidently trusted that the CHart, with this explanatory vol- ume, will be welcomed in Seminaries generally; and be accepted as valu- able auxiliaries by all lovers of physical science. May they tend to create and foster widely a taste for the study of nature; and by the developments which they make, and the researches and meditations to which they lead, awaken loftier and more worthy thoughts of the Infi- nite Creator, 2 Syracusz, March], 1858. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. SUB-KINGDOMS, four: VERT’E-BRATES, AR-TIC’U-LATES, MOL/- LUSKS, RA’-DI-ATES. : VERT’E-BRATES: Grand Divisions: Warm and Cozy Brooprp: The Warm Bioopep Division includes Mam-mats and Birps. 1. MAM’MALS, three sub-classes nine orders. First Sus-ciass, Un-euic-u-La’-Ta, (with nails or ciaws). (1.) Br-ma’Na, (Two-handed) Man. (2.) Quap-RU’-ma-Na, (Four-handed). Three families, Sim’i-a-de, Apes, Bab-oons’, Monkeys of the Old World. - ~ Ceb’i-de, Monk’eys (American). Le-mu’-ri-de, Le’-murs. (3.) €an-nrv’-o-ra (Flesh-eating Quad’ru-peds). Sub-order, €uei-Rop’-TER-a (Hand-winged) Bats. Dic-1-11-Gra-pa (walking on toes). Three families. Fel’-i-de, €ats, Li’-ons, Ti’-gers, &c. Can’-i-de, Dogs, Wolves, &c.. Vi-ver’-ri-de, Civ-ets, Ge-nets’, &c. Mus-tel’-i-de, Wea'-sels, &c. PLANT-I-GRA’-DA (walking on the soles of the feet.) Two fam- Ur’-si-de, Bears, Rae€-coons. [ilies. - Phoce’-i-de, Seals, Wal’-ruses, &. * True In-sEc-TIV’-0-RA (Inseet-eaters). Four families. Er-i-na-ce’-a-de, Hedge’-hogs, So-ric’-i-de, Shrews, (Shri.) Tal’pi-de, Moles. Tu-pat’-a-de, Banx’rings (of the Indian Archipelago). (4.) Mar-su-pi-a’-Li1-a (Pouched Quadrupeds). Four sections. — Sar-eoph’-a-ga (Flesh-eaters). Dasy-u’-ri. Ein-to-moph’a-ga (Insect-eaters). O-pos’-sums, ~ Car-poph'-a-ga (Fruit-eaters), Pha-lan’-gers, Po-eph’-a-ga (Grass-eaters). Kan’’ga-roos. | Sub-order Ahi-zoph’-a-ga (Root-eaters). Wom’-bats. ._O-vo-vi-vip-ar-ous. MOoN-0-TREM’-a-TA (Mon’-o-tremes), Eehid’ne and Or-ni-tho- rhyn’-eus or Water-Mole. i; .. CLASSIFICATION. (5.) E-pEn-tTa’-ta (Toothless or without front teeth). Four families. Brad’-y-pod -i-de (Slow-footed) or Tar-di-gra’-da, Sloths. Meg-a-the'-ri-a-de (Great-beasts). Fossil Sloths. Myr-me-eo-phag’-a-de (Ant’-eaters). Ar-ma-dil’-li-de (Ar-ma-dil’-los). (6.) Ro-pEn’-114 (Gnawing Quad’-ru-peds). Nine families. , Sci-w’-ri-de (Squir’rels). Are-tom’-y-de (Mar’-mots). Ger-bil’-li-de (Jer’-boas). Chin-chil'-li-de (Chin-chil'-las). Cas-tor’-i-de (Bea’-vers). Hys-tric’-i-de (Por’-cu-pines). Mu’-ri-de (Mice and Rats). Ca-vi'-a-de (€a’-vies or Guin’-ea-Pigs). Le-por’-i-de (Hares). Sec’-onp Sus-ciass, Un’-cu-1a’-Ta (with hoofs). (7.) Pacu-x-perm’-a-ta (Thick-skinned Quad’rupeds). Three families. El-e-phan’-ti-de (or Pro-bos-cid’-e-ans,) El’ephants, &c. Su’-i-de, Swine, Rhi-noc’-e-ros, &c. Eq/-ui-de, Horses, Ze’bras, &e. i Sol-pedss of So a (8.) Ru-mi-Nan’-11a (€ud-chewing Quad’/rupeds). Eight families. Ca-mel’-i-de, €am’-els, Lla-mas. Ca-mel-o-par’-de, €a-mel’-o-pards or Gi-raffes’. Mos’-ehi-de, Musk’-Deer. Cer’-vi-de, Deer or Stags. Bov’-i-de, Oxen, Bis’-on, (Buf’-fa-lo,) &c. Ov’-i-de, Sheep. Cap’-ri-de, Goats. An-ti-lop’-i-de, An’-te-lopes. Turrp Sus-ciass, Ma-Rinz’ Mam’-MALS. (9.) Cx-ra’-ce-a (Whale-tribe). Four families. Ba-len’-i-de, Ba-leen or Whale-bone Whales. A es ais or ) Blowers or § er-ma-ce-ti Whales. Phys-e-ter’-i-da, Del-phin’-i-de, Dolphins, Por’-po ~ &. __ Ma-nat'-i-ge or v _ Her-biv’-o-rous Ce-ta’-cea, ee ’ or Sea-Cows, &e. al 4 II. Diviston or Warm BLoopepD VERT’-E- Birps: Land Birds, five orders: — two orders. (1.) Rap-ro’-Res (Rav’-en-ers or F Three families. Fal-con’-i-de, Fal’-eon tribe. nilies. Sub-families, Ag-ui-li’-ne, Ea’-_ * Mil-vi'-ne, Kites. Bu-te-o-ni’-ne, Buzz’-ards, Fal-co-ni!-ne, Fal’-eons. Ae-cip-t-tri’-ne, Hawks. Vul-tur’-i-de, Vul'-tures, _ Strig’-i-de, Owls. ~ CLASSIFICATION. Vil (2. ) In-szs-so’-RES (Perchers). Four Sub-orders. — F1s-st-Ros’ |sTRES, DEN-TI-ROS -TRES, ©ON-I-ROS'-TRES, TEN-U-I-ROS ' . Ces-toi’-dea, (Gr. Kestos, girdle,) Tape Worms. . Cys’-ti-ea, (Gr. Kustis, a bladder,) Hyt’-a-tids or Bladder- ' like Worms. oi ages Two GRAND Drv1stons. CEPH-A- “LA -TA (with heads) or U’-N1-VALVES.. A-CEPH’-a-LA (without heads) or Bi’-VaLvEs. J. Cepu-a-La’ -TA: Three classes or sub-divisions, viz. (1). CepH’-a-Lo-Pops, i (2). (8). (1). (2). (3. — Head-footed, i. e., Arms about the head. Di-braneh-i-a'-ta, (Two braneh’-i-e, Brank'-e-,) €ut-tle-fish. TLet-ra-branch-i-a'-ta, (Four braneh’ 7h) Nau'-ti-lus, Am- mon-ites, &. t Two sections, Wing- footed, i. e., wing-like arms } Three families. for swimming. Hy-a-le'-i-de, Hy'-a-le, €le-o-do’-ra. Lim-a-cin | i-dee, Lim-a-ci’-na, Spi’-ral-is. Cli-on'-i-de, €lio. Gas’-TER-O-PODS, PreER’-0-PoDs, (ter’-o-pods, ) Stomach-footed, i. e., ) Divided into four Feet on the Stomach. . families. Pul-mo-braneh’-i-a (Lung-like Gills). _Li-mac'-i-de, (from Li'-maz,) Slugs. He-lic'-i-de, (from Hé'-liz,) Snails. Awrie-u' -li- de, (from Au-rie’ -u-la,) Ear-shaped shells. Lim-nee'-i-de, (from Lim-ne'-a,) Aquatic Snails. Pee-tin-i-braneh’-i-a, (Comb-like gills.) (Nine families.) Troeh'-i dee, (from Trochus ,) Troehi. Tur-bin'-i- -de, (from Zur "bo ,) Tur’-bines, Per’-i-wink-les. . Mu-ric'-i-de, ( “ Mu'-rex,) Mu’-ri-ces. Strom’ -bi-dee, Gaff Strom'-bus,) €oneh-Shells. Bue-cin'-i-de,( “ Bue'-cin-wm,) Harp-Shells, Whelks. Cy- “pre ‘-i-de, ( ‘ Cy'-pre-a,) €ow'-ries. Con'-i-de, (fr om Co’-nus,) Cones. Vo-lu' ti- dee, (from Vo-lu'-ta,) Volutes, Olives, Mitres. Cap-u-lot'-de-ce, (from Cap'-a -la,)€up-Shaped Shells. ' Gill-bearing, Uh “fers; ') ; e., breathing } Seven orders. ub-class. By ail ' y gills. (i-a. Tu-bu-li-braneh'-i-a, (Ta’ -bu-lar-gills,) Ver-me’-tus, Sil-i-qua’- Seu-ti-braneh'-i-a or Gills shielded by Hal’ 20-ti As-pi-do-byaneh’-i-a, the shell. are Gills circular, i. e.,. Chi'+t Cye-lo-braneh’-i-a, + around the body of Li * cae “wn the animal. Boke i { SR — i) xii CLASSIFICATION. : a rs § €overed-gills, ive.,.) Bul’-la or Tee-tibranch “1-0, | by the mantle. tenes Under-gills, i.e. Lite Iaseroraneh', under the ‘edge te Lolditke. of the mantle. oh ee Naked-gills, i. e., ) Glau’-eus aMirstirdenate shhré-4, | without Shells. tortie ; ‘ Other-footed, i. e., feet €ar-i-na’-ri-a epg gad different from the others. tole II. A-cepn’-a-La. Heapiess Mottusxs. Four orders. [leaf-like gills.) (1). €on-cu1r’-ER-a (Shell bearing) or Lam-el-li-branch’-i-a, (Plate or peer Fam.) Os-tra'-ce-e-Sub-fam.—A n-omi'-i-de, A-no’-mi-a, Pla-eu' -ni-de,Pla-eu' -na, aoe jae Os'-tre-i-de, Os'-trea, sist iu is Pee-tin'-i-de, Pee’-ten, Av-i-¢u' -li-de, A-vie-'u-la, muscle. (Fresh Water Mus’-sels) Wai’-a-des (Na a’-ya-deez,) or U-ni-on'- , i-de, Unio, An’-o-don, Al-as’-mo-don. (Salt Water Mus’-sels) M yt-2- -Lac!-e- ce, Myt’ “4-lus, Mo-di’-o-la, Pin’-na, €re-nel’-la. ‘Oha-mac' -e-@-sub-families. : Tri-dae'-ni-de, Tri-dae’-na. Cham’'-i-da, €ha’-ma, Car-di-a'-ce-a, ( do. Car-dit’-i- dé, €ar’-di-ta. Cy-elad'-i-de, Cye’-las. Mantle closed behind. Tel-lin'-i-de, Tel-li/-na. Lnw-cin'-i-da, Lu-ci’-na. _ Si’-phons united Ve-ner’-i-de, Vé'-nus. Di-my-a’- or distinct. Cras-si-tel’ -li-da, €ras-si-tel’-la. ri-a (or Sub-order In-elu’-sa (inclosed, i. e., within the man- (having two tle, which has but one opening for the passage | muscles). of the foot. Families Mae'-tri-de, Mae’-tra. My'-i-de, My’-a. Sol-e-my'-i-de, Sol-e-my’-a. Sax-i-cav'-i-de, Sax-i-ea’-va. Pon-dor'-i-de, Pan-do’-ra. So-len'-i-de, So’-len (Razor Shell). Pho-lad'-i-de, Pho’ -las. [ Worm). Ter-e-din' -i-de, Te-re’-do. (Wood! or oa Enclos. in a tube { Zu-b2-€ol’ ~i-dee, A s-per’-gil-lum ener but not attached. i or Gas-tro-ehe’-na. pot. $ Arm-footed, i. e., having two long Ter-e-brat’-u-la, spiral arms on each side of the Lin’ “gu-la, (2). Bracu-1-op’-0-pa, mouth capable of protrusion. Or-bie’-u-la. (Brak’-e-op-o-da. ) : : ‘€oated, i..e., body enveloped in an elastic sncludi (3). Tu-nt-ca’-Ta, tunic or coat. ee the As-cid’-i-ans (Mol’-lusks of a Leathern bottle-shape). Gr. Moss-animals, i. e. , largely aggregated se @). BRY-0-20'-4, } eor-al-lig’ -e-nous 20’ -O-phy-tes. — CLASSIFICATION. xiii Agassiz proposes the following classification, Contributions to Nat. Hist., Vol. 1, page 185.) ' Ist Class. A-ceph’-a-la, (orders as already given.) 2d do. Gas-ter-op’-o-da, with three orders, Pter-op’-o-da, Het’-e- rop’-o-da and Gas-ter-op’-o-da proper. 3d do. Ceph-a-lop’-o-da, with two orders, Tet-ra-braneh-i-a’-ta and Di-braneh’-i-4-ta. RA’-DI-ATES. Four classes. I. Ecu-1n’-o-peRms, (Gr. Heh-i’-nos, Sea-urchin; derma skin.) 4 orders. (1). H6-Lo-ruu-Rip’-E-s, (Gr. Ho-lo-thow'-ri-on,) Sea-slugs or Sea-cucum- (2). HcH-1N-1p’-E-a, (Gr. Heh-i'-nos). Sea-urchins. [bers. 3). AS-TER-ID’-E-a, (Gr. Astér, a Star). Star-fish. EY €ri-noip’-E-a, (Gr. Kr2’-non, a lily, lily-like). En’-eri-nite. II, Ac’-a-Lepus, (Gr. Ak-a-le’-phe, a nettle). Three orders. (1). Pux-mon’-I-GRADEs, pulmo, lungs; gradior, to advance, i. e., con- tracting or expanding their umbrella-shaped disk, thus showing a resemblance to the motion of the lungs when breathing. (2). Puys-o-era’-pa, (Gr. phusao, to inflate; gradior, i. e., supported and moving in the water by means of one or more bladders, ca- pable of being filled with air at the will of the animal). Hy- drostatic Aealephs of €uvier. ‘ (8). Crt-1-0-GRa’-pa, (cil’-i-a, vibratile hairs; gradior, i. e., moving by “means of vibratile cil’-i-a disposed on the surface of the body.) The orders are otherwise named thus: Dis-copn’-o-rA, (Disk-bearing) Me-du’-se or Jelly-fish. SIPH-0-NOPH’-o-RA, (Si’-phon or Sucker-bearing, i. e., having aerial vesicles.) CTE-NopH’-0-RA, (€omb-bearing, i. e., moving by vibrating hairs (te-noph’-ora.) resembling the teeth of a comb. JII. Pay-ro-zo’-a or ( (phuton, a plant; zoon, animal.) Plant-like animals. Zo-0-PHY’ TA, Two orders. Polos Ac’-TIN-o1ps, (aktin, a ray,) Ray-like animals. [animals. , PS, Hy’-proips, (hudra, a hydra or water-snake,) Hydra-like IV. Pro-to-zo’-a, (proton, first; zoon, animal: i. e., the lowest form of or- ganized bodies. [The last is a very numerous, but a very wncertain class. Linneus placed them all at the end of Worms, and called them Chaos. So great is the number of the Inrusorizs, that they have sometimes been arranged into Legions. Some have been transferred to the Articulates; others have been removed to the Vegetable Kingdom. Prof. Agassiz is of the opinion that the entire class will soon be dispensed with. ] NOTE. An interesting and instructive use of the “Chart of the Animal King- dom” will be to employ the method of CLassiFicaTion, which it embodies, in tracing an individual of any species, through the successive gradations, to the Sub-Kingdom to which it belongs. 1. In the VERTEBRATES, take, for example, the Common Dog, Canis famil- zaris; and it may be traced as follows: The generic term (which is always placed before the specific, or stands alone when the specific term is omitted) is Canis; familiaris is the specific term. Genera are formed into families; the family name is Canide; families are formed into sub-orders or orders (the orders are in larger or capital letters); Canide belongs to the sub-order DicirigRapa ; to the order Carnivora. Orders are formed into classes, Carnivora belongs to the sub-class UNeuicuLata ; to the class Mammats. Classes (denoted by larger letters) are formed into SUB-KINGDOMS. The MAMMALS belong to the Sub-Kingdom VERTEBRATES, denoted by letters next in size to those of the ‘“AnimaL Kine@pom.” 2. In the Articunatss, take the Lobster, Astacus marinus. Marinus de- notes the species; Astacus, the genus—of the order (or sub-class) Maracostraca, of the class Crustacea, of the Sub-Kingdom Arricu- LATES. 8. In the Motxusxs, take the Shell, Mitra episcopalis. Hpiscopalis is the name of the species: Mitra, of the genus. This genus belongs to the fam- ily Volutide. The family Volutide belongs to the order PECTINIBRAN- cHia; this order to the class GastrRopops; this class to the Uni- VALVES, the first grand division of the Sub-Kingdom Mo.rusks, 4, In the Raptatss, take the Portugese Man of War, Physalis pelagica.. The generic term is Physalis; the specific term, pelagica; Physalis belongs to the order SipHoNoPHORI, to the class ACALEPHSs, to the Sub- Kingdom Rap1atTEs. The above are given as.specimens in the several sub-kingdoms, showing the manner in which the species named in the Chart, may in conformity with the system of Classification, be followed up to their respective places. To aid both teachers and pupils in pronouncing terms, many of which are uncommon, those found in the Classification and Index of this work, have, with great care, been divided, into syllables, and accentuated accord- ing to the best authorities. For words purely English, and such as have become Anglicised, Webster has been chiefly followed ; for those strictly classical, the pronunciation has been given in conformity with the rules of Prof. Andrews, now so generally adopted. It is however very apparent that in regard to many of these terms, great difference of opinion and usage exists amoung intelligent and scientific men. NATURAL HISTORY. SECTION I. Tue science of Natural History is truly vast in its extent, ineluding all bodies found on the earth, or of which its mass is composed. Its most general divisions are Mrneratocy, Botany and ZooLtocy. ‘These divisions are founded upon tie different and distinguishing characters and states of the various objects which they respectively include. Minerals are inorganic bodies ; they are without life, and incapable of increase or diminution except by means of some force outwardly applied. These are earth, rock, metals, &c. OrcGanic bodies are divided into ani- MATE and INANIMATE. The former comprehend substances en- dowed with sense and motion and belong to the department of Zoooey ; the latter are without the faculties of sense and mo- tion, and includedin Botany. Orgarized beings, whether ani- mate or inanimate, differ from inorganic ones in having the power of reproduction, or continuing the existence of beings like them- selves. Animals derive their nourishment either directly or in- directly from vegetables, of which hydrogen and carbon are the principal ingredients. The latter derive their nourishment from the soils of the earth and from the atmosphere. In the survey of objectsso numerous and possessing such varied characteristics as those of Natural History, classification i is obvi- ously of high importance. A union of several traits is almost always required to distinguish a single being from others around it which have some, but not all of the same traits, or have\ them in combination with others of which that single being is destitute. In the work of classification a number “of neighboring beings are compared with each other; and their differences, which are supposed to be the least part of their for- mation, are made indexes of their character. The union formed iby the comparison of objects which agree, but with certain differences, is called a genus; a union with fewer differences 10 NATURAL HISTORY. is called a species. Genera are formed into orders, and orders into classes. The Cuart of which this volume is explanatory, exhibits the “Animal Kingdom” by means of a Tree having four branches, each representing one of the four sub-kingdoms into which it is divided, viz., VERTEBRATES, ArTicuLATES. Mouuiusxs and Rapi- ATES. Each branch puts forth other branches bearing subdivis- ions—classes, orders, families, genera, &c., illustrated by nu- merous and appropriate figures, and so variously lettered and marked as to be easily distinguished. It was prepared with great labor, and in the use of much research, in order to facil- itate acquisitions in the department of physical science which it de- Jineates and with the hope of thus encouraging a more general in- troduction of the Study of Natural History into our Seminaries of learning, from the Common School to the College and University. “Man,” said Lord Bacon, “is the minister and interpreter of Na- TURE. More attention should be given in the domestic circle, and in the various schools of instruction to the business of training the young to be observersof nature. A fondness for the lessons and resear- ches of natural history, implanted in the mind during the period of youth, will, in all probability, last through life, affecting fa- vorably the entire mental development. None should neglect the investigations to which by the “ View of the Animal Kingdom,” they are invited: Such investigations, it should be remembered, pertain neither to fiction nor hypothe- sis—but to realities. They seem specially adapted to man’s endowments in his present state of existence; but the facts and impressions which he derived from an earnest contemplation of the works of God, memory will embalm and render immortal. “And as now the memory of home is pleasurable in proportion to the vividness and distinctness of its image; as we now attach importance to the most insignificant object around the place of our birth; as we regard with intense interest the old elm, the green lawn, the hawthorn bush, the rivulet because they are in- separably connected with our developments of mind, even so perhaps may we then, after millions of ages shall have elapsed, recall with increasing pleasure the physical scenery of this birth-place of our existence.” | QUESTIONS ON SECTION I. What does the science of Natural History include? What are its gen- eral divisions? What are minerals? How are organic bodies divided? Which belong to Zoology? Which to Botany? How do organic bodies THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. il differ from inorganic? From what do animals derive their nourishment? Of what do vegetables principally consist? From what do they derive their nourishment ? What is necessary to distinguish one being from another? - How do you proceed in classifying objects? What is a genus? What is a species? Of what are orders and classes formed? ‘What is the defi- nition of genus and species at the bottom of the chart on the left hand? What are minuter differences called? Answer. Varieties. What does a generic name signify orcomprehend? Ans. It comprehends all the species ; Canis, for example, is the generic name of animals of the Dog kind, includ- ing the Fox (Canis Vulpes,) the Wolf (C. Lupus,) the Jackal (C. aurews,) and the domestic Dog (C. familiaris.) How are generic terms printed on the chart? Ans. Always larger than the common name by which the ani- mal is known, and commencing with a capital letter. How do you distin- guish the specific from the generic name? Ans. It follows the generic term in letters of the same size, and should not commence with a capital, unless it is derived from some person or place, or is sometimes used in a generic sense. Why is the name of the species often omitted on the chart? Ans. For want of room, and fear of confusing the student by crowding too much in a small space. How are the families distinguished on the chart ? Ans. By their terminating in tdae, as mustelidae for the Weasel Tribe, or Family. Howcan you distinguish the orders? Ans. They are printed in CAPITALS, and the number of orders is mentioned on the branch, as in the Ungulata, or hoofed Mammals. Are there any other divisions or dis- tinctions on the chart? Ans. Several, as among the cud chewing some have solid horns, some are hollow, and some are entirely without horns; some shed them annually as in the deer, in others they are permanent, as in the ox or sheep. Some birds are terrestrial, others aquatié; some insects and reptiles are venomous (poisonous ;) others are non-venomous, or harmless. Wherever there is room, you will find these things noticed on the branches, or as near the classes, orders or figures as practicable. Dots are often added to make the connection or relation still plainer; and where there is but small space allotted to explanation or figures, the defi- ciency will be remedied as we proceed. How many ranks, or grades of groups does Swainson enumerate? Ans. Nine, commencing with the high- est, and terminating with the lowest assemblages. 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub- kingdom; 3. Class; 4. Order; 5. Tribe; 6. Family; 7. Sub-family; 8. Genus; 9. Sub-genus. Name the four great Classes, or Sub-Kingdoms from the chart. SECTION II. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. THE system of Zoology places man at the head of this King- dom. As he is endowed with intellectual and moral faculties, and fitted for responsible action, there is room for doubt whether, in his pre-eminence, he should have a placeamong the tribes of animals. Butas his being is compound, he becomes the con- necting link between them and beings purely spiritual. To the former he is allied by his bodily frame with its appetites and passions; to the latter by his reason, and mental susceptibilities. Instinct distinguishes the lower animals—truly wonderful in i2 . ANIMAL KINGDOM. some of its actings as will be shown hereafter; but yet only a mere internal impulse, and incapable of improvement, The bird shows it in building itsnest; the bee in constructing its cells; but both the nest and comb are made as skillfully at the first as in any subsequent trial. There seems no occasion to mistake by referring to mineralogy or botany what properly belongs to the Animal ‘Kingdom ; ; and yet in such animals as the oyster we discern but little of the sen- sibility and capacity for voluntary motion which are usually ad- duced as characteristics of the animal tribes. | ‘Chemistry has ascertained that the substances found both in ani- | mals and vegetables are chiefly formed of four elements, viz., car- bon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These have, chasetiwie: been called organic elements. The opposite and distinctive | natures of plants and animals may be seen in the functions | which they perform dependently one on another. In animal | respiration, the oxygen of the atmosphere is combined with the blood, forming carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off from the entire surface of the body in some animals; from the gills of | those that live in water, and the lungs of those that live in air. Animals thus consume oxygen—to them it is pabulum vitae— the food of life. Plants, on the contrary, consume carbonic acid and give off oxygen. They thus become able to furnish animals with carbon. Animals, in their turn furnish food to plants. The excretions which they throw off, yield ammonia (consisting of hydrogen and nitrogen,) from which substance vegetables princi- pally derive their nitrogen. The animal derives the constitu- ents of its body from the vegetable kingdom; the plant obtains its elements from the mineral kingdom. ‘The tissues of the plant change mineral into organic substances; those of the aDHES change organic substances into mineral. A further contrast between plants and animals is iced in the effects produced upon them, respectively, by light and heat. Both of these are indispensable to the proper growth of plants. The productions found in their tissues are but the expression of the light and heat they have, as it were, appropriated. Many of the substances in this way formed, are taken as food into the systems of animals; but in them are again set free in the form of “vital animal forces.” Differences of structure also constitute an important ground of distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms; yet, sometimes, as in the sponge, it is only by considering to which there is the greatest generul resemblance, it can be decided a po ANIMAL KINGDOM. 13 whether a particular being should be classed as an animal or vegetable. The different methods by which they receive food, and assim- ilate it or convert it into their own substance, form another dis- tinction between animals and plants. Vegetables imbibe their nourishment through their outward surface, or through their roots and leaves; but animals, for the most part, have a stomach, or internal cavity, into which the food is received, where it is digested, and by appropriate vessels, absorbed into the body. "Phe food of animals is generally in a solid state, and must be rendered fluid before it can be formed into the tissues. ‘Taken at intervals, and stored in the stomach, it does not hinder their movements from place to place. During the intervals of its re- ception, it is kept in contact with the absorbent vessels. Hence, animals are said to “bear their soil about with them.” The earth is called “ the stomach of plants.” The habits and instincts of animals must also be considered by the zoologist in making up the account of the differences be- tween them and plants. This is a field which affords a wide scope for comparison and research in tracing analogies between objects in many respects diverse, and one which teaches many lessons concerning the Divine wisdom and benevolence. The chart-of “the Animal Kingdom” presents a view of that branch of Natural History which is called Zoo.oey, a term de- rived from the Greek Zéon, an animal, and logos, a discourse. This includes nine divisions, viz.; I. Mammalogy, which treats of the Mammalia, or animals that nurse their young; II. Orni- thology, which relates to Birds; III. Erpetology, which includes the Natural History of Reptiles; IV. Ichthyology, which gives the Natural History of Fishes; V. Entomology, which gives the Natural History of Insects; VI. Crustaceology, which treats of Crabs, Lobsters, &c.; VII. Helminthology, which treats of Worms; VIII. Malacology, which includes Conchology, and describes soft-bodied animals, with and without shells; [X.* Ac- tinology, which treats of radiate animals, as the Star-fish, Sea- Anemone, &c. The Animal Kingdom is divided, as on the chart, into four sub-kingdoms, viz.: Vertebrates, Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates. * We have ventured to introduce this new term, formed from the Greek word aktin, a ray, (corresponding with the Latin Tadius ,) and logos, a dis- course, in order to have the names of the several branches alike as to their termination and Greek derivation, though the terms actinia and actiniade, (generic and family,) refer distinctively to the Sea- Anemones. 4 14 ANIMAL KINGDOM. The VERTEBRATES, (from the Latin vertebra, a joint, which comes from vertére, to turn,) have a jointed backbone, or inter- nal bony skeleton. ‘They are divided into Warm and Coxp Broopep; the former, including Mammals, (Mammalia.) and Birds, (Aves ;) the latter, Reptiles, (Reptzlia,) and Fishes, (Pisces. ) The Whale tribe. (Cetacea,) inhabiting the sea, form one order of the Mammalia. ARTICULATES, (from the Latin articulus, a ring or joint,) are animals in which the body and legs are jointed, and the hardest parts are outside. These are arranged into three classes, viz. : Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms. Mottusks, (from the Latin modlis, soft,) are shell-fish whose nervous system is composed of several scattered masses, or gan- glions, united by means of nervous threads, and whose soft bod- ies are generally protected by a shell. i Rapiates, (from the Latin radius, a ray,) are animals whose parts are disposed in the form of rays, tending to a common cen- ter, where the mouth is placed, as in the Star-fish. QUESTIONS ON SECTION 2. Who is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom? With what is he endowed? For what is he fitted? What does his compound being consti- tute him? How is he allied toanimals? How to spiritual beings? What guides the lower animals instead of reason? Does the bird or bee con- struct its last nest or comb with more skill than the first? Is there any need of mistake in referring to Mineralogy or Botany, what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom? How is it with the Oyster? What are the four elements both in vegetables and animals? What name is given to these elements? What shows the opposite natures of plants and animals? When animals breathe, what is combined with the blood? What gas is thus formed? How is this thrown off in some animals? How in others? What is oxygen called? On what do plants live? What do they give off? What do they furnish to animals? What do animals furnish plants? What is obtained from animal excretions? What do vegetables derive from it? Whence does an animal derive the constituents of its body, and whence the plant its elementary ingredients? What is a further source of contrast between plants and animals? What additional ground of distinc- tion is there between the animal and vegetable kingdoms? In some cases, how is it determined to which of the two a particular being belongs? What further distinction between plants and animals is referred to? How do vegetables take in their nourishment? How animais? What is said about the food of animals? What are animals said to do? What has the earth been called? What is said of the habits and instincts of animals as relates to the differences between them and plants? What benefits flow from tracing the analogies between animalsand plants? Is this a wide field and what does it teach ? What does the Chart present? From whatis the term Zootoey derived ? Of which of the three kingdoms of nature is this Chart a general view? , wal) a ee te ee eee ee Bh aS, nad PSA la WCE ‘ nt H i )) p : & oy ae po ty a OR UST cr SRN ath ya) , Pate ; k 3 es om ie ea ; A aN VERTEBRATES. ANUS TN RSA NNUaS J GY a E ~ } WO 77 WW. tis” Wi x o ge G TE MOLLUSKS. RADIATES. S— SSS —— SSN S sae ZA | << S= = TS mats : 3S Fig. CO COTA NP wny eTaahwnwre OTRANPwWrH 2 OTH nr P ow He . Buccinum, Whelk. . Mitra Episcopalis, Bishop’s Mitre. . Lridacna gigas, Giant Tridacna. . Planorbis, Coil-shell. . Siliquaria. . Nautilus umbilicatus, Umbilicated Nautilus. . Loligo vulgaris, Common Calamary. . Triton variegatus, Variegated Triton. . Physa fontinalis, Bubble-shell. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. “@ VERTEBRATES, ARTICULATES, MoLLusKS AND RaDIATES, VERTEBRATES. . Homo sapiens, Man. Cebus, Monkey. ahs . Camelus Dromedarius, Dromedary. . Avis, Bird. . Ciconia Alba, White Stork. . Pisces, Fishes. . Ophis, Snake. . Rana pipiens, Bull-frog. . Alligator lucius, Alligator. ARTICULATES. . Astacus marinus, Lobster. . Papilio, Butterfly. Culex pipiens, Mosquitoe. Musca domestica, Common House Fly. . Larva, or Caterpillar of a Moth or Butterfly. . Lettigonia verrucivora, Spotted Grasshopper of Europe. . Clerus apiarius, Hive Beetle. . Lucanus cervus, Stag Beetle. MOLLUSKS. RADIATES. . Coralium rubrum, Red Coral. . Apiocrinites rotundus. Hdwardsia vestita. Dianea, a Jelly-fish, or Medusa, . Lima flavilabris, Jelly-fish. . Asterias, Star-fish. . Zoanthus Solanderi, Animal Flower, or Zoophyte. . Astrea ananas, Pine-apple Coral, 18 "ANIMAL KINGDOM. How many divisions does it include? Of what does Mammalogy treat? To what does Ornithology relate? What does Erpetology include? What does Ichthyology give? What science treats of Insects? What of Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles? Of what does Helminthology treat? What does Malacology include and describe? Of what does Actinology treat? QUESTIONS ON THE CHART. How is the Animal Kingdom divided on the Chart? To which of these four great Classes, or Sub-kingdoms, do the first four of the above nine divisions belong? Point out each division of this right hand branch. Give the name of the science pertaining to or describing each. In what particular do they all agree? Ans. In having a backbone, or spinal column. Define vertebra and give its derivation. Which are warm blooded ? Which are cold blooded? How cold or warmare they? How many orders of Reptiles? How many of Fishes? How many of Mammals? Which order ranks first, and is far above all others? What is said of mah, near the bottom onthe right hand of the chart? What is said of his brain? What of his birth? What of his wants? How does he compare with others in regard to strength, speed, &c.? Is his reason an improvable gift? Does it supply the place of strength? What order comes next to man? How dothe Quadrupeds differ from QuapRUMANA? What marine animals belong to the class Mammatia? In what element do they live? With what organs do they move? Is the largest living animal found in this class? What is its name and what are its uses? Which of the Verresratss live in the water? Which on land? Which in the trees? Which fly? Which swim? Whichcrawl? Which are covered with feathers? Which with hair? Which with scales? Which are born alive, (viviparous?) Which hatched from eggs, (oviparous ?) Which are entirely without limbs? Which have but two? In which Sub-kingdom, or on what branch do you find Insects, Crusta- ceans, and Worms or Annelidans? From what is the name Crustaceans _derived? In what do they resemble one another? Have they any internal skeleton? Where are the hardest parts? Which is the largest of all articulated animals? Ans. Lobsters. Name some of the worms on the chart. Of what use is the leech? Of what use is the earth or angle worm, (Lumbricus terrestris?) Ans. This despised creature is of great use in loosening the earth, so that air and water can pass through it freely, and in covering barren tracts of land with their worm casts, thus rendering them productive. Mention some of the Insects and Crustaceans. Name the sciences describing them. Are Insectsa numerous class? Ans. They out- number all other classes together. There are 80,000 species of the beetles alone, (order Colecptera.) Here you find the Cureulio, or weevil, death- watch, lightning-bug, horn-bugs, &c., &. 4 From what is the name of the third branch, (Mollusks,) derived? How are these soft bodies protected? How are Mollusks divided? Which have heads? Which none? To which division do snails and slugs belong? On ’ which branch do you find Oysters and Clams? Which move about, (are free?) Which are fixed, (stationary?) Is the Oyster always attached to other substances? Ans. No. Which branch of the Mollusks are entirely aquatic, or never leave the water? Are the TunicaTa, or ASCIDIANS pro. e VERTEBRATES. 19 tected by shells? Name from the chart the largest genus of known shells. Is ita bivalve, (of two pieces,) or a univalve, (of one piece ?) Which is the fourth, last and lowest branch of the Animal Kingdom? Define Radiate. How are the parts disposed? Where is the mouth? From what is the term derived? Are they aquatic? What is said of these ani- mals near the bottom of the chart, on the left hand? Are they less per- fect of their kind than those on the right branch? Why, then, are they said to be the lowest in the scale of animal life? Which animals are always lowest in organization in the class, division, or order to which they belong? Which rank next in thesascending scale? Which rank highest of all? Which is the lowest order of land animals which nurse their young ? Aus. The Monotremata and Marsupiats. Why are the branches of the orders Marsupialia and Rodentia, (gnawers,) bent and carried around next the marine mammals? Ans. To show that though having nails, they come next the order Cetacea, (Whales, Dolphins, &c.,) in organization. Which is the lowest or most simply organized class of animals? How many orders does it contain? What does proto signify? Is it a well established class? What is said of it? What animals are found on the chart among the Rapiates? Which are microscopic? Which fossil? Which used as food? What is said of Sponge? Where does Agassiz class it? Are Animalcules, Infusories, and Microscopic or very minute animals common? Ans. They are dispersed like seed through all nature. Are Animalcules tenacious of life? Ans. It is so difficult to kill them that they van be repeatedly dried and kept’ for a long time, and will revive or come again to life, as soon as put into water. FIRST BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. MAMMALOGY, (Gr. vouue, mamma, a breast; Aéyos, Logos, a discourse. ) [. GRAND DIVISION OF VERTEBRATES, (Warm-Blooded Animals.) SECTION III. VERTEBRATES. (Lat. Vertebrata, possessing Vertebra, or joints in the backbone.) The first class of the Vertebrates consists of the Mammals, or Mammalia, (Gr. Mamma, a breast,) a term first used by Linnzus and designating all animals which nurse their young. The highest position in the Animal Kingdom is given to this class, composed as it is of beings whose faculties are the most numer- ous, which are most perfect in their structure and capable of the most varied movements, and whose intelligence is most largely developed. A: large part of the Mammals are formed for walk- mg: some can fly in the air, and water is the element in which others live and move. Their skeletons are all constructed 29 VERTEBRATES. after the same general plan, changed, however, and modified in certain parts or organs, to fit them for the stations which they are designed to occupy. (See Plates III. and XII.) All of them are viviparous, (born alive.) ‘The young, as the name of the class denotes, are, for a longer or shorter time, nourished by the milk of the mother. Sometimes they are born with their eyes open, and able immediately to move about and seek their own food ; but not a few of them are born with their eyes closed, and in a state of extreme helplessness. The leading characters of the Mammalia are founded on the number and kind of their teeth, (see Plate IV.) andthe construc- tion of their hands and feet. (See Plates III. and VI.) The expertness of these animals is closely connected with the per- fection of the organs of touch. The nature of their food and their digestive functions may, in great part, be inferred from the number and structure of their teeth. (See Plates I[I. and VI.) They are divided into three sub-classes, viz.: UneuicuLata, (lat. Unguiculus, a soft, small nail,) animals with nails or claws; and Uneuxata, (lat. ungula, a hoof,) animals with hoofs; and Cetacga, with fins, (Gr. Ketos, a whale, or sea monster.) The Mammals are, (on the Chart,) arranged into nine orders, after the plan of Cuvier, that arrangement being deemed, on the whole, the most satisfactory The number of well established species, according to Dr. Hitchcock, is somewhat more than _ 2000. The names of the nine orders are, I. Brana; II. -Quap- rumaANA; III. Carnivora; IV. Marsupiatia; V. Epentata; VI. Ropentia; VII. Pacnypermata; VIII. Ruminantia; 1X.” CETACEA. Some naturalists have elevated. the Curetroptera, the Insec- Tivora, and the Monotremarta to the rank of orders, making the number XI1; but the first two of these are flesh-eaters, and therefore properly included among the Carnivora, (or the Carnas- siers of Cuvier;) and the Monotremgs, including but two gen- era, have such points of resemblance to the MArsuPIALIA, as justify referring them to that order. | QUESTIONS ON THE VERTEBRATES. What is the first class of Vertebrates? Who first used the term? Who was Linneus? Ans. Aneminent Swedish naturalist. He was the author of the Linnzan, or artificial system of Botany. What does the term Mammals, or Mammalia designate? What position in the ANIMAL. Kinepom does this class occupy? Of what beings is it composed? For what are a large part of the Mammals forthed? How do others of this class live and move? What is said of their skeletons? Are BIMANA. 21 all able at first to move about, use their eyes, and seek their own food? Upon what are the prominent characters of the MamMatia founded? What distinguishes the three sub-classes into which all Mammals are divided? Spell, define and give the derivation of these words. Which have nails? Whieh hoofs? Which fins? Which have hair? Which live on land? Which in the water? Under how many orders are the Mammals on the chart arranged? Whose arrangement is tlis, and why adopted? Who was Cuvier? Ans. An eminent French naturalist who could, like Prof. Owen, of England, describe an animal by seeing a single bone, and the na- ture of its food, by looking at its teeth, or examining its intestines. Name the nine orders from the chart, giving examples of each. Read the explanations along the sides of the branches and limbs, as you trace them up from the root or foundation of the tree. To whatrank have some naturalists elevated the CHErropreRa, INsEcTIVoRA, and MonoTreMata? What animals on the chart belong to these sub-orders? What reason is assigned for giving them this rank ? SECTION IV. First Sus-Ciass. UNGUICULATA. First Orver. Bimana, (Lat. b2s, twice; manus, hand; two-handed.) Man fills the first place in the animal series. In reality, he stands alone, sole order, genus and species. His full zoological relationsare: Sub-Kingdom, VERTEBRATA; Class, MamMma.tia; sub- class, Uneuicunara ; order, Bitana; genus, Homo; species, Sa- PIENS. ‘The position at the nead of the Animal Kingdom, given to man by the great body of zoologists, is, however, objected to by scme eminent naturalists, “who are not disposed to admit that because he possesses certain zoological characters which are en- tirely secondary and subordinate, he should be classed with brutes, when his noblest attribute, reason, destroys every vestige of affin- ity, and places him immeasurably above them all.’”* The most prominent of the characters by which man is distinguished from the lower animals, are as follows : Rational; endowed with speech; able to walk erect, two handed ; having a prominent chin; four incisor (cutting) teeth above and below; and all the teeth side by side ; the canine (eye) teeth of the same length as the others; the lower cutting teeth erect; apeculiar relative proportion of the thighs and arms, and wide soles to the feet. Considering him in his higher or spiritual nature, we may name his sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal consciousness and purposes; and the courses of action thence resulting as among his proper and essential characteristics. Even physically, he is first of all the living creatures on earth; not, however, in size, or in animal strength, in which respects many of the Ver- “Zoology of New York, by Dr. De Kay. 2 22 BIMANA. f tebrates excel him.—but in the plan or model after which he is constructed The eagle, for example, has a more powerful vision; the hare is more keenly sensible to sound; the dog and vulture are more ready to catch the scent which is borne upon the breeze ; but in man is found a nice adjustment, a “ peculiar and felicitous accuracy ” of the senses, which, while ministering to his enjoy- ment, enables him to cultivate a more thorough and pleasing acquaintance with the objects by which he is surrounded. In the power of speech, and the various exercises of this power by which he makes known his wants, his desires, and his most ab- stract mental conceptions; in his processes of reasoning and in his susceptibility of endlessly progressive improvement, he rises high above every other animal existence. The several parts of the living human frame are suited to the erect aititude for which it is distinguished. (See Plate III.) Man’s structure fits him for moving in an erect posture, and unfits him for moving with ease in any other. He has, however, the ability to imitate almost every motion but that of flight. As aids tosuch imitation, he possesses, when in maturity and health, sixty bones in his head, sixty in his thighs and legs, sixty-twoin his arms and hands, and sixty-seven in his trunk, and he has also four hun- dred and thirty-four muscles. His foot is, in proportion to his whole body, larger, broader, and stronger than that of any other animal. The muscle called “flexor longus policis pedis,” (the muscle of the great toe,) terminates in a single tendon, and its force is centered in the great toe, the chief point of resistance in raising the body upon the heel. In the Orang-outang, the cor- responding muscle terminates in three tendons, separately and exclusively inserted in the three middle toes, to enable him to grasp an object more forcibly in climbing, and thus more fully meeting the wants of an animal that makes its home in the trees. “Surely,” says Professor Owen, “it is asking too much to be- lieve that in the course of time, these three muscles should, un- der any circumstances, become consolidated into one, and that one implanted in a toe to which none of the three tendons were before attached.” ‘The teeth, bones and muscles of the monkey decisively forbid the conclusion that he could by any ordinary natural process, ever be expanded into a Man. Man alone is two handed; in him the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers is carried to the highest perfection. In his “ Bridge- water Treatise,’ Sir Charles Bell says: “The structure of the human hand is so much more complicated, and suited to so many different offices, we ought to define the hand as belonging AeA. =" Gm, x HN Fr Zz i A i! ) H om i at ti _ aN, ED ZA ‘ gs eas E ~ =~ if fh " 7 a6) Ny YG ( OF fit / { =f eee a. Lt fy] a SS i ih » EB) feted Ned fix 1 2 aed he: ee Same Per ty IF FATTLA, Wen 2 ye an ik i i . t x Fj i BN Wad S 5 j= ee EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Fig. 1. The Human SKEeron divided into three principal parts; the Head (1,) the Trunk (2,) and the extremities (3 and 4.) Physiologists enu- merate as many as 260 bones; but some of these bones, which are separated in early life, are atterwards united, so as to admit of the fol- lowing enumeration: Cranium, 8; Face, 14; Internal ears, 8; Verte- bral column, 24; Chest, 26; Pelvis, 11; Upper extremities, 68; Lower ' extremities, 64; in the whole, 2238, exclusive of 32 teeth. 1. The bones of the Skull, divided into two sets, viz., those of the Cranium, or case for the brain, and those of the Face. 2. The Trunk, composed of the Spine, or Vertebral column, extending from a to d, the Chest, including the Ribs, and Sternum or Breast-bone, (e;) the Pelvis; the circle of bones on which the Spine rests. The Spine, extending from a to d, in the erect man, supports the head upon its summit, (a,) while its base rests upon the sacrum (d.) ' It consists of 24 bones, called Vertebrz, (Lat. verto, to turn,) because the trunk is turned by their motion upon each other. It is the center about which the limbs move, and the chief support of the skeleton. The Cervical vertebrz, (the 7 bones of the neck,) extend from a tod; the middle, dorsal or back vertebra, from 6 to c, and the 5 lowest or lum- bar vertebre, from ¢ to d. 3. and 4. Are the last main divisions, consisting of the upper and lower extremities. 8. The upper extremities (the arms) consist of the scapula, a, or shoulder- blade, the Clavicle or collar-bone, 8, the Humerus, or bone of the upper arm, (c,) the Ulna, (p,) situated on the inner side, and the Radius, (£,) on the outer side of the fore-arm, the Carpus, (Car;) the 8 small bones of the wrist, the 5 bones of the metacarpus between the wrist, and the bones of the fingers, (Met.,) and the bones of the fingers, called Pha- langes, (Pha.,) of which the thumb has two, and the fingers three each. 4, The lower extremities, or legs, consist of the Femur or thigh bone, (r,) which is the largest bone of the body, the Tibia or shin-bone, (¢,) on the front and inner part, and the Fibula, (u,) at the outer part of the leg, the Patella or knee-pan, (1,) the Tarsus, the 7 bones forming the heel and instep, (Tar.,) the metatarsus (Met.,) between the instep and the toes, and Phalanges of the toes similar in number and arrangement to those of the fingers. Fig. 2. SKELETON or 4 CuiImpANZEE. The ape that comes nearest to man. 8 and 4 show how the extremities terminating with long fingers, and a small feeble thumb set far back, adapt it for climbing rather than walk- ing, thus differing from those organs in man. 1. The Cranium,—showing none of the fine sweep of the forehead seen in man, and indicating a small cerebral development as compared with him. 2. The Vertebral column, without the pyramidal form seen in man, and not adapted to an erect posture. Pelvis, narrow as compared with that of man. (See description in the. _ text.) The number of bones sometimes vary, 26 BIMANA. exclusively to man. ‘The whole frame conforms to the hand, and acts with reference to it.””. The human hand is not only power- ful, but exquisitely susceptible of impressions, and possesses the most delicate touch. Every finger, except the one called the ring finger, is capable of independent movements,—a power possessed by no other mammal. ‘The thumb is lengthened so as to meet readily the tips of any of the fingers; the fingers them- selves, and especially the pulpy tip at their ends, are supplied with a nervous tissue endowed witha discriminating sensibility that is peculiar to man. “The difference in the length of the fingers serves a thousand purposes, adapting the hand and _ fingers, as in holdinga rod, a switch, a sword, a hammer, a pen or pencil, engraving tool, etc., in all which a secure hold and freedom of motion are admirably combined. Nothing is more remarkable, as forming a part of the prospective design to prepare an instrument fitted for the various uses of the human hand, than the manner in which the delicate and moving apparatus of the palm and fingers is guarded. The power with which the hand grasps, as when a sailor lays hold to raise his body to the rigging, would be too great for the texture of mere tendons, nerves and vessels; they would be crushed were not every part that bears the pressure defended with a cushion of fat as elastic as that we have des- cribed in the foot of the horse and camel. To add to this purely passive defence, there is a muscle which runs across the palm, and more especially supports the cushion on its inner edge. It is this muscle which, raising the edge of the palm, adapts it to lave water, forming the cup of Diogenes.?”* The brain of man, in proportion to the residue of the human system, surpasses in volume or extent that of every other mam- mal, as is shown by the proportion which the cavities con- taining the brain and face bear to each other. The size of the brain is sometimes estimated by the facial angle,t which, in the average of Europeans and their descendants on this continent, is 800; but in the adult Chimpanzee is only 350, and in the Orang or Satyr is, according to Professor Owen, 30°. The blood necessary for an organ so developed as the human brain, is carried to it by arteries which do not subdivide as in * Sir C. Bell’s Bridgewater Treatise on the Hand. “+ The facial angle is found by drawing a line from the most prominent part of the forehead to that of the upper jaw bone, and observing the ‘angle which it forms with another line through the external auditory canal to the base of the nose, or, (the head being in a vertical position,) with a horizontal line.” -_ = BIMANA. 2 most quadrupeds, but allow of the full and free circulation which its energies require. The fine sweep of cranium and. the aanath spherical surface of the human skull, showing the volume of the interior brain, are also noticeable, as contrasting strikingly with the heavy ridges, the irregular prominences and the small capacity of the Mon- key’s skull. The face of the Monkey is an aid to him in pro- curing food, and a weapon for attack and defence; Man’s face bespeaks the workings of the inner minp. He uses his hands to procure his food, and naturally unarmed, protects himself with weapons which he has manufactured. His jaws and teeth are both as small as could consist with the preservation of life. Though at first weak and defenceless, he becomes able not only to assert his dominion over animated nature, but to make the very elements subserve his designs. No monkey or ape has ever been able to make weapons of either attack or defence ; nor can he procure fire or renew it, which the lowest of the hu- man species readily does. The most benighted Hottentot can form weapons with which he is able to destroy the ferocious lion, the swift antelope, and the wary ostrich; “ he constructs for himself a hut by the side of his prey, strikes fire, fetches fuel, and dresses his meat.” ‘There seems, as Buffon has intimated, no anatomical reason why an ape should not speak; but it has no language, and cannot by the most patient labor, be taught to speak. Articulate language, of itself, makes a difference, vast in extent, between man and every other tribe of the Mammalia. . His physical system is peculiar in the readiness with which it accommodates itself to the variations of climate, and in modes of living. The Arctic explorations of Captains Ross and Parry, of Sir John Franklin, and of our own lamented Dr. Kane, have signally evinced the capacity of the human constitution for en- during with safety, the intensest cold. On the other hand, men long accustomed to the air of the temperate zones, have pene- frated far into the interior of Africa, and traversed other equato- rial regions, without experiencing any serious evils from the heat. QUESTIONS ON THE ORDER BIMANA. What is the first order? How is it spelled, defined, and from what derived? Who is at the head, or fills the first place in the animal series? What issaid of him, and to what class, order, genus, and species docs he be- long? Are all Zoologists agreed as to the propriety of placing man with ani- mals? What places him immeasurably above themall? What are his most prominent distinctions, or what is said of his speech, walk, chin, teeth, &c. ? Contrast these with those of the inferior animals. What is said of man, physically? In what respect does he surpass all other created beings? 28 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. In what senses is he inferior, or in what way does the eagle, hare, dog, or vulture surpass him? What is found in man? What does this enable him to cultivate? What elevates him so highly above other animal existences? To what are the several parts of the human frame suited? For what does a man’s structure fit him? For what does it unfit him? Has he the power of imitation? What aids this power or faculty? How many bones and muscles has he? What is said of his foot? What is said of the muscie of the great toe in man? Give its technical name. What of the correspond- ing muscle in the Orang Outang? What does Prof. Owen say in relation to this, and how does this bear upon the development theory? What do the teeth, bones, and muscles of the monkey forbid? What is said of the hands, thumbs, and fingers of man? What does Sir Charles Bell say in his “Bridgewater Treatise?” What is further said of the human hand? What of the ring finger? What of the thump and other fingers? Of what use is the different length of the fingers? Does it evince design, or did it occur by chance? What is chance? What is the cup of Diogenes, and how is it formed? Who was Diogenes? Ans. A celebrated Cynic phi- losopher, of Greece, who died in great misery and indigence, B. C. 324, at the age of 96. What is said of the human brain? How is this shown? How is the size of the brain sometimes estimated? How is this angle found? What is said of the arteries supplying blood to the human brain? How does the cranium, or human skull, contrast with that of the monkey? What is said of the monkey’s face? What of man’s? Which bespeaks the most intel- ligence? For what does he use his hands? How does he protect himself? What is said of his jaws and teeth? What are monkeys unable to do? By whom are they surpassed? Is there any anatomical reason why an ape should not speak? Have they ever been taught to speak? What makesa vast difference between man and all other mammals? In what is man’s physical system peculiar? What have Arctic and African explorations shown ? VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. , The variations of mankind, in respect toclimate and modes of life, are connected with changes in complexion and feature, with differences in the skull, in the color and nature of the hair, ete. The divisions of the race to which these differences have given rise, are stated diversely by naturalists, some numbering more, and others fewer varieties. The Caucasian, Mongolian, and Nigritian tribes, are by some regarded as the three distinctly marked types; and the other varieties as but a blending of these and their peculiarities, and hence merely sub-typical. The “ Chart of the Animal Kingdom ” exhibits the division of Blumenbach, the one which has commonly been made, which, separating the Malay and American varieties from the Mongolian, one of the distinctly marked types, makes the number Fivs, viz. : 1. Tue Evropean or Caucasian; 2. Tue Asiatic, Moneo- LIAN, or Turanian, of Dr. Pritchard; 8. Tue Mauxay or Avs- TRALIAN; 4. THE AMERICAN; 5. THe Erniopian or AFRICAN. 1. THe Caucasian Variety was so called because it origi- VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 29 nated among the tribes of men found in the region of the Cauca- sus. It is distinguished for general symmetry “and regularity of outline. The head is, in the Caucasian, almost ‘oun the face oval, the forehead much expanded, the features not very promi- nent. The skin is white, the hair soft, long and brown, more or less dark, and curled. The facial angle is from 800 to 90o. The entire conformation of the head shows a superior intellectual organization. In respect both to mental power, and attainments in art and science, the Caucasians have ever stood in the fore- most rank. 2. Tue Astatic or Moncoutan Variety.—This variety is remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes; the color is, for the most part, pale yellow or olive; the head almost square; the facial angle 800; the cheek bones are prominent; the face broad and flattened, and without a beard; and the hair straight and black. 3. Inthe Maray or AustrALtan, the color varies from a clear mahogany to dark chestnut brown; the hair is black and bushy; the beard thin; the nose broad, and the mouth wide; the fore- head slightly arched ; the upper jaw projecting; the eye is more sunken and piercing, and the lips less uniformly thick than in the negro. \ 4. ‘THe American Variety is allied to the Malay and Mon- golian varieties. It includes Indians, or native Americans, Tol- tecans, &c. In these, the cheek bones are prominent; the face broad; the forehead low ; the eyes deeply seated; the hair black and straight ; the skin red or copper color. 5. Toe Erniopian or Brack Variety includes Negroes, Africans, Hottentots, Bushmen, (Bosjesmans,) Bochmen, (Bech- uanas.) The color is black, with greater or less intensity ; the lips extremely thick ; the nose flat and thick; the nostrils wide; the hair black and frizzly like wool; the head narrow ; the fore- head convex; the face projecting ; ‘the facial angle 700. Be- tween this and the European or Caucasian variety, the differen- ces are marked; but there is no character in which the contrast between the lowest negro and highest ape is not many times greater than between the same negro and the highest European. The differences in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the other varieties, would not be deemed sufficient to consti- tute a specific character among the lowest animals. In regard to the varieties above described, it will be seen that one of the enumerated distinctions relates to the color and nature of the hair. At a trial held in South Carolina, in which the 30 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. point in dispute, property in a mulatto girl, rested on a question of race, Dr. Gibbs stated. as a curious fact resulting from micro- scopic observation, that in the mulatto cross the hair of one or the other parent was present, and sometimes hairs of both, but never a mongrel hair; that no amalgamated hair existed ; that the mulatto as often had straight hair as kinky. He stated that the microscope revealed that the hair of the white race is, when transversely divided, oval; that of the Indian, circular; and that of the Negro, eccentrically elliptical with flattened edges ; that of the Negro is not hair, but wool, and capable of being felted ; that the coloring matter of true hairis in an internal tube, while in the negro it is in the epidermis, or scales covering the shaft of hair. In corroboration of the statement that both white and negro hair were sometimes found in the same head, a singu- lar case was mentioned by Dr. Gibbs. He remarked that heonce attended a half-breed Indian and Negro, who had straight Indian hair. He was ill and had his head shaved and blistered. On his recovery, when his hair grew out, it was negro hair, crisped and wiry. The late Dr. Morton, of our own country, in a disquisition rela- tive to the “Size of the Brain” in the different varieties, presents the following results: 2 “The ancient Egyptians, whose civilization antedates that of all other people, and whose country has been justly called ‘the cradle of the arts and sciences,’ have the least sized brain of any Caucasian nation, excepting the Hindoos. : The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teutonic, and three cubic inches larger than that of the ancient Egyptians. The brain of the Australian and Hottentot falls far below that of the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the ancient Peruvian.” (See Silliman’s Journal.) QUESTIONS ON THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. With what are the variations of the Human Race connected? Are nat- uralists agreed as to the number of these varieties? What three are by some regarded as distinctly marked types? What do they consider the other varieties? How many distinct types or races are named on the chart ? Whose arrangement has been followed? From what did the Caucasians derive their name? What nations belong to this variety? [See the chart. | For what are they distinguished? What are their characteristics? What does the entire conformation of the head show? What issaid of their mental attainments? For what is the MoncoLian variety remarkable? What na- tions does it include? How do you describe the MaLay or AUSTRALIAN variety? Name the pecple or nations belonging to this variety. To which variety is the AMERICAN allied? Name the tribes or people which it in- cludes, [See on the chart.] What are their distinguishing peculiarities? QUADRUMANA. | 31 What does the Ethiopian or black variety include? Describe their features, color, hair, &c. Is there a greater contrast between the highest Kuropean and the negro, than betwéen the same negro and the ape?” What is said as to the difference in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the other varieties? In what respect does the hair of the Caucasian, Indian, and Negro varieties differ? What cases corroborate this curious fact? What were the results arrived at by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia ? Oss. Here isa good opportunity for a general exercise about the people of the different varieties, the countries they inhabit, their customs, religion, degrees of civilization, &c., showing the pupil how to apply his geographi- cal or historical knowledge. SECTION V. Seconp Orperk. QUADRUMANA.—FOUR HANDED. (Lat. guatuor, four, and manus, hand.) This order includes the Simiadae, (Lat. Szmia, an ape,—ape- kind;) Cebidae, (Gr. «780s, kebos, a monkey,—monkey tribe ;) pronounced kebidae ; Lemuridae, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts,—ghost- like.) : The SmrapakE are spread over the tropical regions of Asia and Africa, including the larger islands of the Indian Ocean; the CepipaE are found in South America; the Lemuripag, in Madagascar and the smaller adjacent islands. The name “QuaDRUMANA’”’ is givento these animals because, while having two hands, resembling those of man, they have feet which are also formed like hands, and can grasp branches of trees. Like man, they have no natural means of defence ; but they are endowed with a cunning, a quickness and agility not often equaled and never surpassed by any other quadrupeds. The peculiarities of their structure do not adapt them either to an erect or a horizontal position, but to one that is diagonal or sloping. Their great muscular strength, combined with the fac- ulty of climbing, enables them to escape from the carnivorous quadrupeds which are found in the same forests with themselves. ** Leaping from bough to bough, they pass through the most en- tangled forests with greater swiftness than an ordinary horse would travel on a turnpike road. The apes upon the rocks of Gibraltar, (Barbary apes, which are the only ones found in Eu- rope,) can never be approached by the most cautious sportsmen. They climb, with the greatest facility, among frightful preci. pices, where neither dogs nor men can follow.”* The hand of the highest Quadrumana is greatly inferior to that of man, both in respect to its structure, and the uses for * “ Swainson’s Habits and Instincts of Animals.” 32 QUADRUMANA. which it is fitted. The thumb is a mere rudiment, and in some species, entirely wanting. The fingers are very long, and fitted for hooking an object, but have but little power of separate motion among themselves ; the palm, instead of being hollow, is ’ narrow and flat, and tapers from the wrist. All of them have three sorts of teeth, like man, but the canine, (eye) teeth, are more developed in the Quadrumana than in him, and there are spaces between them and the other teeth. The principal food of these animals is fruit, which Providence furnishes them most plentifully in tropical countries, though occa- sionally they prey upon the young and eggs of birds, also upon lizards and insects. When captured and domésticated, they be- come almost omnivorous, (Lat. omnis, all, and voro, to devour.) They are peculiar to tropical regions, and are useful there as tending to diminish the annoyances which might otherwise arise from the insects which they consume for food. In some coun- tries these animals are themselves used for food, and their skins converted into leather. The Sim1aDAE include three divisions: I. The Aprss, without tails ; Il. the Baxzoons, with short tails and sometimes none; III. the Monxeys, with tails, which as connected with this fam- ily are adroit, agile, and restless, but usually live only two or three years. In this family, the tail has no prehensile, or grasp- ing power. Their teeth, of which there are ten molar in each jaw, are thirty-two in number; their nostrils separated by a very narrow division. The larger portion have cheek pouches and callosities, (hard parts,) on the hind parts of the body. Of the Apes we name first the Troglodytes, (Gr. tedy4y, trogle, a hole ; dive, duno, to creep, a creeper into holes.) This is the Caimpanzek, (not to be confounded with the Orang. Outang,) found rather commonly on the banks of the Gambia and Congo. It is more man-like than any other animal, espe- cially when young. When full grown, its height is at least five feet, and according to some naturalists, six or seven. The hair is black, long and coarse, falling down on each side of the head, forming large whiskers on the cheeks; the eyes are hazel, deep set and lively; the ears ierge and spreading; the lips covered with a thin white beard, and large and wrinkled; the face and hands, of a dark brown color. An officer in the English navy, who saw the animal in 1838, says that in its natural state, “it mounts trees only for food or observa- tion, has enormous’ strength, easily snapping boughs from trees which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend.” These animals reach their full growth when between eight and nine years old. They travel in large bands, armed with sticks, QUADRUMANA. 38 which they handle with great dexterity; and sometimes are so full of courage and fury that they drive the elephant and lion from their haunts. As their name imports, they spend much of their time in holes, or rocky caves. ‘They are very watchful, even when united in a herd; and the first one who notices the approach of a stranger, utters a long drawn cry, which resem- bles that of a human being in distress. This is done to notify the herd of the stranger’s coming. They then immediately Jeave any place which would expose them to danger, and betake themselves to the bushes. It is said to be very difficult to obtain them alive, owing to a superstitious notion of the natives that they have the “ power of witching.” Several young Chimpanzees have, at different times, been im- ported into England and the United States. These appeared to be mild and docile, but were short lived, being unable to endure the changes to which they were subjected in respect to climate and mode of living. Had they lived to full age, they would probably have manifested the ape’s naturally fierce and obstinate disposition. One of them, which lived about a year in the me- nagerie of the British Zoological Society, is described as appear- ing like “an old, bent, and diminutive negro.” The appearance of age was increased by its short white beard and wrinkled face, though at the time not more than two and a half years old. All its actions seemed child-like. It would “examine every object within its reach with an air so considerate and thoughtful as to create a smile on the face of the gravest spectator. When per- : fectly free and unconstrained, ‘Tommy’s usual mode of progression was on all fours. His feet, and particularly his heels, were broader and better adapted for the biped race than those of the Orang- Outang, and this he adopted when occasion required. He fre- quently indulged in a kind of rude, stamping dance ; would seat himself in his swing with great good humor, when ordered to do so, stretching out his foot to some of the company to set him in motion ; and interpreting your wishes and intentions from your looks, tones, and gestures, exhibited the most wonderful quick- ness of apprehension.” Pithecus Satyrus. (Gr. 2Onnos, pithekos, ape ; oatugds, saturos, satyr. ) The Orane-Outane, or wild man, (from Orang, the Malay term for man, and Outang, wild.) The Orang-Outang is found in the islands of Borneo and Sum- atra. ‘Though called by this name, it is less man-like than the 34 QUADRUMANA. Chimpanzee. In the young animal, the forehead and skull ap- pear~well developed and somewhat human; in the adult, the bones of the face are so increased in size that they throw the skull backwards, which, combined in its effect with other differ- ences, takes away the resemblance, which is seen in the young, to the human face. The arms are so long that they reach the ground, or nearly so, when the animal stands erect; and the palms of the hands show lines and papiilae, like those of man. The ears are small; the eyes dark and round; the throat is swollen, the skin about it being loose and folded, and enveloping a double membranous sac, which connects with the larynx or wind-pipe, and becomes inflated when the animal expresses pleas- ure or anger. The body is stoutly built and very muscular ; the belly round and protuberant ; the hair is of a reddish brown hue, long and coavse. The Orang has no tail or cheek pouches. A very marked characteristic is the disproportion be- tween the size and length of the arms, as compared with the legs, which, viewed in connexion with the long and hooked hands, indicates that the animal is, more than the Chimpanzee, formed to live on trees. Among the branches, he moves with surprising facility. By weaving these together, he constructs a sort of rude hut, which he seldom leaves, except when forced by the calls of appetite. In Borneo, the natives call the two species found there, mzas-kassar and mias-pappan. Of these the latter is much the larger and more powerful, and justly named Satyrus, from his ugly face and disgusting callosities. Some naturalists consider the Orang of Sumatra to be a distinct species. The Orang may be ranked as the largest of the apes. A specimen from Borneo was in height five feet ten inches, and one from Sumatra reached the enormous stature of. seven feet six inches. ‘Those animals are described by persons who have seen them in their native climes, as “leading a solitary life, more than two or three never being found together ;”’ and as “roused from their habitual dullness by nothing but hunger or the approach of danger.” Their strength is so great they can not be safely encountered except with fire-arms. A female Orang snapped a strong spear asunder, after receiving many wounds. Hence, the natives of Borneo hold these animals in especial dread, and carefully avoid them. The Gorilla is still more formidable. Hylobates, (Gr."vkn, hule, a wood; Balvw, baino, to traverse.) Lone Anmep Apy, or Ginzon. H. Syndactulus, (Gr. Suv, Sun, connected together; 0axtvios, daktulos, a finger.) This species of Gibbons receives the name Syndaciylus, from hav- QUADRUMANA. © 35 ing the second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow membrane the whole length of the first joint. As the generic name, Hylobates, imports, this animal lives in the recesses of dense woods, (in the East Indian islands and the Malay penin- sula.) The hands are extremely powerful, and so long that they reach to the heel, and their span extends from four to six feet. These greatly assist him in making his rapid movements among the trees. The fur is longer and more abundant than that of the Orangs. ‘The animal is like the Orang in temper and manners, but much smaller, when standing upright, being but two feet fourinches. It is a better walker than the Orang, but its gait is unsteady, and it frequently places its hands on the ground to assist its position. An adult male of this species was taken in 1830, but died while on its way to England. It fed on vegetables, yet eagerly accepted animal food; fowls it especially preferred. It appeared to be good tempered and affectionate ; “when pleased, uttering a chirping note; when frightened or angry, uttering the loud guttural sounds of ra, ra, ra.” It was fond of play and became quite attached to a Papuan girl who was on board the vessel—* would sit on the capstan with its long paw around her neck, and lovingly eat biscuit with her.” This Gibbon is sometimes called the Siamane, and is said to be cele- brated for the pains which it takes to wash the face of its young, which it does’with maternal faithfulness, in spite of its screams and struggles. H. agilis. The Agius, or Sinvery Gipeon, also called the Ungka, or Oungka. This species is a native of Sumatra, deriving its name, agzizs, (active,) from its remarkable activity in leaping among the branches. One of these animals, which was exhibited in Lon- don some years since, “ sprang with the greatest ease through distances of twelve and eighteen feet ; and when apples or nuts were thyown to her while in the air, she would catch them with- out discontinuing her course. She kept up a succession of springs, hardly touching the branches in her progress, continually uttering a nyusical but almost deafening cry. She was very tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be touched or ca- ressed.” This Gibbon is distinguished by its low forehead, as well as its activity. ‘The color varies a good deal, according to the sex or age, but is usually brown. In the male, a white band over the eyes unites with the whitish whiskers. The hair is fine except about the neck, where it is rather woolly and curled. 36 QUADRUMANA. BABOONS. The most striking peculiarity of these animals is the resem- blance of their head and face to those of a large dog. ‘Their muzzles are long and truncated. They have cheek pouches, short tails and sharp claws. ‘The malignant expression of their countenances, their gigantic strength and the brutal ferocity of their manners, render them decidedly the most frightful and dis- gusting of all the Quadrumana. ‘Their home is Africa, where they frequent rocky ridges more than the forests. ‘They live mostly on scorpions, which they find under stones and deprive of their stings by a skillful application of the thumb and finger. In the Baboon, the facial angle is reduced to 300. The name is from the Italian Babbaino, from which comes the Latin word Papio, applied to these animals especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In brilliancy of color, they vie with the gorgeous plumage of the tropical birds. “They are distinguished from the Apes, by the equality of their members, their cheek pouches and ischial callosities; from the Monkeys, by the short robust make of their bodies and extrem- ities, their tubercular tails, too short to execute the functions usu- ~ ally assigned to that organ, and the mountain rather than silvan habitat which this conformation necessarily induces.” Cynocephalus, (Gr. Kiwy, Kudn, a dog; Kegodh, Kephale, a head;) Dog-headed. C. Mormon, (Gr. Moguayv, Mormén, a bogie.) This ts the Manprit, or GREAT VARIEGATED BABoon. The Mormon resembles the dog and bear. It isa native of Guinea and West Africa, has a short, erect and stumpy tail, by which, and the enormous protuberances of its cheeks, it is read- ily distinguished from the other species. ‘This. is not only the largest of all the Baboons, but the most brilliant in its colors. When upright, its height reaches five feet. The muzzle is of a bright scarlet color ; a stripe of vermilion runs along the center of the nose, and spreads over the lip; the cheeks are also of a rich violet hue, and elevated on each side by a singular development of the bone, which forms a socket for the roots of the immense canine teeth. The hair is of a greenish brown color, caused by alternate layers of yellow and black present in each hair. On the temples it is directed upwards, so as to meet in @ point on the crown of the head. The brilliancy of the colors is connected with the skin, and disappears when the animal dies or is sick. The Mandril frequents forests filled with brushwood, whence it sallies forth to plunder the nearest villages. Its bulk is great in QUADRUMANA 37 proportion to its height and strength, and its ferocity great, so that it is a terror to the natives. Cuvier says he has seen it expire from the violence of its fury. ' Semnopithecus, (Gr. ceuvos, Semnos, to be reverenced ; 7l0nxos, pithécos, Ape.) This genus includes animals resembling, in many points, the Gibbons. As inthe latter, their extremities are of great length as compared with the size of the body, which in its form is long and slender. But they differ from the Gibbons in having the hinder extremities longer than the front ones, which is the reverse of what occurs in the Gibbons. They are distinguished by hav- ing a very long, slender and muscular tail, terminated by a close tuft of long hairs. The color of the adult animal is intensely black, except the breast, the abdomen, and the root of the tail, which are gray. The black hairs on the top of the head are tipped with gray, and as age advances, the latter color is extended to the upper parts of the body. The hair is long, soft, and silky. The eye-brows consist of long stiff hairs, pointing forward. The stomach is three fold, one of the divisions being puckered into a number of distinct sacs; and its teeth resemble, in some degree, those of a ruminating animal. It evinces less restless- ness, petulance and curiosity, but has more of real intelligence than the common monkeys. The animals of this genus are found in Cochin China, the East Indies and the neighboring islands. S. Maurus. (Gr. podgos, mauros, a fool?) The Bupene. This species abounds in the extensive forests of Java, and forms its dwelling on trees. Troops of more than fifty individ- uals are foundtogether. When approached, they scream loudly, and by their movements branches of decaying trees are often thrown down upon the spectators. The natives chase them on account of their fur; attended by their chiefs, attacking them with stones and cudgels, and often destroying them in great num. bers. The furs of these animals are used both by the natives and Europeans, in preparing riding equipages and military ornaments. S. Entellus. (Lat. the proper name of a Roman athlete.) Tue EntTeuius, or Cocuin Coina Monkey. The Hoonuman of the Hindoos. This species is one of the most common in Hindoostan and the Indian Archipelago, and in India is the object of a blind adora- tion. According to the popular superstition, he who puts to death an Entellus Monkey, will surely die within the year. Its form is slight, the limbs long and slender, the length of the body 38 QUADRUMANA. from the muzzle to the tail is, in the full grown animal, four and a half feet, and the tail is even longer than the body. When young, they seem gentle and free from malice ; but their charac- ters do not improve by age. ‘This animal is very active in the capture of serpents, stealing upon the poisonous reptile when asleep, and grinding down the reptile’s head until the poisonous fangs are destroyed. QUESTIONS ON THE QUADRUMANA. What is the second order of animals? What three families does this order include? Give the derivation of the order and the families. Where is their location or habitat? Why was the name Quadrumana given to these animals? Have they any weapons for defence? With what are they endowed? For what does their peculiar structure adapt them? Of what benefit is their muscular strength? What is said of their leaping powers? What of the Barbary apes? Where are these found? Are any other of the Quadrumana found in Europe? How does the hand of the most perfect Quadrumana compare with man’s? What is said of the thumb? Of the fingers and of the palm? What of the teeth and the hair? What is their principal food? What change occurs from domestication ? Spell and define the following words, giving examples of each as you proceed: Carnivorous, flesh-eating ; (Lat. caro, flesh, and voro, to devour.) Frugivorous, eating fruits, seeds or corn; (Lat. fruges, corn.) Granivoreus, eating grain, or feeding on seeds; (Lat. granum, grain.) Herbivorous, eat- ing herbs, feeding on vegetables; (Lat. herba, herb.) Insectivorous, eating insects ; Lat. znsecta, insect, and vore, to devour.) -Apivorous, bee eating ; (Lat. apis, a bee.) Apiary, a place where bees are kept. Piéscivorous, fish eating, living on fish; (Lat. pzscis, a fish.) Reptilivorous, eating snakes, toads, and other reptiles; (Lat. reptilis, from repo, to creep.) Omnivorous, eating everything, devouring all kinds of food; (Lat. omnis, all.) To what regions are quadrumanous animals peculiar? In what respects are they useful? What divisions do the SimrapaE include? How are these divisions readily distinguished from one another? What is said of the monkeys of this family? Which is the genus first named, and from what is the name derived? Where is it found, and what is said of its resem- blance to man? Describe its appearance, habits, &. Why is it difficult to obtain it alive? Have attempts been made to import these animals, and with what success? What is said of Tommy? Describe him particularly. What is the difference between a biped anda quadruped? Ans. One is two- footed, (Lat. bis, two, pes, a foot ;) the other four-footed, (Lat. gwatuor, feur, pes, foot.) What between a bimanous and a quadrumanous animal? From what language is the Orang-Outang derived? From what are the generic and specific names derived? Where is it found? What is said of it? Where does it live? For what kind of a residence is it fitted by its long arms and hooked hands? What does it construct among the branches of trees? Does it often leave them, and for what? How many species are found in Borneo? Which is the largest and most powerful? What is it justly: named? Is the Orang of Sumatra of the same species? What is said of their size, and what account do persons give who have seen them in their native woods? Why do the Borneans dread them? What is the generic term for the long armed ape, or Gibbon? From what derived? What QUADRUMANA. 39 does this name import? Give the derivation of syndactulus. Why was it given to this species? Where doesit live andin what country is it found? Describe its habits, size, gait, food, sounds, &c. For what is it most cele- brated? What is said of the silvery or agile Gibbon, H. agilis ? What is the most striking peculiarity of Banoons? What do they resem- ble? Where are they found? On what do they live? Krom what is the name derived? What is said of their colors? How are they distinguished from the apes? Describe the Variegated Baboon, or Mandril. Give the derivation of the generic and specific terms. What is said of its size, eolor, habitat, &. How do the natives regard it? From what is Semno- pithecus derived? In what respect does this genus resemble the Gibbons? How do they differ from the Gibbons? By what are they distinguished ? What is said of their hair, eye-brows, stomach, disposition, intelligence, &c.? What is said of the Budeng? What of the Cochin China monkey? SECTION VI. . AMERICAN MONKEYS. These are a very numerous division found in South America, and arranged into two leading groups, viz.: the Sapaysous and Sacorns; the former having muscular, grasping tails; the latter feeble ones, unfit for grasping. ‘They are sometimes called the four-fingered monkeys, as the thumb is reduced to a mere rudi- ment, and in some species is entirely wanting. They are with- out cheek-pouches and callosities. I. Sapasous. These may be regarded as representing the Guenons, (Cerco- pithecus, Gr. kerkos, a tail,) of the Eastern Continent. The whole of them are very active, climb well, and are well formed for living and moving among the trees. ‘The fore-hands show a less per- fect organization than is seen in the monkeys of the Eastern Continent. The palms of both extremities are endowed with exquisite sensibility. These monkeys are of small size and play- ful disposition. Gathered in herds, they lead a merry life, feed- ing mostly on insects and fruits. The facial angle is about 60o. Among them we include the How ters, (Mycetes.) as has been done by other naturalists. The Howlers differ, however, frova the other Sapajous in some respects, particularly in having a facial angle of but 300, but agree with them in having prehen- sile tails. Of the numerous species of these and other South American monkeys, we can notice only the most interesting and prominent. Mycetes, (Gr. wvxytys, mukétes, a Howler.) These are the largest monkeys of America, and remarkable for the development of the vocal organs. The bone at the root of 40 QUADRUMANA. the tongue, (the hyoid bone.) is, in these animals, very large, swell- ing into a capacious drum which communicates with the larynx, and gives a tremendous power and volume to the voice. They howl in concert, especially at the rising and setting of the sun; but the night is often made dismal with their frightful yells. One monkey begins the cry, and is immediately followed by the oth- ers; and their distressing, unearthly sounds have been heard at two miles distance. The canine teeth are, according to Swain- son, six times as large as the incisors or cutting teeth. The part of the prehensile tail with which these animals lay hoid of the branch of a tree, is naked below, and of course hasa higher sen- sibility of touch. Their size is rather larger than that of the fox. In their dispositions they are ferocious and intractable; in habits social, and most of them have athick beard. Their deep sono- rous yells are supposed to be a call to their mates; in other words, a hideous love-song. * M. ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear.) The Ursinse Howter, or ArGUATO. This animal is, exclusive of the tail, nearly three feet long. The hair is of a golden color, and the thick beard is of a deeper color than the rest. Humboldt counted above forty of these ani- mals in a single tree, and says, “their eye, voice, and gait denote melancholy.” They feed upon fruit and the leaves of plants, and in traveling follow an old monkey as their file leader. This Howler has a membranous sack in the throat, connected with the wind-pipe and capable of being inflated, giving the power to utter terrific sounds. Atelés, (Gr. dtehys, aieles, imperfect.) This and the preceding genus are “ Orpinary Sapasous; ” (the term Sapajous also including the genus Cebus, or the Sasous.) This genus includes what are called the Sprp—rR MonKeys, so called from their long slender tails, and sprawling movements, which give them a spider-like appearance. It is termed ate/es, or imperfect, because in most of the species the thumbs on the fore-arms are rudimental, or else entirely wanting; (they are, however, found on the hinder extremities, and large and opposa- ble to the fingers.) They have four molar teeth more than man, making the number of teeth thirty-six, and are distinguished for their round heads and thick or corpulent bodies. The eyes are far apart; the nostrils open laterally, (or sidewise;) the hair is generally long, coarse, and of a glossy appearance. Trees are their home; on the ground they drag themselves along with their fore-arms, using them as crutches, and resting upon their half closed fists. Sometimes they crouch along on their hind legs. QUADRUMANA. 4l Troops of them are found together, and they are said to “ exer- cise a perfect tyranny over al] the other arboreal mammals in their neighborhood.” ‘Though living chiefly upon leaves and fruit, they also hunt after insects and the eggs and young of birds, and are even said to fish for crabs with their long tails. They are uncommonly intelligent, easily domesticated, and evince a strong attachment for those who treat them kindly ; and they have less of curiosity, mischief, and violent passion than the common monkeys. They use their prehensile tails as a fifth hand, even crossing streams by mounting to the topmost branches of some over-hanging tree, and forming themselves into a long chain. The last monkey keeps a good hold on the tree, while the living chain swings to and fro, until by the impetus thus gained, the foremost can reach a branch upon the opposite side, when the rear animal lets go his hold, andthe whole are rapidly drawn up. The Indians esteem their flesh as an article of food, and it is said to be “white, juicy, and agreeable.” It is related that the Spider Monkey, when shot, fastens its tail so closely to the branches that it remains suspended even after death. Among the most noted species are A. Paniscus, (JTavloxo0;, Paniscos, dim. of Mar, Pan. a little Pan.) This is the Quara, or as the French write it, the Coarra, found in large companies in Guiana and Brazil. A. Belzebub. ‘The Marimonpa. The monkeys of this, like those of the preceding species, unite in large companies and form the most grotesque groups. All their attitudes evince the extreme of sloth. They will bend their long arms over their backs, and remain motionless in this position for hours together, under the heat of a tropical sun. CEBIDAE. From Cebus, (Gr. x780s, kebos, monkey.) The Sacou, or Sasov. The animals of this genus are grouped among the Sapasous, but denominated more distinctively the Sasous. They are also called Carucnin Monkeys, from the hood-like formation of the hair of the head. C. Appella. The WereEpEr. Why this very common species received so dolorous a name is not apparent, as in confinement it is “good tempered, playful and hardy.” It has a rather rich fur of a color inclining to olive, with a golden tinge on the lighter parts, and is distin- guished by its yellow, flesh-colored face. 42 QUADRUMANA. C. tba bles (Lat. albus, white, and frons, forehead.) The OvavapPavi, or Wuite-Facep CaPucHIN. This animal has a grayish blue face, except the pure white orbits dnd forehead. ‘The color of the body is grayish olive. Troops of these monkeys are found in the forests of Oronoco. The Indians often keep them as playthings, and derive from them much entertainment. Humboldt saw a domesticated one that caught a pig every morning, and rode him about the whole day, while he was feeding in the savanna. Another, in the house of a missionary, bestrode a cat which had been brought up with it, and patiently submitted to its rider. C. fatuellus. (Lat., the same as Faunus, or Pan, a Roman divin- ity.) The Sagou Cornu, or Hornep Monkey. This species takes its name from the bushes of hair which ele- vate themselves on the base of the forehead, producing a resem- blance to horns. The color in some of these animals is a deep brown, or purplish black ; in others, reddish brown. It is a na- tive of French Guiana. II. Sacorns. These include several groups, which, though differing from each other in some particulars, agree in having tails that are feeble and not prehensile, but which they use for protecting them- selves against the cold, of which they are very sensible. They are light and graceful in their movements; of a lively, timid, and irritable disposition. ‘Their food consists of fruit, birds’ eggs, and insects. Of the genera belonging to this division we name the Callithrix sciureus. (Gr. xadds, kalos, beautiful, Ooi§, thriz, hair.) Sctureus, the specific term, is from the Gr. oxvodgeos, (skiureus,) squirrel-like. This is the Saimirt of Buffon, otherwise called the Squirret Monkey, and is a very beautiful little animal not quite a foot long, and with a tail three or four inches longer than the body. It is native to Brazil and Guiana. The head is rounded in form; the muzzle is short and dark colored ; the ears very large, and it has a large bushy tail. Around the eyes are two circles of flesh, The general color is olive gray; but the fore-arms and legs are of a fine orange red. Its cry is a hissing sort of whistle repeated three or four times, and expressive of impatience oranger. ‘The tail, though not properly prehensile, it sometimes winds around objects as a sort of feeler or support, so that this animal may be regarded as a link between this division and the Ordinary Sapasous. QUADRUMANA. 43 The Sakis, (Or those Saxts which have long bushy tails, and hence have been denominated Fox TatLep Monkeys; the term Saki, in its more general application, denoting any American Monkey which has not a prehensile tail.) | Pithecia. ‘These are the largest of the Sacorns. Of this genus, which has a facial angle of 600, the most remarkable is the Pithecia lugens, (Gr. mOnxela, pithekeia, ape-like; lugens, Lat. mourning,)—the Wipow Monkey, so named from the con- trast of black and white displayed in its natural dress. The general color is black, but the face and hands are white. The Creoles of South America say, “it wears the veil, kerchief and glovesof widowhood,”’ according to the custom in South America. Pithecia cheiropotes. (Gr. yéle, cheir, hand ; orgs, potes, drinker.) Tue Hanp-Drinker, so named because with its hands it con- veys water to its mouth, from a vessel or running stream. This animal is the Capuchin of the Oronoko. It is distinguished by two distinct bushy tufts formed by the parting of the hair above the large, sunken eyes, and by its long crisped black beard. The fur is of a reddish chestnut color. It lives in pairs only, and is very shy. But a more interesting species of these animals is the Lacchus vulgaris, (Gr. “Iaxyos, Iakchos, Bacchus.) The Marmoset, Ouistitis, or StrrateD Monkey. This small species has a body about eight inches long, and a tail eleven or twelve inches. Upon its head are two tufts of white standing hair; the facial angle is 500; the fur very soft. Some are black with yellow feet ; others brown, striped with yellow, hence called striated. _When re- moved from its native region to a colder climate, the Marmoset nestles itself among the materials of its bed, out of which it sel- dom emerges. It is very fond of insects: in captivity it will eat scores of the largest cockroaches, with many smaller ones, (re- jecting the wing-cases and legs,) three or four times a day. Its chief and favorite food in the wild state, is the banana, though in that state it is almost omnivorous. I. argentatus, (Latin, silvered.) This is the least and most beautiful of the Sacorns, having silvery colored hair, which pleasantly contrasts with a tail of deep brown, inclining to black- ness. In general habits, it is like the preceding. What are the two leading groups of the numerous monkeys found in South America? What isa marked distinction of the Sapasous? What 44 QUADRUMANA. of the Sacorns? Why are they sometimes called four-fingered monkeys ? What monkeys of the Eastern continent do the Sapasous represent? What is said of their habits, manner of climbing, living, &.? What is said of their fore hands? What of the palms of both extremities? What sort of a life are they said to lead? In what respect do the Howlers differ from the Sapasyous? In what particulars do they agree with them? Which are the largest American Monkeys? For what are they remarkable? Describe their howling, size, disposition, &.? What is said of the UrsinzE How er, or ArcuaTto? How many did Humboldt count in a single tree? From what is Ateles the generic term for spider monkey derived, and what does it mean? Why are they called Spider Monkeys? For what are they dis- tinguished? How do they move on the ground? Where and upon what do they live? How do they use their tails? How cross streams? What is said of their flesh? What is said of the Marimonda (Ateles Belzebub ?) What is said of the Sasous, or Caprucuin Monkeys? To what genus do they belong? With what are they grouped? What issaid of the Weeper? What of the White-faced Capuchin? What does Humboldt relate of this monkey? From what does the horned monkey derive its name? Where is it found? What do the Sacorns include, and in what do they all agree? For what do they use their tails? What is said of their movements, food, &c.? What is said of the Squirrel Monkey, and from what is the term derived? What does the term Saxr generally denote? Which of them are called Fox-Tailed Monkeys? Which genus of Sacorns is the largest? Of this genus Pithecia which is the most remarkable? What do the Cre- oles of S. A. say of it? How is the Hand-Drinker distinguished? Why is itso named? Where found? What is said of the Marmoset, Ouistitis or Striated Monkey? What is said of its food in its wild state? What in captivity? Among what class of animals on the chart would you look for cockroaches? Which is the least and most beautiful of the Sacorns ? SECTION VII. Lemuripa, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts, ghost-like.) | The Lemurs were so named by Linnzus, on account of their nocturnal habits and noiseless movements. The larger part of this family are natives of Madagascar; but some inhabit the African continent, and a few of them the East Indies. They resemble the monkeys in having opposable thumbs on both pairs of extremities; those of the hinder limbs are large, and much expanded at the tips; the nails are flat, except those of the first finger of each hinder limb, which are long, raised and pointed. They do not show either the mischievousness and petulance, or the sprightliness and curiosity of the monkey tribe. From them they also differ in size and form, and in respect to their teeth. The chief difference among the Lemurs themselves relates to color ; the habits, manner and general figure being the same in all. The muzzle is very pointed, the tail very long; the fur woolly and soft. They are generally not larger than a fox, and some are smaller. The Lemurs of Madagascar and two or three adjacent islands appear to take the place of the Monkeys, none of QUADRUMANA. 45 which are found in those islands. Their habits, in a state of na- ture, have not been much observed. When in captivity, they are quite tame, and good natured; fond of attention, and leap about with surprising agility. They are evidently nocturnal. When undisturbed, they spend the greatest part of the day in sleep. If alone, they roll themselves up inthe form of a ball, and wind their long tails in a very curious manner about their bodies, seemingly for the purpose of keeping themselves warm, for they are naturally quite sensitive to cold, and delight in bask- ing in the rays of the sun, oF in keeping themselves as close as possible to the fire. At twilight they show more alertness, springing from perch to perch, and uttering a peculiar grunt of pleasure and satisfaction. At this time, they seem most desirous of food, which in confine- ment is usually bread and fruits. ‘They are naturally climbing animals and exceedingly active, twisting their tails about objects, but not using it as a fifth hand.- They endure changes of air and climate better than the Mon- keys; but “dust and wet not only annoy them, but produce dis- ease and death.’’ It is said that “one of their favorite situations is the edge of the fender, on which they will rest, spreading out their hands before the fire, half closing their eyes, and luxuria- ting in the genial glow.” The noise which the Lemur makes when alarmed, or suddenly startled, is a singular “braying, or roar of interrupted hoarse sounds, ending with abruptness.” Their native food is not cer- tainly known, “but it is believed to be fruits and eg gos, birds and insects, When in captivity, they refuse cooked “meat. They live together in troops, clinging to the branches of trees, or when confined, to the bars of their cages, like the s/oth, which in many respects they resemble. ‘The eyesare full and of hazel color; in confinement, blindness is a common occurrence. The whole are sometimes called Mapacascar Cats. Cuvier arranges the Lemurs into five groups, viz. I. The Makis, or Macacos, the True Lemurs. IJ. The Indris, Lichanotus, (Gr. lichanos, index-finger; ous, an ear.) iI. The Lori group, Slow Lemurs, Stenops, (Gr. Stenos, nar- row; Ops, face or muzzle.) IV. The Galagos, Otilicnus, (Gr. ous, an ear; liknon, a fan.) V. The Tarsiers, Tarsius. Among the most beautiful species of the first group, is the Rep Lemur, Le ruber, (Lat. red.) This is also one of the largest, and apparently suffers less than others by a removal from its native 46 QUADRUMANA. abode. Its fur is of a deep rich chestnut; but the face and fore- hands, as also the under parts and tail, are black. It is easily tamed, and very gentle. A still more beautiful species is the ZL. Macaco. The Rurriep Lemur, the largest of the family. Its fur is varied with pure white and black, in nearly equal proportions; the hands, how- ever, are black, and a white ruff surrounds the face. In habits and disposition, it is like the rest. All the species of the Lemurs are handsome, and worthy of attention; but it is sufficient for our purpose to name the above. : The Indris, (Lichanotus, Illiger.) ‘These are found in Mada- gascar, and present two species, the long and the short tailed. The Brack or Tartiess Inpri, I. brevicaudatus, (Lat. with short or rudimentary tail,) is described as “a large animal three and a half feet high, entirely black except on the face and abdo- men, which are of a grayish cast, and the rump which is white.” The face is dog-like; the ears are short and much tufted; the hair is silky and thick, but in some places, curly ; the nails are flat, but pointed. When young it is trained to the chase like a dog. Its note is spoken of as like a young child’s crying; hence it probably derived its name Inpr1, man of the wood. The Frocxy Inpri, I. daniger, (Lat. wool-bearing,) has a black face, and large and greenish gray eyes; five-fingered feet with long claws, except the thumbs which have rounded nails. It is said to be one foot nine inches long from the nose to the end of the tail, the tail being nine inches. ‘The color above is a pale yellow ferruginous, or iron color, and white beneath. ‘The fur is very soft and curly. The Loris. Stenops, (Illiger.) The animals of this genus have narrow, pointed muzzles, and are without tails. Their eyes are close together, and they have a grasp that is quite tenacious. Their movements are sometimes very slow; their habits noctur- nal. “The base of the arteries of the limbs has the division into small branches which is found in the true Sloths.” The number of their teeth is thirty-six. The thumbs are widely separated from the fingers on both extremities. Two species are found in India and Ceylon, viz. L. gracilis. (Lat. slender.) The Stenper Loris. Thisisa very small animal, being only eight inches in length. It has a long, dog-like visage, a thin and weak body, and long slender limbs. On each foot, the thumb is very distinct and separate from the toes. The color above is tawny; beneath whitish. According to Pennant, it is very active, and many of its actions are like those of an ape. QUADRUMANA. AZ L. tardigradus. (Lat. slow-paced.) The Stow-Pacrep Lemur is ‘an animal of small size, scarcely equal to that of a eat.” The largest yet noticed is but sixteen inches long. The apparent clum- siness of its form is much increased by the manner in which it usually contracts itself into a kind of ball. ‘The large eyes have transverse pupils capable of being closed during the'day, and very largely dilated at night. ‘The hair is long, close and woolly, and of a deep ashy gray with a brownish tinge. A brown or chestnut band runs along the middle of the back. Under the true tongue is a second tongue, narrow and sharp pointed, which the animal projects in connection with the other when he drinks, and also when he eats, especially when eating flies, of which he is very fond; but he is able to retain the second within his mouth at pleasure. One of this species was a pet of Sir William Jones, during his residence in India. Galago. ‘The Gatagos, found in Africa and India. These animals have round heads, short muzzles, and very large eyes and ears. The feet are five-fingered, with the exception of the first finger of the hind feet, which has a sharp awl-shaped claw. The tail is very long and hairy. Their large ears close when they sleep, but open upon their hearing any noise. They make their nests squirrel-like, in the branches of trees, and cover it with a bed of leaves or grass for their young. Their food con- sists of soft fruits and insects. ‘They are found in great numbers among the gum-trees of the desert of Sahara, and are particularly fond of the gum yielded by these trees. Thence they are taken by the Moors, and carried to the coast for sale, where they are named “animals of the Gum.” These animals are gentle and | pretty, but small, the length of the body being only seven inches, and that of the tail, nine. Of the several species, the one most worthy of notice is the G. Moholi. The Monout. This singular but beautiful animal, peculiar to Africa, has a long glossy tail, very long hinder legs, large, bare and spreading ears. The color of the tail is a medi- um between a yellowish brown and cochineal red; the fur is throughout of the same color; that of the other parts is a dark slate color, except at and near the surface; the eyes are a deep topaz yellow. In its grimaces and active movements, it resem. bles the monkey. It is rarely seen during the day, which it spends in the nest it forms in the forks of branches, or in the cavities of decayed trees. Its length from the nose to the tip of the tail is sixteen inches. The Tarsiers are found in the Molucca islands. These have tarsi, which are very long, and this gives to their hinder limbs a 3 48 QUADRUMANA. disproportionate extent. They have a rounded head, large eyes and a long tufted tail. The hands are small and delicate; ex- ternally covered with a soft down, but within they are naked. The nails of all the fingers of the hand as well as of the third and fourth finger of the feet are triangular in shape; on the index and middle finger of the feet they resemble the thorns of a rose bush. The fur is woolly and soft, the general color brown, in- clining to gray. ‘Two species are known. Tarsius Bancanus. - The Banca Tarsier, and T. fuscomanus. (Lat. fuscus, dark or swarthy ; manus, hand.) These animals feed chiefly on lizards. Averse to light, they retire by day under the roots of trees. Dr. Horsefield obtained the Banca Tarsier in Banea, near Jaboos, one of the mining districts, where, he says, it inhabits the exten- sive forests in the vicinity. Cheiromys, (G. cheir, hand; mus, mouse.) The Avye-Avye. This quadruped, whose name signifies hand-mouse, resembles the ai, or sloth in its habits, but should not be confounded with that animal. Cuvier places it with the Rodentia, but it may properly be classed, as it has been by some naturalists, among the monkeys. Its specific name Madagascariensis, points it out as a native of Madagascar. It burrows under ground, and is slothful and noc- turnal in its habits; has large flat ears, like those of a bat, and a tail like a squirrel’s; but its most distinguishing peculiarity is the middle finger of the fore foot, the last two joints of which are very long, slender and without hair. This peculiarity aids the animal in drawing worms out of the holes in the trees, and in holding on to branches. Its length is eighteen inches, exclusive of the’ tail, and its general color ferruginous (iron) brown, mixed with gray. Galeopithecus, (Gr. guleds, a weasel; pithecos,an ape.) Fty- Inc Lemur. j This genus of animals is the connecting link between the Lemurs and the Bats. There are two species; some enumer- ate three. G. volans, the Flying Lemur,—is found in the most eastern islands of the Indian Archipelago. The chief peculiarity of this animal is the extension of its skin between the front and hind limbs, including also the tail, by which it receives a parachute-like support in the air, and is able to take long sweep- ing leaps from tree to tree, somewhat like flying; but it has not, like the bats, the power of continued flight. The general struc- ture is like that of the Lemurs. During the day it sleeps sus. pended on the branches, with the head downward. At night it goes forth in quest of its food, which in addition to insects, consists of fruits, eggs and birds. CARNIVORA. 49 By whom were the Lemurs so named, and why? Where are they found, and of what do they there take the place? In what do they resemble Monkeys, and how differ from them? In what do Lemurs chiefly differ among themselves? What is said of their size, and is much known of their habits in a wild state? What are their habits in a state of captivity? In what do they delight ? What food do they prefer, and what refuse? How do changes of climate. affect them? What influences have wet and dust upon them? What is to them a favorite position? Do they live alone, or in troops? What animal do they strongly resemble? What general name is sometimes given them? Name the groups into which Cuvier arranged them? What is said of the Red Lemur? Which of the Lemurs is the largest and most beautiful? Give some account of the other groups, the Indris, the Slow Lemurs, the Galagos, and the Tarsiers. Describe the Aye- Aye, and the Flying Lemurs. Why is the name Aye-Aye given to the Cheiromys? Ans. Because this name, as pronounced, is supposea to resem- ble the ery of the animal. SECTION VIII. OrperR Tuirp. CARNIVORA. : (Lat. caro, flesh; voro, to devour.) The two preceding orders, we have found specially character- ized by the number and properties of their hands. Inthe animals We are now about to consider, the hands are modified into feet. At the head of the four-footed animals are the Carnivora, or flesh eatinz animus, which have the strongest thirst for blood, and with it the power and instruments for its gratification. These, in the structure of their teeth, their digestive organs, and general con- formation, are adapted for preying upon other animals. In com- mon with the first two orders, they have three kinds of teeth, and nails or claws on their feet; but unlike them, never have the front toe opposable to the other fingers. Their molar teeth, or grinders, are adapted for cutting and tearing rather than bruising or grinding. ‘The greater or less development of the molar teeth as cutting or tearing instruments, indicates the kind of animal food suited for their support. ‘Those Carnivora which have their molars, in whole or part, tuberculated, (covered with small knobs,) use vegetables, to a greater or less extent; those which have them serrated, or notched with points, live chiefly on insects. Other modifications of the molar teeth, fit them for crushing bones, or dividing flesh, as occasion may require. As a general rule, the jaws open and shut like a pair of shears, upwards and downwards, but do not admit of a side-wise movement. The Carnivora have no third lobe in the brain. The senses of sight, hearing and smell are exceedingly acute. Their feet are of a peculiarly soft structure, to enable them to steal silently upon their prey ; and their supply being uncertain, they can endure 50 CARNIVORA. long abstinence from food. The intestines of this order are suited to their flesh-eating habits, being shorter, and less voluminous than those of herbivorous animals. A kind providence has so arranged things that the larger and more formidable of the car- nivorous tribes are but thinly scattered and more or less remote from the abodes of civilization. The Carnivora may be divided into I. the CHEIROPTERA, Bats; Il. the Dieitigrapa, including the Cat, Dog and Weasel families; III. the PLanricrapa, the Bear family or tribe; IV. the Ampurpra, the Puocip#, or Seal family; V. the True In- SECTIVoRA, including Shrews, Moles, &c. By what were the first two orders characterized? How are the hands modified or changed in the Carnivora, and other orders of Mammats? What order stands at the head of four footed animals? What are their propensities, and have they the power to gratify them? For what are their teeth and digestive organs adapted? How many kinds of teeth have they? Describe them, and spell their names. Ans. Jncisors. The fore teeth with sharp cutting edges for cutting or separating the food. Canine teeth are on each side of the incisors. These are very long and prominent in the Carnivora. (See plate IV. fig. 3.) Those in the upper jaw are called eye teeth in the human family. Molars, or grinders are of three kinds; false molars are more or less pointed, and stand next the canine teeth; next come the carnivorous teeth, especially adapted for dividing and lacerating muscle, and last the Tuberculated teeth, full of rounded knobs or pimples. Serrated teeth are notched with points like a saw, and show that the animal lives on insects. Trenchant teeth are very sharp and cutting. Granulated teeth are covered with small elevations, or grains. What have Carnivorous animals in common with the first two orders? In what are they unlike them? For what are their molar teeth adapted, and what is indicated by their varia- tions? How can you distinguish by the teeth what food an animal lives upon? How do carnivorous animals generally open and shut their jaws? Have their jaws any side-wise movement? How many lobes has the brain in animals of this order? What is said of their senses? For what are their feet peculiarly adapted? Can they sustain long fasts? Are the intes- tines shorter in Carnivorous than in Herbivorous animals? How are the wisdom and goodness of God shown in the distribution of carnivorous and blood-thirsty animals? How are the Carnivora divided? SECTION IX. . I. Diviston oF THE CARNIVORA. Sus-oRDER CHEIRopTERA, (Gr. ete, cheir, hand; tegov, pteron, wing.) These singular animals combine so much of the character of birds with that of quadrupeds, that it was long thought difficult to assign them a separate arrangement in the system of nature. It is now, however, settled that the structure of their bodies, their viviparous nature, their hair, etc., entitle them to a place among or ih 3 EAT: SG x =) ‘tai Sn ay f Rae Cees Anema) if Yi) Yh ; Lb Soh 4 t 2. 3 4, 5. for] 11. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. DENTITION. Skull of man, showing the omnivorous teeth of the order Bimana. Tiger’s head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Cat family, (Felide.) Dog’s head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Dog family, (Canidz. ) Skull of a porcupine, showing the teeth of a gnawing animal, order Rodentia. Horse’s head, showing the vacancy for the bit between the front and back teeth, which space corresponds with the angle of the lips. . Hippopotamus’ head, showing the canine teeth, (eye teeth, ) developed into enormous tusks, with a chisel like edge. . Elephant’s skull, showing the long, round, arched, pointed tusks or incisors projecting from the upper jaw. . A molar, grinding or back tooth of the elephant, of which there are never more than two on each side of the upper and lower jaws of the African elephant, and only one in a similar position in the Asiatic ele- phant. . Mastodon’s tooth, showing the conical points whence the animal derives its name. For the tusks of the mammoth, see the Chart. . Skull of a cow, showing the dentition of a cud chewing animal, order ~ Ruminantia. Porpoise skull, showing how the numerous teeth interlock with one another when the jaws are closed, 54 CARNIVORA. the quadrupeds. Some of them are fruit eaters; but asa whole, we arrange them as Cuvier has done, with carnivorous animals. They are found both in the Eastern and Western Continents, and also in Australia. A climate tolerably\ temperate seems best. suited to these animals; but they are largest in warm countries. Their most distinguishing character consists of a fold of the skin, which rising at the neck, extends over the lengthened limbs, as the silk over the whalebone of a parasol or umbrella, and gives them a winged appearance. Those genera which have the bones of the hand so developed as to spread a sufficient extent of this membranous skin, have power to perform all the evolu. tions which are required for flight. The hand-wings present a much greater extent of surface than those of birds, and the strong muscles attached as in the birds, to the sternum or breast bone, assist them to fly with great rapidity, and turn with aston- ishing swiftness. A lengthened bone proceeding from the heel, assists the tail in expanding that part of the membranous skin which is between the thighs, and where the tail is absent, per- forms that office alone; and thus gives the power of governing the direction of the flight, like the spread tail of a bird. By the extension of the upward curving of the tail and the hind feet, the ipterfemoral (between the thighs) part forms a hollow cradle into which the new born young is received. The thumb is free, short and armed with a strong hooked claw, by which they crawl along on the ground. The feeble hind feet have five toes, armed with sharp edged, curved and pointed claws, by which these animals suspend themselves, head downwards, in hollow trees, caves, or deserted buildings, where they are found during the day, going forth only at night. Their eyes are extremely small, but the ex- ternal ears are often large, and with the wings, form an extensive surface endued with the most singular and exquisite sensibility, and enabling them, even when their eyes are sealed up, or removed, to pursue their rapid and wheeling flight, avoiding every obstacle, not even hitting threads stretched in various directions across their way, and passing through the narrowest passages without touching the sides. All are exquisitely susceptible of cold, and pass the winter in a state of lethargy, retiring to old ruins, cav- erns, or hollow trees, where they continue suspended by their claws until the genial spring warms them into activity. They are most active in the calm evenings ofsummer. Some of them are supposed to be migratory in their habits. In the Chetropiera the teats are pectoral; in all the rest of the Carnivora, they are ventral. They perform a very useful part in the economy of nature in the destruction of insects. . | CARNIVORA. 5d The CHEIROPTERA, OY VESPERTILIONIDA, are divided into five sub-families, each including many genera, viz. 1. Phyllostoma- tina. 2. Rhinolophina. 3. Vespertilionina. 4. Noctilionina. 5. Pteropina. They may also be arranged into Ist. the Frugiv- __erous group, and 2d. the true or Insectivorous Bats. Omnivorous is, however, a term that more accurately describes the former group. ‘Their teeth are, some of them, more trenchant than fruit eating habits would alone require. Cuvier says of these animals, “they know how to pursue birds and small quadrupeds,” and it is quite probable they sometimes prey on the large insects found in the regions of their abode. Beside the variations in the teeth of the Fruit Eating or Omnivorous, and the Insectivorous Bats, there are other differences which relate to the stomach and intestines. The stomach of the former is very complicated, and the intestines very long, (in the Pteropus, seven times as long as the body,) whereas in the latter, the stomach is very simple, having but two divisions or portions, and the intestines are not more than twice the length of the body. Another difference respects the tail, which in the insectivorous bats is generally powerful; in the fruit eaters wanting, rudimental or comparatively inefficient. From what is the name of the sub-order CuErroprera derived? What do these singular animals combine? To what difficulty did this give rise? Is it now a settled question? What particularly entitles them to a place among quadrupeds? Are any of them fruit-eaters? How did Cuvier arrange them as a whole? Where are they found, and what climate suits them best ? Where are the largest found? What is their most distinguishing charac- teristic? How do their wings compare with those of birds? How are the muscles attached? How is the cradle for the young formed? What is said of the thumb, and of what use is the hooked claw? By what do they suspend themselves, in what position, and in what places? What is said of their eyes, ears, wings, &c.? What of their exquisite sensibility, and what does it enable them to avoid? Are they affected by cold, and how do they pass the winter? At what season do they leave their retreats? When are they most active? Are any of them migratory? In what do they differ from all other Carnivora? Are bats useful? In what way? Into how many sub-families are they divided? How may they also be arranged? What does Cuvier say of them? What is said of their teeth, intestines, &c.? Name any further differences between the Insectivorous and Frugiv- erous Bats. Spell, give the derivations and examples of each of these five sub-families. 1. PHybtiostomatTina, (Gr. Phudlon, a leaf, Stéma, a mouth,) named from the leaf-like crest upon the nose. The Vampire, (Vampirus Spectrum,) of South America, is one of this blood-sucking family, acquaintance with which would divest it of half its terrors. 2. Ruinotopuina, (Gr. Rhin, a nose, Lophos, a crest.) These are the Horse Shoe Bats, of Java, which derive their name from the shape of the leafy membrane upon the nose. The genus Vycteris, (Gr. Nucteris, a bat,) inflate their bodies, and appear like small balloons. 56 CARNIVORA. 3. VESPERTILIONINA, (Lat. Vespertilio, a bat.) These are found in all parts of the world, including Australia. The Flitter mouse of England, V. murinus, has the ears inclining backwards. The New York Bat, V. Vovebo- racensis, the Little Brown Bat, V. subzlatus, (Lat. awl-shaped, ) the Silver Haired Bat, V. noctivagans, (Lat. NOX, night 5 vagans, wandering,) the Car- olina Bat, V. Carolinensis, are all found in the United States and Canadas. 4, Nocrrnronina, (Lat. Noctilio, from nox, night, and eo, to go.) These South American bats have side pouches for receiving their young. 5. Preropina, (Gr. Péeron,a wing; pous, a foot.) These are the Rovs- SETTES of the French, and the fruit~ eating bats of Java. The Kalong, or Fox Bat, Pteropus Javanicus, is the larest, measuring five feet in the spread of its wings. They are found in large companies, suspended from trees. SECTION X. Tue CARNIVORA PROPER. The CaRNIVORA proper are sometimes arranged into three di- visions—the Dieirigrapa, the PLANTIGRADA, and the PHociDAE or AMPHIBIA. II. Division oF THE CARNIVORA. _ J. Dierrierapa, (Lat. digitus, a finger or toe ; gradior, I walk ;) walking on the toes. This division of the Carnrvora derive their name from their ap- plication of the toes to the ground in walking. It includes the Cat, Dog, and Weasel families. They are distinguished by their free, light and active step, their elasticity of motion, beauty of fur, and elegance of form. Many of them are nocturnal, slum- bering by day in some dark den or deep recess, but prowling steal- thily and noiselessly about during the night. Having satisfied their blood-thirsty dispositions and voracious appetites, when “the sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens.’’ Some animals of this division, as the wolf, are, however, more open in their movements, and in es Faint their prey during the day. 1. Fextpag, (Lat. felis, a cat.) The Cat family. These include Cats, Lionsy Tigers, Leopards, and Lynxes. Among them are the most eminently carnivorous and formidable of the mammalia, and they include a large number of animals that closely resemble each other in structure and appearance. They are among quadrupeds what birds of prey are among the feathered tribes. The size and strength of the Lion, Tiger and Leopard, combined with their thirst for blood, render them most fearfully dangerous. The jaws and teeth of the FELIpAz are quite different from CARNIVORA. 57 those of the preceding orders; the jaws, are much more powerful, the teeth’ longer and sharper. On their fore feet are five toes, and on the hind ones four, all armed with strong hooked and sharp claws. To prevent the claws from i injury by coming in contact with the ground, they are, when not in use, drawn back. They are alsoelevated above the ground by the soft pad underneath, into sheathes, so that the point only just peeps out beneath the fur, and thus are not liable tobe wornor blunted. (See Plate VI, fig. 7.) The tongue is very rough, as may be known by feeling that of the domestic cat. This roughness is occasioned by the innumerable papille which are turned backwards, and are like so many little hooks to assist the animal in tearing off any remnants of flesh that may adhere to the bones of their prey. Their sight is acute, and suited for vision both by night and by day. ‘The expansive power of the pupil of the eye isso great that it takes in every ray of light. In the larger cats the pupil is circular; in those that roam at night and also see well by day, as our domestic cat, it is oval. Their long whiskers are delicate organs for the sense of smelling. These whiskers are each connected with a large nerve, and they are useful in indicating objects when the animal is prowling at night. Felis Leo, the Lion. This is the strongest and most coura- geous of the feline tribes, called the “ King of Beasts,” and “ Mon- arch of the forest.” He is regarded as the emblem of majesty and strength combined with generosity. His form supports the royal arms of England, and surmountsthem as acrest. Many allusions are made in the Sacred Scriptures to his energy, power and majesty, (Rev. v., 5,) and his ferocious and sanguinary disposition. ‘There are twokinds of Lions, Leo Africus and L. Asiaticus. ‘The brown Lions of the Cape of Good Hope are more ferocious than the yellow variety found in that vicinity, and will carry off a heifer as easily as a cat would a rat. The Lion of Senegal has a thinner mane, and is of a deeper yellow than the Lion of Barbary. The Bengal Lion, the Persian Lion, and the Maneless Lion, are only varieties of the Asiatic Lion, Leo Asiaticus. The Lioness is smaller than her mate, has two and sometimes three blind whelps at a litter, which she guards with great care. They are easily tamed when young, and live from twenty-five to thirty years, sometimes much longer. The great lion Pompey, which was in the Tower of London in 1760, had been there seventy years. One from the river Gambia died in the Tower at the age of sixty-three. Anderson, the African traveler, does not represent lions as so ferocious and formidable as we have 58 CARNIVORA. been accustomed to consider them. They have a small horny prickle, or hook, fastened to the skin and concealef@ in the tassel at the end of the tail. It is easily detached, and its use is still unknown. Lions belong exclusively to the Eastern Conti- nent, but the Puma is sometimes called the American Lion, and as it is the largest of the Cat family on the Western Continent, we shall give it a more particular notice. Felis Concolor. The Puma, Covcar, PantHer, Painter, Cata- MOUNT. This formidable animal is known under all these names in North and South America. Washington Irving, (see his “Astoria,”) men- tions it as seen at the mouth of the Columbia river. Dr. Good- man gives an account of a sportsman killed by one of these ani- mals in the Catskill mountains. One of them, within the recol- lection of Dr. Dekay, was even seen a few miles from the city of New York. This animal was, no doubt, formerly found in all the Northern and Eastern States, west of the Rocky Mountains, and along the borders of the Pacific. A few yet remain in the less cultivated portions of the Atlantic States. In Florida and Texas it is quite abundant. It is also found within the tropics in Mexico and Yucatan, and has made its way through Panama into Guiana and South America, where it is called the Puma, and reaches its greatest size. From its likeness in other respects, to the lion of the old world, it is, though maneless, sometimes named the American lion. ‘The courage of the Cougar is, how- ever, not great, and unless very hungry or wounded and at bay, he seldom attacks man. The body is long and slender, (five feet in length and including the tail, eight;) the legs are short and stout. The general color of the ‘Puma, when the animal is mature, is silvery grey, and hence it is sometimes called the sil- very lion. Inthe United States the general cclor is tawny or fulvous; the under part is reddish white. - The name “ concolor,” it obtains from its uniformity of color. The tail of the male is longer than that of the female, and without a tuft. The Puma lives much on trees, which it climbs with great ease; and its uniform dusky fur makes it so like the bark that it is not readily distinguished from the branches on which it rests. From trees, it falls suddenly upon monkeys, deer, and cattle as they pass by ; or it lurks among reeds and thickets by the side of rivers and marshes, where it seizes the alligator as he raises his head above water, or crawls out upon the bank. In Florida, the animal in- habits the miry swamps and the watery everglades; in Texas CARNIVORA. 59 he is sometimes seen in the open prairies, and his tracks are found in every crossing place of creeks and bayous where perhaps he may find some calf, cow or bullock that has been sunk and suf- focated in the mire. ‘The Cougar sometimes attacks young cat- tle, but is generally compelled to subsist on small animals, such as young deer, skunks, racoons, &c., or birds, and even will eat carrion when hard pressed by hunger. (Audubon.) The Panther is nocturnal in its habits ; not, however, from ne- cessity, as it can see well in day light. It makes its way through tangled forests in searching for prey at night—perhaps arousing and affrighting some benighted traveler or wearied hunter, who has bivouacked atthe foot of a large tree; and fortunate indeed is he if his rifle fail him not, or if by a burning fire-brand he can frighten away the hungry animal. At the sight of a Pan- ther, horses are thrown into such fright that they “ break all fast- enings and fly in every direction.” Audubon says, “a respecta- ble gentleman of the state of Mississippi gave us the following account. A friend of his, a cotton planter, one evening while at tea, was startled by a tremendous out-cry among his dogs, and ran out to quiet them, thinking some person, perhaps a neighbor had called to see him. The dogs could not be driven back, but rushed into the house. He seized his horsewhip which hung in- side the hall door, and whipped them all out, as he thought, ex- cept one, which ran under the table. He then took a candle, _and looking down, to his surprise and alarm, discovered the sup- posed refractory dog to be a Cougar. He retreated instanter ; the females and children of the family fled, frightened half out of their senses. The Cougar sprang at him—he parried the blow with the candle-stick, but the animal flew at him again, leaping forward perpendicularly, striking at his face with the fore feet, and at his body with the hind feet. These attacks he repelled by dealing the Cougar straight-forward blows on its belly with his fists, lightly turning aside and evading its claws as best he could. The Cougar had nearly over-powered him, when luckily, he backed towards the fire-place, and as the ani- mal sprang again at him, dodged him, and the panther almost fell into the fire, at which he was so terrified that he endeavored to escape, and darting out of the door, was immediately attacked again by the dogs, and with their help and a club, was killed.” The female has three, four, and even five at a litter, but the usual number is two. She shows great affection for her young, never leaving them except to obtain food to support her strength. Felis Tigris, (regalis.) The Royan Ticer. (PI. IV. fig. 2.) This animal infests Hindostan, and the parts of Asia between 60 CARNIVORA. Bengal and China. It is nearly equal to the lion in size, and though inferior to him in strength, surpasses him in activity and rapidity. Whole villages are sometimes depopulated by this most dangerous animal. The tigress has five cubs at a time, which are easily tamed but not to be trusted. Among American Tiger Cats may be enumerated the Ocelot, F’. pardalis, of Tropical America; the Chati, Ff. mitis, (mild,) of South America, about one third larger than a cat, and the Pampas, or Jungle Cat, F. Pajeros, which lives on Guinea pigs. ‘The Nepaul Tiger Cat, PF. nepa- lensis, is two and a half feet long, including the tail. The Ser- val, fF. Serval, an African Tiger Cat, plays like a kitten, and looks very cat-like. The Leoparps, or Spottep Cats, are numerous, and found on both continents. They are distinguished for beauty and ele- gance. Their color, in the East, is a pale yellow, covered with rosettes of black, which contract into spots about the head, neck and limbs. The general length is about four feet and the height about two. The Leopard preys upon antelopes, deer and mon- keys. So great is the flexibility of its body that it can make surprising leaps, swim, climb trees or crawl like a snake, with nearly equal facility. ‘These animals are fierce and rapacious, and it is remarked that “though they are ever devouring, they always appear lean and emaciated.” The Jaguar, F. onca, is the Leopard of this Continent. This formidable animal inhabits Mexico, and is met with in almost every part of Central America. In common with many of this family, he is often called the Panther. The Cheetah, FP. jubata, is the Hunting Leopard of the Cape of Good Hope, and combines in some degree, the habits of both the cat and the dog. Its spe- cific name jubata, (Lat. crested,) is derived from the thin mane running down the neck. The Lynxes are distinguished by their tufted or tasseled ears, and shorter bodies and tails. Hight species are described. ‘The Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx, Lynx rufus, looks most ferocious, but flies from its pursuers, moving by bounds or leaps, and raising all the feet at the same time from the ground. The Canada Lynx, (Z. Canadensis,) is more retired in its habits, and its fur furnishes the most beautiful materials for muffs, collars, &c. The Caracal, F. Caracal, takes its specific name from the black tips of its ears, the word in Turkish meaning black. Its body is longer and more slender than in the true Lynxes. It is called the “ Lion’s provider.” The domestic and the wild cat are supposed by many to be of distinct species. A marked dif- ference is shown in the tails of the two; that o€ the wild cat is CARNIVORA. 61. bushy and short, while that of our tame cats is long and slender. The varieties are numerous; among the most noted are the Tabby, or Brindled ; the Maltese, of a bluish hue; the Tortoise- shelled or Spotted; the Angora; the Egyptian; and the Manx Cats, of the Chartreuse, a species that have no tails. Another variety are said to have the fore paws divided into two parts. The cat is more attached to places than persons; is sly and sus- picious; loves her ease and seeks the softest places for her bed ; is fond of catnip and valerian; and isa great favorite, particu- larly with children. She is fond of rats, mice, squirrels and birds, and notorious for thievish propensities; dislikes cold wa- ter and bad smells. Her hair is electric, and always dry and glossy ; average age, 14 years. What three divisions compose the Carnivora PRoprR? From what is dig- itigrada derived? What does itinclude? By what are they distinguished ? What are their usual habits? At what time do they seek their prey? Which hunt in bands? At what time? FELIDA. What does felis signify? What does this family include? What is their character, and how do they resemble each other? To what are they com- pared? What renders them particularly dangerous? In what way do the teeth and jaws of the Fr.ipaz differ from those of the preceding orders? What is said of their feet and claws? How are the claws protected? By what are they elevated above the ground? What is said of the tongue? What causes the roughness? What do these hooks assist them to do? What is said of their sight and of the shape of their eyes? Of what use are their whiskers, and with what is each connected ? Which is the strongest and most courageous of the feline tribe? What is he called? How regarded? Where referred to? What species are here mentioned? What is said of the lioness and her young? Are they long lived? How does Anderson, the African traveler who was recently trod- den to death in that country by elephants, speak of them? What is con- cealed in the tuft of hair at the end of the tail? Where do lions belong? Which is the largest of the American Cats? Under what names are they known? Where have they been found? Where is it still found? Why is it called the American Lion? Why the Silvery? What is said of its courage? What of its general color in the United States? How do the male and female differ? On what does the Puma live? What is said of the appearance of its fur? Of what advan- tage is this? How does it secure its prey? Where are its haunts in Florida? Where in Texas? What does the Cougar attack? On what does it usually subsist? What are the habits of the Panther? Define and spell, Noc-tur-nal, (Lat. noctwrnus, by night, from nox, night.) Di-ur-nal, (Lat. diurnus, by day, from dies, day.) Crepuscular, (Lat. crepuseulwmn, twi- hght.) Are Panthers attached to their young, and what is their usual number ? ¢ 62 CARNIVORA. How does the Royal Tiger compare with the Lion? What countries does he infest? What is said of his ravages? How many cubs has the tigress? When tamed, are they trustworthy? Where is the Ocelot found? Where the Chati? What is said of its size? Where is the Jungle Cat found? On what does it live? What other Tiger Cats can you mention? Are Leopards or Spotted Cats numerous? Where are they found? For what are they distinguished? What is their color in the East? What their usual length and height? Upon what do they prey? What is said of the flexibility of their bodies? What of their disposition? Which is the Leopard of this Continent, and where found? What is he often called? Where is the Cheetah found? What called? What habits are united in him? What is the meaning of the specific name jubata? Why given? How are the Lynxes distinguished? How many species are described? What is said of the Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx? What of the Canada Lynx? From what does the Caracal take its specific name? From what language is the name derived? What does it mean? Is the Caracal larger or smaller than the true lynxes? What is it called? Are Domestic and Wild Cats of the same or different species? What is a plain difference? Mention the most noted varieties. Give the character of the cat. What is her average age? SECTION XI. SuB-FAMILY HYAENIDAE. Hyaena, (Gr. dovve, Huaina.) The Hyaena has the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines of a civet. Linnzus placed it between the wolf and fox. It is one of the most ferocious, malignant and carnivorous of animals. There are three species, the Striped, (H. striata.) the Villose, (H. villosa.) and the Spotted, (H. maculata.) The Striped is the H. vulgaris, or Common Hyaena, (see Chart.) It often deceives its pursuers by feigning lameness at the commencement of a chase. It dwells in caverns and rocky places; prowling about at night to feed on dead animals, or such living prey as it can seize, seldom, however, assailing man unless in self defence. Hyaenas are useful as feeders on carrion, in cleansing the region where they dwell of the decaying remains of larger ani- mals, and preventing the increase of poisonous effluvia. ‘They are found in the train of armies, whose slain they feed upon, and sometimes even tear newly buried corpses out of their graves. ViverRIDAE, (Lat. viverra, a Ferret.) The Civers. This entire group are noted for their perfume, which is secreted in a glandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance as an article of commerce. It is called Civetia, (Arabic, Zibetia,) CARNIVORA. 63 meaning scent or perfume, and gives name tothe animal. They are nocturnal and predatory; inhabit Africa, Asia and the adja- cent islands, and are particularly numerous in Abyssinia. ‘Their general appearance is like that of the fox. Generra, (Fr. Genette.) The Genets or Witp Carts. The Genets are similar to the Civets, but in contour of body, are most like the Weasels, having long and slender forms, short limbs and sharp pointed muzzles. They give out the same odor as the Civets, though the odoriferous pouches are much xeduced in size. Herpestes IcHNeumon, Pharaoh’s Rat, or Mangouste. This beautiful little animal is appropriately called Herpestes, (Gr. a creeper,) and Ichneumon, (Gr. a tracker.) It was an- ciently ranked among the sacred animals of Egypt; destroys reptiles and young crocodiles, and thousands of crocodile’s eggs. It is kept tame in the houses of the east, to destroy unpleasant intruders. What is said of the mixed form and nature of the Hyaena? What of its disposition and habits? How many species are there? Describe the one figured on the chart. Give its zoo’ogical gradations. Ans. The Common or Striped Hyacna is of the vaniery, striata ; SPECIES, vulgaris; GENUS, Hyaena; sub-faiily, Hyenina, ramizy or TRIBE, Canidae; SUB-ORDER, Digitigrada; orpeR, Carnivora; class, Mammalia; warM BLOODED division of the suB-K1InGpom, Vertebrates, the highest branch of the Anima, K1ne- pom. Give the meaning of these several gradations. Trace out every genus studied by the class in this way. To what deceptive expedient do the Hyaenas resort? Do they often assail man? Where do they live? Upon what do they feed? What do they sometimes do ? For what are the Civets noted? From what is their name derived? Where are they found? What is their general appearance ? What are the Genets most like? In what do they resemble the Civets? How was the Ichneumon ranked, and for what is it useful in Egypt? SECTION XII. 2. Division oF THE DiIGITIGRADES. The Cantbag, (Lat. canis,) a dog. (Pl. IV., fig. 2.) This includes a large number of animals, some of which, in particular respects, resemble the Cats; others, the Weasels and Bears. The dog has, from olden time, been the friend and com. panion of man; yet some uncertainty still exists as to its original stock. It is quite like both the Wolf and the Jackal. Some 64 CARNIVORA. naturalists incline to assign it a common origin with the former; others have identified it with the latter. ‘The balance of the ar- gument, however, seems in favor cf the wolf as the original source from which the domestic dogs have sprung. Their skulls and skeletons are similar. The period of gestation is sixty-three days in both. Both open their eyes the tenth or twelfth day, and live fifteen or twenty years. We, however, prefer the position that when man first went forth to till the ground whence he was taken, the dog was given him by the Creator as his assistant and ally. The relation which he sustains to man differs much from that sustained to him by other animals. The dog is alone iden- tified with his master’s interestsand occupations. Other animals may endure his rule; to the dog itseemsa pleasure. He knows his looks, his voice, his walk, rejoices at his approach, and shows himself his willing defender. The classic scholar will remem- ber that Homer, in the true spirit of nature and of poetry, repre- sents Ulysses as recognized on his return to Ithaca by his old and faithful dog alone, which died with joy at his feet. The value of the dog’s services, in the early stages of society, and in pre- paring the way for civilization, affords confirmation of our idea concerning its origin. In wild and uncultivated regions, and es- pecially in northern latitudes, the very existence of man is often dependent upon the fidelity and ever ready aid of the dog. “He is the only animal which has followed man through every region of the earth.”” The intimacy of relation implied in this remark of Cuvier should be qualified in respect to its extent, as it is well known the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindoos, regard the dog as impure and abominable, and will not touch it without ablution. The teeth of the Canine family, (including dogs, wolves and jackals,) are forty-two in number. The muzzle of these animals is more or less lengthened; the tongue small, and the pupil of the eye circular. The fore-feet have five toes; the hind feet four, and sometimes a fifth; the toes are not retractile. Domestic Does. Their legs are long, and hence their stature is elevated. Though carnivorous, their ferocity is not generally equal to their strength. They obtain their prey, not by sudden bounds, but by hunting it down by the aid either of sight or smell, often associ- ating in packs for that purpose. Martin makes seven divisions, containing fifty varieties of the Domestic Dog. Facts almost innumerable illustrate the docility, sagacity, and memory; the courage, faithfulness and love of this animal. ‘The Esquimavx dogs, included in the first division, are peculiarly valuable to the dwellers in Arctic regions, They are CARNIVORA. 65 used by them in pursuing the seal, the bear and the reindeer. Yoked to heavily laden sledges, they often drag them with untir- ing patience, fifty or sixty miles in a day. Capt. Parry’s “ Jour- nal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North West Passage,” and Dr. Kane’s “Arctic Explorations,” abound in graphic descriptions of the manners of the Esquimaux them- selves, and in interesting particulars showing the utility of their dogs. With good sleighing, six or seven of these dogs will draw from eight to ten hundred weight, at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour, for several hours together. : The GreyHounp, (one of the second division,) is the swiftest of all the dogs, and is used principally in the chase of the hare. The NEWFOUNDLAND dog is so named fromthe place whence it originated. It is not to be confounded with the Labrador dog, which isa larger and stronger animal. Both are trained to draw sledges and light carriages. The Newfoundland dog is well known for his care in guarding the property of his owner. He is remarkably fond of the water, and will bring out any object which his master points out in the water, and place it at his feet. Many have been rescued by this dog from a watery grave. He evinces the greatest fidelity and affection towards those who take care of him. The Water Spanic1, (of the fourth division,) delights in taking itself to the water, which it does in pursuit of game. It is use- ful to persons who are shooting wild ducks, or water hens, as these fowl conceal themselves so closely that without aid they can- not be discovered. It will dive to a considerable depth, and bring up any small object from the bottom. The Bioopuounns, (fifth division,) are noted for the acuteness of their smell, and can trace a man or an animal with unfailing certainty. Sometimes they have been used in the capture of thieves, especially sheep stealers. It is about two feet four inches in height, and has a voice peculiarly deep, and that may be heard a considerable distance. The Mastirrs, (sixth division,) are distinguished by the short- ness of the nose, and the breadth of the head, which is caused by the large muscles that move the jaw. Its powerful frame and deep voice have led to its selection as a house guard against burglars. The Terriers, (seventh division,) are used for destroying rats and other vermin, and will boldly invade the covert of the fox or the badger. They become strongly attached to their masters, and can be taught many tricks for their amusement. The Shepherd’s dog, (of the same division with the Esquimaux, ) is arough and shaggy animal, having sharp pointed ears and nose. 66 CARNIVORA. To the shepherd it is an invaluable assistant. In point of intel- ligence, thoughtfulness and promptitude, it is not probably ex- celled by any of the varieties of dogs. A story is told of a dog belonging to the “ Ettrick Shepherd,” who had 700 sheep under his care. On a certain occasion, they broke away in the middle of the night, and in spite of every effort of the shepherd and his assistants, roamed to a distance across the hills. ‘ Sirrah,” said the afflicted shepherd to his dog, “ Sirrah, my man, they’re a’ awa.” Away went the dog in the darkness, the shepherd and his companions meantime scouring the hills, but seeing nothing of the flock or the dog. The next morning they found them at the bottom of a deep ravine, not one lamb of the whole flock missing, and the dog standing in front of them, keeping watch. On the Alpine summits of St. Bernard, remarkable for its hospital, and covered with the snows of a ceaseless winter, the resident monks have been often known to issue forth in the midst of tempests and snow storms, and by means of their large dogs, of peculiar breed, have discovered travelers unable to track their way, and saved them from the cold embrace of death. We subjoin the following as illustrating the powers of imitation and memory possessed by the dogs. A few winters since, a gentleman in Lawrence, Mass., one morning when the snow was covered with a smooth icy crust, noticed a little dog seated on his haunches, sliding down the steep bank before his house. He supposed that the dog had slipped, but noticed as he reached the bottom of the hill, he ran up again. He continued his sport for some time, apparently with great delight. P. H. Gosse, in his article on the dog, relates that “ Lord Com- bermere’s mother, (Lady Cotton,) had a terrier named Viper, whose memory was so retentive that it was only necessary to re- peat to him once the name of the numerous visitors at Comber- mere, and he never afterwards forgot it. Mrs. H. came ona visit there on a Saturday. Lady Combermere took the dog up in her arms, and going up to Mrs. H. said, “ Viper, this is Mrs. H.” She then took him to another newly arrived lady, and said, “Viper, this is Mrs. B.;” and no further notice was taken. Next morning, when they went to church, Viper was of the party. Lady Cotton put a prayer book in his mouth, and told him to take it to Mrs. H., which he did, and then carried one to Mrs. B., at his mistress’s ’ order.” A man io Windsor, Vt., owned a large and valuable Masti fr dog, which had the jatereane to break his leg. The owner, after trying in vain to set the bones himself, sent for a physician, who speedily put the bone in its place, and splintered up the leg. CARNIVORA. 67 For several days the doctor visited the dog, and dressed the wound, and then told the owner he should come no more, but if any thing seemed to be wanting, to bring the dog to his office. He did so two or three times, and when he ceased going, the dog would go alone to the doctor’s office every morning, and lie down until the doctor looked at his leg, and then he would return, con- tinuing this practice until he was fully cured, Some time after this, the great dog found in the street a little one, with a broken leg; and after smelling around him for some time, he got him up on his three legs, and managed to get him to the before men- tioned doctor’s office, where he waited with the little dog, until the doctor came and set the bone. Canis vulpes, (Lat. vulpes, a fox.) The Fox is about the size of a small dog. He is by nature suspicious, timid and cunning; his sight is keen; his smell and hearing so acute that it is difficult to take him in any kind of trap. Unmolested, the fox lives from twelve to fourteen years; the first year he is called a cub; the second, a fox; and the third, an old fox. Audubon enumerated twelve species, four of which exist in North America. The skin of the Silvery Fox, (C. argentatus, Lat. silvered,) of Labrador, has been sold in London for five hundred dollars. Its fur is copious, and of a beautiful, lustrous, black hue, with the longer hairs of a silvery white. It is found in Oregon, and the northern parts of this continent. The Common Fox of Europe, Vulpes vulgaris, is there the favorite object of the chase. The American Red Fox, C. fulvus, (Lat. tawny,) is somewhat larger; its fur is finer, and of a bright- er color, and it has a larger brush tail. It eats fish as well as rats, rabbits, &c. The Swift-Fox, C. velox, (Lat. swift,) is the smallest of the fox tribe. The Cross-Fox derives its name, C. decussatus, (Lat. divided cross-wise,) from its markings, not from its nature. The Gray Fox, C. cinereus, (Lat. ash-colored,) is the annoyance of the southern planter, as the Red-Fox is of the northern farmer. The Arctic Fox, C. Lagopus, (Gr. Lagos, hare, pous, foot, Hare’s- foot,) is covered with white woolly fur. The Antarctic Fox, C. Antarcticus, is called the Wolf-Fox, from its resemblance to that animal. It ts tame, and barks like a dog. The Caama, C. Caa- ma, is the smallest African fox. The Fennec, or Zerda, C. Zerda, whose place has been so often discussed by naturalists, has the skeleton and teeth of the dog family. Its fur is short and silky. C. Lupus, (Lat. a wolf.) The Worr. The Wolf, in its habits and physical development, we have already intimated, is closely related to the dog. His proportions 68 CARNIVORA. are larger, and his frame more muscular than those of that ani- mal, and between the two there exists a most inveterate hatred. The well known traits of the Wolf are ferocity, cunning and cowardice. In the earlier periods of English history, it is often adverted to as a common and dreaded pest. In consequence of its ravages, many of the early British kings and chieftains, as if to render themselves more formidable, adopted its name with cer- tain adjuncts. This is seen in such names as Athlewolf, (noble wolf;) Berthwolf, (illustrious wolf ;) Eadwolf, (prosperous wolf,) etc. It was finally extirpated in England, about 1350, in Scot- land, about 1600, and in Ireland, about 1700. It is still abundant in the northern countries of Europe, and in France and Western Asia. Wolves always hunt in packs, and evince great craftiness in waylaying and pursuing their prey. Sometimes they form a semicircle and advance upon the animal which they would reach, in this way forcing it over a precipice, or gradually hemming it in so as to prevent its escape. Winter is the time when they are most dreaded by those living in the regions which they in- habit. Then as hunger renders them peculiarly ferocious and daring, they, with the greatest obstinacy, follow after their prey, whether it be man or animal. Under the gnawings of famine, they will devour every sort of offal, and even disinter the dead. It is related that in the reign of Louis XIV. a large party of dragoons were, in the depth of winter, attacked at the foot of the Jural mountains, by a numerous band of wolves. The dragoons fought bravely, and killed many hundreds of them; but at last, overpowered by numbers, they and their horses were all devoured. Of the Wolf, many varieties are found in both continents. The C. lupus, Common Wolf, is of a yellowish or fulvous gray color; covered with harsh and strong hair, and from twenty- seven to thirty inches high at the shoulders. Of this there is a variety, white, either as an albino, or as the effect of a northern or cold climate, also found in both continents, viz. C. lupus albus. The wolves of Lapland and Siberia are almost all of a whitish gray color ; those of the Alps in Europe, and the Rocky Moun- tains of North America, become white or nearly so. The length of the American White Wolf (albus) is about four and a half feet, it being the largest of all the varieties of this animal. The Black American Wolf, C. Lupus, (INiger,) is of the same shape as the Common American Wolf, and rising three feet in length. Packs of this animal, showing various shades approaching black, have been found occasionally in every part of the United States. In Florida the prevailing color is black. This is the most numerous variety among the Pyrenees of Europe, and also CARNIVORA. 69 south of those mountains, where it is of larger size than the com- mon wolf. Several varieties of wolves are met with in Asia. Those of Asia Minor are deeply fulvous, and show more of red than the wolves of Italy. Numbers of such as the C. lupus (nubilus,) the Dusky Wolf, the Black Wolf, C. Zupus (niger.) are found on the sandy plains east of the Rocky Mountains. They go in droves, and hunt deer by night, with dismal, yelling cries, and woe to the foxes if they find them on a plain at any distance from their hiding places! In the same districts, and associating in greater numbers than other wolves, are found the C. Zupus(latrans,)\the Prairie or Bark- ing Wolf, intermediate in size between the large American Wolf and the Virginia Fox, and in many respects like the fox. In its bark or howl it greatly resembles the latter animal, as well as the domestic dog of the Indians. Their general color is ashy gray; their length two feet, ten inches. They are well known to the inhabitants of the western parts of Arkansas and Missouri, and to those who live on the borders of the Upper Missouri and Mississippi rivers. Their skins are of some value, the fur being soft and warm, and constitute a part of the exportations of the Hudson Bay Com- pany. The Prairie Wolf is found in California and Texas, and on the eastern side of the mountains of New Mexico, as well as on the western prairies. C. lupus, (rufus.) The Red Texan Wolf resembles the common gray variety, is more slender and light than the White Woalf of the North-West part of this continent, and has a more fox-like aspect. The hair is not woolly like that of the White Wolf, but lies smooth and flat. The length is two feet, eleven inches. In habits, it is nearly like the Black and White Wolf. It is said that “ when visiting the battle fields of Mexico, the wolves preferred the slain Texans or Americans, to the Mexicans, and only ate the bodies of the latter from necessity, as owing to the quantity of pepper used by the Mexicans in their food, their flesh is impregnated with that powerful stimulant.’”? Audubon, in re- ferring to the geographical distribution of this animal, remarks of quadrupeds generally, that toward the north they are more sub- ject to become white ; toward the east, or Atlantic side, gray; to the south, black; and toward the west, red, C. aureus, (Lat. golden.) The Jackat. This animal is found throughout the Levant, in Persia, India and Africa. It is called “aureus” on account of the, vellow tint of its skin. The Jackal is supposed to be the fox of the sacred writers, (Judges xv. 4, 5.) Like the wolf, it hunts in packs, pursuing the antelope and other 70 CARNIVORA. animals for prey, and making away with carrion in every state of putrefaction. It has been called the “lion’s provider,” for when the cry of the Jackal is heard, the Lion, aware of the cause, makes his appearance, and without ceremony seizes upon the booty. The Jackals, however, retaliate by aiding in the con- sumption of the larger prey which the lion destroys. They are useful in the east as scavengers, consuming the offal which in oriental cities is thrown into the streets, and might otherwise breed pestilence. Grapes are the special delight of the Jackal, and it often makes great havoc in vineyards. When hunting, these animals utter most piercing shrieks, which produce, it is said, a very terrific effect, “as resounding through the stilly dark- ness of night, and answered from a thousand throats.” The Jackal is rather larger than the fox, but its tail is shorter and less bushy. It is easily tamed, and is dog-like in disposition and habits. One species of the Jackal, Canis Corsac, the ADIVE, is not larger than a pole-cat, has a long tail, and is found in troops amidst the deserts of Tartary. Other species are the Cape Jackal, C. mesomela, (Gr. mesos, middle, melas, black,) and the C. anthus, (Gr. anthos,) of Senegal. All agree in manners and general disposition, and in exhaling a strong and offensive odor, which, however, is “scarcely perceptible” in a state of domesti- cation. Proteles Lalandii. The Aarp-Wotr, or Eartu-Wo tr, of South Africa. This animal has interest as connecting together the Civets, Dogs and Hyaenas. It has the bones and external appearance of a hyaena, the head and feet of a fox, and the intes- tines of a civet. The fore legs are considerably longer than the hind ones, and in this respect it is also like the hyaenas. It is about the size of a full grown fox, yet stands higher on its legs; but for its more pointed head, and the additional fifth toe of the fore feet, it might, at first sight, be easily mistaken for a young hyaena. The color isa pale. ash, with a slight shade of yellow- ish brown. ‘The fur is woolly, except the mane, which is coarse, stiff hair, and bristles up when the-animal is provoked. One of these caneecle was brought from Africa, by the traveler, Lalande, from whom it received its specific name. The generic term is from the Greek protedés, and relates to the superior length of the fore legs. This animal might perhaps more properly be classed with the Civets. Spell Canrpak and give its derivation. What does the second division of Dicrrigrapes include? What other animals do they resemble? What is said of the origin and antiquity of the dog? What of their resemblance to Wolves and Jackals, and in what respects do they agree? How do his fidelity and attachment compare with those of other animals? In what CARNIVORA. 71 state of society and in what regions is he particularly valuable? What does Cuvier remark respecting the dog? What qualification does this remark require? What is said of their teeth, muzzle, tongue, eyes, fect, claws, &c.? How many varieties of domestic dogs does Martin make? Does their ferocity equal or surpass their strength? How do they obtain their prey? To what people are the Esquimaux dogs of great value? What use is made of them? What works give interesting particulars respecting them? What is said of the Greyhound? Why is the New- foundland dog so named? What is said of his fidelity and affection ? What use is made of him? In what does the Water Spaniel delight? For what is it useful? For what is the Bloodhound noted? How are Mastiffs distinguished? Of what use are Terriers? In what does the Shepherd’s dog excel ? Relate the story of the Ettrick Shepherd and dog. What is said of the dogs of St. Bernard? For what are they trained? What anecdotes can you give showing the imitative power and memory of dogs? What is the size of the common fox? Describe him. How long does he live? How many species did Audubon enumerate? How many are found in North America? What fox furnishes the most valuable fur? Where is it found? Name and characterize the other principal species.. How do the dog and wolf compare with each other? What are the traits of the wolf? What is said of it in English history? From what places has it been extirpated? Where is it still abundant? How do wolves hunt? When are they most dreaded? Why at that time? What occur- red near the Jural mountains? Are there many varieties of the common Wolt? Describe it. What is said of the Red Texan Wolf, and its prefer- ences? What does Audubon say of the changes of color in quadrupeds ? Where is the Jackal found? What is it supposed to be? What is it called? Why? Of what is it particularly fond? What is said of Jack- als’ hunts? Are they of any use? What is their size? Why called aureus? Are they easily tamed? What is said of the Adive? What of the Aard, or Earth Wolf? What does it connect? Describe its habitat, size, color, fur, &c. &e. SECTION XIII. 8. Division oF THE DIGITIGRADES. Mouste.ipakg, (Lat. Mustela, a weasel.) The Weaset Trise. The weasels are readily distinguished by their long snake-like bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth and predatory habits. Their relish for blood is strong. In pursuing their prey, they are bold, cautious and resolute, creeping toward their unsuspecting victim, usually a rabbit, rat or bird, and on a sudden, darting at it, and piercing its neck with its sharp teeth. Fixing themselves where some large vein invites them, they hang on until their prey ex- pires, devouring its brain, and sucking its blood; but almost always leaving the flesh untouched. Their head is small, oval and flattened, and their bodies so pliable as to be capable of being insinuated into holes and crevices which it would seem they %2 CARNIVORA. could not possibly enter; and their short strong limbs and sharp claws, enable them to climb with the greatest celerity and adroit- ness. In their habits they are more or less nocturnal. _Accord- ing to Audubon, about twelve species of the true Martens are included in this family, four of which inhabit North America. Mustela vulgaris, (or Putorius Vulgaris.) ‘The Common WEASEL. This is the smallest of the tribe, and well known, especially by farmers, as they often have occasion to lament its onsets upon their young broods of poultry. For this, however, they have some compensation in the destruction, by this animal, of numer- ous rats and mice that infest their barns and out-houses; so that it is sometimes said, weasels “ought to be fostered as destroyers of vermin, rather than extirpated as noxious depredators.” This active little creature is sometimes tamed, and by its playfulness and unexpected display of affection, has awakened much interest. M. Erminea, or Putorius Ermineus. The Stoat, or Ermine. This species closely resembles the Weasel, but is a third lar- ger, being about the size of a cat. In the summer, its general color is a yellowish brown, when it is called a Sroat; but it changes to a pure white in winter, when its fur is extremely beautiful, and it is called Ernzne. It is abundantin the-northern parts of this continent, and iu Europe and Asia. The fur of the Ermine is closest and most purely white in the most northern Jatitudes, and constitutes a valuable article of commerce. The white skins of this animal usually bring from ten to fifteen dol- lays per hundred. The tail remains black at the extremity, du- ring all the changes of the color. Formerly, the official robes of judges and magistrates were lined with this fur. In predatory habits, it is like the kindred species. Hares and rabbits fall easy victims, to this animal, which kills them with a single bite, pene- trating éo the brain. It frequents stony places and thickets, and in a shart race will outstrip a dog. . Mephitis, (Lat. a noxious odor or exhalation.) Meruitic Wea- SELS. | The animals of this genus are so named from the intolerable odour which, when irritated, or for self-protection, they give forth. They have on their fore feet nails, strong and well suited for digging. The distinguishing color of the genus is black, striped with white, lengthwise along the back, and the tail is long and bushy. The Mephitic weasels all move slowly ; seldom flee from man, unless when they are near their burrows. Though fee- ble and insignificant in some respects, yet they seem conscious of a power to “ annoy beyond the point of endurance.” Large num- CARNIVORA. 73 bers of them are sometimes found in the same hole. They feed on poultry, birds, eggs, small quadrupeds and insects. The head is short; the nose rather projecting; the snout generally blunt; the hairs on the tail are very long. Seventeen or eight- een species have been enumerated; one in South Africa, two or three in the United States, and the rest in Mexico and South America ; but of these species there are almost endless varieties in respect to color and markings. Mephitis Americana or M. Chinga. The Common American SKUNK. This animal is about as large as a cat, and generally is of a blackish brown, with white stripes running lengthwise on the back. Inthe markings of white, it shows many diversities, and it has a long bushy tail. All! the varieties of this animal have a broad fleshy body, not unlike that cf the wolverine. Its legs are short ; the fur is rather long and coarse, intermingled with much longer smooth and glossy hairs. Its length from the point of the nose to the root of the tail is seventeen inches. No quadruped found on this continent is more universally detested than the skuek. The offensive fluid is contained in two small sacs situ- ated near the root of the tail. By day it is so thin and transpa- rent as to be scarcely perceptible ; but at night has a yellow luminous appearance. He is himself a very cleanly animal, never suffering a drop of the fluid to touch his fur, nor does his burrow give forth any offensive smell. In the northern states, this animal retires to’ his burrow about December, and is not seen again till the following February. In the southern states he does not go into winter quarters, but continues to prow] at night during the winter. It is said his flesh is “ well tasted and savory,” and cooked and eaten by the Indians. The Lone or Larce TatLep Sxunx, M. macroura, (Gr. waxgoc, makros, long, ovgix, oura, tail,) common in Mexico and Texas, is of the size of a common cat, and has five or six young at a time. The M. Zorilla, or Catirornta Skunk has white spots on the forehead and on each temple, and four white stripes on the sides and back, with a broad tip of white on the tail; in form is a small image of the common skunk, and like it, so offensive as seldom to be approached. The African Zorilla, found at the Cape of Good Hope, has the tail spread out in the form of a plume, and does not give out the overpowering odor of other species. The M. mesoleuca, (Gr. féoos, mesos, middle, devx0c, leukos, white.) The Mexican Sxunx has the long and under fur of the whole back and the tail, white. The long tail of this animal is | 4 74 CARNIVORA. often first seen in the high grass and bushes, and makes a beau- tiful appearance. The Teledu, or Skunk of Java and Sumatra, Mydaus meliceps, (Lat. melis,a badger, caput, a head,) has a short tail covered with a mere pencil of hairs. In some things, it reminds one of a hog. M. Martes. The Marten. Of this there are three varieties, the Common Beech, or Stone Marten, the Pine Marten, and the Sable, of which the furs are exquisitely soft and beautiful. Their agile and graceful motions are not excelled by any of the Weasel tribe. They reside in woods, and prey chiefly on birds, and small animals. They also feed on rats, mice, and moles, and will sometimes eat seeds and grain. ‘The general length is about a foot anda half; the tail is ten inches long, bushy, and of a darker color than the other parts. ‘The Marten is of a dark, tawny color, with a white throat, and the under part is of a dusky brown; the muzzle is pointed, and the eyes bright and lively. The fur is of two sorts ; the outer is long and brown, with vary- ing shades, in different parts of the body; the inner, very soft, short and of light yellowish gray color. : M. fagorum, (Lat. of beech-trees.) The Brecu Marten is a va- riety with a white throat, found in Northern and temperate Europe, and Western Asia. It approaches the habitations of men oftener than the Pine Marten, resorting for prey to the vicinity of farm yards and homesteads. Its fur, which is much inferior to that of the Pine Marten, is called in trade, the Stone Marten. Many skins of this animal are obtained from the north of Europe, and the fur is dyed to represent Sable ; though the practised eye easily distinguishes it from the latter. The richest furs of this Marten come from the most northern latitudes. | M. Abietum, (Lat. of fir-trees.) The Pine Marten. This variety with a yellow throat, varies much in color, so that it is difficult to find two specimens alike, but generally is yellowish, blended into a blackish hue in other parts. It is found in Mount Caucasus, and the northern parts of Europe; and is very numer- ous in the wooded districts of the northern latitudes of this conti- nent. It is particularly abundant where the trees have been killed by fire, but are still standing. Specimens have been obtained from near Albany and the Catskill mountains, and the northern parts of Pennsylvania. Its southern range is about lat. 400, and the north- ern about 680. The length is one foot five inches. This Marten is, in its disposition, shy, cruel, cunning and active; does not ap- proach the residences of men, but keeps rather in dense woods. The fur of this animal is valuable, next to the Sable; and when in fashion, Marten skins bring good prices. It is sometimes dyed, CARNIVORA. 15 and efforts are made to palm it upon buyers as fur of a more costly kind. The Hudson’s Bay Company have sold as many as 14,000 skins ina year, and upwards of 30,000 have, in the same time, been exported from Canada by the French. According to Sir John Richardson, Martens of the finest and darkest fur “ap- pear to inhabit certain rocky districts.” The flesh of the Pine Marten is rank and coarse, but is eaten by the Indians. In con- finement, it appears tolerably gentle, and loses much of its “ snap- pish character.” They are trapped only in autumn and winter. Mustela Zibellina. The Sasiz. This is the most celebra- ted of all the Weasel tribe, not only on account of the richness of its fur, but from the perils connected with the chase of it, carried on in the depth of winter, and in regions the coldest and most des- olate traversed by human footsteps. It has long whiskers, round- ed ears, large feet, (the soles of which are covered with fur,) white claws, and a long bushy tail. The general color of the fur, of which the hair lies each way, is brown, with the lower part of the neck and throat grayish. These animals inhabit the northern parts of Europe and Asia. Vast numbers of them are killed in Siberia, and their skins form a very considerable article of com- merce among the Russians. Sables’ skins are in the highest perfection between November and January; and within that time they are sought after by large numbers of hunters. ‘They are taken in snares, or traps, which are usually pit-falls, with loose boards placed over them, baited with flesh. Sometimes fire-arms and cross-bows are used in taking them. Putorius Vison. The Minx. This animal is of a brown color, with a white chin and short ears. The feet and palms are covered with hair to the extremity of the nails, and the feet are semi-palmated. It is smaller than the Pine Marten, being thir- teen inches long, and the tail is half the length of the body. It presents varieties which are striking and permanent, both in respect to size and color. Next to the Ermine, it is the worst depredator that prowls about the poultry yards of the farmer. The Mink catches rats like the weasel or ferret, holding them by the neck like a cat, and it has no aversion to fish; trout and salmon seem to be special favorites. It will steal them when it can, or dive after them in brooks and shallow water, swimming with considerable facility, and like the muskrat, diving at the flash of a gun. It resides of preference on the borders of ponds, and along the banks of small streams. This species is very JuMerous In salt marshes of the southern states, where it subsists principally on the marsh-hen, the sea-side finch, and sharp-tailed finch. It has not much cunning, and is easily taken in any kind 76 CARNIVORA. of trap. When taken young, it becomes very gentle, and much attached to those who fondle it. It does not emit its unpleasan’ odor except when it is hurt. The skins of the Mink have bee: used for making muffs, tippets, &c., and sold for about fifty centz each. Some skins are of a beautiful silver gray color, the fur being quite unlike that ordinarily obtained. Such skins are rare; six of them suffice to make a muff worth at least a hundred dol- lars. (Audubon.) The Mink is constantly found in almost every part of North America. Mustela furo, (Lat. Irage.) The Ferret. This useful but ferocious little animal is kept in Europe, in a domesticated state, and is employed for rabbit-hunting, and for destroying rats. Its general form is like that of the Polecat, but it is smaller, being usually about thirteen inches in length. It has a very sharp nose, red and fiery eyes, and round ears. In the slenderness of its form, and the shortness of its legs, it resembles the Weasel. The head of M. Canadensis, the Fisher, or PENNANT’S Mar- TEN, is more like that of the dog than that of the cat. It catches and eats fish. The Buiacx-Footep Ferret is about a foot and a half long; found in woody districts, as far as the Rocky Mountains. The P. pusillus, (Lat. very small,) is the smallest of the Weasels. It is one-third smaller than the Stoat, the Polecat, or Fitchet Weasel. M. Putorious, (Lat. Putor, stink,) is stouter than the common weasel. The under coat of fur is short, silky and pale yellow ; the outer is of a dark chocolate brown, and long and coarse. The fur is inferior to that of the Sable and Marten, but esteemed as an article of commerce under the name of Fitch. Lutra, (Lat. Otter.) (Gr. Aodw, loud, to wash.) This genus includes a species known as the common or river Otters, whose habits are aquatic, and whose food is fish, and also the Sea Otters. In their skulls and muzzles, there are points of resemblance to the Seal, (phoca vitulina.) The limbs are short and strong, and so articulated as to allow.of free motion; the animal being able to turn them easily in almost any direction, and bring them on a-line with the body, so as to act like fins. The teeth are sharp and strong, and the tubercles of the molars very pointed; which aids them in taking and destroying their slippery prey. Their intestines are very long. The body is covered outwardly with long and glossy hair, with a softer, short- er, downy fur, intermixed. The Otter is fierce, wild, and shy, and its habits principally nocturnal. The hunt of this animal has been a favorite, but a cruel sport. Pursued, he betakes himself CARNIVORA. 77 to the water, where he is more than a match for the strongest dog. His determined courage holds out to the last, and pierced with spears, he dies without uttering a cry. Eleven species are enumerated. Lutra vulgaris. ‘The Common Otter. This species is about two feet long, and its tail fifteen inches in addition. The tail is flat and broad, and the toes of the feet are connected by a com- plete web. In its entire structure, the animal is well adapted for an aquatic life; diving and swimming with great readiness, and with much ease and elegance of movement. It has a black nose, and long whiskers. ‘The ears are small and erect, the eyes very small, and nearer the nose than in most animals. The color is brown except small patches of white on the lips and nose. The size varies from two to three anda half feet. When it has seized a small fish, it immediately leaves the water and eats it, begin- ning with the head, while the body is held in the fore paws. Larger fish are held down by the paws, and the head and tail often left uneaten. These animals destroy multitudes of fish, in ponds and rivers, eating but a small portion of the fish, when they have an abundance of prey. When fish are scarce, and they are pressed by hunger, it is said, they sometimes go far inland and attack lambs, sucking pigs and poultry, and even feed upon larvae and earth worms. ‘The Otter’s place of retreat is beneath roots of trees, or in holes near ponds and rivers. The female bears from three to five young at a time. The Common Otter is capable of domestication, but most readi- ly when taken young, and fed with small fish and water. Some- times it shows attachment, but if offended, “bites grievously.” In some instances, it has been trained to catch fish, or to assist in fishing. When tamed, “they will allow themselves to be gently lifted by the tail ;” though they “object to any interference with the snout, which is probably with them the seat of honor.” Usually they resort to fresh waters, but in some regions frequent the sea, and hunt far out from land. Few animals show more attachment for their young than the Otter. When these are taken from them, they express their sorrow in tones resembling the crying of children. Dutra Canadensis. The Canapa Orrter. This is larger than the Common or European Otter, having dark, glossy brown hair, with the chin and throat dusky white, and is five feet in length. The longer and outer hairs are glossy and stiff, but the inner fur is soft, dense, and nearly as fine as that of the Beaver. The ears are closer together than in the Common Otter, and the tail flattened horizontally for half its 78 CARNIVORA. length. The American Otter frequents running streams and large ponds, and sometimes is found on the shores of some of our great lakes. It prefers those waters which are clear, and a bur- row in the banks, the entrance to which is under water. Their favorite sport is said to be sliding down steep banks, head fore- most, sometimes for the distance of twenty yards. When shot and killed in water, they sink from the weight of their bones, which are solid and heavy, so that in deep water, the hunter may lose his game. The American Otter, like the European, when taken young, is easily tamed, will follow its owner, and sometimes is playful. Audubon had one which was very familiar, and much attached to him. And he relates that a landlord in the in- terior of Ohio, had four Otters alive which were so gentle that they would come when he whistled for them, and approach him with much apparent humility. This species ranges almost the whole of North America, but is now obtained most readily in Maryland, and the western parts of the United States. The Brit- ish provinces of North America annually furnish a considerable number. Their furs are much esteemed. Enhydra marina. (Mustela Lutris, Linneus.) Sea Orrer. The generic name enhydra, is from the Greek évvdgos, (enu- dros,) év, (en, in,) ‘vdwg, (hudor, water.) The palmated feet, and the teeth of this genus are so modified as to connect this Otter with the Seal, {Oztza,) which have ears. The color is chestnut brown or black; the fur exceedingly fine and velvety; the size about twice that of the Common Otter. In length it is from four to five feet. The hind legs and thighs are short, and better adapted for swimming than in other mammalia, seals excepted ; the hind feet are flat and webbed, and clothed with glessy hairs. The hair, both on the body and tail, is of two kinds; the longer hairs are silky and glossy, but not very numerous; the fur is shorter hair, exceedingly fine and soft. This Otter runs very swiftly, and swims with great rapidity, either on its back or sides, and sometimes as if upright in the water. It has very long intestines, they being twelve times as long as the animal, while those of the Common Otter are but three and one-fourth times its length. It seems to have more the manners of a seal than a land otter; haunts sea-washed rocks, and lives mostly in the water. The female brings forth its young on land, and though the animal is marine, it is found occasionally, very far from the sea. The Kamtschatdales, on whose coasts the greatest numbers of these animals are killed, exchange the skins with the Russians, for those of the fox and sable; and the Russian merchants for- CARNIVORA. 79 merly sold them to the Chinese, at a very high price, even as high as from eighty to one hundred dollars each. The fur is not prized so high as formerly. ‘The Sea Otter is caught by placing a net among the sea weecs, or by chasing it in boats. It inhabits the waters that bound the northern parts of America and Asia, and the seas and bays from Kamtschatka to the Yellow Sea, on the Asiatic side. and from Alaska to California on the American. How are Weasels readily distinguished? What is their character? What their habits? How many species of true Martens does Audubon in- clude in this family? Who was Audubon? Answer. One of the most en- thusiastic, industrious and observing American naturalists. Died near New York city four or five years since, aged 76. How many of these inhabit North America? What is said of the Common Weasel? Describe the Ermine or Stoat. Describe its winter and summer dress. Which is the Ermine dress? For what was this fur particularly used? What places does it frequent? What is its pace? Give the meaning of the generic erm Mepuitis. Why is this genus socalled? What is said of their name? What is said of the nails of these animals? What of the tail? What is their distinguishing color? How are they striped? What is said of their movements? What gives them their power? Upon what do they feed? How many species have been enumerated? How many in the United States? How many in Africa? Where are the rest found? What is said of their varieties? To what do these varieties refer? Give some account of the Skunk. What places does it frequent? Describe the Common American Skunk, and give its peculiarities. When in the Northern States, does it retire to its burrow, and when reappear? How is it in the Southern States? What is said of its flesh? What is said of the Large Tailed Skunk? Where found? What is said of the California Skunk? What of the African Zorilla? What of the Mexican? What of the Teluda of Java, and what does it resemble ? How many varieties of the Marten? What is said of their motion? Where do they reside? What is said of the fur? Where is the Beech, or Stone Marten found? What distinguishes it? What is said of its fur? What is it called in trade? Whence are many skins obtained, and what is said of their fur? What distinguishes the Pine Marten? What is the gen- eral color? Where is it found? In what places is it particularly abun- dant? In what part of the United States has it been found? What is said of its fur and flesh? Which is the most celebrated of the Weasel tribe ? What countries does it inhabit? At what time are the skins of the Sable in the highest perfection? How are they taken? How does the fur differ from the Marten? What others are mentioned, either on the chart, or in the text? From what animal is the fur called Fitch obtained? Mention the varieties and habits of the Mink? Where is it numerous? What use is made of its skin? What is said of the Ferret? Which is the smallest Weasel? Give the derivation of Lurra? Describe the Otters? Repeat the description given of the Common Otter? How does the Canada Otter compare with the European Otter? Give some account of it. How exten- Sive is its range? What is said of its fur? What is the meaning of Enuy- pra? In what respect does the Otter resemble the Seal? What is said of its size, speed, fur, &c.? For what do the Russians exchange its fur? In what waters is it found ? 80 CARNIVORA. SECTION XIV. III. Division oF THE CARNIVORA. If. PLantiarapa. (Lat. planta, sole of the foot, gradior, to walk.) This name is given to those carnivorous animals which apply the whole, or part of the sole of the foot to the ground in walking. They are able to raise themselves on their hinder limbs or haunches, and easily keep an upright position. There is a slowness and heaviness in their motions; their habits are generally nocturnal, and in northern latitudes, they are in a lethargic condition during the winter, and it is said they then shed the soles of their feet. a First in order are the Ursipag, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) the Bears forming a connecting link between the carnivorous and herbivo- rous animals. These lay the whole of the foot upon the ground in walking, which occasions their well known heavy, shuffling gait, but allows them to raise themselves with facility, and to maintain an erect position. When in this position they fre- quently use the fore paws in self defence, or else to strike or hug an assailant to death, by muscular pressure. The entire sole of the foot is naked. The feet have five toes each, fortified with strong, curved, and somewhat obtuse claws, adapted for digging; their grinding teeth are more or less tuberculated, and the food is either animal or vegetable. In form they are generally rabust. The genera of this family inhabit both continents. Ursus. The Bear. Of this animal, according to Audubon, eight species have been described, “three existing in Europe, one of which, the Polar Bear, is common also to America; one in the mountainous districts of India; one in Java; one in Thibet ; and three in North America.” The head of the Bear, is large, the body stout, and thickly covered with coarse, shaggy hair; the ears are large and slightly pointed; the limbs are stout and massive; the five toes have strong curved claws, fitted for digging rather than for taking prey ; the tail is short, and usually hidden in the hair of this animal ; the teeth are forty- two in number ; the grinders have flattened crowns, surmounted with tubercles, and are fitted for bruising vegetables, rather than cutting flesh, and the incisor teeth give these animals but a limited power of cutting it, so that they are ranked as the most omnivorous of all the Carnivora. Some of them subsist on vegetable food alone, and nearly all are capable of supporting themselves upon it. They are nocturnal, but often seen wander- ing about during the day. Their habits are unsocial, most of them frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns, and the CARNIVORA. 81 depths of forests. In winter, they dwell in caves and hollow trees, almost without food, and comparatively dormant. In that season the female produces her young. ‘Though widely diffused throughout both continents, they are seldom met with in Africa. Bears are said to be very fond of honey, and will climb trees in order to get at the nests of wild bees, for though clumsy. ani- mals, they are expert climbers. In Russia and other northern regions, the skins of bears are among the most useful as well as most comfortable articles of winter apparel. They are made. into beds, coverlids, caps and gloves, and used also for the ham. mer cloths of carriages, for pistol holsters, ete.; and the leather prepared from them is used in harness, and for other purposes where strength is requisite. Ursus Arctus, ( Gr. doxtos, arktos,a northern bear.) This bear is found in mountainous districts of Europe, from very high lati- tudes to the Alps and Pyrenees. It was once common in Great Britain; but centuries ago was there extirpated. This bear of Northern Europe seems to be the only one with which Linnzeus was acquainted. ‘To the people of Kamtschatka it gives the necessaries, and even the comforts of life; its skins forming their beds and coverlids, bonnets for their heads and collars for their dogs; overalls are also made of the skins, and drawn over the soles of their shoes, to prevent them from slipping on the ice; the intestines yield them material for masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun in spring, and as substitutes for glass, cover their windows. The flesh is much esteemed as food, and the hams and paws con- sidered great delicacies. So great are the benefits which it yields, that the Laplanders, it is said, call it “the dog of God; ” while the Norwegians say, “it has the strength of ten men and the sense of twelve.” If this bear is unable to find a hollow tree or cavern for its wintry home, it constructs a habitation for itself, out of branches of trees, lined with moss, where it contin- ues dormant and without sustenance until spring. The female produces two cubs at a birth, which at the first are about the size of puppies. The brown bear is long lived. One in the menagerie at Paris, France, is spoken of as forty-seven years old. ‘This animal is four feet in length, and about two and a half feet in height. Ursus ‘feror, (Lat. ferow, fierce.) The Grizzty Bear is the most ferocious and powerful of the family, frequently attack- ing man. It sometimes weighs more than 1,000 pounds. The Indians fear it so much that a necklace of its claws, which may §2 CARNIVORA. only be worn by one who has destroyed this bear, is an orna- ment that entitles the wearer to distinguished honor. In Califor- nia it keeps among the oaks and pines, on the acorns and seeds of which it feeds. It is strong enough to overcome and carry off a Buffalo. U. Americanus. The American Buack Bear is smaller than the Grizzly bear, and of a more clumsy appearance. It feeds upon berries, succulent roots, and juicy plants. When in swamps, it wallows in the mud like a hog, living on cray fish, roots, and nettles ; sometimes it seizes on a pig, or sheep, or calf, . or even a full grown cow. In robbing bee trees it is peculiarly expert. The young are at first not larger than kittens. The Cinnamon Bear, which is a permanent variety of this species, is quite a northern animal, and its fur is more valuable than that of the black bear. Ursus maritimus, (Lat. belonging to the sea,) or thalarctos, (Gr. Oéhacon, thalassa, the sea, dgxtos, arktos, a bear.) The Porar Bear. This formidable species of bear has a long and narrow head, prolonged in a straight line with the forehead, which is flattened ; a long neck, and long, soft hair or fur, of considerable value. Its average length, when full grown, is from six toseven feet. Capt. Ross brought back a specimen measuring seven feet ten inches, and the weight of which, after losing thirty pounds of blood, was 1131 lbs. Another specimen, described by Capt. Lyon, measured eight feet seven and a half inches, and weighed 1600 lbs. The Polar Bear is entirely white, except the tip of the nose and claws, which are jet black. Dr. Kane, in his “Arctic Explorations,” remarks that this animal is, “next to the Walrus, the staple diet to the North; and excepting the Fox, supplies the most important element of the wardrobe.” “ The liver of the animal,” he says, “is, for some reason, poisonous, though eaten with impunity by the dogs.” The chief diet of the Polar Bear is obtained from the floating carcasses of whales and fishes, which often carry him, as a swim- mer, far away from the shore. He also makes unceasing war upon the seals and walruses, and neither refuses the animal exuvize which the waters cast upon the land, nor the few berries afforded by the shrubs of an arctic climate. On the land, these animals prey upon hares, young birds, etc. Their lodges are dens formed in layers of ice which are piled up so as to make stupen- dous masses. The males are said not to hybernate, but to brave the severity of the winter upon the ice of the open sea, wander- ing along the margin and swimming from floe to floe in search CARNIVORA. 83. of prey. The females, however, do not appear until the approach of milder weather, when they sally forth from their retreats, ac- companied by two cubs. At this period, gaunt, lean and fam- ished, they are peculiarly formidable, hunger and the presence of their young adding to their natural ferocity. This bear is, however, formidable at all times, strong and active as it is, run- ning with great swiftness either on the “ground or on the ice, and with its claws, easily ascending the slippery sides of icebergs. The affection of this animal for its young is much celebrated, and its sagacity is great. U. ornatus, {Lat., furnished or adorned.) The Specraciep Bear, in the Cordilleras of the Andes, in Chili, has two semi-cir- cular marks of a buff color above the eyes, appearing somewhat like a pair of spectacles. U. collaris, (Lat. collare, a collar.) The Bear oF Srperia has a large white collar passing over the neck and shoulders, on to the breast. U. Syriacus. The Syrian Bear, mentioned in 2 Kings, ii, 23, is probably the first of which there is any record. U. labiatus, (Lat. labia, a lip.) The LasrateporStotu Bear, was, sixty years since, called the Five-fingered Ursine Sloth. The cartilage of the nose is capable of extension, and the lips of considerable protrusion. U. Malayanus. The Matayan Bear. The long tongue of this Bear aids it in feeding upon the honey of bees, of which, as of other delicacies, it is extremely fond. It has also a taste for the young shoots of the Cocoa trees. The existence of bears in Africa was doubted by Cuvier, but there is now good reason to believe the animal is found in Ab- yssinia, and the mountains of Arabia Felix. Procyon lotor, (Gr. mgoxvav, prokuon, 19s, pro, before, xvwr, a dog.) The Racoon. The remaining animals of this group form a sort of connect- ing link between the plantigrade and digitigrade carnivorous tribes. The Racoon, which with one or two other species, was formerly included in the genus Ursus, is now separated from it, and included in the new genus Procyon. It is a native of this continent, and numerously found in its northern territories, also in the Eastern, Northern and Middle States of the American Union, and yet more abundantly in some of the Southern States. The average length of the animal is about two feet, from the nose to the tail. The head is somewhat like that of a fox, the forehead being broad and the nose sharp ; the ears are short, and slightly rounded ; ; the body is broad and stout ; the back arched ; ; 84 CARNIVORA. the limbs rather short, and the fore legs shorter than the hinder. The upper part of the body is of a grayish color mixed with black. The ears and under part whitish, with a black patch across the eye. Varieties, however, are seen, some of which are black, others, yellowish white. The tail is bushy, and rather long, with rings of black and gray. Albinos are some- times found, with red eyes and only faint traces of rings on the tail. In its feet the Racoon is only partially plantigrade, and when it sits, it often rests the whole hind sole of the foot on the ground, inthe manner of a bear. The nails are strong, hooked, sharp and without hair. The outer hair is long and coarse; the inner, softer and more like wool. The Racoon is a cunning, and when mature and in good case, quite a handsome animal. It mounts trees with facility, and fre- quently invades the woodpecker’s nest; and it digs up and de- vours the eggs of the soft-shelled turtle. This animal sometimes makes great havoc among wild as well as domesticated birds, eating only the head, or the blood which flows from their wounds. Occasionally it ravages plantations of sugar cane and Indian corn, especially when the lIatter is_ young. Oysters are also a favorite article of food with the racoon. These it is very expert in opening, biting off the hinge, and dexterously hooking out the contents of the shells. Audu- bon remarks that “the habits of the muscles, (unios.) which are found in our fresh water rivers, are better known to the Racoon than to most conchologists, and their flavor is as highly relished by this animal as is that of the best bowl of clam soup by the epicure in that condiment.” Swampy or marshy lands, abound- ing in trees and coursed by small streams; are the Raccon’s fa- vorite resorts ; it traverses the margins of creeks and other wa- ters, looking after frogs and muscles, which are found along their banks. It feeds chiefly by night, keeping by day in its nest or lair, which is usually made in the hollow of some broken branch of atree. It rolls itself up, with the head between the hind legs, and sleeps away the time until the approach of darkness, when it goes forth in search of food. Sometimes, however, it is seen in corn fields; occasionally it will make an onset upon poultry during the day. The universal testimony is that it shows great slyness and cunning in its tricks and devices for procuring food. When in captivity, kind treatment soon renders it docile; it learns io be active during the day and to remain quiet at night. It shows an insatiable curiosity, prying into every corner and crey- ice with the greatest assiduity. In its habits it then becomes omnivorous, cating any thing, “vegetable or animal, cooked or CARNIVORA 85 uncooked,” with equal avidity. The Racoon exhibits a peculiar fondness for sweets of every kind, and a great dislike for acids. It is fond of water, and before eating its food usually washes it ; hence its name /Jofor, or washer. When hard pursued by the hunter, the animal takes to a tree, but unless the tree is very large, the pursuer is still after the “coon.” If he cannot be taken otherwise, the axe levels the tree to the ground, when he is soon dispatched. ‘The more common method of taking him is by box traps, baited with an ear of corn, a fish or a squirrel. For several months during winter, this animal hibernates in the hollow of some large tree, leaving its retreat only occasionally and when the weather is warm. ~The flesh is eatable, and the fur considered by hatters next in value to that of the beaver. Proycyon cancrivorus, (lat. cancer, a crab; voro, to devour.) Cras Katine Racoon. ‘This species has a longer and more slen- der body than the common racoon. As observed in California, it conceals itself during the day, in the holes of decayed oak trees, _which exist in the branches, not in the trunk itself, (Aud.) Be- sides crabs, frogs and fish, it feeds on birds, eggs, fruits, etc., and is said to be specially fond of the sugar cane. Nasua, (lat. from nasus, a nose.) The Coati-monn1, found in Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay,—is like the Racoon, characterized by nocturnal habits, a semi-plantigrade mode of progress, and facility of climbing, but is readily distinguished from the racoons by its snout, which is quite long and extremely flexible; also by its longer and more slender body, and by its feet, which are stronger and well fitted for digging. The animal uses its snout in routing the worms and insects, which it digs up. The size is about that. of a large cat, and in addition to insects and worms, it eats birds and eggs, and sometimes roots. Like the cat, it descends a tree with the head downwards, and it is even more active than that animal. The smell of the Coati seems to be more highly devel- oped than any other sense. It is easily tamed, but is irritable and not to be touched without caution. Cercoleptes, (Gr. xégxoc, kerkos, a tail, hettds, leptos, thin.) caudivolvulus, (Lat. cauda, tail, volvulus, twisted.) ‘The Porro Kringasou, or Mexican Weasext,—is found in Mexico, and the warmer parts of South America, resembling the Coati in its habits, but showing more activity, and having a long tail, which is prehen- sile, and used after the manner in which the spider monkeys use theirs. Its size is that of a cat, but its limbs are shorter, thicker and more muscular. The tongue is long, slender, and very ex- tensible, and used for drawing out of crevices, insects which are beyond the reach of its paws. This animal is a great destroyer 86 CARNIVORA. of the nests of wild bees, for the sake of obtaining the honey, of which it is very fond, and has, therefore, been called the “ Honey- bee.” ; Meles, (Lat. a badger.) M. vulgaris, (Lat. common.) The Bapeer. The Badger has teeth wh:ch are best suited for masti- cating and bruising vegetable substances, and is less carnivorous than any of the PLanTiGRADES, except perhaps the bears. It is about as large as a dog of medium size, being about two feet three inches in length, but stands much lower on the legs, and has a broader and_flatter body. The hairs taken separately are yellowish white at the bottom, black in the middle, and ashy gray at the point; the last color alone appears externally, and gives a sandy gray shade to the upper parts of the body. The face is white, and a long band of black runs along each side of the head, to the upper parts of the body. It is a quiet and inoffen- sive animal, but is often subjected to such ill-treatment, that “ badg- ering’’ a person is a phrase used to express irritating him in every variety of manner. ‘This animal inhabits most parts of Europe and Asia, but in some places is less common now than it once was. It is rather solitary and stupid, seeking refuge in retired places, where it excavates deep burrows, and shuns the lightofday. The cruel sport of “ baiting the badger,” which consists in putting him in a kennel,and setting dogs to bite him through his thick hair and tough skin, is in some parts still continued. The Badger defends itself with great resolution, and sometimes to the destruction of its assailants. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Italy, France and China, and may be made into hams and bacon. The skin, when dressed with the hair, is impervious to the rain, and makes ex- cellent pistol furniture and covers for traveling trunks, while the hairs or bristles are made into paint brushes. M. Labradorius. The American Bapcer. The general - characteristics of the American are the same as those of the Eu- ropean Badger. There is, however, a difference in the teeth of the American animal, and it has one tooth less than the Common Badger, on each side of the lower jaw. ‘The length of this spe- cies is about two and a half feet. The body is very thick and fleshy, the nose thinner than that of the European species, and the claws of the fore feet much larger in proportion, while the tail is comparatively shorter; its fur is also of a quite different quality, and its appetites more carnivorous. The hair of the head and extremities is short and coarse ; that of the other parts is fine and silky. At the roots it is dark gray, then light yellow, then black tipped with white, so that in winter it has an aspect of hoary gray ; but in summer is more nearly a vellowish brown, It abounds in CARNIVORA. 87 the plains watered by the Missouri, and has been traced as far north as the banks of the Peace River. It is known to inhabit Mexico, but its exact southern range is perhaps not accurately determined. ‘The sandy plains on the borders of Lake Winnipeg, are perforated with innumerable badger holes, which greatly annoy horsemen, particularly when covered with snow. Its bur- rows are sometimes six or seven feet deep, and run beneath the ground to the distance of thirty feet. It enlarges and_pene- trates the burrows of marmots, ground squirrels, etc., and feeds upon these animals, which it cannot obtain when the ground is frozen. During the snowy season, or from November to April, it remajns in a halftorpid state. ‘he badger is a slow and timid animal, taking to the ground when pursued, and to escape from danger, burrowing in the sandy soil with the rapidity of a mole. “The strength of its fore feet and claws is so great that one which had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted the utmost efforts of two stout young men, who endeavored to drag it out by the hind legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents of his fowling piece into its body.” Early in the spring, badgers come abroad, at first fat, but soon become lean. At that time, they may be easily caught by pouring water into their holes, for the water not penetrating the frozen ground, soon fills the hole, and the animal is forced to come out. In this as in the Ours montana, the Rocky mountain sheep, the fur, during the winter, changes from a furry texture to a woolly covering. In confine- ment, the American Badger appears gentle, and “allows himself to be played with, and fondled by his keeper, but does not appear to be well pleased with strangers.” It produces from three to five young at a litter. M. collaris. The Inpian Bancer, or Bear Pic of the Hin- doos,—is about the size of the common badger. It has the body and limbs of a bear; the snout, eyes and tail are those of a hog. Gulo, (Lat. a glutton.) This genus includes the Giurron, or WoLVERINE, and the Grison. ‘These animals are semiplanti- grade in their walk, but resemble the weasel tribe in their teeth, and their thoroughly carnivorous propensity, as well as in the lengthened form of their bodies. Four species of this genus have been described. G. Arcticus. This species is found in the Arctic, or northern regions of both continents; in size is about equal to the badger, but is more slender in body, and much more active. It seems to be intermediate between the badger and the polecat; in its general figure and aspect resembling the former; in its teeth the latter. ‘The hair is of a chestnut color, verging, in some in- 88 CARNIVORA. stances, towards black; its head is something like that of the polecat, but broader, and indicates greater strength of jaw. The nature of the Glutton is indicated by its name; and its laniary teeth evince its voracious and blood thirsty appetite. It is sometimes called the “Quadruped Vulture,” from the fact that it preys occasionally upon dead bodies of quadrupeds, chiefly those which have been killed by accident. It is said, these animals “do more damage to the fur trade than all other animals conjointly. They follow the Marten hunter’s path round a line of traps, extending forty, fifty or sixty miles, and render the whole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits, which are generally the head of a partridge, or a bit of dried venison. They are not fond of the Martens themselves; but they never fail to tear them in pieces, and bury them in snow at a consider- able distance from the trap. Drifts of snow often conceal the repositories thus made of the Martens, at the expense of*the hunt- er, in which case, they furnish a regale for the hungry fox, whose sagacious nostril guides him unerringly to the spot, and two or three foxes are often seen following the Wolverine for this purpose.”” Perhaps these attendant foxes have given rise to the retnark that the Arctic Fox is the “Jackal or provider” of the Glutton. 3 The Glutton feeds upon meadow mice, marmots and other rodentia, and occasionally upon disabled quadrupeds of a larger size. It resembles the bear, but is not as fleet; is industrious, feeds well, and is generally fat. It goes abroad much in the win- ter, and the track of its journey in a single night, may often be traced “or miles. From the shortness of its legs, it moves with difficulty through the loose snow. Sir John Richardson says “the Wolverine is a great destroyer of beavers.” It must, how- ever, be only in summer, when these animals are at work, that it can surprise them, for an attempt to break through their frozen mud-walled house, would drive the beavers into the water, to seek shelter in their vaults, on the borders of their dam. What- ever the boldness of the Wolverine, in defending itself against other quadrupeds, “it makes but a poor fight with a hunter, who requires no other arms than a stick to kill it.” This anima! has two secretory organs, from which he, on oc- casion, discharges a yellowish brown fluid that gives forth an offensive odor. The female brings forth yearly from two to four cubs, covered with a downy fur, of a pale cream color. The Wolverine remains through the winter, as far north as 700 11’ latitude, but does not change its color on account of the intense cold. According to Lesson, it inhabits a complete circle / CARNIVORA. 89 around the North Pole, in Europe and Asia, as well as America. The skins furnished by Wolverines, do not compensate for their destructive habits. ‘The fur resembles that of a bear, and is much used for muffs, and when several skins are sewed together, makes a beautiful sleigh robe. In Kamtschatka, the women dress their hair with the white paws of this animal, which they esteem a great ornament. G. vittatus, (Lat. from vitta, a band or fillet,) the Grison. A white line or band passes on each side of the front to the shoulders. They are most numerous in Guiana and Paraguay. G. or Ratellus mellivorus, (Lat. mel, honey, voro, to devour.) The Ratet of the Cape of Good Hope, in general characters, cor- responds with the glutton; in size is about equal to the badger. The color is of a dull ash gray, but whitest towards the head. It is said to feed principally upon the honey of bees, which inhabit the deserted lairs and burrows of the Ethiopian boar, the porcu- pine, ete. Ailurus fulgens, (Lat. shining,) the Panna, or Wau,—is found in the Himalaya chain of mountains, between Nepaul and the Snowy mountains. Cuvier declared this to be one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds, and included it in the Bear tribe. In the arrangement and form of the teeth, it shows some resemblance to the NNasua and Procyon. It is about the size of a large cat ; the soft and thickly set fur is above, of the richest cinnamon red, behind more fulvous, and beneath, deep black, while the head is whitish, and the tail whitish, annulated with brown. Its loud ery resembles the word wah, whence itsname. ‘This elegant animal frequents the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes much of its time on trees, and feeds upon birds and the smaller quadrupeds.” ‘The generic name is from the Gr. atlouros, a cat. To what animals is the name PLantiGRaDES given? What is the derivation of the word? What their movements and habits ?, When and where are they in a lethargic state? From what is the family name Ursipar derived? To what animals are the bears a connecting link? What is said of their gait? What use do they make of their fore paws? Describe their claws. To what kind of food are their teeth adapted? Where are the genera of this family found? According to Audubon, how many species of the genus Wrsus have been described? Give their locations. Describe the bear. What is said of the number and kind of their teeth? Which of the carniv- orous animals is most omnivorous? Do any bears subsist on vegetable food alone? What are their habits? What is their condition in the winter? In what part of the world are they seldom met? What use is made of their skins? Where is the common bear found? Is it now met with in Great Britain? What was the only species known to Linneus? What does it furnish the people of Kamtschatka? What do the Laplanders ¢all it? Why? What do the Norwegians say pf it? What is said respecting its 90 CARNIVORA. winter home? Is it long lived? What is said of the age of one in the Menagerie at Paris? What is its size? What is said of the ferocity of the Grizzly Bear? What use is made of its claws? How much does it weigh? Upon what does it feed? What is said of its strength? What is said of the size, appearance and food of the American Bear? What is the size of the young at first? Whatis said of the Cinnamon Bear? Describe the Polar Bear. What is its average length? What is said of its weight? What does Dr. Kane remark respecting this animal? What is its chief diet? On what else does he feed? What do these animals eat when on the land? What is said of their dens? How do the males spend the win- ter? Define and spell hybernate, migrate and emigrate. When do the female bears sally forth from their winter retreats, and what is their appear- ance, and the degree of their ferocity? What is further said of the Polar Bear? What is said of the Spectacled Bear? What of the Siberian Bear? What of the Syrian Bear? What of the Sloth Bear? What of the Malayan Bear? Are bears found in Africa? Were they known to exist there dur- ing Cuvier’s life ? What is said of the remaining animals of this group? What name is given to the Raccon? Give the meaning of the generic and specific terms? How were the racoon and other species formerly arranged? To what continent does it pertain? On what part is it numerously found? Describe the ani- mal in his appearance and habits? What is a favorite kind of food with the racoon? How does it get at the contents of the shells? What does Audubon say as to the racoon’s knowledge of the habits of fresh water muscles? What are its favorite resorts? How does it appear in captivity? What is said of its curiosity? Why is it called Jotor? How does it spend the winter? What is said of its flesh and fur? How does the Crab-eating Racoon differ from the Common Racoon? Where,does it conceal itself in the day time? On what does it live? From what is the generic term nasua derived? Where is the Coati mondi found? What are its charac- ters? How is it distinguished from the Racoon? How does it use its snout? What is its food? In what respects does it resemble the cat? What is further said of it? Give the derivation and meaning of CeRCcOLEP- Tes. Where is the Mexican Weasel found? What other names has it? What animal does it resemble? What is said of its tail and size? What use does it make of its tongue? What name has been given it? Why? What is said of the Badger’s teeth? What of itsfood? What of its size and hair? What does ‘‘badgering” a person mean? Where is the animal found? What are its habits? What is ‘“‘ baiting the Badger?” What is said of the flesh, and what use is made of the skin? Wherein does the Ameri- can Badger differ from that of Europe? Where does it abound? What is said of its Northern and of its Southern range? What is said of its bur- rows? How does it annoy huntsmen? How long and at what season is it torpid? What is said of the strength of its fore feet and claws? How are these animals easily caught in the spring? How do they appear in confine- ment? What changes does the fur undergo? What is said of the Indian Badger? What does the genus Gulo include? Give the characteristics of these animals. How many species? To what is the species Gulo arcticus intermediate? What is it sometimes called? Why? How do these animals injure the fur trade? Upon what does the Glutton feed? What animal does it resemble? What more is said of it? How is the Grison marked, CARNIVORA. 91 and where most numerous? Describe the Rattel? Where is the Panda or Wah found? What animals does it resemble? What are its resorts ? SECTION XV. Sup-orper Pinnipepia or Ampuipia, (Gr. ’aupl6cos, amphibios, having a double life.) The term Amphibia, is, strictly speaking, applicable only to such animals as have double sets of lungs, or gills, giving them the power of living, indifferently, at the same time, either upon land or water; but it is commonly given to seals otters, beavers, etc., and to many reptiles whose habits are at once terrestrial and aquatic. (P]. VI. fig. 11.) Puocipak, (Gr. goxn, Phoké, a sea-calf or seal.) This tribe of animals, belonging to the carnivorous order, show a peculiar adaptation to the sphere assigned them by the All-wise Creator. None of the four-limbed mammalia display such complete adapta- tion to residence in the water. Seals resemble quadrupeds in some respects, and fishes in others. They have round heads, and broad noses, not unlike those of dogs, with the same mild and ex- pressive physiognomy ; large whiskers ; oblong nostrils, and large, sparkling black eyes. In the seal there is no external ear; but a valve exists in the orifices which he can close at pleasure, in order to keep out the water; a valve is also found in the nostrils, which is useful for the same purpose. ‘The body is covered with stiff, glossy hairs, which are closely set against the skin; it is elongated and conical in form, gradually tapering from the shoul- ders tothe tail. The feet of the seal differ from those of all other quadrupeds. They have the same number of bones, but are covered with a membrane which would make them resemble fins more than feet, but for the sharp, strong claws with which they are pointed. ‘The limbs may be viewed as a sort of oars, or pad- dles. In the front pair, the arm and forearm are very short, so that but little more than the forearm advances from the body; the hind limbs are directed backwards so as to almost seem like a continuation of the body; the thighs and legs very short; the tail is short and thick ; the foot is formed on the same plan as the forepaw ; but the toes are in contact; the web is folded when not in use asa paddle; but spread out when the animal is swimming. The seal moves in the water with great ease and rapidity, but on the land, or on masses of ice, with extreme awkwardness. It is gregarious, living in herds more or less numerous, along the shores of the sea. The cellular tissue, situated between the skin and muscles, is very loose and fibrous, and seems to be a receptacle 92 CARNIVORA. for the blood, during the suspension of breathing under water. It can remain in that element a long time without injury; when it is submerged, the blood not freely circulating, and thus accu- mulating in the larger veins. Its tissue appears designed in part to relieve the animal from the pressure of the superincum- bent water. The blood is abundant and dark in appearance, showing that it has less oxygen than that of strictly terrestrial animals. Seals are found in almost every quarter of the globe, but they are most numerous in frozen and temperate regions. They exist in vast numbers in the seas around Spitzbergen, and on the coasts of Labrador, and Newfoundland. About thirteen species are included in the genus Phoca. In their wide range, seals are sometimes found within the waters of the state of New York. About the middle of the Spring of the year 1857, one was taken in the Hudson river, and another on the borders of Long Island. Dr. Dekay (N. Y. State Nat. Hist.) describes a female seal caught in Long Island Sound, near Sand’s Point. At a for- mer period, these animals were abundant in our waters. “A certain reef of rocks in the harbor of New York, is called Robin’s Reef, from the numerous seals which were accustomed to resort thither ; roden, or robyn, being the name in Dutch for seal.”* In the Kingston (U. C.) Chronicle, of February, 1823 or 1824, there was a notice of a seal taken on the ice of Lake Ontario, near Cape Vincent, (Jefferson county,) N. Y. In August, 1824, a seal was exhibited alive in New York, which had been taken in a seine in the Chesapeake, near Elkton, Maryland. A seal, said to have been beautifully spotted on the under side, was taken some years since near Lynn, Mass. The length of the common seal, Phoca concolor, or P. vitulina, (Lat. calf-like,) (see Plate VIII. fig. 1.) is, on an average, about five feet; the color, yellowish gray, clouded with brown or yellow. The female produces her young during the winter, taking care of them at the place of birth for a few weeks, until they become sufficiently strong to be taken to the water, to which they are then removed by the parent, not without solicitude for their safety. By her they are taught to swim, and seek for fish, and when they are fatigued, she carries them on her back. As might be expected from the nature of its food, the seal has a fishy smell. It is reported that when assembled in numbers on shore, the odor is perceivable at some distance. Jn pursuing their watery prey, seals display much cunning and power of swimming. * Nat. Hist. of State of New York. CARNIVORA. 93 The voice of the animal when old, is a hoarse, gruff bark ; when young, a peculiarly plaintive whine. “With a good glass,” says Dr. Kane,* “you may study these animals in their natural habit- udes, undisturbed by suspicion. As thus seen, in the centre of a large floe, and within retreating distance of his hole, the seal is a perfect picture of solitary enjoyment, rolling not unlike a horse, stretching his hide, awkwardly spreading out his flippers, and twisting his rump towards his head. Again he will wriggle about in the most grotesque manner; the sailors call it *squirm- ing,’ every now and then rubbing his head against the snow. The shapes of a seal, or rather his aspects, are full of strange variety. At aside view, with his caudal end s/ued round to the side from you, and his head lifted suspiciously in the air, he ts the exact image of a dog, chen de mer. During his wriggies, he resembles a great snail; a little while after, he turns his back to you, and rises up on his side flippers, like a couching hunter, pre- paring for a shot, the very image of an Esquimaux.” The seals are proverbially shy. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders, to whom these animals are of inestimable importance, as furnishing them with the chief means of subsistence, are from earliest youth, trained to the pursuit of them, and look upon the most successful hunters of them as their great men. “No one can pass fora right Greenlander who cannot catch seals.” This is not strange, considering the manifold benefits furnished the northern tribes by these animals. The boat, or kajah in which they brave the violence of a northern sea, and the perils of the chase, con- sists of the skin of the seal placed over a light frame work of wood. The same skin furnishes the material for his dress; the flesh of the animal supplies him with his “most palatable and substantial food; the fat gives him oil for lamp-light, chamber and kitchen fire. He can sew better with fibres of seal’s sinews than with thread or silk. Of the skins of the entrails, he makes the windows of his house, curtains for his tents, his shirts; and part of the bladders they use at their harpoons, and he makes train bottles of the maw or stomach.” Seal skins and oil are to him also important articles of commerce. The fishing com- mences in autumn, and is practised by means of nets stretched across narrow sounds where the seals are in the habit of swimming. Only the young ones can be taken in these nets; the ald ones are shot, or else the boatmen enter the recesses of the animals at night, with torches and bludgeons, and despatch them, which they do easily with a slight blow on the forehead or muzzle. * Grinnell Arctic Expedition. 94 CARNIVORA. “To shoot seal,”’ says Dr. Kane, “ one must practise the Esqui- maux tactics, of much patience and complete immobility. It is no fun to sit motionless and noiseless as a statue, with a cold iron musket in your hands, and the thermometer 100 below zero, Very strange are these seal! a countenance between the dog and the ape; an expression so Jike that of humanity, that it makes gun-murderers hesitate. At last, at long shot, | hit one. The ball did not kill outright; it struck toolow. He did drown finally and sunk, and so I lost him. Curiosity, contentment, pain, re- proach, despair, and even resignation, | thought | saw on this seal’s face.” . . . “A Danish boy who had joined us by stealth at Disco, told us that the animal’s sinking was a proof that he had no blubber, and he was probably right.” ‘Though the orifice of the ear, as we have said, contains a valve which closes, yet the seal has a most delicate sense of hearing, and delights in musical sounds, a fact not unknown to the ancients. Laing, in his ac- count of a voyage to Spitzbergen, states that when the violin was played, ‘‘a numerous audience of seals” would generally collect around the vessel, following her course for miles. In allusion to this peculiarity of the seal, Sir Walter Scott says, “Rude Heiskar’s seals, through surges dark, Will long pursue the minstrel’s bark.” The seal has often been domesticated, and it is said, made use of in fishing. ‘The following is among the anecdotes illustrating this remark. ‘In January, 1819, a gentleman residing in the county of Fife, Scotland, completely succeeded in taming a seal. Its singularities attracted the curiosity of strangers daily. It ap- peared to possess all the sagacity of a dog, lived in its master’s house, and ate from his hand. In his fishing excursions, this gentleman generally took it with him, when it afforded no small entertainment. If thrown into the water, it would follow for miles, the track of the boat, and though thrust back by the oars, it never relinquished its purpose. Indeed it struggled so hard to regain its seat, that one would imagine its fondness for its master had entirely overcome the natural predilection for its native element.” When companies of seals are seen at some distance “ walking the water,” their heads peering above it, they assume sometimes such appearances as have given rise to the stories of TriTons, Strens and Mermaips, concerning which many marvelous things have been written. The Phoca Groenlandica, or Harp Seat, is about six feet in CARNIVORA. 95 length, and noted for the variations of its color, as it advances towards maturity. The Phoca barbata, (Lat. bearded.) is larger, and has thicker and stronger moustaches than the others. Its length varies from seven to ten feet. Dr. Kane speaks of one which was shot by Capt. Haven, of the Grinnell Arctic Expedition, measuring “eight feet from tip to tip ; five feet eleven inches in his greatest circumference, and five feet six inches in girth behind the fore- flippers.” “His carcass,” says the Dr. “was a shapeless cylin- der, terminating in an awkward knob, to represent the head.” P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) or Stemmatopus cristatus, (Gr. | stemma, a wreath; dps, face,) or Hoopep Seat, is distinguished for having a globular sac, which can be swelled upon the top of the head, in the male animal. This species reach the size of seven or eight feet, and live in the seas about Greenland and Newfoundland. The Exernant §$eat, or Sea Everuant, P. Macrorhinus, (Gr. makros, long, rhin, nose,) proboscideus, (Gr. proboskis, a irunk,) is the largest known species, being from twenty to thirty feet long, and having a girth at the largest part of the body, of eighteen feet. A full grown male of this species will yield seventy gallons of oil. This kind of seal is found on the southern coasts of Austra- lia, Juan Fernandez, and the neighboring parts of South Ameri- ca. Its voice is like the lowing of cattle, and it is inert in its habits. The name “ Elephant Seal,” is given to the animals of this species, partly on account of the large size of their tusk-like canines, and partly from their power of lengthening the upper lip into a kind of proboscis. They are much sought after on ac- count of the quantity of oil which they yield, and also of their strong skins, which are valuable for harness making. The Sea Lion, Platyrhyncus leoninus, found on the north and south coasts of the Pacific, is from six to ten feet in length, and of a yellowish brown color. The males have a large mane upon their necks, partly covering the head and shoulders, and a very powerful voice, whence their name. The Sea Bear, Arctocephalus ursinus, is so called from the fur and shape of the head. It grows to the length of five or six feet, and has small external ears. ‘The membrane of the hind feet is prolonged into as many lobes as there are toes, and the fore feet are placed very far back. The color of the fur is brown, but when it is old, assumes a grayish tint. This species inhabits the coasts of the South Pacific, and is also said to be found in the northern hemisphere. Trichécus Rosmdrus, the Watrus, Morse, or Sea Cow. 96 CARNIVORA. This animal resembles the seal in its general conformation, but is much larger, and more thick and clumsy in its proportions. Its distinguishing peculiarity is the construction of the skull. The lower jaw is without incisor and canine teeth, and is compressed laterally to fit in between two enormous canine teeth, or tusks, which arise out of the upper jaw, and are inclined downwards with a gentle curve. The length of the tusks is sometimes two feet. The alveoli, or sockets of these tusks, occupy the whole of the front portion of the upper jaw, and give a roundness to the form of the muzzle; the nostrils do not end in a snout, but are far above the mouth, or what seems the middle of the face. The development of the brain is less in the Walrus, than in the seal, and it shows less intelligencé. The ears are merely two small orifices; the head is small in proportion to the bulk of the body; the neck short; the lips are thick, the upper one divided by a longitudinal furrow, and studded with strong bristles; the skin is very thick and impenetrable, and covered with smooth, yellowish hair. This huge animal is often eighteen or twenty feet in length, and ten or twelve in circumference, around the chest. It is sometimes classed with the Herbiverous Cetacea. The Walrus is found in the icy seas of the north. Like the seal itis yregarious. It is not a ferocious animal, but on account of its great strength, and formidable tusks, is dangerous when attacked; and the more dangerous because many hasten to the help of a companion when in trouble. They are said to be mo- nogamous. ‘The females defend their young with great resolu- tion and perseverance. ‘These animals resort to islands of ice, or the ice-bound shore. ‘The tusks furnished them by the Crea- tor, assist them to mount the slippery acclivities, or ledges of ice, they striking the points of the tusks into the glassy surface in order to secure themselves firmly, and drawing up their unwieldy bodies. It is said their hind feet are furnished with suckers, which act on the principle of cupping glasses, exhausted of air, so that the feet adhere to the ice, and thus help the animals to propel themselves forward. Thus the Walrus can climb the ice- berg with security, pass over its surface and betake itself at pleasure to the waters of the ocean. Captain Cook, in his Journal of his Voyages, speaks of meet- ing with Walruses off the northern coast of America. “They lie,” says he, “in herds of many hundreds, upon the ice, hud- dling over one another like swine, and roar and bray so very loud that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of ice before we could see it. We never found the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch. ‘These, CARNIVORA. ) 97 on the approach of the boat, would awaken those next to them, and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole herd would be awake presently; but they were seldom in a hurry to get away till after they had been once fired at; they would then tumble over one another into the sea, in the utmost. confusion, and if we did not at the first discharge, kill those we fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. The dam, when in the water, holds the young one between her fore arms.” The chief use of the walrus to man, is in its tusks, which yield the finest ivory, and in its abundant blubber, or fat, which yields oil. They, and indeed all the marine mammalia which are found in the Arctic seas, have abundant fat, as their defence against the cold. A beautiful and striking evidence of kind and intelligent design, of which numberless instances are presented to the student of Natural History, is seen in the fact that immediately beneath the skin, a thick layer envelopes the body, and being a bad conductor of caloric, besides other advan- tages already referred to, prevents the vital heat from passing off. With the Polar Bear, U. Maritimus, the Walruses have frequent and desperate conflicts. They feed upon shell fish, and marine vegetables, and perhaps a further use of their tusks is to root up their food from the spot to which it adheres. ‘Their flesh, like that of the seal, is highly valued by the inhabitants of Arctic re- gions, and northern voyagers have often found it a most accepta- ble repast. > Give the derivation and meaning of AmpnHipia. To what animals alane _ does it strictly apply ? To what others is it commonly given? From what is PHocipar derived? What is said of their adaptation to a watery resi- dence? Describe the Seal. What is said of itshabits? How is it enabled to remain in water a long time without injury? Where are Seals most nu- merous? How many species does the genus include? Where have they been found in this country? Whatistheir size? What does Dr. Kane say of these animals? To what people are they of inestimable importance ? Relate the particulars which are given respecting them. What has occa- sioned the stories respecting Tritons, Syrens and Mermaids? What is said of the Harp Seal? Give some particulars of the Bearded, Hooded and Ele- phant Seals. What is said of the Sza Lion? Why is it so called? Give some account of the Sra Brar. What animal does the Walrus resemble ? What other names has it? What is its distinguishing peculiarity? How long are the tusks? Give its general characteristics. What is said af its intelligence? What is its length? Where is it found? What are its habits and disposition? With what are its hind feet furnished? What does Captain Cook relate respecting Walruses? Who was Captain Cook? Ans. A celebrated English circumnavigator, who was killed by the natives at Owyhee, Sandwich Islands, in 1779. What is their chief use to man? What evidence do they give of kind and intelligent design on the part of the 5 98 CARNIVORA. Creator? With what animal does the Walrus have severe conflicts? What is its food? What is said of its fiesh? SECTION XVI. Sus-Orper Insectrvora. (Lat. insecta, insect, voro, to eat.) The INsectTivora, as the term denotes, comprehends those ani- mals whose food is especially insects, but not exclusively, as sometimes they feed on other, and even vegetable substances. They walk on the sole of the foot, (plantigrada.) The sub-or- der includes four families. Their motions are feeble, feet short and slender, snout lengthened. In cold climates they pass the winter in a dormant state. Henee-Hoes, (Erinaceade, from erinaceus, Lat. for hedge-hog. ) The true hedge-hogs are found in Europe, Asia and Africa, while others are found in Madagascar and the Oriental Islands. They are slow and inoffensive, but are self-defended by a coat of stiff, tough spines or prickles. They roll themselves up into a round ball, and thus the spines project from every part of the surface, and are a defence and safeguard. ‘They lie concealed in some crevice between the moss-grown roots of a tree, among a mass of withered leaves, or in a hole which they have exca- vated ; and in this condition, the animal remains during the day, protected from injury in the way before described, should its retreat be discovered. As the dusk of evening comes on, it issues from its lurking place and prowls about for food. If pursued it makes no defence, but rolls itself up and trusts to its spines for safety. These are, indeed, the only means of defence bestowed upon this little, weak and timid animal. It feeds upon insects, frogs, snails, fruits, and esculent roots. It is useful in gardens, and often kept in large kitchens for the destruction of beetles and cockroaches. The Tenrec, (Centetes, Gr. xevtéw, kenteo, to sting or prick,) called also the Asiatic or striped hedge-hog, of Madagascar, has no tail, but is covered with a spiny coat of mail. It rolls itself up in the way of the hedge-hog already mentioned, though not so easily. is nocturnal, and passes three months of the year in sleep. Some are not larger than a mole. The species are Tenrec Centetes acaudatus, Lat. a, without, cauda, a tail.) C. setosus, (Lat. bristly.) Its spines are short and rigid. Varied Tenrec, C. semi-spinosus, (Lat. semi, half, spina, spine.) Its body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles. SHREws, (Soricide, Lat. sorex, a shrew.) SHREws have usu- ally been considered a kind of mice and of the order Rodentia. CARNIVORA. 99 They are, however, distinguished from the latter by their teeth, and the conical form of the head, and nose tapering to a long point. They place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground, which makes their legs appear short. ‘They have glands along the side of the body, which secrete a humor of an unpleasant and peculiar odor. Their shrill, piercing cry may often be heard in spring and summer. Water shrews, which are twice the size of the others, are found upon the banks of rivers, ponds, and marshes, and appear to collect their food, consisting of the larvee of the ephemeral flies, from the loose mud. Stationing themselves at the mouths of their holes, they look intently on the water, and if a shoal of minnows pass by, they plunge in among them, diving with much adroitness. Their fur repels the water, and while submerged they appear almost white. ‘The Common Shrew, S. araneus, (Lat. Spiders,) is covered with soft velvety fur, is easily distinguished from the mouse by its long, tapering and cartilagin- ous snout; the eyes, too, are very minute, almost hidden in the surrounding hairs, and the ears are round and close. It is usu- ally of a reddish mouse color above, grayish beneath, and some- times tinged with yellow. Its entire structure is well adapted to burrow under the earth, but it can also move rapidly upon the surface. Its length, from the snout to the tail, is about five inches ; its tail is one inch long; it feeds upon insects, worms and grubs. Sorex fodiens, (Lat. digging.) The Water SuHrew closely resembles the common shrew in its conformation. Its feet are rather broad and formed for swimming, having a lock of stiff hairs on the end of the toes; its tail is rather slender and fringed with stiff hairs. Its swimming is principally effected by the al- ternate action of the hind feet. ‘The appearance of these ani- mals, and their motions in water are quite amusing. A sort of musk is expressed from the region about the tail, and the skins are put into chests and wardrobes, among clothes, to preserve them from moths. The Desman or Musx Rat, Mygale (Gr. spider-mouse,) mos- chata. This is known as the Russian Musk Rat, is about the size of a hedge-hog and distinguished from the shrews by its long scaly tail, flattened at the sides. Under the tail of the Des- man are two small follicles, containing a kind of unctuous sub- stance of a strong musk odor, from which the name of musk rat is given to it. The Scator, to which Linnzus gave the name of Sorezr aquaticus, is a native of Canada and is now. separated from the true shrews. 100 CARNIVORA. We come now to notice the Mote (Tulpa)—Family, Talpide. This animal is five or six inches in length and formed for an un- derground life. Jts body is thick and cylindrical ; the head is pro- longed, especially the muzzle, which projects far beyond the jaws, and is very flexibile and strong, serving to convey the food to the mouth; it has no external ears, but the auricular appara- tus is highly developed, and the sense is very acute; its eyes are very small and concealed by its fur, so that it is a vulgar opinion that it is deficient in these important organs. The head is not distinguished from the body by any appearance of neck ; the Jegs do not project perceptibly from the body. The mole is accustomed to burrow for its fuod, forming its abode or “ encampment”’ under ground, and raising a larger hil- lock than the rest for the reception of its young. Its subterra- nean excavations are most distinctly and determinately made, having passages or “ high roads” from one part of its domain to another. Into these roadsopen the excavations in which it daily searches for food. In this home, which is separated from that in which its nest is formed, it dwells from autumn to spring. The mole is essentzally an accomplished miner, and unlike most of the mammalia, finds his happiness and his home in the subterra- nean (underground) galleries which he excavates with admirable skill and industry. Its fore feet, which are broad and muscular, are constructed like hands and form complete paddles for throw- ing the soil behind the animal. (See Plate V1, fig. 4 of Mole’s foot .) It has been mentioned that there is no external conch to the ears, as the auditory opening concealed by the fur is small. ‘A valve, capable of being raised or lowered like an eye-lid, the mechanism of which is visible if the fur be shaved away, closes this aperture at the will of the animal, so as to ex- clude any particle of earth or sand.” The eyes, too, which are exceedingly small and buried in the fur for protection, may be uncovered at pleasure, when it emerges to the light. The Crea- tor has given it the power of vision, but in a very limited degree ; in fact it is in the very lowest stage of development, but it has all in this respect that is needed. Its keen sense of smell! is its chief guide in searching for food, and dwelling as it does, in darkness, this sense is remarkably perfect. The structure of the mole is such as to concentrate the whole force and energy of the animal in the anterior portion. and thus is adapted to its habits and mode of life; the hands are large, bread, and thick ; the bones knit firmly and solidly together; the claws are enormous—these are the organs by which it throws J CARNIVORA. 101 up the earth; the head is an organ for boring or digging, very long and flat, with the cartilages of the nose ossified; the liga- ment of the neck, which in other animals is elastic, is here bone also, so that the strain in digging is better borne ; the pelvis is very small: the bones of the hind limbs are small and slender and the hind feet, though having claws, are feeble in comparison with the spade-like hands, thus hindering not its course through its under-ground roads, but yet having sufficient strength, and not in the way. In short, were we called upon for striking evidence of the de- sign and attentive care of Gop. we would point to the habits and manners of the Motz, and the fitness and adaptation of the means and instruments with which it is provided. The mole does not, of its own accord, emerge from its subterranean abode, except to seek for some more favorable soil in which to construct its halls and winding galleries. Rich and cultivated meadows, abounding in worms and other insects, are its favorite localities in which it makes its burrows. Unlike the dormouse or marmot, it is not less active in winter than in summer ; the twilight hours of morning and evening are its period of labor. The nest where the female mole nurses her helpless young, (of which she has one brood yearly, generally four or five, same- times as few as three, rarely six,) is formed in a vault, carefully constructed at the center of diverging passages, made soft with leaves, grass, and scales of bulbous roots. “The parents afford a pattern of mutual affection and assistance.” The food consists of worms, insects, and when it can obtain them, small birds or quadrupeds, to which roots are also added. It is impatient of hunger, and cannot endure a fast of more than six hours’ duration; an abstinence of twelve hours is said to produce death. Agriculturists complain that they suffer injury from the young corn which moles carry off for constructing their nests; but its turning up and lightening the soil, and its destruction of insects, earth worms and noxious creatures found near the surface of the ground and so hurtful to grass, corn and other. plants, furnish advantages to the farmer which probably more than counter- balance any injuries which he suffers from the doings of the mole ; at the same time, we should guard the undue increase of these mining animals. ConpyLura, (Gr. xovdvdy, kondiilé, a knob, oved, oura, a tail; knobbed tail.) Cresrep or Star-Nosep More. This name was given to this animal, by Illiger, under an erroneous 102 CARNIVORA. impression that the tail is “knobbed.” ‘There is but one spe- cies well known, cristata, (crested,) found in various parts of the United States. The nostrils are surrounded by movable carti- laginous points that radiate like a star when expanded. The color is brownish black above, a shade, lighter beneath. The head is remarkably large; the body thick and short, growing narrower towards the tail, which is smaller at the root, large in the middle, and tapering to a fine point at the tip; the fur on the body is very fine, soft and shining. The shape of the body resembles that of the common shrew mole, and it is similar in its habits. The Banxrines, (Tupaide,) of Sumatra and Java, are remark- able insectivorous animals. ‘They are nocturnal, and squirrel- like in their appearance and habits. QUESTIONS ON THE INSECTIVORA. How many families does the Insrctivora include? On what do they feed? What is said of their motions and habits? Where are the true Hedge-hogs found? Where others? How are they self-defended? How do they conceal themselves? How is the day spent? When does it seek its food? How act when pursued? For what is it useful? Where isthe Tenrec found? What is it called? How covered? What are its habits? What its size? Howmany species? Give their names and derivation. To what order have Shrews commonly been referred? How are they distin- guished from mice? How do they tread? What have they upon the side of the body? Whatis saidof their cry? To what placesdo Water Shrews resort? What do they use for food? What is said of their watching for minnows? What effect has their fur upon the water? How is the shrew distinguished from the mouse? What is its color? For what is it well adapted? What is said of the Water Shrew? What of the Russian Musk Rat? What of the Scalop? For what kind of life is the mole formed? Describe the animal. How doesit obtain its food? What is said of its ex- cavations? How are its fore feet constructed? What is remarkable about the ear? What is said of the sight and smell? In what part of the body is the strength concentrated? Give particulars as to its structure. Wherein does it give proof of divine care? Why does it leave its subterranean abode? In what respect is it unlike the dormouse or marmot? What is said of its nest? Whatof its abilities to fast? Why do agriculturists com- plain of the mole? What benefits does it confer upon the farmer? From what is the term Condylura derived? Was it rightly given? Why is this animal called Crested or Star-nosed? Describe it. What is said of its shape and habits? What is said of the Banxrings? Ozs. Here, at the close of the order Carnivora, and every other order, let the teacher have a general review, naming the sub-orders, tracing out the genera, families, &c., giving the specific name to each as he describes the animal, pointing them out when on the chart, telling all he can remem- ber about them, either from the book or chart. If he omits anything, let it be mentioned by other members of the class. No pupil should ever be per- mitted to pass the name of a person, or place, or even a word, without knowing who the person was, where the place is, and what the word means, MARSUPIALIA. 103 SECTION XVII. FourtH Orper. MARSUPIALIA, or MARSUPIATA. (Lat. marsupium, a purse or bag.) This order is arranged into two sections,—Marsupials and Monotremata. ‘These are not unfrequently regarded as separate orders, constituting a sub-class termed Ovo-vivipara, (Lat. ovum, an eg; vivo, to live, and pario, to produce,) and intermediate between the truly viviparous mammals and the oviparous birds and reptiles. The animals of thisorder are numerous and quite different in their organs from all other mammals. So peculiar is their internal structure that Cuvier remarks they may be looked upon as containing several orders running parallel with the or- ders of ordinary quadrupeds. ‘Their rank is low in the scale of intelligence. Of the two sections the weteler Saye the least departure from the general type of the Mamntalia. The most striking peculiarity, common to them all, is the immature state of the young at birth, they being much like the half formed chick in an egg which has been but a few days incubated ; and their reception into a pouch or fold of a skin in the female, in. which they are nourished, remaining there five or six weeks, until they increase in size and are able to take care of them- selves. [Even for some time after the young one can procure its own living, and runs and plays by its mother’s side, it instinct- ively flies to the maternal pouch for protection from threatening danger. ‘The pouch is supported by two bones placed amidst the abdominal muscles and called the marsupial bones. They are found in the maleas well as inthe female, and even in species where the pouch-formed fold of the skin is scarcely perceptible. It is remarkable that these mammals are confined almost entirely to Australia, including New Guinea and the islands immediately adjacent, excepting the Opossums, whose home is South America, but which are also found abundantly in the United States, resid- ing in woods and thickets near hamlets and villages. Appear- ances of secondary rocks seem, however, to indicate that at for- mer periods they were more widely spread over the earth’s sur- face than they are at present. The Marsupials include between seventy and eighty known spe- cies, arranged by Prof. Qwen into sixteen genera. The whole are divided into five families, named from the more usual char- acter of their food. I. The Sarcopuaga, (Gr. oa6§, sara ; guy, phagd, toeat.) Fresu-Eaters. These are found in New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land 104 MARSUPIALIA, ~ alone; though remains of them have been found in the Stonefield slate, (England,) and in the gypsum quarries of Paris, (France.) They show great varieties of size, from that of a small wolf to a mouse, the larger ones being considerably fierce, des- troying sheep, and even making their way into houses; others attack poultry and suck their blood. Those of the smallest size show a likeness to the Insectivora, and live on trees. Prof. Owen enumerates three genera of the Sarcophaga, viz.: Thyla- cinus, Dasyurus and Phascogale. -These, with others of the or- der, show a tendency to the multiplication of teeth, and peculiar- ities of the arterial system and bodily organs. The Thylacinus, (Gr. Oilaxzoz, thulacos, a sac; ivis, inis, offspring.) has incisors, 8; Canines, 11; Molars,77=46. The species T. cynocephalus, (Gr. zvov, kudn, adog ; xepady, kephale, head,) Dog-headed Thy- lacinus, Tasminian or Zebra Wolf, isan extremely active animal, of the size of a young wolf; has short smooth hair, of a dusky brown above, bu@ barred or zebraed on the lower part of the back with about sixteen jet-black transverse stripes. This has to the other animals of the group, relations similar to those which the lion and tiger have to the larger quadrupeds of Africa and Asia. Formerly it preyed chiefly upon Phalangers and Kangaroos, re- jecting the flesh of the Wombat, an animal common in the dis- trict which it inhabits. Since sheep have been introduced, its favorite food is mutton, which puts shepherds on the alert to des- troy these animals -by every possible means. ‘The Dasyurus, (Gr. daods, dasus, thick ; ote, dura, tail,) has a conical shaped head, and on the hind feet the great toe is reduced to a tubercle, or entirely absent. It has four less molar teeth than the Thyla- cinus, making the number forty-two. One species is named D. ursinus, (Lat, ursus, a bear,)—Ursine Dasyurus—having very strong muscular jaws, and in its movements resembling the bear. Its vulgar name is “ Native Devil.” The Dasyurus is very destructive to poultry, eats raw flesh of all kinds and probably dead fish and blubber, as its tracks are found on the sea shore. In confinement it appears untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same time a low, yelling growl. The Phas- cogalé, (Gr. paszohoy, phaskolion, a bag; 7a4é, galé a weasel,) has seven molars instead of six, on each side, above and below, making the whole number forty-six. The species P. peniciliata, (Lat. penicillus, a little tail,) lives on trees, has fur short, woolly and thick, and is rather larger than the brown rat. II. Faminy, the Enromopuaca, (Gr. &vtowe, entoma, insect ; geyo, to eat.) Insect Eaters. g These have three kinds of teeth in both jaws and a simple MARSUPIALIA. 105 stomach, like the preceding family, but more complicated in- testines. This family includes three branches, or sub-fami- lies; Ambulatoria, (walking ;) Saltatoria, (leaping;) Scan- soria, (climbing.) The only genus of the Ambulatoria, or Walking section, is Myrmecobius, (Gr. wiguyis, mirméx, an ant ; Bidw, biod, to live. The only species is M. fasciatus, (Lat. swathed,) which feeds on ants and has the reddish black of the body adorned with nine white bands, whence the specific name. Its length is ten inches. The Perameles, (Banpicoots,) is of the Leaping section, including animals which, in their general struc- ture, form a link between the Opossums and the Kangaroos, evi- dently approaching the latter in their form, and particularly in the development of their hind quarters; with the Opossums they agree in having a simple stomach and ten incisors in the upper jaw. Some species, as P. lagotis, (Gr. davis, lagos, a hare,) make large and almost exclusive use of vegetable food. In most of this family the pouch opens backwards, the reverse of what occurs in the other Marsupialia, though in P. lagotis it opens anteriorly. The species are foundin Van Diemens’ Land and in New Guinea. The Scansoria, or Climbing section, include the Didelphide, or Opossums, in their geographical distribution confined to this continent. ‘These animals are all small, the larg- est being about the same size as the domestic cat, while some of them are no largerthan mice. ‘They number about thirty spe- cies, ranging from Brazil to Virginia, under one genus Didelphis, (Gr. dic, dis, double ; dedpic, delphis,a pouch,) with the exception of a single species, found in Surinam, in size larger than a rat, and from its aquatic habits, as shown by its broad webbed feet, ranked as a sub-genus, under the name Cheironectes, (Gr. zélo, cheir, hand; yrs, néktés, a swimmer.) The true Opossums, (Didelphis,) have fifty teeth, viz.: ten incisors above and eight below, four canines, twelve false molars, sixteen molars. The incisors are small and disposed in the form of a semi-circle ; the canines are large and strong; the molars are crowned with sharp tubercles. ‘The feet have each five toes, armed with strong curved claws ; the inner toe of the hind feet, however, is desti- tute of a claw, and is so placed as to be opposable to the oth- ers, thus constituting a true thumb. The tail is more or less prehensile at the tip, and hence they are arboreal. The soles of their feet are covered with a naked skin of great sensibility ; the ears and tip of the muzzle are likewise naked. In some species, as D. dorsigerus, (Lat. dorsum, a back; gero, to carry,) the pouch exists only in a rudimentary state, or slight folds of the skin. ‘The young of these species, when of sufficient size, 106 MARSUPIALIA. leave the pouch of the parent and are carried on her back, where they hold themselves by entwining their prehensile tails around thatof the parent. (See Plate V. fig. 7.) The species best known is the common Opossum, D. Virginiana, of the United States, as early as 1649 thus described: “This beast hath a bagge un- der her bellie, into which she taketh her young ones, if at any time they be affryghted, and carryeth them away.” The food of the Opossum is roots, poultry, and wild fruits. Like the spi- der monkeys,. this animal uses the tail for climbing and swinging from branch to branch; it crawls slowly on the earthe When attacked it will feign itself dead, and no, beating will induce it to show any signs of life. Even dogs are deceived, and turning it over, pass it by, The initiated determine whether it be alive or not “by the appearance of the last joint of the tail, which is never relaxed.” From its assuming a feigned character, any adroit cheat, or sly deceitful acting, is said to be “ possuming,” or “playing possum.” It has been said, “if a cat has nine lives, this creature surely has nineteen; for if you break every bone in their skin and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you may come an hour after and they will be gone quite away, or perhaps you may meet them creeping away.”—(Lawson.) The color of the Opossum is greyish white, darker along the sides; the flesh is very white and well tasted; for this it is hunted, but not for its fur. When disturbed or alarmed it gives out a very unpleasant odor. The Virginia Opossum is about the size of a domesticcat. _ Its hair is of two kinds; the lowest a long woolly down, brownish at the tip, through which pass the long hairs of a pure white on the head, neck, and upper parts of the body. The tail is not so long as the body, covered at the base by long hairs, but only scantily furnished with bristles which come out from be- tween the whitish scales that protect it for the greater part of its length. III. Family, the Carporuaca, (Gr. xagds, karpos, fruit ; gaya, phago, to eat.) Fruit Eaters have large and long inci- sors in both jaws; the canines sometimes wanting, and a still longer intestinal canal. They resemble the squirrel tribe, but are more closely related to the Kangaroos, the Kangaroo-rats, (Hypsiprymnos, Gr. “vyunguuvos, hupsiprymnos, high extremity or stern,) affording the connecting link. Of this family are the Poataneens, Phalangista, (Gr. pahayé, phalanx, plu. péhayyes, phalanges, small bones of the hands or toes, (see Plate III. figs. 3 and 4.) These are so named because they have the second and third toes of the hind feet united as far MARSUPIALIA. 107 as the last phalanz, (or small bone,) in a common skinny sheath. They have short, woolly fur, and a long prehensile tail. Among these are the Corscors, (sub-genus Cuscus,) of the Molucca Islands, said to suspend themselves by the tail at the sightof a man. The Petaurus, (Gr. petad, to fly ; oura, tail,) has thirty-eight teeth ; no canines; the skin expands between the fore and hind limbs, enabling it to take very long leaps, supported in the air as by a parachute. In leaping, it is aided by its flattened and bushy tail. P. sciureus, the Norrotk Istanp Sucar SquirREL, or Firy- ING SquirREL, rests by day, but at night skims through the air, half leaping, half flying from branch to branch, feeding upon leaves and insects. The IV. Family is the Poephaga, (Gr. 767, poé, grass, pxyw, phago, to eat,) Grass EATERS. Sub-family Macropodide,(genus Macropus, Gr. long-footed.) The Kanearoos. ‘The aspect of these animals is singular] striking—the front parts are light and graceful, while the hinder parts of the body, limbs and tail are very stout and muscular ; the head. is lengthened ; the ea:. very large; the upper lip cleft ; the whiskers very short and few; the hind limbs have very long tarsi, like those of the Kangaroo-rat, but are much longer and more robust; the tailis long, triangular and very muscular. The teeth are comparatively few, viz.: incisors, £; canines, 0; molars, 4-424, ‘l"he species are numerous. ‘The one best known is the Macropus major, the Great Kanearoo. , The natural posi- tion of these animals is sitting upon their hind legs, in which attitude they are supported by the strong, muscular, and tapering tail. Their movement on all fours is awkward and constrained, but they bound or hop along on their hind limbs with great facil- ity, each leap being about fifteen feet. They easily clear obsta- cles seven or eight feet high. MM. Brunii, Le Brun’s Kangaroo, is the first of the Marsupials with which naturalists became ac- quainted. Itis an inhabitant of New Guinea, and was described by Le Brun as early as 1711. The Kangaroo was discovered by Capt. Cook in his first voyage. Since that period, (1770,) it has been brought over in abundance to Europe and this country ; has bred freely and might become an associate of deer in parks and forests. ‘The conical and tapering form of the body at once suggests to the beholder the idea of great muscular power in the loins and lower limbs, just the opposite to the mole. Its fore limbs are of little use in its forward movements. The defensive 108 MARSUPIALIA. weapon of these animals consists of the large claw of the hind foot, which is lengthened, strong, and armed with a hoof-like nail. With this they can inflict a severe blow; their eyes are full and bright; the mouth small; the ears large and pointed ; the fore paws are divided into five fingers, armed with nails for scratching or digging; the hind feet have five toes, but the two inner ones are very small, and so united in their whole length under the skin as to appear but one. The Great Kangaroo in- habits New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land, and is about five feet without the tail, the length of which is about three feet. The female, like the Opossum, carries the young about in its pouch, from which they emerge when they desire exercise, and leap back again on the least alarm. ‘The largest weigh 140 to 150 pounds. The Kangaroo’s flesh is much esteemed; it is hunted in Australia with a breed of dogs between the mastiff and greyhound. The V. family is the Rhizophaga, or Root Eaters, (Gr. ‘orta, rhiza, root; péyw, phagéd, to eat.) In this we find the Womsar, Phascolomys, (Gr. gaozohov, phaskolion, a pouch; “Ss, mus, a mouse,) Sub-family Phascolomyide. This animal has been described as follows: ‘The Wombat, or as it is called by the natives of Port Jackson, the Womback, is a squat, short, thick, short-legged, and rather inactive quadru- ped, with great appearance of stumpy strength, and somewhat bigger-than a large turnspit dog. Its figure and movements, if they do not exactly resemble those of the bear, at least strongly remind one of that animal. Its length from the tip of the tail to the tip of the nose is thirty-one inches. The hair is coarse and about an inch and a half in length, thinly scattered; thinly set upon the belly, thicker upon the back and head, and thicker upon the loins and rump; the color is of a light and sandy brown of various shades, but darkest along the back.”” The Wombat will not compare with the Kangaroo in swifiness of foot, as most men could runit down. its pace is a hobbling or shuffling, something like the awkward gait of a bear. The flesh is said to be excel- lent meat, and as it is nearly three feet in length, it is suggested that it might be worth naturalizing in other climates, specimens which have been taken to Europe having lived for years. The whole of the Marsupialia, though some are active and sprightly in their manners, present but little appearance of real docility and intelligence ; and this fact, connected with the low degree of development of their brain, points to their inferior rank among the placental Mammalia. To denote this inferiority the boundary lines of this Order are, on the chert, bent round to- a a MARSUPIALIA. 109 wards the Cetacea. ‘The earliest mammiferous animals whose remains are found in the secondary and tertiary formations, are those of this order. Sub-order Monotremata, (Gr. “dv0¢, monos, one ; To7Uc, tréma, perforation.) The animals of this sub-order have given occasion to naturalists for much discussion concerning their proper affini- ties and their appropriate position among the Mammatia. They are truly unique, both in their external form and their anatomi- cal and internal arrangements, the details of which cannot be given in this work. We will only say that “in the form of the skull, the construction of the shoulder and the breast-bone, but particularly in the whole reproductive system of organs, the Monotremata present a manifest departure from a mammalian type, and a corresponding approach to that of the oviparous Ver- tebree, tending to the reptiles more than to the birds.” But how- ever anomalous, it is evident they should have a place among the mammals; and also, though without any external pouch, that the marsupial bones in the skeleton require that they be placed next in order to the Marsupialia, “of which they constitute the lowest and most aberrant type.” These singular animals have no true teeth, but those of one genus have horny substances in the jaw which represent those organs. ‘The muzzle is prolonged into a flat beak, more or less like that of a duck; the eyes are small; the ears are merely minute orifices and without any external conch ; the limbs are short and strong, suited for digging ; the feet have each five toes, furnished with stout claws, and on the hind foot is a kind of sharp spur. The order includes but two genera, viz.; Echidna and Orni- thorhyncus. Both are found exclusively in New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land. Echidna, (Gr. “eztdve, echidna, a fabulous monster or viper.) Of this there is but one species, changing its name with the varia- ~ tionsof itsclothing at different seasons, viz. : E. histria, (Gr.“cotes, a porcupine,) to &. setosa, (Lat. bristly.) The muzzle of this ani- mal is elongated and slender, terminated by a small mouth, having a long extensile tongue, similar to that of ant-eaters and pangolins; , it is, however, more beak-shaped. The skin of this beak is thick and without hair. The animal has no teeth, but the palate is armed with many rows of small spines, directed backwards. The feet are very large, robust, and armed with claws, being formed for opening ants’ nests. ‘The upper surface of the body and of the short tuberculous tail is covered with stout and strong spines, intermingled with stiff, bristly hairs, and when alarmed, 110 MARSUPIALIA. the animal can roll itself up like a hedge-hog or porcupine, with which latter it well compares in point of size. The chestnut colored, soft and silky hair is so abundant at a certain season as to half cover the spines, whilst at another, the hair entirely dis- appears. It lives on ants, with their larvee and pupe. It takes them with its extensile tongue, which it can protrude to a great distance, and which is always covered with an adhesive secretion. The Echidna digs for itself burrows in which it remains during the dry season, coming out of the earth only during the rains. It is supposed capable of enduring a long abstinence, and it has intervals of suspended animation which continue for more than three days at a time, and recur frequently when the animal is kept in confinement. Its strength has been thought to exceed, considering its size, “that of any other quadruped in existence.” Ornithorhyncus, (Gr. 69v1¢, ornis, a bird, and “giyzos, rhunchos, a beak, so named from its bird-like bill.) Two species have been described, O. fuscus, (Lat. dusky,) and O. rufus, (Lat. red.) but the latter differs from the former only in having the fur softer and of a redder tint. It is said that in looking at this animal one would imagine that the beak of a shov- eller-duck had been artificially fastened on the front of the head of a small otter. The beak, which is broader at the tip than at the base, is covered by a thick leathery skin. This skin projects in the form of a loose flap from each mandible, and protects the eyes from the mud in which the animal is perpetually dabbling for food. There are no true teeth, yet back of each mandible are two horny appendages resembling teeth, but without roots, which are of a form verging to a square, with a broad uneven surface, fitted rather for crushing than grinding. Beneath the skin of the face are capacious cheek pouches for the carrying of food. The eyes are bright, but very small and high set; the ears mere orifices which are opened and closed at the will of the animal; the feet have five well developed toes, all armed with long, curved, and pointed claws, connected by a leathery web, which in the fore feet extends considerably beyond the tips of the claws, presenting a broad and powerful oar when in the wa- ter, but folded back when the animal is digging in the earth. On the hind feet the web reaches only to the termination of the toes. In the male the feet are also armed with a stout, sharp, movable spur, formerly regarded as highly poisonous. The tail is broad and depressed ; the fur combines the properties of an aquatic and also ofa burrowing animal, readily expelling both water and dust. A fuil grown ornithorhynchus is about two feet long, measuring beak and tail. The general color is deep brown. with a white MARSUPIALIA. lil spot in front of each eye. ‘These animals are called Water Moles by the colonists. Their favorite resorts are the borders of some stream covered with aquatic plants, where the banks are steep, shaded, and convenient for burrowing. They burrow in a serpentine direction, sometimes to the distance of fifty feet, and ending in a small chamber. In this chamber they place their nest made of dry grass. QUESTIONS ON THE MARSUPIALIA. From what is the term Marsvpratia or Marsupiata derived? Into what two sections is this order arranged? How are these sometimes regarded ? What does Cuvier remark respecting the animals of this order? Which of the two sections deviates least from the general type of mammalia? What is their most striking peculiarity? To what part of the globe are these mammals confined? What is the ground of their division into fami- lies? What is said of the first family, Sarcoppaca? How many genera of this family does Prof. Owen,enumerate? What peculiarities do they show? Describe the Dos-headed Thylacinus or Zebra Wolf? What rela- tion does it bear to the other animals of the group? What js said of the Dasyurus? What species of this animal is mentioned? On what does it feed? How does it appear in confinement? What is said of the Phasco- gale? What species is named? Give the names and characters of the second family. What three branches or sub-families does thisinclude? To which of these does Myrmecobius belong? How many teeth has it? What species of this genus is named? What genus of the leaping section is mentioned? What link do the animals of this genus form? In what re- spects do they agree with the opossums? What species is named and what is said of it? What animals do the Scansoria include? How many species of them? To what region are they confined? How is the term Didelphis compounded? What sub-genusis named? How are the Opos- sums characterized and described? Describe the best known and only spe- cies found in the United States. Give the general character of Fruit-eaters, or the third family. How are they linked to the Kangaroo? What genera and species are mentioned? Describe and characterize the Kangaroos, or grass-eaters. Which is best known? Where is it found? Which of the Root-eaters is mentioned? How 1s it described? How do the Marsupras rank among mammals? Why are the boundary lines of this order carried round next Cetacea? What is peculiar in the Monorremara, and what is their general rank? How many genera do they include? Where found? What is said of the Spiny Ant-eater? Particularly describe the Ornithor- hyncus. What is said of this order along the branches of the Chart? Mention the animals of this order named or figured on it, tracing each. % 112 -EDENTATA. SECTION XVIII. Firth Orper, EDENTATA. (Lat. toothless.) This name was originally given by Cuvier, to the animals of this order, from their agreement in the absence of incisive teeth from their jaws, and in the length of their claws. Apart from this agreement, they appear to have among themselves but little natural affinity. To several of the ant-eating tribe, which this order includes, the name Edentata is literally applicable; but in other genera it is limited to the front, or incisor teeth. In this order Cuvier included the Monotremata, but their most natural place seems to be with the Marsupials. I. Family, Tarpicrapa, (Lat. tagdus, slow, gradior, to step;) also named Bradypodidae, (Gr. 69a0vs, bradus, slow, 20%s, pots, a foot.) This includes two genera, Bradypus tridactylus, (Lat. three-toed,) the Ai, or Stotu, and Choloepus, (Gr. zwhos, cholos, lame, zovs, pous, a foot,) didactylus, (Lat. two-fingered;) the Unav. The ‘Sloths have no incisor teeth, four canines, two in each jaw, fourteen molars, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw. The molar teeth consist each of a cylinder of bone, covered with enamel; hence their surfaces are always concave, the enamel wearing less rapidly than the soft interior. No /amznae, or folds of the enameled substance penetrate the body of the teeth, as in most other animals; the canines are somewhat longer than the molars, and in form pyramidal. When these animals stand erect upon their hind legs, their fingers can reach to the ground; and when moving upon all fours, they trail themselves slowly and painfully along upon their elbows. Their claws surpass the whole foot in length, and are very sharp and crooked. (See Plate VI. fig. 5.) Ina state of rest, they are drawn down upon the palm and wrist, and can be extended only by the will and muscular effort ofthe animal. Sharp, and bent in form, they are so many effective hooks for holding on; while the rigidity of the limbs gives a firm hold; the feet and thighs are jointed obliquely, which adapts them for embracing a branch; and the great length of the arms aids these animals in seizing a fresh hold, and drawing twigs and leaves, their usual food, to their mouths. They are born and live on the trees, and never leave them, unless from the operation of force, or accident, resting not upon the branches, like the squirrel, or monkey, but under them, and moving and even sleeping sus- EDENTATA. 113 pended from them. It is remarked of some which were in a state of captivity, that they assumed, during sleep, “a position of per- fect ease and safety, on the fork of a tree,” the head being sup- ported between the arms and chest, and the face buried in the long wool which covers those parts, and thus protected during sleep, from the myriads of insects which would otherwise assail it. The animals of the other genus, the Unau, or Choloepus didacty- lus, the two-fingered sloth, have essentially the same singular conformation and habits as the three-fingered sloth, and are with those of the other genus, found among the tropical forests of South America. I]. Epentata Proper. MyrmecopHacapart, ANT-EATERS. Myrmecophaga, (Gr. miguns, murmex, an ant, pay, phago, | eat.) The Ant-eaters are distinguished by being entzrely without teeth, and also by their hairy covering. The latter peculiarity separates them from the Pangolins, (Manis,) or Scaly Ant-eaters, of Asia and Africa, which animals, in other respects, they closely resemble. In this family, the jaws are produced into a very long and slender muzzle, which has a mouth of very diminished size. (See Chart.) The phalanges, or small joints of the toes (particu- larly the last,) which bear the claws, are so formed as to allow them to be bent inwards only as in the Sloths; and to this end, have very powerful ligaments, which keep them in a state of re- pose, bent in along the sole of the foot, and do not allow the hand to be opened entirely, but only half extended, as seen in gouty or rheumatic people. (Plate VI. fig. 5.) The toes are of unequal size, and vary in number, in different species; as in the Sloths, they are united closely together as far as the claws, and are not capable of separate or individual motion; but this disability is more than compensated by the increased strength which it pro- duces. The claws are all large and powerful, especially that of the middle toe, which is enormous. In walking, these animals tread upon the outer edge of the foot, which is provided with a large callous pad for that purpose ; whilst their toes being bent inwards, along the palms, the sharp claws are preserved from being injured by the friction of the hard ground. The Ant-eaters are remarkable for their very long and round- ed tongues. With these, they take the ants which are their prin- cipal food. On approaching an ant-hill, the animal scratches it up with his claws, and then protrudes his slender tongue, which has the appearance of an exceedingly long tape worm. The tongue is covered with a glutinous saliva; it is nearly twice the length of the whole head and snout together, and when not ex- _ tended, is kept doubled up in the mouth, with the point directed 114 EDENTATA. backwards. The ants adhere to his tongue when it is thrust into their hills, and by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them. The eyes of the Myrmecophaga are exceedingly small; their ears short and round; the legs robust and amazingly powerful, but so unfavorable for locomotion, that these animals are almost as tardy in their movements as the Sloths themselves, except when put to their speed, at which time, their motion is pretty rapid. Of the Ant-Eaters proper, we name three species. 1. M. jubata, (Lat. maned or crested,) the Great AntT-EATER. This animal is about four and a half feet in length, from the snout to the tail, which is three and one-quarter feet long, so that the entire length of the animal is seven and three-quarters feet ; the height at the shoulders is three and three-twelfths feet, and but two and ten-twelfths feet at the croup, in consequence of which, being perfectly plantigrade, it necessarily stands lower behind than before, as is seen in the bear and badger; the toes are four on the front, and five on the hind extremities. It is sometimes called Ant-Bear, from its mode of defence, which resembles that of the bear. When assailed by a dog, he seizes him between his strong fore legs, and squeezes him to death, or else deals out severe blows with his sharp prehensile claws. The clothing of the Great Ant-Eater consists of long, coarse hair, forming a mane down the neck and back, and enveloping the tail in a thick brush, which trails upon the ground. On the head the fur isclose and spare. The color is generally a grizzled black; a dark black stripe, bordered with white, passing obliquely from the side of the neck, to the upper part of the back. This singular animal has but a single young one at a birth, which for a whole year is carried about with the mother wherever she goes. Its digestive organs seem adapted for extracting nutriment from ants alone. In its habits, it is solitary as well as slothful. Like all other animals living upon insects, it can exist a long time without food. Its flesh, though black, and of a musky flavor, is sometimes found on the tables of Europeans, and by the Indians is highly esteemed. M. Tamandua. (Cuvier.) The Tamanpva. This Ant-Eater is much smaller than the one just described, being not so large as a fox, or even a good sized cat; whereas the Maned Ant-Eater exceeds in length the largest greyhound, though much inferior to that animal in height, owing to the short- ness of its legs. In the conformation of its extremities, and the number of its toes before and behind, the —Tamandua is like the Ant-Bear; but it differs from that animal in the prehensile power of its tail, which makes it essentially an arboreal quadruped. EDENTATA. ‘PES The hair differs also, being short and shining, and of a consistence which makes it a medium as to its qualities, between silk and wook The colors, are, likewise, more variable than those of the Great Ant-Eater. The Tamandua is found in the thick primeval forests of tropical America, living on trees, upon termites, honey, and according to D’Azara, upon stingless bees, which have their hives among the loftiest branches of the forest. ‘The female has but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with her on her shoulders, for the first three or four months. M. didactyla, (Lat. two-fingered, or toed.) Tne Litre or Two-Toep Ant-Eater. | This is easily distinguished from the other two species, by its size, which does not exceed that of a large rat or squirrel; also by the number of its toes, four on the hinder, and only two on the front extremities. ‘The length from the’snout to the tail is but six inches; that of the tail is seven and one-quarter inches; to- wards the point the tail tapers, and becomes naked, and it is strongly prehensile. ‘The snoutis not so long in proportion to the body, as in the other two species; the legs are stout and short; the hair very fine and soft to the touch. Like the other species, the Little Ant-Eater has but one young at a birth, which it con- ceals in the hollow of some decayed tree. 6 Orycteropus Capensis, (Gr. oguxt7, oruktér, a digger; mous, pous, a foot.) The Aarp-Varx, or Earru-Hoe. This animal, of Southern Africa, is also to be numbered with the Ant- Eaters, though there has been some difference of opinion as to its proper location. It resembles both the Ant-Eater and the Armadillo, agreeing with the former in its general habits; but though without any scaly armor, more like the latter in its anatomical structure. Like the Armadillo, it has large and pow- erful claws, adapted for digging up roots and insects, and for making burrows in the earth. When full grown, it is five feet long, from the snout to the end of the tail, which is about half the size of the body. Its tongue is not cylindrical like that of the Ant-Eaters proper, but flat and slender, and cannot be protruded so far. The flesh, particularly of the hind-quarters, is dried-for hams, and much esteemed as food. Manis. (Linneus.) The Pancottn, or Scary Ant-Eater. The name Pangolin, which is given to the animals of this genus, is said to be derived from the word Pangoeling, signifying, in the Javanese language, “an animal which rolls aigelini in the form of a ball.” ‘The Pangolins are limited to the warmest parts of Asia and Africa. In common with the Hairy Ant-Eaters, they are without teeth, and have a very long extensile tongue, 116 EDENTATA. covered with a glutinous mucus, for securing their insect nutri. rnent, but they differ from them in their body, limbs and tails, which have as a panoply, their scales large, imbricated, (. e. hollowed like a roof, or gutter-tile,) and overlapping each other; they differ also in being able to roll themselves up when in dan- ger, by which means their trenchant or sharp cutting scales be- come erect, and present a defensive armor against their enemies. These animals are particularly remarkable for the strength and number of the vertebrae of the tail, (forty-seven in the large spe- cies.) By some they are regarded as a kind of link between viviparous quadrupeds and the Lizards. M. macroura, (Gr. long-tailed,) or M. tetradactyla, (Lat. four- fingered.) (Linneus.) This species, found in Africa, is more than two feet in length, and the tail is more than twice as long as the body. ‘The broad, striated and pointed scales, cover the whole body, except the un- der part; the legs are very short, and also scaled; on each of the feet are four claws, those on the fore feet being stronger than the others. ‘The scales are of a uniformly deep brown color, with a tinge of yellow, and a glossy surface. M. brachyura, (Gr. Beazds, brachus, short; ’ovec, owra, tail,) or M. pentadactyla, (five-fingered.) The Saort-Tattep Manis. This Scaly Ant-Eater is a native of East India, where it re- ceives different names, Tiled-Cat, Land-Carp, Caballe, &c. It has a much thicker and shorter tail than is found in the preceding species; the body is stout, and shorter than the tail. Each of the feet, as the specific term pentadactyla denotes, has five toes; those on the fore feet, except the outer one, which is small, being very strong. ‘Thescales differ in shape from those of the Long-Tailed Manis, and are much larger and wider in proportion to the body and the tail; they are so impenetrable that when the animal rolls itself up, the tiger, panther, or hyaena attempts to force it in vain. The middle claw of the fore paws, far exceeds the others in its proportions, and is admirably adapted for the destruction of the nests of termites, or white ants, which are a great part of its food. It is said the natives “have a method of making a hele in its skin with a knife, and thus of guiding and governing the animal at their pleasure, the point of the knife, which is kept in the hole, goading and irritating him.” It is numerous in Ceylon. Ill. Dasypodidae, (Gr. daovs, dasus, hairy ; 700s, pous, a foot.) The ARMADILLOS. This remaining family are arranged by Cuvier into five groups, They are distinguished by having molar teeth alone, and appear to have a place between the Sloths and Ant-Haters, the latter EDENTATA. 117 being without teeth, and the Sloths, in addition to the molars, having large and powerful canines. Ant-Haters differ from the Sloths and Armadillos, not only by being without teeth, but also by the want of clavicles, or collar bones. The most prominent distinction of the Armadillos, is the peculiar nature of their ex- ternal covering. This consists of a bony, tessellated crust, in which their bodies are enveloped; the hips and shoulders being covered by large, broad bucklers, while the intermediate back is shielded by transverse movable bands, similar in form and ap- pearance to the plate armor of the middle ages. Hence the name Armadillos, (from Armada, armed, and of Spanish origin,) has been given to these animals. ‘The transverse bands which are separated by narrow strings of membrane, overlap each other, as in the ancient coats of mail, so as to give greater freedom, and some degree of lateral motion. ‘The tail, with the exception of one species, is covered with a series of rings; the limbs are in- cased in a hardened, tuberculous sort of skin, and are very short and strong; the toes have strong claws, adapted for digging or burrowing, a process, which, in the light sandy soil traversed by them, they accomplish with surprising celerity. The molar teeth with which they are furnished, are never less than twenty- six in the whole; and in one species amount to ninety-eight! those of one jaw fitting into interstices of the other as in the Dol- phins. (See Plate IV. fig. 11.) The eyes are very small; the ears large ; the long and slender tongue, like that of the Ant-Eaters proper, is lubricated with a viscid saliva, by means of which it readily takes up ants and similar insects, upon which it chiefly subsists. It however, also feeds on farinaceous roots, and on ear- rion, so that in Paraguay, deceased persons who are “interred at a distance from the usual place of sepulture, are obliged to be pro- tected by a lining of strong boards.” In searching for food, it is guided chiefly by the sense of smell; its sight is poor, but this is compensated by the acuteness of its hearing. The Armadillos burrow with such rapidity that they soon disappear in the earth, when suddenly surprised. ‘Their movement is a sort of waddling run, but rather rapid, most of them easily outstripping aman. In Captivity, this is kept up by the hour together, and without any apparent motive. The greater portion of them are nocturnal, never moving abroad while the sun is above the horizon, but re- maining concealed in their burrows. ‘The female bears annually, and frequently six, eight, or even ten at a birth. The Armadillos are able, more or less perfectly, to roll themselves up into a ball. These hardy animals thrive and breed rapidly, with a moderate portion of care, in most temperate countries, but their proper hab- 118 EDENTATA. itat is the tropical and temperate portions of South Ameriea. Of the nine or ten species, we particularize 1. Dasypus Peba, or D. novemcinctus, (Lat. nine-banded. ) The Pesa or Brack Tatu. Pl. VI. This species, found in Paraguay, Guiana and Brazil, varies in the numbers of its bands, so that it is sometimes called D. ocio- cinctus, (Lat. eight-banded,) and D. septemcinctus, (Lat. seven- banded.) Its length, from the snout to the tail, is sixteen inches ; that of the tail is en inches, and its ceed ee at the base, six inches. It is much hunted on account of the delicacy of its flesh, which when roasted in the shell, is fat and well tasted; said to resemble that of a sucking-pig. Of individuals of this species, found in the Zoological Gardens of England, it is re- marked, “they are fed on vegetable diet, and appear to be in ex- cellent health. During the summer, they are allowed the liberty of a little paddock, where, by the singularity of their actions, they attract a crowd of spectators, ‘and come in for a share of the in- terest excited by the gambols of their fellow countrymen, the Spider Monkeys.” (Martin’s Quadrupeds.) D. Apar. The Mataco. The animals of this species are distinguishable from ail others of the genus, by “the faculty which they possess of rolling them. selves up like a hedgehog, into a round ball, in which situation they may be tumbled about, or even, it is said, thrown over preci- pices, without receiving any material injury.” They are, how- ever, less common than some of the other species. D. gigas, (Lat. a giant.) The Great ARMADILLO. | This species have unequal toes and enormous claws, but what most distinguishes the animals of this group, is their possession of from eighty- eight to ninety-eight teeth, a number greater than is found in any other mammal. (Pl. VI. fig. 6.) The Great Armadillo is about three and one-quarter feet long, from the nose to the tail, which is one foot, five inches. It is sep- arated from the other species of this genus, not only by its supe- rior size, but by various remarkable characteristics. Its head is proportionably smaller; the forehead more protuberant; the face rather cylindrical in form, like that of the Peba; the ears are not very large, pointed, and crouched backwards; the bucklers of the shoulders and croup have nine,and eighteen rows of plates respectively, and are separated by movable bands to the number of twelve or thirteen, formed of rectangular scales, about halfan inch square. At the root, the tail is as much as ten inch- es in circumference, and covered with ring plates, at the base, and with crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its length. EDENTATA. 119 The claws are very large and powerful. This animal confines itself to the great forests, and burrows with surprising facility, being assisted in this by the strength of its claws. Those who are employed in collecting the Jesuit’s bark, frequently meet with it in the woods, and report that when any of their compan- ions happen to die at a distance from the settlements, they are obliged to surround the body with a double row of stout planks, to prevent it from being scratched up and devoured by the Great Armadillo.” Chiamyphorus, (gyogew, phoreo, I bear; zaps, chlamus, a cloak.) The Picutaco. This edentate animal seems to blend in itself the characteris. tics of several distinct tribes. Like the Armadillos, it has a tes- sellated shield ; this, however, is not, as in them, attached by integ- uments, to the entire under surface, but is connected with the back only, by a ridge of skin along the spine, and with the skull by two bony prominences from the forehead, the margins of which are beautifully fringed with silky hair. Its feet, eyes and snout, exhibit resemblances to-the mole. From the appearance of the hind part of the tesselated shield, this animal has the specific name truncatus, (Lat. truncated, or cut off.) Naturalists have designated resemblances in it to the Sloth, the Aard-Vark, the Great or Maned Ant-Eater, the Echzdna, and the Ornithorhyncus ; and to the Ruminants and Pachyderms. Dr. Buckland regards it as “one of the nearest approximations to the Megatherium, par- ticularly in regard to its coat of mail, and in the adaptation of the animal for digging.” Dr. Harlan says, “taken collectively, it furnishes us with an example of organic structure, if not unpar- alleled, not surpassed in the history of animals.” The Pichiago is quite small, the total length of the animal being only five inches anda quarter. “It is a native of Chili, but is so rare even there, as to be regarded by the natives as a curiosity.” IV. Megatheridea, (Gr. méyos, megas, great; Oygloy, therion, wild beast.) Fossin Stotus. This is a group of animals of such gigantic size, and massive proportions, that even their fossil remains strike the beholder with wonder and astonishment. Of such a character are these re- mains, that we are constrained to bestow more space upon them than can be given to other fossil tribes. These are the Mecatnu- EROIDS of Professor Owen, whose descriptions of them are ex- ceedingly elaborate and interesting. Of these fossils, the follow- ing genera have been enumerated by him, viz., Megatherium, Megalonyx, Glossotherium, Mylodon, and Scelidotherium, all of which are found in South America alone. Of the Megatherium, two-hoofed. Camel’s foot, showing the pad or cushion which prevents its sinking in the sand. . Llama’s foot, showing the sharp hoof for climbing rocky hills. . Mole’s foot, formed for digging or scooping out the earth. . Sloth’s sharp, strong, crooked claws, for clinging to the branches of trees, on the under side cf which they live suspended. . Foot of the Armadillo, Dasypus, fitted for rapid burrowing. . Lion’s toe. A, represents the toe with claw sheathed. B, shows the retractile apparatus, with claw in same position. C, claw unsheathed. D, claw in same position, with tendons exposed. . Horse’s foot; solipedes, hoofs whole, not cloven or divided. Solidun- gulate, one-hoofed. . Elephant’s foot, showing the horny shoe enclosing all the toes. . Rhinoceros’ foot; three toes on each foot incased in hoofs. . The fore foot or hand of a Seal, used as a fin for swimming. . A Dolphin’s fore fin, flipper or paddle for swimming. . Stomach of*a ruminant or cud-chewing animal, . Esophagus or Gullet, expanding into the rumen or paunch. . Rumen or Paunch. It is the first stomach and much the largest in the adult animal, but small in the young. . Valve allowing the food to pass from the rumen into the reticulum. Hood, Honey-comb-bag, Bonnet, or Reticulum. The second stomach. . Omasus, Manyplies, or Psalterium. This third and smallest stomach does not properly exist in the Camel or Llama. . Orifice of the Omasus. . Abomasus, the fourth stomach, the true organ of digestion, is next in size to the rumen or paunch. In calves it is the largest stomach, the milk passing from the gullet immediately into it. When salted and cured, this stomach of the calf is called rennet, and used for making cheese. 14. Cells of the reticulum or second stomach of the camel. These cells can be dilated so as to contain an unusual quantity of water. Pie ies. Dp : SS RUMINANTIA. 181 forthe support of their burden; one on the breast, two on each of the fore legs and one on each of the hind ones. The toes do not present the true cloven figure, but are united underneath by an elastic pad, or cushion, connecting them together, but leaving the points free and separable, so that a larger surface thus comes into contact with the sandy earth. (Plate VI. fig. 2.) This, in connection with the elastic nature of the sole or cushion, enables the animal to tread with equal comfort over the yielding desert and the hard and arid plain. The Camel has great difficulty in moving upon a soft and muddy soil, as it slips at every step. So great is its aversion to treading upon such soil, it is said, that its drivers “have been obliged to spread their tent coverings over the obnoxious ground in order to conceal its appearance and induce the animal to pro- ceed.” The step of the Camel is noiseless. ‘ What always struck me,” says the writer of a work on Constantinople, “as something extremely romantic and mysterious, was the nozseless tread of the Camel, from the spongy nature of his foot. What- ever be the nature of the ground, sand, or rock, or turf, or paved stones, you hear no foot-fall; you see an immense animal ap- proaching you stilly, as a cloud floating in the air; and unless he wear a bell, your sense of hearing, acute as it may be, will give you no intimation of his presence.” The sense of hearing, in this animal, is very delicate. It seems greatly pleased with the sound of bells, and with the cheering song of its driver; its sense of smell, also, is remarka- bly acute. When the traveler across the desert is suffering from thirst, the camel, snuffing the gale, first indicates, by its dumb show, that the water is nearof which the exhausted pil- grim must soon “drink or die.” The third stomach, or laminated omasus, of the Ruminants, is wanting in the Camels. ‘The paunch or pannel is provided with a large number of cells, in order that water may be retained to serve the wants of the animal in case of extreme necessity. A longitudinal ridge of muscular fibres divides the paunch into two portions, the left containing a row of cells, which, (in the Ara- bian Camel,) holds four or five quarts of water; the right has a smaller series, holding about a quart. (See Plate VI. fig. 14.) When the cells are filled, the fluid is kept from mixing with the food by the contraction of the orifice of each cell, and it can be forced out at pleasure by the action of a muscular expansion covering the bottom of the cellular apparatus. The deep cells of the reticulum are arranged in twelve rows, and are formed by muscular bands intersecting each other transversely. This 182 RUMINANTIA. compartment in the Camel appears destined exclusively as a reservoir of water, never receiving solid food, as in the ox and sheep. Sir E. Home is of the opinion that “Camels accustomed to journey for an unusual number of days without water, acquire the power of dilating their cells so as to make them contain a more than ordinary supply for their journey.” When pressed with thirst, the Camel, by the contraction of the muscles, throws up water into the other stomachs, which serves to macerate its dry and simple food. As it drinks but seldom, it takes in a large quantity of water at a time; and travelers, when straitened for that article, have been often known to kill their camels for the water which they expected to find in them. The large and prominent eye of the Camel enables it to take in a very extensive range; its vision is very keen, but the ani- mal cannot look upward; in the horizontal position in which the head is carried, the brow overhangs the orb so as to shield it from the glare of the sun in a burning sky. The Camel has been called “the ship of the desert.”” Here the Simoon, or hot wind, blowing from the south-east, carries along with it dense yellow clouds of sand, which impede respiration, and are often suffocat- ‘ing to travelers. Even when the lighter winds blow, the fine particles of sand, driven along in volumes, and loading the atmos- phere, would, to animals with wide and open nostrils, occasion the greatest suffering ; but the nostrils of the camel being in the form of narrow oblique slits, which it can open or close at pleas- ure, it is, by breathing gently and gradually, enabled to exclude the suffocating mass. ‘The Camel is full grown at the age of eight years. It generally lives forty years, sometimes much longer. It is said that instances have been known of Camels which have reached the age of one hundred years. ‘The female has one voung at a time which is suckled for a year. Her milk is described as rich, thick, and abundant, but rather strong in taste, though when mixed with water, it is a very nutritious diet. i ye The entire structure of this animal is wonderfully adapted to the region of its abode, and to the habits and uses of man. “The pad or sole cushion of the spreading foot dividing it into two toes, without being externally separated, which buoy up, as it were, the whole bulk, with their expansive elasticity, from sinking in the sand, on which it advances with silent step; the nostrils, so formed that the animal can close them at will, to ex- clude the drift-sand of the parching simoon ; the powerful upper incisor teeth, for assisting in the division of the tough prickly shrubs and dry stunted herbage of the desert; and above all, RUMINANTIA. 183 the cellular structure of the stomach, which is capable of being converted into an assemblage of water tanks,” must be included among the plainest and most striking evidences of the Creator’s wise and benevolent care, as presented in the “Animal King- dom.” The Camel combines within itself nities the possession of any one of which serves to render other quadrupeds absolutely nec- essary to human welfare. “ Like the Elephant, it is manageable and tame; like the horse, it gives the rider security ; it carries greater burdens than the ox and the mule ; and its milk is fur- nished in as great abundance as that of the cow: the flesh of the young one is supposed to be as delicate as veal; the hair is more beautiful and in more request than wool; nay, there is scarcely a part of their frame of which it can be said, zt is use- less.” C. Arabicus. The Arabian CAMEL. Of the two species, this is the best known, and sometimes is called the Dromedary, or runner, (C. dromedarius.) Plate II. fig. 8. The term dromedary is, however, more strictly ap- plicable to a lighter variety, El-Heirie, which is unfit for burdens, but employed when despatch is required. The Arabian Camel is more extensively used than the Bactrian; and from its constitution, appears able to endure, for a greater length of time, the fatigues and deprivations to which these ani- mals are subjected. It isthe wealth of the Arab, and nearly the only beast of burden in Turkey, Persia and the north of Af- rica. Having only a single hump, placed nearly in the center of the back, it is at once distinguished from the other species, which has two; it is also of a size and stature somewhat smaller, being from five to seven feet high at the shoulders. ‘The muz- zle is less swollen than that of the other species; the hair soft, woolly and very unequal, longest on the neck, the throat, and the hump. The color is always lighter than that of the Bactrian Camel, being, while the animal is young, of a dull, dirty white, but becoming, with age, of a reddish gray. The long woolly hair is woven into garments and tents, and the finer hair is im- ported into Europe for the manufacture of artists’ pencils. The best is obtained from Persia. Of the varieties of this Camel, the Turkish and Arabian is the strongest and most hardy. In China there is a swift breed to which is given the poetical name of “the Camel with the feet of the wind.” The Arabian Camel is carefully trained, when young, to kneel and receive burdens. In temper, it is mild, submissive, docile. - ee 184 RUMINANTIA. and patient; but is said to be very obstinate when over-loaded, often refusing to rise if thé burden is felt to be beyond its strength. Numerous caravans of these animals, each with a load of five ar six hundred weight, and arranged in long rows, patiently pursue their toilsome way beneath a scorching sun, at the rate of about twenty-four miles a day ; in some instances, fifty miles have been traversed in that time, but this could not be continued for successive days. Clapperton’s Journal of Travels in the East, (continued by Lander,) after mentioning the arrival of five hundred Camels, with salt, from the borders of the Great Desert, says: ‘They were preceded by a party of twenty merchants, whose appearance was grand and imposing. They -wore black cotton robes and trowsers, and white caps with black turbans, which hid every part of the face, except the nose and eyes. Intheir right hand they held a long and light polished spear, while with their left, they held their shields and retained the reins of the Camels. Their shields were made of white leather, with a piece of silver in the center.’ As they passed me, their spears glittering in the sun and their whole bearing bold and warlike, they had a novel and singular effect which de- lighted me. ‘They stopped suddenly before the residence of the chief, and at the word, (‘ choir,’) each of the Camels dropped on its knees, as if by instinct, while the riders dismounted to pay their respects.” Sometimes, while attending caravans across the deserts, these animals of the swifter breeds perform the office of scouts, keeping a look-out for danger from wandering tribes and for the approach of the water stations. ‘They will then travel from seventy to one hundred and twenty miles in twenty- four hours. The swift Dromedary has been known to perform a journey of six hundred and thirty miles in five days. It will continue at along trot of eight or nine miles an hour for many hours together. A modern traveler, (see Morgan’s Algeria,) says, it was often affirmed to him by the Arabs and the Moors that the express Dromedary “ makes nothing of holding its rapid pace, which is a most violent hard trot, for four and twenty hours upon a stretch, without showing the least symptoms of weariness or inclination to bait; and that having swallowed a ball or two of paste made up of barley, and perhaps a little pow- der of dates among it, with a bowl of water or Camel’s milk, if to be had, and which the courier seldom fails to be provided with, in skins, as well for the sustenance of himself as his Pega- sus, the indefatigible animal will seem as fresh as at first setting out, and ready to continue at the same scarce credible rate for as » RUMINANTIA. 185 many hours longer, and so on, from one extremity of the Afri- can desert to another.” We know nothing of this animal in a wild condition, but in a domesticated state it has existed from the earliest times, in Egypt, Arabia, Palestine and the neighboring countries. Herds of Camels formed no small portion of the wealth of the scriptural patriarchs, (Job, xliii., 12,) and they are mentioned among the acquisitions of Abram on his first visit to Egypt, (Gen. xii., 16.) The Camel was well known to Aristotle, and described by him in his “ Natural History.” Its native country extends from Mau- ritania to China, within a zone of one thousand miles in breadth. The Arabian Camel is found throughout the entire length of this zone, on its southern side, as far as Africa and India. It is nu- merous in the Canary Islands, to which it has been introduced, and found also in Pisa, Italy. After the conquest of Spanish America, an attempt was made to introduce Camels into that country ; but the project was looked upon with disfavor by the “ ruling Spaniards,”’ and the animals gradually dwindled away. Camelus Bractianus. ‘The Bactrian CameEt. This species is found in the northern side of the zone above referred to, including the central portions of Asia and China and Thibet ; occasionally it is seen in other countries. As already stated, it is easily known from the Arabian by its having two humps, one near the shoulders, the other near the croup. This is a stronger and heavier animal than the other species, and nev- er used when dispatch is needed. It is larger than the Drome- dary, being twelve feet in length and eight feet in height, be- tween the humps. The hair is shaggy, particularly under the throat ;,the color generally dark brown, though variations occur in this respect, and also in respect to size, strength and fleetness, according to the breed and climate. The Bactrian Camel can carry a weight of twelve hundred pounds, but from five to eight hundred pounds is the usual burthen. The Camels not long since purchased by the United States government, with a view of testing their utility in crossing the wide extended plains lying between the Mississippi valley and the Pacific ocean, are described by one cf their superintendents “‘as very superior ones, presenting a far more sightly appearance than the miserable creatures which have been exhibited to crowds in the strolling menageries.” He says, “their stride is about 3 feet in length, and with steady traveling they will average 3d miles per hour. They do not kneel to receive their loads, as has 186 RUMINANTIA. ‘ been stated, at the word of command, but with a Kir-r-r, Kir-r-r, and a gentle pressure upon the neck, or a pull upon the halters, they assume the kneeling position.” (Their not doing so, at the word of command, to receive their loads, may be owing to a defect in their early training.) The same writer remarks, ‘their cries are uttered to express their distress or dissatisfaction at all times. When half suppressed, they are the same as the lazy grunt of a hog whose repose is rudely disturbed ; but when enraged, it is much more wild and greatly like that of a Bengal tiger when his keeper ‘stirs him up with a long pole.” We had about 600 pounds of corn on each of them for the first day after leaving Howard’s Ranch; but each day reduces it by feeding until we lay in another supply. They have worked admirably well so far, and promise to fulfill our most sanguine expectations in regard to the experiment.” Give the derivation of Camelide? What orders does this family link? What is said of their teeth? Which is wanting in the Llama? What is peculiar in the upper lip? For what used? What is said of their brow-. sing? How many callosities? Where situated? What is said of the cush- ion on the foot, (see Plate VI. fig. 2.) and the aversion of the animal to mud? What results from the spongy nature of its foot? What is said of its senses of hearing and smell? Give some account of the ceils of the stomach and their uses, (PlateVI. fig. 14.) In what direction does it look? How is the Camel protected against the effects of the simoon? How long doesit live? In what respects does it show the wise and benevolent care of the Creator? What qualities does it combine? Which of the two spe- cies is best known? What is it called? What is said of its powers of en- durance? How is it distinguished from the other species? Where is the _ Baetrian Camel found, and how does it differ from the Arabian C.? How large a burden does it usually carry? What is the habitat of the C.? What is said of the Camels purchased by the U. States? Trace the genera of the Camel family upon the Chart, giving their spe- cific names and a synopsis of each animal. RUMINANTIA. 187 SECTION XXIII. Auchenia. (Gr. ’avziv, auchen, a neck.) THe Luama. We have in this genus the Camels of the Western Continent, inhabiting the Cordilleras of the Andes below the line of perpetual snow. ‘They are found principally in Peru and Chili, though in much fewer numbers than formerly. Sometimes they have been taken into Mexico, but rather as curiosities than for any other purpose. The Llamas were first noticed at Rio Bamba, about. ninety miles south-west of Quito, and not far from the snow-capped mountain of Chimborazo; and at this very spot, they are now seen in considerable numbers. Rio Bamba is 11,670 feet above the sea-level, and the temperature of the air corresponds to this elevation. But these animals, as many as five hundred in a herd, are found at elevations still higher,—say from 13 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, and where the mercury falls every night below the freezing point. They do not, however, advance so high as the line of perpetual snow, preferring rather a middle region affording congenial tempera- ture and food. As a protection against the cold of their elevated abodes, they are clothed with a long and woolly fur. The name Auchenia refers to the long slender neck of these animals, in which they resemble the Camels proper. They are also like them in the great cellular development of the second stomach; the cellular apparatus of the paunch; the absence of the third or plicated stomach, and the concomitant power of enduring thirst, or rather abstaining from water altogether; in the large, full, over-hung eye ; the division and mobility of the upper lip; and the fissured form of the nostrils, and the meagre limbs. Con- trasting the location of these animals with that of the Camels, we naturally look for a deviation in the structure of the foot. The pad which connects the toes of the Camel beneath, would have afforded no very sure footing for an animal destined to climb the precipices of the Andes. We accordingly find in the Llamas toes which are armed with strong nail-like hoofs, (Plate VI. fig. 3,) completely separated from each other, and each defended with its own pad or cushion,—thus admirably adapted to firm progression either in ascent or descent; while there is nothing inthe structure to hinder great rapidity upon comparatively smooth and level ground. ‘The humps of the true Camels are not found on the backs of the Llamas, yet there is said to be in the latter a con- tw “0s mle bee 188 RUMINANTIA. formation resembling those excrescences, and “consisting of an excess of nutritious matter, in the shape of a thick coat of fat under the skin, which is absorbed as a compensation for want of occasional food.” The genus Auchenia is now generally considered to include three species, viz., the Auchenia Llama, or Guanaco, which is used for burdens, and the Auwchenia Alpaca and the Vicugna, which are raised for their flesh and wool. Cuvier regards the Paco or Alpaca, as a variety of the Llama, with the wool more amply developed, but the Vicugna as a distinct species. Llama is the common term with which the Peruvians designate their sheep. The wild Llama is usually of a deep rich fawn, verging to white on the under parts. ‘The wool is long and shaggy, but shorter on the neck and limbs than on the body. The long slender neck is “held erect and swan-like;”’ the head is small; the lips are thick; the eye large and brilliant. On the breast, there is a bunch which constantly exudes a yellowish oily matter. The length of this animal is six feet; the height at the shoulders about four. ‘The reclaimed Guanaco or domes- ticated Llama, is greater in size than the wild animal; the body is slender, and the limbs more muscular; the wool smoother and closer ;—the physiognomy is no longer wild and independent, and its air betokens mildness and subjection. The color is white, brown, black, and sometimes mixed or piebald. Its step is slow and regular, and it has not the strength or energy of the wild Guanaco ,—carrying at the most but one hundred and fifty pounds. Under this load, however, it will travel with firm and sure step fourteen or fifteen miles a day, along rugged mountain-passes ‘ and the narrow ledges of precipitous rocks; but if loaded too heavily, or. urged beyond its wonted pace,—camel-like, it lies down and refuses to move another step. All that the conductor can do, in such a case, is to sit down by the animal and wait until “by his blandishments, he prevails on it to rise spontane- ously.” The difference in weight and speed between this animal and the Camel, the Peruvians make up in the great numbers which they use of these beasts of burden,—one drove sometimes including more than five hundred that subsist in traveling as they are able. Formerly these animals were used in bringing dawn the products of the mines, and 300,000, it is said, were once employed in the mines of Potosi alone. Mules, however, are now chiefly used for that purpose; though the Llama is still employed to some extent; its labor involving less expense. The white Llama is said to have been the presiding divinity of the natives of Callas before that province was annexed to the empire RUMINANTIA. 189 of the Incas; the “priests of the sun” sacrificed it, at stated sea- sons, to the orb of day. Frequently the Llama, but preferably the Alpaca, was a pet in the Indian’s cabin. In intelligence these animals rank high among the ruminants. As regards patience and resignation, they are said to equal the ox, while in point of sensibility, they are unsurpassed by any other quadrupeds. The size and shape of the eye indicate a strong and quick sight as well as a peculiar capacity for bearing the reflection of the sun’s rays in the same manner as the Camel resists that glare of the sands which in man so often produces ophthalmia. (Gr. blearedness of the eyes.) Auchenia Liama. The Guanaco. The animals of this species are rather larger ther sheep, but smaller than heifers. ‘Their compact bodies, their long legs, and their feet having toes armed with nail-like hoofs, fit them for dwelling in their wild state, among crags and precipices, where the hunter would be foiled if he dared to venture. Vast herds of wild Guanacos associate, during the summer, free as the air,—feeding upon the herbage of their elevated abode, and the grass or rush called icho, which covers the mountain slopes. As long as green and succulent vegetables can be procured, the animal never drinks. The cells of the stomach in this animal probably retain the moisture of the masticated vegetables for the necessities of the system, perhaps even adding to it by a liquid secretion of their own. It is a proof of Divine Providence that formed to dwell in such regions, the Guanacos are not only able to live without water, but if they can obtain their natural food, do not even require it. Auchenia Alpaca. Paco, or Aupaca Luama. The great peculiarity of this species is its long, fine and silky wool, covering the neck as well as the other parts of the body. The staple of our common wools is not more than six inches long; but that of the Alpaca averages from eight to twelve, and sometimes reaches twenty inches ;_ acquiring ” strength without being accompanied by coarseness,—the reverse of which occurs in other woolly tribes. Each filament, or thread, appears straight, well formed, and free from crispness; and the quality is more uniform throughout the fleece. There is also a glittering bright- ness upon the surface, which gives it the glossiness of silk, espe- cially, when it comes out of the dye-vats. It is distinguished by softness, an essential property in the manufacture of fine stuff; and being exempt from spiral, curly and shagey portions,— when not too long, it spins easily, and yields an even and true thread. It is, besides, less liable than other wool to form knots 190 RUMINANTIA. difficult to unravel; it is not injured by keeping, nor does it lose in weight; and it is less subject to injury from moths, as the fol- lowing fact will show. A small bundle of Alpaca wool, with a few locks of other wool mixed with it, was accidentally thrown into a closet and forgotten. At the end of twelve months, the closet was opened, when it appeared that the moths had nearfy eaten up the common, without injuring, at all, the Alpaca wool. The fleeces of Alpaca wool range, in Peru, from ten to twelve pounds each, whereas, “those of our full sized sheep seldom go beyond eight pounds, and the small species four pounds.” As far back as the days of Philip II., efforts were made to introduce these animals into Spain; but failed through the intervention of war. ‘They were taken to France, in the days of Napoleon L., where they have found a congenial climate; and they have lived to their full period in the low lands of Spain. They have also been bred in Hamburg and in England, where the wool seems to improve. The staple of some Alpaca wool from the Earl of Derby’s flock, was exhibited in England some ten or twelve years since. This appeared about a foot long, and it was estimated the animal had seventeen pounds of it on his back. The meat of the Alpaca has been compared to “venison, and even heath-fed mutton.” Its quality could hardly fail to be good as the animal eats nothing but the purest vegetable sub- stance, and in habitual cleanliness, is said to surpass every other animal. The Alpaca is also far less subject to disease than sheep; and as it seldom perspires, the fleece does not require washing before it is taken from the back. It has extraordinary foresight of storms, and. power to contend with them, so that, in its native climes, seldom is one missing after a tempest. The first marketable fabric made from the wool of this animal, was presented at Greetland, near Halifax, (Eng.,) about twenty- five years ago. It was there sold, at a very high price, in the form of ladies’ carriage shawls and cloakings, as curiosifies. The quantity manufactured and used since that time, has steadily and greatly increased. From Alpaca wool, plain and figured stuffs @are produced, which have a beautiful luster. ‘The difficulty which was at first found in dying it, being now overcome, the most deli- cate colors are obtained, such as royal blue, scarlet, green and orange, aS seen in the mousselines de laines, and other ladies’ dresses now in use. The blacks are superior, and the damask patterns very showy in their appearance. In some instances, Al- paca takes the place of Angola, or goat’s hair wool; and in France, RUMINANTIA. 191 it has been used for cashmeres and merinoes. English capitalists have introduced the animal into the colony at the Cape of Good Hope, where it has succeeded well, the shearing yielding eight and a half pounds a sheep. Alpaca goods are, to some extent, man- ufactured, and largely imported, and used in the United States. Alpaca Vicugna, or Auchenia Vicufia. Tne Vicuna. This is a much hardier animal than the Guanaco. It inhabits ranges nearer the line of perpetual snow, where the cold is in- tense, and is rather pleased than annoyed by snow or frost. In size, itis less than the Guanaco. ‘The wool is of a pale yellow- ° ish fawn color, and exquisitely fine, having a texture which may be termed si/ken. Itis used for manufacturing expensive shawls and other articles of dress. For the sake of it, eighty thousand of these animals, it is said, are killed every year. They are not unlike goats, except that they are larger,, and have no horns. ‘The Vicunas are found in flocks, appear timid, and flee at the sight of men and of wild beasts. What is the habitat: of the Llama? Where was it first noticed? To what does the name Auchenia refer? In what particulars do they resem- ble the Camels proper? What deviation is there in the structure of the foot? (Pl. VI, fig. 3.) Has it the humps of the Camel? How many species are included in the genus Auchenia? What are their respective uses? How did Cuvier regard the Alpaca and Vicugna? How do the Peruvians use the term Llama? Describe the wild Llama? What is the size? What is said of the reclaimed Guanaco as compared with the wild Llama? What of its uses as a beast of burden? What of the White Liama? How do these animals rank in intelligence? What is the size of the Guanaco? Upon what does it feed? What proof of divine providence is referred to? What is the great peculiarity of the Alpaca Llama? What is said of its wool? How early were attempts made to introduce it into Spain? When were they taken to France? In what other countries have they been bred? What is said of the cleanliness of the Alpaca? When and where was the first marketable fabric made from the Alpaca wool? Where is most of the spinning and weaving of this wool now performed? What is further said of its manufacture? How does the Vicugna compare with the Gwanaco in hardiness and size? What is said of its wool? What animal does it resemble ? What Llamas are named upon the chart? What is said of them? Trace them ? 192 RUMINANTIA. SECTION XXIV. CAMELOPARDAE. (Gr. xduyhos, kamelos, a camel; mégdadec, pardalis, a leopard.) Tue CAMELOPARDS. These singular and beautiful ruminants, in their general struct- ure, most nearly approach the Deer, but have points of resem- -blance also to the Antelopes and Camels, besides striking pecu- liarities of their own. ‘They have persistent horns, common to both sexes, and are the tallest of all known quadrupeds; fre- quenting the wooded plains and hills that skirt the arid deserts, or the verge of mighty forests where groves of mimosa trees beautify the scenery. Camelopardalis Giraffe is the sole species, including two varieties,—the one native to Nubia, Abyssinia, and the regions adjacent, and ranked by Swainson as a distinct species,—the other, found in Southern Africa.* (See Chart.) The general characters of the Giraffe are the following, viz., “Lip not grooved, entirely covered with hair, much produced before the nostril; tongue very extensile; neck very long, and having a short thick mane; body short; hind legs short; false hoof none; tail elongate, with a tuft of thick hair at the end.” This animal at once impresses the beholder with its towering height, varying from fifteen to twenty feet. The males are generally fifteen or sixteen, and the females thirteen or fourteen feet in height, and their young at birth, six feet. Its thickness _ is not what might, perhaps, be expected from the height. In order to support its very long neck, (but having only the number of bones found in the human neck,) the withers are ele- vated; the spinal processes of the vertebrae are prolonged to meet the elastic ligament which runs along the neck, and assist to keep it in its natural position. It is said above,—“the hind legs are short.” This describes them as they appear; but in reality the front and hind legs are about the same length; the * The Commentator on the ‘Pictorial Bible,” where a good eut of the Giraffe is given, says, with reference to the word Chamois, used, Genesis iii., 21, ‘‘The Arabic version understood that the word Giraffe is meant here, which is very likely to have been the case, for the Chamois is not met with so far to the Southward as Egypt and Palestine.” The Jews had, probably, many opportunities of becoming acquainted with the animal while in Egypt, as had also the seventy (translators of the Septuagint) who resided there, and who indicate their knowledge of it in their translation of the Hebrew name.’ RUMINANTIA. 193 thighs in front are so long in comparison with those behind, that the back of the animal seems inclined like the roof of a house; and this gives to it an appearance of unwieldiness and unfitness for active movements. But the seeming drawbacks related to its structure and condition, are balanced by marked and peculiar advantages. A man on horseback can, without stooping, ride under the body of the animal,—the height to the tip of the shoulder being ten feet. Why that neck of prodigious length? Why the disproportioned height of the fore and the hind parts of the body, giving to the animal its appearance of unwieldiness and clumsiness? ‘The answer is,—the animal derives a large part of its food from the leaves of trees, particularly the mimosa,— a species of acacia, called acacia giraffe. ‘The peculiarity of the Giraffe’s form enables it to reach the high branches which are uncropped, because above the reach of ordinary animals; and a shorter neck, on the other hand, would not have allowed it to reach the earth in districts where woods are less common. In reaching the high branches, it is also aided by the tongue, which has the power of motion in such a degree, accompanied with the faculty of extension, that it performs “the office of the proboscis of an elephant in miniature.” This organ may be extended sev- enteen inches after death, but in the living animal, can lie so diminished in size as to be inclosed within its mouth. Ac- cording to Sir Everard Home, its actions depend on the com- bined powers of muscular contraction and elasticity ; its increase and diminution of size arising from the blood vessels being at one time loaded with blood, and at another empty. The Cam- elopard seizes the foliage with its long and narrow tongue, using it as a prehensile organ, and a beautiful accessary to the other parts of the structure,—rolling it around the object with considerable pliability. The tongue is used as an organ of examination, for the power of prehension is so great, that when extended to the utmost, it can grasp an ordinary lump of sugar, of which the animal seems very fond. He retroverts the tongue for the purpose of cleansing the nostrils,—an office which its flexibility enables him to per- form in the most perfect manner. ‘The tongue, it is said, can be so tapered as to enter the ring of a very small key. The eyes are large and prominent, and soft and gentle in their expression ; the ears large and spreading; the lips, especially the lower one, being movable; the head is small, but elegantly modeled, taper- ing to the singularly narrow muzzle, with a well-formed mouth. Both the male and female Camelopard have horns,—not such as are periodically shed and renewed; nor yet true and promi- 194 | RUMINANTIA. nent horns, like those of the Antelope, but consisting of two porous, bony substances, about three inches long, with which the top of the head is armed, placed just above the ears, and crowned with a thick tuft of stiff upright hairs; a considerable protuberance also rises in the middle of the forehead, between the eyes. By some, these horns muffled with skin and hair, are said to be “useless as instruments of defence,”—others say,— * We have seen them wielded by the males against each other with fearful and reckless force.” ‘The Giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly elevating the head; but strikes the ecal- lous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack With a sidelong sweep of the neck. The imperfection of the horns has been plausibly ascribed “to the state of the circulation of the blood in the arteries of the skull.” The long neck is supposed to impede the circulation, so that the vital stream ascends with difficulty,—it rises slowly, in more moderate quantity, and is “inadequate for a supply of osseous matter, remarkable either for its abundance, or its rapid elaboration.” Who does not see the wisdom of this ordering? What could the long-necked Cam- elopard do with the ponderous horns of the Moose, or the Wa- pite? “It is not for nothing that the neck is elongated, that the head is light, and the tongue made flexible ;—it is not without design that the horns are rudimentary; for such modifications the instincts and the habits of the creature demand; the one part involves the other.”” Professor Owen has noticed a further beautiful provision in this animal, which is, that -its nostrils are provided with cutaneous sphincter (Gr. ogryym, sphingo. to con- strain) muscles, and can be shut at will. like the eyes. He supposes that the object of this mechanism, is to keep out the sand when the storms of the desert arise. The hair of the Giraffe is short and close; the ground color of a light grayish fawn, marked with numerous triangular spots, with a darker hue, less regularly shaped on the sides than on the neck and shoulders. The Northern variety of the animal is of a paler color than the Southern. | The eves of the Giraffe are so placed that he can see much of what is passing on all sides, and even behind, without turning the head. Hence it is difficult to approach him: and when surprised or run down, he directs most accurately the rapid storm of kicks with which his defence is made. Ordinarily, however, this ani- mal seeks safety in flight. Its motion is extremely rapid, espe- cially along rising ground; but cannot be maintained for a sufficient time to enable it to escape from the Arab mounted on his long-winded steed. The pace is an ambie; the animal RUMINANTIA. 195 moves two legs on each side at the same time, but when put in motion, it ean, for a while, keep a horse at a pretty smart gallop. The lamented Anderson says, in his “ Lake Ngami,”—*“It is a curious sight, a troop of Giraffes at full speed, balancing them- selves to and fro in a manner not easily described ; and whisking, at regular intervals, from side to side, their tails, tufted at the end, while their long and tapering necks, swaying backward and forward, follow the motion of their bodies. ‘They are so long-winded, that a swift horse seldom overtakes them under less than two or three miles.” The author of the “Menageries” remarks,—* Until the year 1827, when a Giraffe appeared in England, and one in France, the animal had not been seen in Europe since the 15th century, when the Soldan of Egypt sent one to Lorenzo De Medici, which was familiar to the inhabit- ants of Florence, where it was accustomed to walk at ease about the streets, stretching its long neck to the balconies, and first floors, for apples and other fruits, upon which it delighted to feed.” In 1836, four Giraffes were introduced into England by the Zoological Society, at an expense of between eleven and twelve thousand dollars. One of them soon died; but the others lived, and one of the females had several young ones, which were sold and taken to different parts of the world. In our own country, the Camelopard is often exhibited. ‘The animal, it is said, is often seen in a tame state, xt Grand Cairo, in Egypt, and is found figured in the sculptured remains of that country. Pompey the Great exhibited in the theatre, ten of these ani- mals, which he had brought from the scenes of his military enterprise. His rival, Julius Cesar, also exhibited them. After him, several Roman Emperors showed themin the public games and processions. All these were probably obtained from the northern or north-eastern part of the African Continent, and by way of Evypt. What is said of the structure of the Camelopards? How many varieties and where found? What are the general characters of this animal? What its size? How is its long neck supported? Are its hind legs really shorter than its fore legs? What compensation is referred to? What aids it to reach high branches? What is said of the tongue? Has this animal horns? Why are they imperfect? What provision is noticed by Professor Owen? How do the varieties differ in color? How do the eyes of the Girage assist him in self-defence? What is the remark of Anderson? What more is said? What is said on the chart of its size ? 196 RUMINANTIA. SECTION XXV. ; Moscuipak, or Musk Deer. (Gr. “0070s, moschos, a Musk.) These are so called, from the fact, that one species yields the well-known perfume, called musk. According to Cuvier, “they are much less anomalous than the Camels, and only differ from the other Ruminants in the absence of horns, in having a long canine tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which comes out of the mouth in the males, and, finally, in having in their skeleton, a slight fibula, (clasp, or connecting link,) which has no existence in the Camels.” The distinction of the other canine tooth noticed by Cuvier, is not, however, confined to the Musks,—as some of the males of other deer, the Muntjak, for example, show a similar forma- tion; that of the Méschus moschiferus, (Lat. musk-bearing,) is three inches long. In general form, the Musk deer differ only a little from other Deer; but the body is rounded and stouter, and the neck shorter,—the head is not carried erect, and the bearing not so bold; the limbs are more tapering, and tne hind quarters considerably elevated; the face is narrow and length- ened, and they are destitute of horns. None of them have tear openings, or tufts of bushy hair on their legs, like the other deer. They have large, dark and brilliant eyes, rather small ears, and short tails; they have also front and hind hoofs,—the front hoofs being long, narrow and pointed, the hind ones high set, small and conical. In the true musks, however, the hoofs are broad and expanded; the hind ones large, almost touching the ground. Besides the true and celebrated Musk Deer, the family includes four other species, one found in Ceylon, and three in Java, in- cluding the smallest, and according to some, the most elegant of the Ruminants. Moschus moschiferus. The Txrpet Musk. (Plate VIL. fig. 1.) This is a mountain animal,—timid, shy, and a lover of soli- tude, having somewhat the form of a roebuck, but thicker and more clumsy. It is six inches higher behind than at the shoulder, where it measures about two feet three inches. ‘The ears are long, and rather narrow; in the inside, pale yellow, and dark brown, outside. The hair is long, coarse and harsh, and mixed with brown yellow, and whitish, which produces a dark red tinge on the back, fading off to whitish beneath,—the tail is nearly rudimentary, and covered by the hair; a tuft hangs on each side from the lower jaw. This animal being extremely cautious, and Seah 2 2 é ‘ Lees fe ea ee Pyne ness dag my ea . & . . \ TINGS X\y Pee DAS: Uh. (G = EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. DEER. . The Musk-Deer, Moschus Moschiferus. The Common Stag, or European Red Deer, Cervus Elephas. The Moose, Flat-Horned Elk, or Black Elk, C. alces. The American Elk, Round-Horned Elk, or Wapiti Deer, Elephas Cana- densis. . The Caribou, or American Reindeer, C. rangifer or R. Tarandus. . The Fallow Deer, C. Dama or Dama vulgaris. . The Roe-buck, C. Capreolus or Capreolus Dorcas. . The Muntjak, C. vaginalis. hee ole aa 00 ~I GS Or Ox. . The Musk Ox, Ovibos Moschatus, Little Bison of the Chipewyans and Copper Indians. © SHEEP. 10. The Moufflon, Ovis musimon or Caprovis musimon, Wild Sheep or Siberian Goat of Pennant. 11. The Argali, or Wild Sheep, Caprovis Argalis, 12. The Many-Horned Sheep, Ovis polycerata. GOATS. 13. The Syrian Goat, Capra Syriaca. Its large pendulous ears are from one to two feet long, and at times so troublesome that the owners are obliged to trim them. Amos iil. 12. 14. The Ibex, Capra Ibex. ANTELOPES, 15. The Kudoo, Antilope strepsiceros. 16. The Blessbok, A. albifrons. 17. The Prong-Horned Antelope, A. Americana or Antilocapra A. 18, The Common Antelope, or Sasin, A. cervicapra. 19. The Dorcas Gazelle, A. Dorcas, or Gazella Dorcas. 20. The Oryx, A. Oryx, or Oryx Gazella. 21. The Chamois, or Gems, A. rupricapra, or R. Tragus. 22. The Mhorr, Gazella Mhorr, or A. Mhorr. 23. The Gnu, or Gnoo, A. Gnu, or Catoblepas Gnu. 24. The Bekker-el-Wash, or Wild-Ox of the Arabs, .A. Bubalis, or Alcepha lus Bubalis. ; he 200 RUMINANTIA. residing among broken crags and precipices covered with pines, is yet eagerly, and often with peril of life, hunted for its perfume, peculiar to the male alone. Its habits are similar to those of the Chamois,—it climbs and bounds over the Alpine ridges of Cen- tral Asia with astonishing activity, assembling in herds, and sometimes in considerable numbers. Occasionally, it is killed with a cross-bow, a string having been set in the path of the animal, The bag containing the perfume, is kidney-shaped, and about the size of a hen’s egg. It has two openings, the larger one oblong, the smaller round, and covered with hair. The musk, on the application of pressure, may be driven through the openings,—it is an unctuous, dusky red substance, and when dry, is more or less granulated. The hunters cut off the bag and tie it up for sale; but like many other articles of commerce, it is often adulterated by the addition of blood and other matter, and pieces of lead have sometimes been found enveloped in it for the purpose of increasing the weight. The quality and quantity of the musk in a given bag vary, according to the age of the ani- mal. To the taste, it is bitter, and somewhat acrid. No sub- stance is known to have a stronger, or more subtle and perma- nent smell. It strikingly illustrates the extreme divisibility of matter, for a single grain of it will perfume a whole room, and its odor continue for days without any diminution. When once introduced, it is exceedingly difficult to destroy its perfume. Vessels of silver do not for a long time part with the scent of musk that has been placed in them. When exposed in large quantity, its effect is really violent upon the nervous system ; blood has been forced from the nose, eyes and ears of those who have imprudently inhaled a large amount of the vapor. Pur- chasers of the article sometimes secure themselves from the sud- den effects of the smell by covering the face with a handkerchief several times folded. For nervous diseases and convulsions, it has been used as a medicine. Orientalists make warm winter dresses for themselves out of this animal’s skin, with the fur preserved; they also prepare from it a soft and shining leather. The Romans and Tartarseven eat the flesh, though that of the male is highly flavored with musk. Moschus Meminna. The Meminna. This beautiful little Musk, about seventeen inches in length, and weighing only five and a half pounds, is a native of Ceylon, frequenting woods and groves, but never found in the plains. It has large dark eyes, and smooth shining hair, of an olive color, clouded with reddish about the limbs. The sides are dappled with interrupted lines and irregular dots of white; the throat RUMINANTIA. 201 and chest are also white, and from the former, two lines of the same color on each side radiate backwards, the lower one ex- tending to the shoulders. (This peculiar marking specifically varied in a slight degree, characterises the remaining species of this genus.) | Moschus Napu. The Napvv, or CHEVROTAIN. This Musk Deer is a native of Java, and is about the size of a rabbit,—the legs are scarcely as thick as a common quill; the general color is a uniform ferruginous brown, clouded with black; and the animal has throat marks as above referred to. To this species, Sir Stamford Raffles has given the specific name Javanicus. He remarks, that it “frequents thickets near the sea-shore; and feeds principally upon the berries of a species of Ardisia ; can be easily trained when taken young, and will become quite familiar.” : ~ Moschus Kanchil. Kancuit Musk Derr. This is by some regarded asthe most elegant, as it is one of the smallest of the Ruminantia,—and is also found in Java and Sumatra. Its height is about nine inches; its length, four- teen. The color is a deep yellow brown, approaching to black on the back, a bright bay on the sides, and on the under parts white. ‘The markings of the throat have the upper line of white extending from the face to the shoulder, differing in this respect from those of the Napa. It has long canine teeth, and a tail tufted and white at the tip. Berries and wild fruit consti- tute its food. Among the Javanese, it is said to have a reputa- tion for strategy similar to that of the fox. A Malay proverb describes a great rogue as being “as cunning as a Kanchil.” “Tftaken in a noose laid for it, the Kanchil, when the hunter arrives, will stretch itself out motionless, and feign to be dead ; and if, deceived by this manceuvre, he disengage the animal, it seizes the moment to start on its legs, and disappears in an in- stant.” A still more singular expedient is mentioned, viz., “that when closely pursued by the dogs, the Kanchil will sometimes make a bound upwards, hook itself on the branch of a tree by means of its bent tusks, and there remain suspended, until the dogs have passed beneath.” Linnzeus placed tbe Musk Deer between the Camels and Deer. Swainson places them between the Camelopards and Deer. Why are the MuskDeer so called? What is Cuvier’s remark respecting them? What is said of their general form, &c.? How many species does the family include? What is said of the size of these animals? Describe the Thibet Musk? What is its great peculiarity? What shows the powerful nature of the Musk? What property of matter does this illustrate? To 202 ¥ RUMINANTIA. what medicinal use has it been applied? Give some account of the Me- minna? What peculiarity has it in common with the remaining species of this genus? Where is the Mapu found? What does Sir Stamford Raffles say of it?) Where is the Hanchil found? What is its size? What reputation has it among the Javanese? What Malay proverb is mentioned? How is its cunning illustrated? Where did Linnzeus and Swainson place Musk Deer? Where are they placed on the Chart? SECTION XXVI. Sotip-Hornép RumINAnts. Cervipar. (Lat. Cervus, a stag.) The Deer Famity. We come now to a group of animals which have been ever greatly admired. They seem, many of them, to have been formed to embellish the forest, and impart animation to the sol- _ itudes of nature. In their internal structure, they closely resemble the ox, but they are “without the gall-bladder; the kidneys are formed differently ; and the spleen is larger in pro- portion to the size of the animals.” Of the genus Cervus, the general characters are simple. Incisor teeth are found, eight in number, in the lower jaw alone; the grinders are six on each side above and below; the canine teeth are generally wanting. The pupils of the eye are elongated, and below the inner angle of the eye, there is a deep fossa, or opening, generally known as the Jachrymal sinus. In some, this opening, ealled by the French, darmiers, (from Fr. /arme, a tear.) is of considerable size. It has been supposed “to communicate with the nostrils, and assist them in maintaining respiration, during great exertion or swiftness; ” but its use is not fully ascertained. The cavity secretes a wax-like substance, which sends forth a strong odor. The ears are large and pointed; the tail short; the legs slender; and the feet bisuleated. The horns, or antlers ——excepting in the case of the Rein Deer, found alone inthe males.—are solid, and in a large part of these animals, annually shed and renewed. “The form of the horns is various. Sometimes they spread into broad palms, which send out sharp snags around their outer edges; sometimes they divide fantastically into branches, some of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared up- ward in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect ~ posture ; yet, in whatever way they grow, they appear to give an air of grandeur to the animal.” The geographical range of the Deer includes the entire globe, with the exception of Austra- lia and Southern Africa, The species found in the colder —— RUMINANTIA. 203 regions, are generally marked by superior size, and a greater development of the horns ; and by having a broad muzzle cov- ered with hair. The production, loss and renewal of the antlers of this family of quadrupeds, are among the most remarkable phenomena of animal physiology. The subject is treated with great ability and clearness in W.C. L. Martin’s work on the Mammalia, from which we extract the following: “The horns are seated upon an osseous peduncle, or footstalk, rising from each frontal bone at its central point of ossification,— thes: peduncles are enveloped in skin. [t is not until in the spring, or beginning of the second year, that the first pair of horns begin to make their appearance. At this epoch, a new process com- mences, the skin enveloping the peduncle swells, its arteries enlarge, tides of blood rush to the head, and the whole system experiences a fresh stimulus. The antlers are now budding,” for, on the top of their footstalks, the arteries are depositing lay- ers of osseous matter, particle by particle, with great rapidity. As they increase, the skin increases in an equal ratio, still cov- ering the budding antlers, and continues so to do until they have acquired their due development and solidity. This skin is a tissue of blood vessels, and the courses of the large arteries from the head to the end of the antlers are imprinted in the latter in long furrows, which are never obliterated. In ordinary lan- guage, the skin, investing the antlers, is termed velvet, being covered with a fine pile of close short hair. Suppose then, the antlers of the young deer, now duly grown, and still invested with this vascular tissue; but the process is not yet complete. While this tender velvet remains, the deer can make no use of his newly acquired weapons, which are destined to bear the brunt of many a conflict with his compeers; it must, therefore, be removed; but without giving a sudden check to the current of blood rolling through this extent of skin, lest, by directing the tide 1o the brain, or some internal organ, death be the result. The process then is this:—As soon as the antlers complete, (ac- cording to the age of the animal,) the footstalk, always covered with skin, they begin to deposit round it a bone, or rough ring of bone, with notches, through which the great arteries still pass. Gradually, however, the diameter of these openings is contracted by the deposition of additional matter; till, at length, the great arteries are compressed as by a ligature, and the circulation is effectually stopped. The velvet now dies for the want of the vital fluid; it shrivels, dries and peels off in shreds, the animal 4 6 204 RUMINANTIA. assisting in getting rid of it by rubbing his antlers against the trees. They are now firm, hard and white; and the stag bears them proudly, and brandishes them in defiance of his rivals. From the burr upwards, these antlers are no longer part and parcel of the system,—they are extraneous, and held only by their mechanical continuity with the footstalk on which they were placed; hence their deciduous character ; for it is a vital law, that the system shall throw off ali parts no longer intrinsic- ally entering into the integrity of the whole,—an absorption process soon begins to take place just beneath the burr, removing particle after particle, till at length the antlers are separated and fall by their own weight, or by the slightest touch, leaving the living end of the footstalk exposed and slightly bleeding. This is immediately covered with a pellicle of skin which soon thick- ens, and all is well. The return of spring brings with it a re- newal of the whole process, and a finer pair of antlers branch forth.” The rapidity with which this firm mass of bone is secreted, is worthy of particular notice. The budding horns of a male Wapite, are several inches high in ten days from their first ap- pearance ; a month afterwards there is an interval of two feet between them, measuring from branch to branch. When the process is ended that completes the horn, the deer seems con- scious of his strength, and goes forth prepared to encounter any creature, even man himself, that may dare to invade his haunts. Thus he continues for a season,—but when he again sheds his horns, betakes himself to the recesses of the forest until they are replaced. ‘The Common Stag sheds his horns about the end of February, or in the month of March ; the Fallow Deer from the middle of April to the first week of May. In the Stag, the horns do not appear until the second year. The first shed, is straight, or single, like a small thrust sword or dagger,—whence the young male is termed Daguet, (Fr. dague, a dagger,) by the French; the next horn has commonly but one antler; the third has two, and sometimes three; the fourth has three or four, sometimes five or six. Up to this time, the animal is called a Young Stag,—the fifth horn has five or six antlers; the sixth is shed when the animal is about seven years of age. in addition to the growth of antlers, the horns become larger, have the fur- rows more marked, the burr more projecting; and the supports of the horns become, every year, shorter and wider. By these signs, the age of the animal, from eight years and upwards, is determined. After the seventh year, there is no fixed rule as to the antlers. They are multiplied towards the summit of the RUMINANTIA. 205 Ay beam, where they are united into a sort of crown, and are said to be palmated. ‘The oldest have not usually more than ten or twelve antlers; though it is said some have borne the enormous number of thirty-three. (See Plate VII. fig. 2.) Deer are remarkable for the acuteness of their hearing and smelling, and it is therefore very difficult for the hunter to ap- proach them when he follows the course of the wind. They are very nice in choosing their food, and will not eat that which has been handled or touched by any foreign substance. The flesh of many of these animals, as is well known, is used for food, and familiarly known under the name of venison. Strong and lasting leather is made from their skins. According to Dr. De Kay, (N. H. 8S. N. Y.,) this family “comprises forty-five real or nominal species, distributed, according to the ideas of sys- tematic writers, into eight or ten genera. But six species are found within the United States, and of these three only exist in the State of New York.” Elaphus Canadensis, or C. Canadensis. The American Srac, or Wapiti, or Rounp-Hornep Ex. This animal, which is frequently called the Canada Stag, is of a much larger and stronger make than the Stags of Europe; and in fact is one of the most gigantic of the deer tribe, being from four to five feet in height and from seven to eight feet in lencth. ‘Their horns are shed annually ; they are round and very large, branching into serpentine curves, but never palmated, and measuring six feet from tip totip. (Plate VII. fig. 4.) Under the throat of the male is a dewlap composed of black hair from four to six inches long ; the tail, in both sexesis very short. Most of the upper parts of the Wapiti are of a lively yellowish brown color; the neck is mixed red and black; the rump yellowish, bounded bya dark, circular marginal line; the limbs on the front arédeep brown; the tail yellowish. The Wapiti feeds on grass and young shoots of trees; is easily tamed and has been trained to the harness. It is said to make a shrill, quivering noise, “ not very unlike the braying of an ass.” The flesh is somewhat coarse, and not highly valued; but its hide, when made into leather is said not to turn hard in drying after having been wet, a quality which places it in high estimation. The Wapiti is found, not only in the northern parts of this continent, but on the western prairies, and in California, Oregon, and New Mexico. C. axis. The Axis. (ere named by Pliny.) Of this beautiful deer there are two varieties. ‘The common Axis, in its size and general form, nearly resembles the fallow deer, being, at the shoulder, about two and a half feet in height. 206 RUMINANTIA. It has a rich fawn-colored skin, spotted with white, arl@ hence sometimes receives the specific name maculosa, (spotted.) Along the back the ground-color changes to nearly black; but the un- der parts are snow white. A broad dusky spot appears upon the forehead, and a line of the same color extends along the middle of the nose. The Axis is a native of India, and is particularly numerous on the banks of the Ganges. It roams among the thick jungles, near streams of water, and is hunted under the name of the Spotted Hog-Deer. This animal feeds in the night, is timid, mild and inactive, excepting when the females have young, at which time the male is bold and fierce. It has been kept with success in menageries and parks, to which, from its form and color, it is highly ornamental. The larger variety, A. major, (Lat. greater,) a native of Borneo and Ceylon, is about the height of a horse, and has horns which are three-forked, thick and rugged, and nearly three feet long. Capreolus Dorcas, (Gr. dogx«s, dorkas,a gazelle,) or C. capre- olus, (Lat. Roebuck or Chamois.) The Roesucx. This species of deer, once common in England, is now con- fined chiefly or entirely to the Highlands of Scotland. ‘They are of less size than the fallow deer, being only two feet four inches in height, and three feet six inches in length. ‘The color is reddish brown on the back, the chest and under parts of the body are yel- lowish, and the.croup white ; the horns are round, divided into three branches, and about nine inches long. (Plate VII. fig.7.) The Roebuck does not live in herds, but singly and in pairs, amongst the _ shady thickets and risingslopes. Thisdeer is very cunning, when pursued, sometimes baffling the dogs by making a few enormous leaps, waiting until the dogs have passed and then resuming its former track. It is said to be very fond of the Rubus sazatus, called in the Highlands, the Roebuck-berry. In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, these animals browse on the tender branches of the fir and birch. The flesh is delicate food, and the horns are used for carving-knives. By the old Welsh laws, a Roebuck was valued at the same price as a she-goat. It can be easily subdued, but never perfectly tamed, always retain- ing some portion of its natural wildness. C. leucurus. (Gr. devxds, leukos, white; ovge, oura, a tail.) The Wuite-Taitep Derr. : This resembles the European roebuck. On the Columbia river it is the most common deer; the tip and under part of the tail are of a cream white. i C. macrotis. (Gr. uaxgos, makros, long; ovs, ous, ear.) The Muze Derr. Be RUMINANTIA. 207 This takes its name from its long ears, which are half the length of the whole antler. The hair is waved or crimped like that of the elk ; upon the thighs near the croup it looks like white thread cut off abruptly. C. elaphus. (Gr. elagos, elaphos,a stag.) The Rep DezEr, or Stac. This noble species is found native in the European forests and in those of Asia where the climate is temperate. It is the largest of the English Deer, associated with the forest laws, so oppressive that they affixed a less value to the life of a man than that of a stag; and it is blended with the legends of deadly feud, as in the celebrated ballad of “Chevy Chase.” The Red Deer is distinguished by its brown color, and a pale spot on the rump, and sometimes attains a great size. Pennant speaks of one that weighed 314 lbs., exclusive of the entrails, head and skin. Ac- cording to Buffon, the small size of some of these animals is ow- ing toa deficiency of nourishment, as in rich pastures its size be- comes greatly increased. The horns are round, having the antlers turned towards the front, the summit terminating in a fork, orsnags from acommoneenter. (Plate VII. fig. 2.) It is very common in France, and is supposed to have been originally introduced from that country into England. Inthe latter country it is now largely superseded by the common or Fallow Deer, which is of a more manageable and placid disposition and affords far superior venison. The Red Deer has a fine eye, an acute smell and a good ear ; when listening, raises his head and erects his ears; when going into a coppice, or other half-covered place, stops to look around him on all sides, and scents the wind to discover if any object be near that might disturb him. He eats slowly, and after his stom- ach is full, lies down and leisurely ruminates. The pursuit of this deer is a very favorite amusement in Eng- land, summoning into action all the energy of youth and man- hood. The animal in stalking is generally shot; but when wounded and, yet able to fly, the dogs are let loose in the chase. In olden times, the dogs were mainly relied on for taking and killing deer, so that fleet and courageous hounds became the pride of nobles and princes. It is said he is particularly de- lighted with the sound of the shepherd’s pipe, and is by that instru- ment sometimes lured to his own destruction. In winter and spring, this animal rarely drinks, the dews and herbage being suffi- cient to satisfy his thirst ; but during the parching heats of summer, he not only frequents the brooks and springs, but searches for deep water wherein to bathe and refresh himself. He swims with great ease and strength, particularly when he is in good condition, his. 208 RUMINANTIA. © fat contributing to his buoyancy. The female bears one young, seldom more, in or near the month of May. The fawn, or ca/f, as it is called, the first year, does not quit the dam during the entire summer. ‘The female is most assiduous in concealing and tending the young one, which is needful to secure it against as- saults, not only from the cat and dog tribes, but even from the stag himself, who is not overstocked with paternal affection. C. Dama, (Lat. a Fallow Deer.) The Fattow Deer. This has the same general form, aspect and manners as the Stag, with a more gentle disposition. The size is smaller, but the chief difference between the Fallow Deer and the Stag re- lates to the horns, (Plate VII. figs. 2 and 6,) which, in the former, are broad and palmated, at their extremities pointing a little for- ward, and branched on their hinder sides. It is less delicate than the stag in its choice of food, ana browses much closer; is at full maturity when three years old. There are two varieties of this animal in England, where it adorns the modern parks. The beautiful dappled variety is sup- posed to have been brought from the south of Europe, or the western parts of Asia; the other very deep brown variety is said by Pennant to have been introduced by James I., from Nor- way. On the continent of Europe, as well as in England, they are confined in parks; but they are found wild in Moldavia as well as Lithuania. The venison of this Deer is of the richest and most delicate kind; the skins of the buck and doe are unri- valed for durability and softness; the horns, like those of the stag, are manufactured into knife handles and other articles, while from the refuse, ammonia or hartshorn is extracted. This species is represented in the sculptures of Nineveh. C. Virginianus. The American Derr. This species resembles the English Fallow Deer, and is so named by Professor Emmons, (Mass. Report.) The color is bluish gray in the autumn and winter, dusky reddish in the spring, changing to bluish in the summer; the yougg animal is spotted with white. The horns are of moderate size, curving forward, having the concave part in front, ‘‘ with from one to six points occasionally palmated.”’ In the adult males the horns show a great variety, which is regulated by their age, the season of the year, and the abundance or scarcity of their food. These animals range from Canada to Mexico. In some places, the united attacks of men and wolves are largely diminishing their number. Their horns are usually cast in the winter. Dr. De Kay says the reason so few of the horns are found, is that as soon as they are shed they are eaten up by the Rodents or gnaw- é RUMINANTIA. 209 ing animals. ,[n frontier countries these animals are exceedingly useful, not only for the food which they furnish, but for their skins, which form an important article of commerce. They live upon twigs of trees, shrubs, berries and grasses; for the buds and flowers of the pond-lily, they are said to show a peculiar fondness. The female has one, sometimes two fawns at a birth, in the latter part of spring or early in the summer. C. alces. (Lat. an Elk.) The Exx or Moose. Flat-Horned Elk, Black Moose or Elk. (See Plate VII. fig. 3.) This animal, surpassing all the true deer in size and strength, is found in the northern parts of Europe and America. The name which it bears is of Celtic origin, coming from “ Elch,” whence is derived the latter word alce or alces, which is the Celtic trans- ferred to the Roman language. In America, it is known under the various names of Flat-Horned Elk, Black Elk, or Moose. The latter, which is the more common term, is a corruption of the Indian appellation, Moosoa or Musee, wood eater. ~The Elk is six or seven feet in length, and from four to five and a half feet high at the withers; the head is large and elon- gated, and is, including the upper lip, covered with short pro- jecting and flexible hair, something like that of the Tapir; the eyes are moderately large, and placed near the base of the horns; the ears long and asinine; the neck very short and strong and furnished with a mane; the lachrymal pit is small ; horns are found in the male only. The hair of the lips and throat, in connection with its very long and flexible tongue, serves to direct food to the mouth. The food consists of shoots and twigs of trees, particularly of striped maple; the Elk also feeds upon high coarse grasses, but when wishing to graze, reaches the ground with difficulty, and sometimes feeds leaning on its knees. It likewise peels old trees and feeds upon the bark. During the summer, Elks frequent the neighborhood of lakes and streams, often resorting to the water asa refuge from tormenting musqui- toes, and feeding upon aquatic plants; like the C. Virginianus, they are said to be particularly fond of the roots of the pond- lily. In winter, they betake themselves to the wooded hills. The Elk can hardly be said to be gregarious, but two or three being seen together, except at particular seasons. Some natu- ralists consider the Moose of this country to be a different species from the Elk of Europe, asserting that in the heavy palmated horns of both, there is a difference which indicatesa diversity of species ; but according to DeKay, this difference is not uni- form, and the animals should be considered of the same species. The horns, perfected in the fifth year, are from ten to twelve feet 210 RUMINANTIA. apart, and weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. The snags or branches sometimes amount to twenty-eight. The body of the Elk is round and compact, supported by legs of disproportionate length; the hair is full and coarse, longest upon the head and Withers; it is black at the tips, gray in the middle, and white at the roots. The dress of summer is of a browner tint than that of the winter. (See the figure above the Camelopard on the Chart.) In its ungainly form and awkward movements, this animal ex- hibits a strong contrast to the others of the same family. The shoulders being rather higher than the croup, it does not bound like the deer, nor gallop like the horse, but shuffles or ambles jalong, its joints or hoofs cracking at every step. Like those of the Rein Deer, the hoofs are broad and divided so that they di- verge on pressing the ground, thus giving the animal a sort of natural snow-shoes. When each part is brought smartly together by the sudden raising of the limbs, the cracking noise above mentioned is produced and may be heard at a considerable dis- tance. When increasing its speed, the animal straddles his hind legs to avoid treading on its fore heels, tossing about the head and shoulders when breaking from a trot into a gallop. In its progress, it holds up its nape so as to lay the horns horizon- tally back, and prevent their entanglement among trees. The Moose is a timorous and wary animal, and as its senses offhear- ing and smell are acute, must be approached with great caution. When it notices the coming of the hunter, it at once endeav- ors to escape, trotting off with great rapidity; at this gait, it soon leaves the hunter far in the rear, stepping with ease over fallen timber of the largest size. When hard pressed by the hunters wearing snow shoes, if it breaks into a gallop they soon overtake it; though in the winter it may sink at every step, it still keeps. on its way, the sharp ice wounding its feet, and its lofty horns becoming entangled in the branches of the forest as it passes along. The trees are broken with ease, and wherever the Moose runs, the hunter perceives it by the snapping off of branches of trees as thick as a man’s thigh with its horns. The chase may last in this manner for a whole day, sometimes for two or three days together; for the pursuers are often “not less excited by famine than the pursued by fear.” The poor animal “at last quite tired and spent with loss of blood, sinks like a ruined building, and makes the earth shake beneath his fall.” The flesh is highly esteemed; the nose and tongue in particular are thought to be great dainties. The Elk can be easily domes- ticated, and has been used for draught. The male sometimes RUMINANTIA. 211 Ff becomes very large, attaining the, weight of eleven hundred pounds. Elks were formerly used in Europe for conveying couriers, and could accomplish 36 Swedish, or 234 English miles in a day, when attached to a sledge. Dorelli, a Swedish gentleman, recommended that they should be used in time of war as flying artillery, to reconnoitre and carry dispatches. The skin is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished with waistcoats made of Elk’s hide, which could ranally, be penetrated by a ball. C. rangifer, or Rangifer tarandus. The Rein Deer. The Deer of this species have received many names. They are found throughout the arctic regions of Europe, Asia and America; but those of Lapland and Spitzbergen are said to be the finest. Their general height is about four and a half feet: their horns are long and slender, having round, branched and recurved antlers, the summits of which are palmated; (Plate VII. fig. 5;) the body isof asthick and square form; the legs are stouter in proportion than those of the Stag; the size differs with the cli- mate, those in regions farthest north being the largest ; the color is brown above, varying, however, with the age of the animal and the season of the year. As the Rein Deer grows older, it often be- comes of a grayish white beneath, and sometimes almost entirely white; the space about the eyes is always black. Both sexes have canine teeth; both also have horns, but those of the maie are larger, longer, and more branched than those of the female. The male sheds his horns about the last of November; the fe- male retains hers until she brings forth; if barren, she drops them in the beginning of November. The horns, during the early part of their growth, are extremely sensitive, and the ani- mal experiences much suffering from the gnats and musquitoes. The hoofs are long, large and black, as also are the false or see- ondary hoofs behind. While the animal is running, the latter hoofs, as in the Elk, make, by their striking together, a remark- able clattering noise, which may be heard at a “considerable dis- tance. Richardson, who has given many particulars respecting this Deer, thinks that in the fur countries of this continent, at least two varieties exist, called by him the * Barren Ground Caribou,” and the “ Woodland Caribou.” The Woodland animal goes south in the spring, and is confined to wooded districts ; the Barren Ground animal goes northward, retiring to the woods only in the winter, and passing the summer on barren grounds, or on the borders of the Arctic Seas. Bucks of this latter vari- ety, when in good condition, weigh, according to Richardson, from 90 to 180 lbs., without the offal. Sir John Franklin states 2912 RUMINANTIA. the weicht of the Woodland Caribou to be from 200 to 240 Ibs. It has been asserted that some Rein Deer have weighed as much as 400 lbs., though the correctness of this is questioned. The Rein Deer of Norway and Sweden are small when compared with those sf Finland and Lapland, which, in their turn, yteld to those of Spitzbergen, and these again fall short of the Polar races. The Barren Ground Caribous feed, in summer, upon the shoots of grasses growing in the valleys of the north, returning to the woods in September ; they there feed upon the tree lichens and mosses found on the rocks and ground. They root for the lichen like swine in a pasture. The forehead, nose, and feet, are covered with a hard skin closely attached to those parts, and are thus guarded against injury by the icy crust which covers the surface of the snow. The Rein Deer of the Eastern conti- nent are sustained by the same kind of food as the American animal. ‘The Caribou is not less necessary for the support of our northern native tribes, than the Rein Deer of the Eastern Continent for that of the Laplander and otier people of the north. Of the Caribou horns the Indians make their fish spears 5 the hide, dressed with close and compact fur and remarkably imperv- ious to cold, forms their winter clothing, and from it is made a soft and pliable leather for moccasins and ‘summer garments. When sixty or seventy skins are sewed together, they make a tent sufficient in size for the residence of a large family. By pouring one third part of melted fat over the pounded meat, and incorporating them well together, a composition called pemmican is made. This, if kept dry, may be preserved for three or four years, and containing much nourishment in small bulk, is well fitted for use in extensive journeys, as is abundantly proved by the experience of traders and others traversing the northern lati- tudes. Another mixture, called thucchawgan, made of pounded deer’s meat and fish, is either eaten raw or made into soup. The Caribous travel in herds varying in number from eight or ten to two or three hundred; their daily excursions being gener- ally towards the quarter from which the wind blows. They are approached with more ease than any other deer found on this continent. A single family of Indians have sometimes destroyed two or three hundred in the course of a few weeks, ‘To the In- dians this animal is solely a beast of chase, not, as among the Laplanders, being used for purposes of draught. It is hunted or taken in traps or pounds, or lured to its fate by cther artifice. Sometimes the hunter takes advantage of the animal’s inquisi- tiveness, by creeping behind an object affording him partial con- cealment, where he imitates the bellowing-of the animal, at the RUMINANTIA. 213 same time having his deer skin coat and hood drawn over his head. In this attempt he seldom fails to shoot down the animal before he comes within a distance of twelve paces. The rude inhabitants of the whole of northern Asia use the Rein Deer as a beast of burden; but in Lapland, where it is essential to meet the wants of a pastoral people, it is most highly appreciated. In that country the horse and ox could not exist ; but the Rein Deer supplies their place, furnishing, as it does, food and clothing, and submissively and patiently yielding its labor. ‘The movements of the Laplander and his habits of life are, in fact, controlled by his deer. He must go where they go in search of lichens and mosses, and is obliged to make periodical journeys involving much labor and fatigue, in order to keep them from being an- noyed by the gadfly (Oestrus Tarandi,) which not only torments them with its sting, but even deposits its eggs in the wound which it makes in their hides. Often the hides are pierced in a hun- dred places, like a sieve, by this insect; and some deer die in the third year from this cause. The Laplander flees with his deer to the mountains in order to escape this insect, not only, but the scarcely less dreaded musquitoes, which are more ferocious in the cold climates than in the tropics. His deer are the Lap- lander’s wealth. When in good circumstances he has three or four hundred of them, and can live in comfort. He who has only one hundred is thought to be in a condition somewhat pre- carious, while he who has but fifty commonly joins his animals with the herd of some richer man, and himself performs the neces- sary menial service. The civilization of Lapland, which is on the advance and promoted by intercourse with other nations, depends upon the Rein Deer as the only beast of burden and conveyance. When a traveler crosses the border line of Lap. land, he must, for further progress, like Bayard Taylor, step into the sledge drawn by the rapid Rein Deer. ‘The sledge isa light vehicle, running, not on wheels, but on its flat boards, which are covered with leather. The Rein Deer is yoked to it by a collar, and guided by reins attached to its horns. ‘ “‘Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe Yield to the sledge their necks, and whirl them swift O’er hill and dale, heap’d into one expanse Of marbled snow, far as the eye can sweep, With a blue crust of ice unbounded, glazed.” With the usual load of from two to three hundred pounds, they will trot over the glazed snow at the rate of ten miles an hour. Journeys, by these animals, of one hundred and fifty 214 RUMINANTIA. miles in nineteen hours are not uncommon. In. truth, some sto- ries of their swiftness would appear incredible, if not so fully at- tested. Pictet, with three deer, went in 1769 to the north of Lap- land, in order to observe the transit of Venus. “The first per- formed 3089 feet, 8 inches and 9°, in two minutes, making a rate of nearly nineteen English miles an hour; the second went over the same ground in three minutes, and the last in three minutes and twenty-six seconds.” One is recorded to have “drawn, in 1699, an officer, with important dispatches, eight hundred English miles in forty-eight hours; and the portrait of the poor deer, which fell dead at the end of its remarkable journey, is still preserved at the palace of Drottingholm, Sweden.” C. muntjac, or Cervulus (Lat. dim.) vaginalis. (Lat. sheathed.) The Muntsac or Kizane, of India. (Pl. VII. fig. 8.) This animal is a little larger than the Roebuck ; has a pointed head and rather large ears; its eyes are large with lachrymal sinuses; the tail is short and flattened; the male has large ca- nine teeth in the upper jaw ; the female has none, and is without horns. The horns in the male are short and simple, “ rising from a footstalk apparently beneath the skin, and running ob- liquely upwards, one on each side of the forehead, beginning as low down as the inner angle of the eye.” On the face, two rough folds of the skin, following the direction of the prominent part of the forehead, unite so as to mark the face with the letter V. The general color is a reddish brown above; the under ~ parts and front of the thighs, pure white. The Chinese Muntjak is of a grayish brown color, with pale ringed hair. ‘The Munt- jak is one of the most elegant and beautiful of the deer kind. It possesses “‘a great portion of craftiness, combined with much indolence.” As it gives forth a strong scent, dogs easily follow its path. In its flight, it is at first very swift; but it soon slack- ens its speed, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which it started. After making several such circuits, if still followed, it thrusts its head into a thicket, and thus remains fixed, as in a secure place, unmindful of the approach of the sportsman. The male animal has a great share of courage, and when the dogs are at bay with him, he makes, with his tusks, a most vigorous defence, and many dogs are wounded in the attack. Dr. Horsefield, whose account of this animal is the most satis- factory, states that the Muntjak “ selects for its retreat certain dis- tricts which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these dis- tricts are known as the favorite resort of the animal for several generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, di- versified by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities RUMINANTIA. 215 of the more considerable mountains, or approaching the con- fines of extensive forests.” ‘These districts, common in Java, are “covered with long grass, and shrubs, and trees of moderate size, growing in groups or sm°'l thickets.” The long grass, saccharum spicatum, and a plant called. Phyllanthus Emblica, constitute the principal food of the Muntjak. The flesh is said to afford excellent venison, and is often found on the tables of European residents. Among the Mahrattas, this animal iscalled Baikar. It uses its long sinuses apparently for the purpose of smelling, “dilating them to a great extent, and applying them to various objects.” The Sourn American Derr form a beautiful group. Of these we can notice only Ist, C. nemorivagus, (Lat. nemus, a wood ; vagus, wandering,) —the Gauzu-viva, a delicate little deer, which is but twenty-six inches in length, approaching, in its aspect, that of the sheep. In this species, the lachrymal si- nus, or tear pit, is scarcely perceptible. The lower part of the. head and legs is whitish; about the eyes, on the inside of the fore legs and under part of the body, the color is a_palish cinna- mon; the neck and other parts brownish. ‘The horns are very short. It is found in Brazil. Zea gies, (lat. xed.) Lhe Prra. This is about twenty-nine inches in height; in its general color reddish brown, but in some parts whiter. It lives in the low marshy grounds of South America; is found in large herds, and “as ten females are seen for one male,” and as the former are without horns, the existence of deer on this continent, with- out horns, has by some been incorrectly reported. ‘The Pita shows little power of endurance when pursued, being soon run- down by dogs; sometimes it is captured by the lasso and balls. Fossst Cervipz have been discovered, the most remarkable of | which is the Megaceros (great horned) Hibernicus, the gigantic Irish Deer, larger in size than the Moose; the antlers over five feet in length, from the burr to the tip, in a straight line, and nearly eleven feet apart, reckoning from the extreme tip of the right to that of the left antler. QUESTIONS. What is said of the internal structure of the Drrr Famiry? Give their general characters. Are the horns found in both sexes? What is said of their form? How extensive is the range of the Deer? What is remarked of the loss and renewal of the antlers? Briefly describe the process. At what. time does the Common Stag shed his horns? How soon, in the young animal, do the horns appear? What determines the age of the Stag? 216 RUMINANTIA. How many antlers have the oldest? What is said of their hearing and smell? How many species does the family include? How does the W’«j,7- _i2 compare with the European Stag? What is said of his horns? What other characteristics are given? Upon what does it feed? Is its flesh highly valued? Where is it found? How many varieties of the Azis? Describe the Common Axis. Where found? What do the hunters call it? What is said of the larger variety? Where is the Roebuck now found? Give its size and other particulars. What is said of the White-tazled Deer ? What of the Mule or Long-eared Deer? Where is the Red Deer, or Stag found? With what is this associated? How is this distinguished? What is said of its size or weight? What species has largely superseded this in England, and why? What is said of the chase of the Deer? Give other particulars. How does the Mallow Deer compare with the Stag? When is it mature? How many varieties in England? Where is it found wild? What is said of its venison? From what part of the animal is hartshorn obtained? Which English sp. does the American or Virginia D. resemble? Describe it. What is its. range? Why are so few of its horns found? How is it useful in frontier countries? What is said of the size of the E/k? What is the origin of its name? What isthe animal called in this country ? Expiaim the term J/oose. Name its characteristics. Of what roots and twigs is it particularly fond? Does the Am. differ from the Eur. sp.? What is said of its horns, hair, &c.? How does it contrast with other Deer? What is peculiar in its hoofs? What of its efforts to escape from hunters? For what purpose were Elks formerly used in Europe? Of what regions is the Rein Deer a native? Give its size and other characteristics. How many varieties, according to Richardson, are found on this continent ? Give the weight of each? Which Rein D. are the largest? On what dees the Caribou feed? What is saidof itsuses? What is pemmican? What is thuechawgan? How does the Caribou travel? For what do the In- dians use it? How isit hunted? What are the uses of the Rein D. on the Eastern Continent? How does it affect the character and condition of the Laplander? What is said of the size of the M/wuntjac? Give some ac- count of its disposition and habits. What 8. American Deer are mentioned ? Give some account of them. Which is the most remarkable of the fossil Deer? Compare the description of the Flat-horned Elk with the figure above Camelopard, on the chart. Give the genera, species, &c., of the Rovid- horned Elk or Wapiti. What else is it called? Trace the Rein D. and compare the description in the book with the figure on the chart. SECTION XXVII. Bovina. (Lat. Bos, an ox.) The Oxen.—Bisuleated. (Lat. Bis, two; sulcus, furrow, two hoofed or furrowed.)(P1. VI. fig.1.) The animals of this family have characteristics easily recog- nized and generally familiar. Both sexes have horns which are permanent, hollow and smooth, except at their base, where they are ringed ; also rounded and tapering to a point, so as to form a crescent... The horns are supported by bony cores, having cavities, or cells communicating with the interior of the skull; r ¢ ° RUMINANTIA. SUT the muzzle is large; the neck thick, deep and compressed,—its skin forming a pendulous dewlap ; the body is heavy and mas- sive; the limbs stout; there is a distinct ridge upon the back, which is sometimes produced into a dorsal hump ; ; the expression of the countenance is often, particularly in the males, malignant and threatening, betokening the ferocity that belongs to several of the species;—the Cow and Ox, however, exhibit a quiet, decided gentleness of physiognomy. ‘The oxen are social in their habits; and some are gregarious, associating in immense herds, as the Bison or Buffalo. The organs of digestion in this family are.after the same plan as those of the other ruminant, or cud-chewing animals, and need not be here particularly de- scribed. The main food of the Ox family is herbivorous ; for although they do browse upon shrubs and trees, yet grass ‘and herbage they prefer. (For the kind of teeth in this family, see Plate LV. fig. 10.) When hungry, they have been known to feed on plants not designed for their use, and by which they have been injured. Meadow-Saffron, (colchtcum autumnale,) for instance, is deleterious to them if taken in any large quantity ; and Hellebore, (Helleborus,) is said to be poisonous to them; Yew, ge bac- cata,) is fatal to them, as it is to herbivorous animals generally. In a state Bi eneieaicd nature,’”’—that is, when not ale fed, or at all using artificial grasses, but roaming at large, oxen are said to eat two hundred and seventy-six plants, and to reject two hundred and eighteen. Heifers waste away in enclosures where the Meadow-Sweet, (spiraea ulmaria,) grows in abundance, and covers the ground; but to the Goar this is nourishing food. The present races of wild cattle are probably all descended from those which were, at some period, subservient to man. ‘The an- cient Urus, or Wild Ox, was a savage, untamable animal, with large spreading horns, and of great size. Bos taurus. (Lat. a Bull.) This animal, with flat forehead, and the withers not humped, was properly regarded as the type of the entire tribe. ‘This species includes the Common Ox which is so widely diffused, and of such extended and varied utility ;—of which more than forty synonyms have been given. The horns dif- fer much as to their form and direction, from the influence of domestication; the colors are various, as reddish, white, gray, brown and black. “The male is called a bull; the female, a cow; and the young, a ca/f ; the name Ox is given to the gelded male; and he is called an ox-calf, or bull-ealf, until he istwelve months old; a steer until he is four years old. and after that an ox or bullock.”’ | The Ox is less used for farming purposes than formerly; the 218 RUMINANTIA. horse and improved agricultural implements taking its place; it reaches its full vigor in three years, and its term of life is about fourteen. The breeds of the animal are numerous, and gener- ally distinguished by the length or shape of the horns. The « Durham,” or short-horned breed, is perhaps most valuable for the dairy, as well as fora tendency to fatten rapidly, and at an early age.” The “long-horned,” the “ middle-horned,” and the “polled,” or hornless breeds, have each their particular values. The “Alderney Cow,” with “crumpled horn,” has long been celebrated for the richness of its milk. Within the last half century, many and successful efforts have been made to nebo the breed of cattle both in England and in this country.* Con- siderable benefit has resulted from the labors of Agricultural Societies, and, in particular, from the stimulus which, by the offer of premiums, they have given to the raising of cattle for exhibition at the annual County and State Farirs. The uses of the Ox are well known, and we need not describe them; every part of the animal isof value. Formerly, the cruel sport of bull- baiting was much practiced ; and in some countries, particularly Spain, it is still a popular diversion. Bos Indicus. ‘The Zexzu, or Braumin Butt, of India. (See Chart. Thi is distinguished for a more lengthened form of the head, with a decidedly concave line of profile; an arched neck; a lump of fatty substance rising from the withers; an arched back, sinking and rounded off on the hinder part; an enormous dew- lap dangling down in folds; long, pendulous ears 5 a mild and sleepy eye; and long and tapering limbs. The size varies from that of a large mastiff to that of a full grown buffalo. Over the whole of Southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipela- go, and the eastern coast of Africa, the Zebu supplies the place of the Ox. In some places, it is saddled and ridden, or harnessed in a carriage; traveling from twenty to thirty miles in a day. Its beef is inferior to that of the Ox. The hump is deemed the most delicate part. This sometimes becomes greatly increased in size, and has even been known to reach “ the enormous weight of 50 lbs.” Among the Hindoos, the Zebu has a “charmed life.” They venerate this animal, and hold its slaughter to be asin; though they do not object to work it. In the streets of Calcutta, «some particularly sanctified”? Zebus may be seen wandering at their ease in the public streets, and taking their food where they list. The utmost a native does when he sees them honoring his goods too much, is to “urge them by the * See “American Herd Book,” and other Agricultural works.. RUMINANTIA. 219 gentlest hints, to taste some of the good things in his neighbor’s stall.” If lying down in some narrow way, a person must not disturb them; but he must either proceed by another road, or wait until the sacred animals are pleased to rise ! B. Dante. Tue Dante. This is an Egyptian species, re- sembling the preceding, figures of which are found on ancient tombs of Egypt. Bison. (Gr. Biowy, named from the Thracian Biotoves, Bis- tones.) The Bison. | This generic name first used by Pliny, applies to two living species,—one of them European, and now almost extinct; the other American, and still found in great numbers. uoHon enumerates five species, three of which, however, are more gen- erally arranged either with the genus Bos, or the genus Bubabus. The European Bison is now found living in the Moldavian and Wallachian districts, and in some parts of the Caucasus; the other species at one time “ranged over nearly the whole of North America;” it is now found in vast herds in some of the Western prairies, and is thinly scattered along the valleys which border upon the Rocky Mountains. ‘The districts which these animals inhabit, are described very graphically in Washing- ton Irving’s “Tour in the Prairies.’ They delight in level prairies, covered with luxuriant vegetation, bordering the hills of limestone formation, where saline springs or marshes abundantly occur. The American species, B. Americanus, has fifteen pairs of ribs; the European has fourteen, (one more than the common ox.) This points out the main difference between the two species. The Bison is marked by its broad and slightly arched fore- head, and the long and wavy hair upon it, forming on the chin and breast a kind of beard; by the elevation of the withers, aris- ing from the lengthened spinous processes for the attachment of the ligament and enormous muscles of the neck, serving to sup- part the large and ponderous head; and by a continuous fatty deposition, or sort of hunch,—from which the back gradually declines, the hind quarters appearing disproportionably weak and small; and by its short but amazingly powerful limbs. The horns are short, tapering and erect; the general color dark umber brown, becoming in winter tinged with a grayish white. The aspect of this animil is fierce, wild and malicious; the eyes being small, fiery, and half hid in the shaggy hair inter. mingled with wool, which copiously overspreads its head and shoulders. The height at the shoulders is upwards of six feet; the length (exclusive of the tail, which is twenty inches) is eight \ and a half feet; the weight of a fat bull is generally near two | 220 RUMINANTIA. thousand pounds; that of a fat cow, nearly twelve hundred, which is considered a good weight in the fur countries. The Indians have !ong been hunters of this animal, which they call the Buffalo ; using bows and arrows, which, wielded by their skillful hands, strike the huge creature to the ground. The female is beyond all comparison swifter than the male, and is the constant object of the hunter, from the superior quality of her flesh. The Bison is a shy and wary animal; usually it flies before its pursuers; but sometimes, led by an infuriated individual, the whole herd will turn, and rushing towards the hunters, trample them down in their headlong course. Next to man, the enemies which these animals most greatly dread, are the grizzly bear and the wolf, by which many of them are destroyed; the wolves assail- ing them in packs and making great havoc, especially among the smaller animals. While feeding, they are frequently scattered over a vast surface; but when they move onwards in a mass, they form a dense, impenetrable column, which once fairly in motion, is scarcely to be turned. ‘They swim large rivers in nearly the same order in which they traverse the plains; and when flying from pursuit, it is vain for those in front to halt suddenly, as the rearward throng rush madly forward and force their leaders on. The Indians sometimes avail themselves of this habit. Driving a herd of these animals to the vicinity of a precipice, and setting the whole in rapid motion, they, by shouting and other artifices, impel the affrighted animals onward to their own destruction. The herds of these animals found together, sometimes number “countless thousands.” Lewis and Clark say, that ‘20,000 would be no exaggerated number” for a herd which they saw, and which “darkened the whole plain.” ‘To Catlin’s account of his travels among the North American Indians, reference may be had for many interesting accounts of “buffalo hunts.” The risk of this chase is considerable, but its rewards are great; few animals minister more largely to the wants, and even to the comforts of man, than the Bison. The flesh is said to be juicy, bearing “the same relation to common beef that venison does to mutton.’? The tongue, well cured, is thought to surpass, as a relish, that of the common ox,—the hump also is esteemed pecul- iarly rich and delicate. Much of the pemmican used by North. ern voyagers, or by those attached to the fur companies, is made of bison meat,—one bison iurnishing meat and fat enough io make 90 Ibs. of ihe article. The Indian tribes make every part of the animal subservient io their necessities and comfort,—the ‘“ Buffalo robes,”,—the skin dressed with the hair on,—defending RUMINANTIA. 221 them against the cold; the horns are converted into powder-flasks ; and the ribs of the animal, strengthened by some of the stronger fibres, are made to furnish the bow, by which others of the spe- cies are to be destroyed. Catlin says, that ‘there are, by a fair calculation, more than 300,000 Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by these animals supplied with all the luxuries of life which they desire, as they know no others.” The advance of white population over the regions of the West, bearing with them the institutions of civilization is, however, modifying this statement, and gradually contracting the range of the Bison. Bubalus Buffalus, or Bos Bubalus. 'The Burrato of Asia. This animal, in its general aspect and carriage, resembles the Bison, or perhaps the Domestic Ox, though larger and stronger,— but differs from the Bison in its horns, which are enormously large, bent down and recurved at the tip; in its ears, which are half the length of the head, and slightly covered with hair; and in the fur, which is rough, irregular and bristly. Of this species, there are two varieties, the B. Arnee, (Shaw,) and the B. Rhainsa. The Arnee is the wild Buffalo of India, found on the margins of old and thick forests; and, like the Rhinoceros, confining itself to the most swampy parts of the region where it dwells. Its horns are often five feet in length, and so in- clined together at the points, as to form a figure somewhat lyre- shaped. It is also remarkable for the shortness of its tail, which reaches no lower than the hock. It is one third larger than the Rhainsa, or tame Buffalo, being ten and a half feet long, and six to six and a half feet high at the shoulders. Its strength is so great, it is a formidable enemy even to the tiger, who shuns an encounter with him; and such is the power of his charge, that he frequently prostrates a well-sized elephant. The Rhainsa is universal in India and adjacent countries, and was formerly, as now, used as a beast of burden in Egypt, Greece and Italy. In the latter country, it is, on account of its great strength, very use- ful for carrying purposes, especially in marshy and swampy dis- tricts, where the roads are two or three feet deep with mud. The hide of the Asiatic Buffalo is peculiarly thick and strong, and in great request for making harness. Bos Gaurus, the Gour, or Gaur, of mountainous parts of Central India. This has the hind hoof only half the size of the fore one, — the general color is brown, but the legs are white; the horns are bent downwards at the front; “the limbs have more of the form of the deer than any other of the bovine genus.” It is asserted 222 RUMINANTIA. that the tiger has no chance in a combat with a full grown Gour. This animal does not, like the Buffalo, wallow in swamp and mire. The large quantity of milk given by the cow, is said . to be occasionally so rich as to cause the calf’s death. Poephagus. (Gr. 167, poe, grass; guy, phago, | eat,) or Bos grunniens, (of Linnzeus.) The Yak. Of this genus, there is but one species, P. grunniens, found in the woods and recesses of the Thibet mountains. It has fourteen or fifteen pair of ribs, and resembles the Buffalo in its form, but is smaller. Both sexes grunt like a pig, whence the specific name, grunniens, (Lat. grunting.) The tail has full flowing hair like that of a horse, and is used in India as a fan or whisk to keep off the musquitoes,—when fixed into an ivory or metal handle, it is called a chowrie. Elephants are sometimes taught to carry a chowrie, and waive it about in the air. The neck and back are surmounted by a sort of mane; the hair of the body is black,—smooth and short in summer, but thick and harsh in winter; the back and tail are often white. The Yaks dislike - the heat of summer, and hide themselves in the shade and water. The hair is applied to various purposes by the Tartars. They weave it into cloth, of which they not only make articles of dress, but also tents and the ropes which sustain them. There are two varieties,—those used for the plough, and those used for riding. The former are ugly and short-legged, and guided by the nose, carry their heads very low; the latter much handsomer, having twisted horns, a noble bearing, and an erect head; also a stately hump, and a rich silky tail reaching nearly to the ground. Bos moschatus. (Lat. musky,) or Ovibos moschatus. The Musk Ox. (Plate VII. fig. 9.) This animal has sometimes been removed from the genus Bos, in consequence of the absence of the naked muzzle which is possessed by others of the bovine groups, and ranked as a con. necting, or intermediate link between the ox and the sheep ; hence the generic term ovibos, (Lat. ovis, a sheep; and Los, ox.) It may be doubted, however, whether, on this account, it should be separated from the bovines. The full-grown male is about the size of a small two year old cow; the female is con- siderably smaller; the horns are united at the top of the head,— flat, broad, and bent down against the cheeks, but become round and tapering, and turning up, end in a sharp point about the level of the eyes. The animal is covered with long bushy hair, which reaches almost to the ground. ‘The general color of the hair is brown, or brownish black, except a portion in the middle of the back, which is dirty gray; in the female, the general RUMINANTIA. 293 color is black; the head is large and square; the eyes mod- erately large; the ears short, and scarcely visible through the surrounding long hair. Under the hair of the body, is an admir- able second coat, consisting of brown, or ash-colored wool; the legs are short and thick, covered with close hair, unmixed with wool; the tail very short; the hoofs are small compared with the size of the animal,—resembling those of the Rein Deer. It is said “none but an experienced hunter can distinguish the dif- ference of the impressions made by the toes on the snow.” Its food is also like that of the Rein Deer,—lichens in winter ;—grass insummer. The length of the Musk Ox from the nose to the root of the tail, is about five and a half feet; and its weight, ac- cording to Parry, about 700 lbs. It is gregarious, being found in herds, twenty or thirty in number. The home of these ani- mals is in the barren lands of North America, in regions above the 60th degree of latitude. They are hunted by the Esquimaux, but. not without danger, as when provoked or wounded, they are apt to turn upon the pursuer. ‘The poor creatures seem to fancy that the report of guns is thunder, and crowd together in a mass, so that they afford a good mark. If, however, they get sight of one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and then they are very dangerous enemies. Sometimes the Esquimaux turn the animals’ irritation to good account;—for, after the adroit hunter has provoked the animal, and induced it to attack him, he wheels around it more quickly than it can turn; and by re- peated stabs, puts an end to its life. ‘The speed of the Musk Ox in running, is great, and it climbs rocky paths and broken and uneven sides of hills, with great agility. Sir John Richardson says, the wool of this animal ‘resembles that of the Bison, but is perhaps finer, and would be highly useful in the arts, if it could be procured in sufficient quantity.”” The same author informs us, that “when the animal is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and re- sembles that of the Caribou, but has a coarser grain.” When lean, these animals “smell strongly of musk, their flesh, at the same time, being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior to that of any other ruminant animal in North America.” QUESTIONS UPON THE BOVIDAHE, (OX FAMILY.) How is Bovidae derived? What is said of the general character of this family? What of the horns in particular? What of the appearance and habits of these animals? What kind of food do they use? What plants are hurtful to them? How many plants do oxen eat? How many do they reject? Which species furnishes the type of the entire tribe? How many synonyms have been given? Give the different names appropriated to this animal? How are the breeds of this animal usually distinguished? What 10 234 RUMINANTIA. is said of the Durham breed? What other breeds are mentioned? By what means has the breed of cattle been improved? How is the Zedu dis- tinguished ? How extensively does it supply the place of the ox? What uses are made of it? How is it regarded by the Hindoos? What is said of the Egyptian species? How many species of Bison are there? Where is the European species now found? What has probably prevented its en- tire extinction? In what part of North America is the other species found? What is the main difference between the European and the American species? How many ribs has the common ox? Give the distinctive marks of the Bison? Describe its disposition and habits. What enemies does it most dread? How do the Indians avail themselves of the habits of this animal? What is said of the largeness of the herds? Mention the uses made of the different parts of the Bison. How many Indians does Catlin estimate are daily supported by its flesh? How does the Asiatic Buffalo differ from the Bison? How many varieties of this species? What is said of them? In what countries is the animal used? Where is it especially useful? What is said of the Gour? How does it differ from the Buffalo? Give the derivation of the term Poephagus? How many species of the Yak? What renders the specific name appropriate? What use is made of its tail? What ofits hair? How many varieties of this animal? Why is the generic Ovibos applied to the Musk Ox? What is the composition of that term? What characteristics are given? Where is the home of this animal? What more is said of it? Name the genera and species of the Ox Family found upon the chart, tracing and giving some account of each as you proceed. : SECTION XXVIII. Ovidae. (Lat. ovis, a sheep.) The SHrzp. These differ so slightly from the Goat in anatomical struct- ure that both genera are by some naturalists united. The chief distinctive characters consist “in the sheep having no beard; in the horns being directed backwards, and then in- clining spirally more or less forwards; in having a convex fore- head; and in the existence of a sac, or fossa, situated at the base of the toes, lined with hair, and furnished with sebaceous follicles.” The males also differ from the goat in being inodo- rous. The age of sheep is reckoned from the first shearing. Their value, both for food and clothing, is well known, aad is in- ealculably great, while they are reared upon soils where other animals could not obtain sufficient for their support. The fila- ments of wool taken from a healthy sheep, present a polished, glittering appearance; those of a sickly, or half-starved animal, exhibit a paler hue. The dressed skin is largely used for the binding of books, and for different kinds of appare!. The bones, when calcined, are employed as tests in refining processes ; from the entrails are prepared strings for musical instruments. Sheep furnish milk which is thicker than that of cows, and yields a RUMINANTIA. 225 greater quantity of butter and cheese. In some cases, water must be added in orderto produce whey. ‘The history of these animals is intermingled with poetical descriptions and national customs and enactments. ‘They are mentioned in the earliest scripture records, and formed the chief wealth of the ancient patriarchs. Among the Jews, under thé economy of Moses, the lamb was offered in sacrifice,—pdinting to “Christ, the Heav- enly Lamb;” and in the New Testament these animals are the subjects of many beautiful and touching parables. Ovis aries. ‘The Common SHEEP. This exhibits numerous varieties, and many of its form have been raised to the rank of species. The Ovis Hispanicus, the Spanish, or Merino Sheep, is among the most celebrated. These sheep, it is said, are the regenerated stock of the sheep of Boeotia, and survived the conquest of Spain by the Goths and Vandals. They have been transferred to Great Britain, Germany and the United States; and are remarkable for the fineness of their wool. In Germany, the wool has been brought to the highest perfection. Merino Sheep were introduced into Great Britain in 1787. The original stock in this State, (N. Y.,*) was derived -from Holland; the Merino variety was first introduced in 1801; though their importance was not fully appreciated until seven or eight years after that period; when the excitément respecting them became very great, and they were sold at enormous prices. Of the Merino Sheep, there are three varieties, viz., the Paular, the Negretti, and the Gaudaloupe breeds. The quality of the wool has been improved by the introduction of Saxony Sheep, (originally of the same Merino race.) The breeds of sheep are distinguished by the comparative length of the fibres, which compose their fleece. They are de- signated as short-wooled, middle-wooled, and long-wooled sheep. To the short-wooled division belong the “ Merino, Saxony and Australian breeds, whose short, fine and silky wool is used in the manufacture of broadcloths. The middle-wooled breeds, such as the English South-down, Suffolk and Cheviot, furnish material for the coarser cloths, flannels and similar fabrics. The Leicester breed, and some others, are long-wooled. The fibre of the wool in these sheep is strong and transparent, but is deficient in the power of feliéng, on which the compactness of cloth depends. ‘This wool is used for merinoes, mousselznes de /aane, hosiery, etc. Welsh sheep are noted for the superior flavor of their flesh, and “in the London market Welsh mutton is always in demand.” -—— * DeKay. 296 RUMINANTIA. O. Ammon Argalis, or Siberian Sheep. The Areatt. This is one of the varieties of wild sheep, native to Siberia, and ranging over the mountains of Asia,—a strong, muscular, and active animal, about as large as a small fallow deer, and having thick, roughly ringed horns. (Plate VII. fig. 12.) In summer, . its hair is smooth, and of yellowish gray color; but in winter, it becomes thick, harsh and reddish; the muzzle, throat and under parts, continuing white at all seasons. The whole form of this animal appears better adapted for agility than that of the com- mon sheep. O. Canadensis. The Taye, or Bic Horn Sweep, of Canada. This is identical with the O. Montanus, of Geoffrey, and a variety is the O. California, of Douglas, which Dr. Gray says is probably the same as the Ammon, of Siberia. O. Musimon, or Musmon. The Movurrtion, of Cyprus, Can- dia, and Corsica. (Plate VII. fig. 10.) This differs from the Argali, only in being rather smaller, and in ine horns being very small, sr altogether absent in the female. Like the Argali, it makes its home upon the mountains. It has been supposed thatthe primitive stock may be traced either to this, or the preceding species,—the hair of both species possess- ing the essential character of wool,—an imbricating sealy sur- face,—which gives to the covering of the domestic breeds the re- markable felting property upon which its utility so much depends. O. polycerata. (Gr. aodés, polus, many ; *éeas, keras, horn.) The Many-Hornep SHEEp. This species found in Iceland and the most northern parts of the Russian dominions, resembles the common sheep in its body and tail, but has three, four, five or more horns. (See Plate VII. fig. 13.) The wool is long, smooth, hairy, and of a dark brown color. Under its outer coat, is a fine, short and soft kind of wool, or fur. O. laticauda. (Lat. /atus, broad; cauda, tail.) The Broap- TAILED SHEEP,—is common in Tartary, Arabia, Persia, Barbary, Syria and Egypt. This sheep is chiefly noted for its large, heavy tail, often sc loaded with fat as to weigh from ten to twelve pounds, and according to some, double that weight, and a foot broad; sometimes it is necessary to support it artificially. The upper part is covered with wool, but it is bare underneath, and the fat, of which it consists, is regarded as a great delicacy. O. strepsiceros. (Gr. otgégw, strepho, to twist; #éoas, keras, horn.) THe Cretan SHEE. This is chiefly found in the Island of Crete, but is kept in several parts of Europe on account of its singular appearance ; RUMINANTIA. 227 the horns being very large, long and spiral, those of the male upright,—of the female, at right angles with the head. O. Guineensis. ‘The AFrican, or Guinea Sueep,—found in all the tropical climates of Africa. It is large, with rough, hairy skin, short horns and pendulous ears, a kind of dewlap under the chin, and a long mane reaching below the neck. It is stronger, larger and more fleet than other sheep, and better suited to a forest life; but the flesh is quite indifferent food. SHEEP. What are the distinctive characters of the Sheep? How does the wool of the healthy sheep appear? What are the uses of this animal? With what isit associated? What Scripture references are given? What is said of the varieties of the Common Sheep? Which is the most celebrated ? What is said of their origin? Where is their wool brought to the highest perfection? When was this variety first introduced into the State of New York? How has the quality of the wool been improved? How are the breeds of sheep distinguished, and how designated? What breeds are included in the Short- Wooled division? What in the Middle- Wooled, and what in the Long-Wooled? In what respect is the fibre of the Long- Wooled Sheep deficient? For what is the wool much used? What is said of the Welsh variety? Where is the Argali found? What is said of it? How does the Moufion differ from the Argali? In what respects does it resemble it? What is said of the Many-Horned Sheep? Where is the Broad-Tailed Sheep? What is said of its tail? Where is the Cretan Sheep found? What is said. of its horns? Where is the Guinea Sheep found, and what is said of it? Trace the varieties mentioned on the chart,—tell where they are found, and their peculiarities. SECTION XXIX. Capridae, (Lat. capra, a goat.) The Goat Famity. The distinguishing characteristics of the Goat family are that they have hollow horns turned upwards and ringed; that they have eight cutting teeth on the lower jaw and none in the upper; and that the male has a beard. ‘The muzzle is comparatively narrow, with no naked space about the nostrils; the tail is short ; there are no fissures, or tear-pits, beneath the eyes, nor tufts of hair upon the knees. Either “native or naturalized,” this ani- mal appears in almost every part of the world. It is capable of enduring all kinds of weather, being found in high northern lati- tudes, and also thriving in the. hottest parts of Africa and India. The internal organization of the animal is almost entirely simi- lar to that of the sheep, (Ovide.) “He is, however, stronger, lighter, and more agile, and less timid than thesheep. The sup- pleness of his organs, and the strength and nervousness of his 228 RUMINANTIA. frame, are hardly sufficient to support the petulance and rapidity of his natural movements.’ (Bufion.) The milk of the Goat is sweet, nutritious, and medicinal, ow- ing to the character of its food, which consists chiefly of what j is obtained from high hills, or from pastures where aromatic shrubs abound. Anciently the skin was deemed valuable for clothing ; the best Turkey or Morocco leather is made from it, and from the skin of the kid is prepared the softest and handsomest leather for gloves. The strong odor of the Goat is well known, and it is said to be “refreshing” to horses. The female bears, generally in the last of February, usually two, sometimes three and even four young. Among the Greeks and Romans the Goat, because an enemy to the vine, was sacrificed to Bacchus. ‘This animal is remarkably sure footed. Pennant says, “two yoked together, as they often are, as if by consent, take large and hazardous leaps, and yet so time their mutual efforts as rarely to miscarry in the attempt.” The Goat butts, raising himself on the hind legs, and then coming down sidewise against his enemies. The varieties are numerous, and some of them have been exalted to the rank of species. Hircus (or Capra) Aegagrus. The Wixtp Goat. This is re- garded by Cuvier and others, as the parent stock of the Domes- tic Goat in all its varieties. It is found in herds, freely ranging in the great mountain chains of Asia. In Persia it is called the Paseng. The size is rather larger than that of the domestic breed; the horns also usually exceed those of the common Goat; the color is a brown- ish gray above and white beneath. ‘The male has a large brown- ish beard ; the female neither beard nor horns. Capra hircus. The Domestic Goat. (Lat. hircus, a he-goat.) This animal, like others reclaimed and subject to man, exhib- its great varieties in respect to size, color, the quality of the hair, and even the largeness and number of the horns. C. Angorensis. The Ancora Goat. (See Chart.) This is a native of Angora, in Asia Minor; generally is of a milk-white color, short legged, with black, spreading, and spi- rally twisted Horas and pendulous ears; its ‘silk Tiled -wool, which is its chief excellence, covers the entire body in Jong, hanging and spiral ringlets, and from it the finest camlets are fee The Casumere Goat, which is foundin Thibet and roams the pastures of the Himalaya mountains, has an undercoat of wool, exquisitely delicate and fine. From this are manufactured the Cashmere shawls so highly valued by the fashionables of both hemispheres. It is remarked that the lower the temperature ' RUMINANTIA. eae where the animal pastures, the heavier and finer is its wool. The Goats which feed in the highest vales of Thibet are of a bright ocre color; in lower ground the color changes to a yel- lowish white, and still lower down to entirely white. The high- est parts of the Himalaya mountains inhabitable by man have a kind of black Goats, which yield wool from which are made shawls that in India command the highest price. The fine curled wool of these Goats lies close to the skin, just as the under hair of the common Goat lies below the coarse upper hair. ‘The flesh of the Himalaya Goats is said to taste as well and its milk to be as rich as that of the common Goat. The Angora Goat loses the delicacy of its hairy covering when exposed to a change of climate and pasture. It is said the people of Cashmere constantly work 16,000 looms, each loom giving employment to three men, the annual sale being calcu- lated at 30,000 shawls. The “Naturauists’ Lisrary,” (Ruminantia, part II. by Sir William Jardine,) says that “a fine shawl, with a pattern all over it, takes nearly a year in making. The persons employed sit on a bench at the frame, sometimes four people at each, but if the shawl isa plain one, only two. The borders are marked with wooden needles, there being a separate needle foreach color, and the. rough part of the shawl is uppermost while it isin a process of manufacture. The Cashmeres which are obtained from the kingdom of that name are most sought after. India, however, produces several Goats besides the true Cashmere breed which yield wool from which shawls are made. ‘Twenty-four pounds weight of the best wool of Thibet, sells at Cashmere for twenty rupees.” C. Jaela, orC. Nubiana. The Asysstn1an Goats, found in the mountains of Abyssinia and Upper Egypt, and also on Mount Sinai, differ from the Goats of 'Thibet, in having close smooth hair, a convex forehead, and a projecting lower jaw. The Syrian Goat, (Capra Syriaca,) is distinguished by its large pendulous ears, (see Plate VII. fig. 13,) which are usually from one to two feet in length, and sometimes so annoying to the animal that the owners are obliged to trim them to enable it to feed with more ease. It. has black horns which bend a little for- wards, and are only about two inches long. The hair is colored like that of a fox, and it has two fleshy protuberances under its throat. It is very numerous in Syria, where it finds pastures specially adapted to its wants. Pennant says that “it supplies Aleppo with milk.” It is no unimportant part of the wealth of a pastoral people, its flesh being used for food and its hair 230 RUMINANTIA. wrought into cloth. This was one of the animals offered in sac- rifice “by the ancient Hebrews; it was this Goat over which the Jewish High Priest, putting his hands on the Goat’s head, “ con- fessed the iniquities of the children of Israel,” and then “ sent him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness.” The long ears of this animal illustrate those words of scripture, Amos iii. 12, “As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion . . . . a piece of anear.’’ So large and thick are the ears of this Goat that they cs a considerable mouthful even for a lion. C. Ibex. The Ipex. Of this species there are several varieties in the mountain ranges of Europe, Asia and Africa, but more especially those of Asia and the bordering parts of Europe, all, however, resem- bling each other in their structure and general habits. This ani- mal is much larger and stronger than the common domestic Goat. “The color is a deep hoary brown, the under parts of the body and insides of the limbs are of a much paler and whitish hue; the body is thick, short and strong; it has a small head, large eyes, and strong legs; very short hoofs; a short tail; and extremely large and long arched, brown colored horns, with knobs on the upper surface.” (Plate VII. fig. 14.) The fore legs are considerably shorter than the hind, which enables the animal to ascend more easily than he can descend lofty mountain heights. In manners and voice the Ibex is much like the Chamois. It is found in small flocks consisting of ten or fifteen individuals. When hard pressed, these animals sometimes turn upon the hunter, hurling him down the most frightful declivity. It isa native of the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains and of the Alps. C. Americana. Rocxy Mountain Goat. These animals inhabit the lofty chain of mountains whence they derive their name, ranging from 400 to 650 North Latitue. They resort to grassy knolls begirt with craggy rocks as afford. ing them places of. refuge against the onsets of dogs and wolves, visiting, daily, caves in the mountains said to be encrusted with an effervescence of salt, of which they are fond; they are of larger size than the common Goat, have black horns, which are smooth and polished at the tips, and curved backwards, and ob- scurely ringed at the base, where they are sometimes a fooi in circumference. On account of the great size of the horns, this animal is called by the hunters, the “ Big-horn.” The muzzle is extremely small; the color white ; the hair long and straight; the skin very thick and spongy, and principally used in making moccasins. ‘The flesh, when it is in season, is said to exceed in FS RUMINANTIA. 231 flavor the venison obtained in the same region, and the fleece is also highly valued, being next to that of the Cashmere Goat in fineness. ‘ Give the chief characteristics of the Goat Family. What is Buffon’s re- mark? What are the uses of the Goat? What remark is quoted from Pennant? Has this family many varieties? Which species is regarded as the purest stock? Where is it found? How does it compare in size, &c., with the domestic breed? In what respects does the Domestic Goat vary? Describe the Angora Goat. Where is the Cashmere Goat found? What articles are manufactured from its wool? What shawls command the high- est price in India? What is said of the wool of which they are made? Has change of climate any effect upon the wool of the Angora Goat? What is said of the manufacture and sale of the Cashmere shawls? How do the Adyssii21n Goats differ from those of Thibet? For what is the Syri- an Goat distinguished? What is said of its hair, &c.? What use was made of it by the Ancient Hebrews? What words of Scripture do the ears of this animal illustrate? What is the habitat of the Jber? What is said of its varieties? How do they compare with the Domestic Goat? Give the character of this animal. Does it ascend or descend most easily? What animal is it much like? What is the range of the Rocky Mountain Goat? What are their particular resorts? What do the hunters call this animal? For what are its skin and flesh used? Name, trace and characterize the species-on the chart. — SECTION XXX. Antelopide. “Bright eyed.” (Gr. év0os, anthos, a flower or beautiful ornament ; wy, dps, eye.) ANTELOPES. (Bisulcated or Cloven-footed.) This beautiful family of Ruminants is by some considered a connecting link between the Goat and Deer families. Like the Goats, they never shed their horns; in size and general struc- ture, the nature and,color of their hair, and their swiftness of foot, they resemble the Deer. ‘The hind limbs, like those of the hare, are much longer than the fore ones. This not only helps them to be more fleet, but increases their security in climbing precipices, which they are delighted in doing. The larger part of the species are brown on the back, and white on the under part of the body, with a black stripe between the brown and white. The tail is of various lengths, but always covered with ' pretty long hair; the ears, which are beautiful and well placed, terminate in a point. The hoof is cloven like that of a sheep ; the perennial horns are conical, bent back, and ringed at the base, never showing the angles and ridges which distinguish those ef thesheep and goats. This last is, perhaps, the most general 932 =«. RUMINANTIA. character of the family. The case of the horns is thin, and as a group, the Antelopes are numbered among the HoLLtow-Hornep Animas. A large part of them have lachrymal sinuses or “tear-pits,” as seen in the Deer, and which can be opened at the will of the animal. These are furnished at the bottom with a gland that secretes an oily, viscous substance of the color and. consistency of ear-wax, and turning black upon exposure to the air. ‘The common Indian Antelope, and the Gazelle, according to observations of them away from their native climes, use this ' organ when any strange substance is brought to their notice, par- ticularly if it be odoriferous; and they appear to derive great pleasure from protruding the sinus and rubbing it against the odorous body. ‘The possession of sinuses distinguishes the An- telopes from the Goats and the Sheep; and this, connected with the absence of horns in the females of many species, also makes this family an intermediate link between the rest of the Hollow. Horned Ruminants and the Cervine, or Solid-Horned Animals. A few species of Antelopes have an additional gland running lengthwise between the sub-orbital sinus and the mouth, but hav- ing no internal opening, and secreting an oily substance. An- other and more general character of this family than even the lachrymai sinuses, is the inguinai pores or folds opening inwards and secreting a substance similar to that of the other giands to which we have now referred. The form of the upper lip is quite various In some species it forms abroad naked muzzle, as in the ox; in cthers it is hairy and attenuated, as inthe goat, and in still others it shows a mod- ification of both these characters. The hair of the Antelope is usually short and smooth, and of an equal length on every part of the body ; some, however, have bristly manes along the neck and shoulders, and a very few species, like the Gnu, have a beard on the chin and throat. Generally these animals are found in large herds, but some species reside in pairs or families. Africa may be regarded as the “head quarters” of the Ante- lopes. The nature of their habitat varies in different species. This family has been arranged into two grand divisions, the ANTELOPES OF THE FigeLps, and the ANTELOPES OF THE Dés- ERT, between which the most obvious distinction is that in the Antelopes of the Fields “the nostrils are free from hairs, whilst in the Antelopes of the Desert, the nostrils are beaded within, or covered with bristles.” (English Cyclopedia.) ]. ANTELOPES 3F THE Fieups. ‘These are arranged into three groups. Ist. True Antelopes, “which have a light, elegant body; slen- RUMINANTIA. 233 der limbs ; small hoofs; a short or moderate tail, covered with elongated hairs at the base; lyrate or conical horns, placed over the eye brows.” 2d. Cervine Antelopes, “approaching the Deer in character. They have a rather heavy, large body; strong, slender limbs; a long tail, cylindrical at the base, with the hair longer at the end, often forming a compressed ridge.”” The muffle resembles that of the Deer. 3d. Goat-like Antelopes, having ‘a heavy body; strong legs ; large hoofs and false hoofs; very short tail, flat and hairy above ; recurved, conical horns.” The species in each of these groups are quite numerous; but though all are handsome creatures, we must content ourselves with noticing the more prominent. True ANTELOPES. A. Dorcas. (Gr. dégxouar, derkomai, to see.) The GazELLE, or the Corinne. (Plate VII. fig. 19.) This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Antelopes. Its large, mild, and black eyes beam with lustre, and its light and graceful figure has made it a favorite with Oriental poets. In the sacred writings it is alluded to under the name of the Roe, “‘swift upon the mountains.” The Gazelle is common in the northern parts of Africa, where large troops of them bound along with such amazing fleetness that they seem bird-like. The Ariel (A, Arabica) a variety of this species, abounds in Arabia and Syria. “The wild Gazelle o’er Judah’s hills Exulting still may bound ; And drink from all the living rills That gush on holy ground.” So swift is this animal that the greyhound is generally unable to overtake it, unless aided by falcons which fly at its head, and thus check its speed until the dogs regain their lost distance. In some parts of Syria, the gazelle is taken by driving a herd into an extended enclosure surrounded by a deep ditch. A few open- ings are made through which the affrighted animals leap and fall into the ditch, when they are easily taken. If pursued in the open field, it flies to some distance, then stops to gaze a mo- ment at the hunters, and again renews its flight. A flock when attacked in a body, disperse in all directions, but soon come together again, and when brought to bay, defend themselves 234 RUMINANTIA.! with courage and obstinacy, uniting in a close circle, with the females and fawns in the center, and presenting their horns at all points to their enemies; yet notwithstanding their courage, they are “the common prey of the lion and panther, and are hunted with great courage by the Arabs and Bedouins of the des- ert.” When taken young, the Gazelle is easily domesticated ; and it is frequently seen at large in the court-yards of the houses in Syria, the exquisiteness of its form, and its great beauty and playfulness rendering it a special favorite. The size of the Gazelle’s body, (84 feet long,) about equals that of the Roebuck, but the legs are considerably longer, and the entire form is lighter and more elegant; the fur is short and close pressed; the color a dark:fawn above, and white beneath, the upper parts being divided from the lower by a deep dark band along the flanks. The horns are black, lyre-shaped, and have twelve or fourteen rings. Upon the monuments of Egypt and Nubia, this animal is frequently found sculptured. A cir- cumstance of this creature’s extreme affection, and which ended fatally, occurred not very long since in the island of Malta. A female gazelle having suddenly died from something it had eaten, the male stood over the dead body of his mate, butting every one who attempted to touch it; then suddenly making a spring, struck his head against the wall, and fell dead by the side of his com- panion. . A. (or G.) mhorr. The Mour. (Plate VII. fig. 22.) . This Gazelle is 4 feet 2 inches long, and 24 feet high at the shoulder, (8 inches taller than the preceding,) found in Western Africa, and much sought after by the Arabs on account of pro- ducing the bezoar stones, called Mohr’s eggs in Morocco, and valued in eastern medicine. The Mohr is said to live in pairs, not in flocks like the other species. A. euchore. (Gr. td, eu, well; yogds, choros, dance.) The SPRINGBOK, or the Sprine-Bucx. - This animal of Southern Africa, in the gracefulness of its proportions and the beautiful variety of its colors, is scarcely surpassed by any other of the Antelope tribe. It is nearly a third larger than the Gazelle; its horns are black, irregularly lyrated, and of moderate length. The most marked peculiarity of this species is a line of long white hairs arising from two lon- gitudinal foldings of the skin, commencing about the middle of the back and extending to the tail. In their ordinary state, the edges of these foldings approach each other, and are so near to- gether as to conceal, in a great measure, the stripe of white. But when the animal leaps, as it sometimes does, perpendicularly © RUMINANTIA. 235 - to the height of six or seven feet, the folds are expanded and form a broad circular mark of the purest white extending over the whole croup and hips, producing a very remarkable and pleasing effect. Immensely large herds of these animals are found on arid plains of the interior of South Africa; but when the pools and pastures to which it has been wont to resort, are dried and burnt up by the excessive heat, it migrates to the cul- tivated districts of the Cape. ‘Travelers who have witnessed these marches estimate the numbers that unite in their migra- tions at from 10,000 to 50,000. “Cumming’s Adventures” give some graphic views of these “grand migrations.” Before the migration is closed, it is said, those which happen to get in the rear of the troop are lean and half starved, being left nearly destitute of food in consequence of the cropping of the scanty pastures almost bare by the preceding ranks; but when the troop begin to retrace their steps northward, those which formed the — van during the advance, are necessarily in the rear returning ; hence they soon lose their plump condition, and, in their turn, are subjected to want and starvation. In their approaches to the settlements of men, thousands of these animals are killed for food. Great numbers of them are also destroyed by panthers, hyenas and°wild dogs. On the return of the rainy season, they retrace their steps to the plains of the interior, and in a brief pe- riod not a Spring-Buck is to be seen. So fearful is this animal of man, it is said, that “if it has to cross a path over which a man has passed before, it does not walk over, but takes a leap ten or twelve feet high and about fifteen feet long, at the same time curving its back in the most extraordinary manner.” It is from this habit of leaping, the dwellers at the Cape have given it the name of Spring-Buck. A. cervicapra. (Lat. stag-goat.) The Common ANTELOPE, or Sasin, of India. This species is spread in large families, over every part of In- dia’s rocky and open plains. It is remarkable for the form and beauty of its horns, which are ringed and spirally convoluted, (Plate VII. fig. 18,) having two or more turns, according to the age of the animal. When full grown, it is four feet long and two and a half feet high ; almost blaok above and white beneath ; ; on the knees are tufts of long bristles, forming small knee brushes; the other parts have the hair short and close. The Sasins are soswift that except when taken by surprise, greyhounds are slipped after them in vain; the dogs are more likely to be injured than the game. Capt. Williamson, in his “ Wild Sports of the East,” says he has seen an.cld buck Antelope lead a herd of females 236 RUMINANTIA. over a net at least eleven feet high; and that these animals fre- quently vault to the height of twelve or thirteen feet, passing over ten or twelve yards at a single bound. ‘They are usually huoted by the Cheetah, which “creeps cat-like towards the herd and bounding upon a selected victim, dashes it to the ground with a blow.” In size they equal the fallow deer. They are bold and familiar in captivity, and would be graceful ornaments to public parks. ‘The fakirs and dervishes of the East polish their horns and wear them at their girdles instead of swords and daggers, which their religious vocation prevents them from using. A. tragulus. (Lat. dim. goat.) The Srem-Bocr, or Srone- Buck. (3 ft. 4 in. long, 1 ft. 7 in. high.) This ranks as one of the most elegant and graceful of the Antelope tribe. The legs are longer and smaller in proportion to its bulk than in any other species. A remarkable distinetion in this species, (existing also in the Spring or Prong Buck,) is the to- tal absence of spurious hoofs, both on the fore and hind feet, a character which “no other ruminating animals of the hollow- horned family possess.” The Stein-Buck resides in pairs on the stony plains and mountain valleys of South Africa. When . closely pressed, and without power to escape, it will hide its head in the first hole or corner it meets with, and thus patiently resign itself to its fate. A. oreotragus. (Gr. 6g0s, oros, mountain ; Teéyos, tragos, goat. Mountain-goat.) The Kainst, or Kuippsprincer. (3 ft. 2in. long.) This is an antelope which inhabits the most barren and inacces- sible mountains of the Cape, and appears to supply, in South Af- rica, the place of the Chamois and Ibex; the general color\cf the hair above is a lively mixture of yeliow and green, and light sandy yellow tinged with red beneath ; the texture of the hair in this, as in the Spring or Prong Bock, is so fragile that it breaks with the slightest touch, crushing like straw between the fingers, and it is so wanting in elasticity that it never regains its original form. The legs are more robust than in most other species ; and the hoofs, instead of being pointed and flat beneath, are en- tirely round ahd cylindrical, being worn only at the tips, upon which alone the animal treads. This, with other peculiarities of structure enables the Klippspringer to bound with very surprising agility among the most dangerous rocks and precipices. A. saltiana. (Lat. leaping or bounding.) The Mapoqua. (2 ft. long, 14 in. high.) This antelope is found in all parts of Abyssinia, where it was first discovered by Bruce, and lives in pairs in mountainous dis- tricts. It is well nigh the smallest of all horned animals, be- RUMINANTIA. 237 ing “scarcely the size of a good English hare; ” the color is like that of the American Gray Squirrel, intermixed with deep red- dish brown above, and pure unmixed white beneath ; the tail is a mere stump; the legs very long in proportion to the weight of the body, and so small that they scarcely equal the little finger in thickness. A. perpusilla. ‘Lat. very small.) Kirrne-Boc. | This is an exceedingly small species, about a foot high with horns only an inch anda half long; found at the Cape of South Africa, and called by the Dutch Colonists, Kleene-Boc, (Little Goat.) When domesticated, it soon becomes familiar, and learns to answer to its name. CERVINE ANTELOPES. A. oryz. (Gr. “ogvg, orux, a gazelle.) The Gems-Boc or Oryx.) This strong cervine animal is about five feet long, and from three to four feet high, found in the southern and central parts of Southern Africa, and once common but now rare in the Cape Colony. It possesses many of the beautiful peculiarities of the antelopes, but in form it issomewhat anomalous. The horns are black and almost perfectly straight, and situated in the plane cf the forehead, about 24 feet long, blunt in the male, but very sharp- pointed in the female ; (Plate VII. fig. 20,) the general color cf the body is dark rusty iron gray above, but the head and under parts are white. There are beautifully black bands on the head and flanks, producing a contrast of cclors which has a singular effect upon the animal’s appearance. In coloring and height, the Gems-Boc resembles the Ass; but in its erect mane and its long sweeping tail it is like the horse, while its head and hoofs are those of the antelope. It always keeps to the cpen field, living in small families. Anderson says “it is the swiftest quadruped he met in South Africa, and lives on grass, succulent plants, (often of a very ac- rid taste,) shrubs, &c. It rarely if ever attacks man, but can defend itself with its formidable horns, even against the lion.” Others say that even “the lion himself is afraid to attack this powerful and courageous animal, and that sometimes when pressed by famine, he has ventured to do so, he has been beaten off with disgrace, or even paid for his temerity with his life.” The Oryx has been said to live without water, but Anderson re- marks that “troops’”’ of this animal “ have been found dead or dying near pools purposely poisoned by the natives to capture wild animals.” 238 RUMINANTIA, A. leucoryx, (Gr. devnds, leukos; Oovs. orux, the gazelle.) The WuitE Oryx. © | e This species, called by some the “ Milk-White Antelope,” is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelope genus, it being the one that gave rise to the fabulous unicorn of the ancients. The horns are more distinctly ringed for about half their length than in the preceding species, gradually curved throughout the whole course, and in a side view appearing to be one and the same. The neck, throat, and some portions of the face are brown; but the other parts are milk-white. This species is found represented on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia; ‘in the inner chamber of the great pyramid at Memphis, a whole yroup may be seen, (with one exception,) shown in profile, so that but one horn appears.” The White Oryx is gregarious; its range is more northern than thatof the Gems-Boe, including Nu- bia and Senegal ; its food consists of different species of acacias. Goat-LikE ANTELOPES. A rupicapra. (Lat. Rock-Goat,) The Cuamots, or Gems. This interesting animal is the only Antelope of Europe, being found in all the high mountain-chains of that region, and also those of Western Asia. The horns of the Chamois are usually but six or seven inches long, nearly parallel in their whole extent,—and bent backwards like hooks at their tip. (Plate VII. fig. 21.) Its iength is about three feet three inches; and its height at the shoulders, a little more than two feet; the face is straight and goat- like; the ears are small, erect, and pointed ; the long hair of the body hangs down over the sides, and is of a deep brown color in winter, a brownish fawn in summer, and in spring, slightly mixed with gray; the pale yellow of the head is banded with dark brown on each side. Beneath the external covering, is a short thick coat of fine wool, which lies close to the skin, and protects the anima! from the severe weather of cold mountainous regions, and the bruises to which, from its habitat, it is liable. ‘The hoofs are admirably adapted for security, enabling it to avail itself of every little roughness and projection, either from the naked granite, or from the icy glaciers. In its elevated home, the Chamois displays all the vivacity, restlessness and agility of the Common Goat. It does not bear heat, and is, therefore, in summer found on the tops of the highest mountains, or in deep glens where the snow lies during the year ; in winter, it descends to lower ridges, and then only is it hunted with any prospect of success. All its senses are exceedlugly acute ; and these, combined with its agility, are its means of RUMINANTIA. 239 security. Its sense of smell, it is said, will enable it to perceive an aggressor at the distance of one anda half miles, It is rest- less, and very much alarmed until it gets a sight of the object of its terror, leaping upon the highest rocks ‘at hand, in order to obtain a more extensive prospect. When undisturbed, its voice is a low kind of bleating; if excited by the approach of a hunter, it utters a suppressed whistle, or hissing sound, and all the while, shows much agitation; but when the hunter comes near, it flies with its utmost speed,—bounding from ledge to ledge, where the eye can mark no footing,—and from crag to crag, and point to point —sweeping over the glacier,—throwing itself down precipices of fearful depth, and pitching, almost by miracle, upon the slightest projection. “It does not descend ata single bound, nor in a vertical direction, but by projecting itself obliquely or diagonally forwards, striking the face of the rock three or four times with its fect for the purpose of renewing its force, or directing it more steadily to the point it aims at; and in this manner, it will descend a rock almost perpendicular, of twenty or thirty feet in height, without the smallest projection upon which to rest its feet.” The hunting of the Chamois, is among the most perilous of human undertakings, and involves “a perversion of mental ener- gies capabie of better things.”’ It has been remarked; ‘no Chamois hunter ever dreams of any other death than that of fall- ing from the brink of a precipice, or being buried in some chasm beneath the treacherous snow;” yet urged on by a sort of fas- cination, “‘he pursues his course of life with feelings allied to those of the gambler, alternating with hopes and fears.” The Chamois seldom drinks. Its food consists of mountain herbs, flowers, and the tender roots of trees and shrubs. This gives a richness and a fine flavor to the flesh, which is much esteemed asa venison. For this and the skins, the Chamois hunters jeopard their lives. The animal can seldom be captured alive, and rarely thrives in captivity. “Like the Swiss, its congenial home is among its native mountains, and in its native liberty.” A. furcifer. (Lat. Prong-bearer;)or Antilocapra Americana. The Prone-Hornep ANTELOPE. The absence in this animal of inguinal and lachrymal openings, and of accessary hoofs, together with the fact that it has branch- ing horns, (Plate VII. fig. 17 ,) of which no instance, occurs among the other species of Antelopes, led Audubon to refer it to the genus Antilocapra, derived from the two genera, Antilope and Capra, Goat-Antelope. ‘This Antelope is confined to the Western portions of North America, and is never seen East of the Missis- 240 RUMINANTIA. sippi, but ranges as far South as California and New Mexico, feeding on moss, buds, &c. It is shortly, but more compactly built than the Virginia Deer, but in its elegant and stately form, resembles more the Antelope than the Deer family. The horns of the male are curved upwards and backwards, with a short triangular prong about the centre. In winter a ridge of coarse hairs, resembling a short mane, appears on the back of the neck, of which, in sum- mer, only a black stripe remains,—the color is a reddish dun, with the throat and the clink on the hinder parts white. The head, ears and legs are covered with short close hair of the com- mon description, but that of the body is long and padded, and of a texture altogether different from that of other animals; it being hollow like the feather of a bird, brittle, and when bent, not returning to the original straight form. The animals are grega- rious, sometimes several hundreds being found together, and they migrate from North to South according to the season. When the ground is clear, their speed surpasses that of most other animals, but a good horse easily outstrips them after a slight fall of snow. ‘They are sly, but extremely curious; and the Indians, and even the wolves, it is said, know how to take advantage of their curiosity to get within reach of them, by crouching down and moving forwards, or stopping, alternately. These Antelopes will wheel round and round the object of their attention, decreasing the distance at every turn, till at last they approach sufficiently near to be shot or captured. Sometimes they are caught in pens, in nearly the same manner as the bison; but in the deep snow of winter, when they are suffering for want of food, they are generally dispatched with clubs,— Audubon says, “principally by the women.” They are fattest in autumn. “Their liver is much prized as a delicacy, and we have heard that many of these animals are killed simply to pro- cure this choice morsel.” (Anderson.) Their flesh, however, is not highly esteemed by the Indians, who hunt them only in times of scarcity. II. Group.—ANTELOPES OF THE DESERT. A. Gnu. The Gnoo, or Hornep-Horse. i This equine Antelope is sometimes called Catoblepas, (Gr. xataBhinwy, Katablepon, looking down,) a name well expressive of its sinister aspect, shaded as its face is by overgrown horns, bent down and outwards, on the sides, broad at the base, and bent up at the tip. (Plate VII. fig. 23.) It hasa wide and bristly nose, RUMINANTIA. 241 with large covered nostrils; and in size about equals a well grown ass. The neck, body and tail, precisely resemble those of a small horse, and the pace also, which is a species of light gallop, is so perfectly similar, that a herd of Gnoos, when seen at a distance, flying over the plains of South Africa, “might be readily mis- taken for a troop of the wild zebras, or quaggas, which inhabit the same locality, if their dark and uniform color did not distin- _guish them.” They are naturally wild and difficult to approach, and when provoked very dangerous if wounded, turning upon the huoter and pursuing him, dropping on their knees before making an attack, and then darting forward with amazing force and velocity. ‘“ When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric manner; then springing suddenly into the air, they begin pranc- ing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost speed. Suddenly, they all pull up together, to overhaul the intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence fighting in the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ; then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whisk their tails, with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain enveloped in a cloud of dust.” (Cumming’s South Africa.) They are said to. be subject to a cutaneous eruption at particular seasons of the year, which they sometimes communicate to do- mestic cattle, and which invariably ends in death. ‘Their flesh - is in good repute both among the natives and colonists. A. Caama. The Lecama, or Harte-Beest. This species of Bovine Antelopes inhabit the plains of South Africa, and are the most common of all the large Antelopes in that country. They are of a gray-brown color; reside in large herds; and are much hunted by the natives and colonists. Their pace resembles a heavy gallop, but yet is tolerably quick. In their manners, they are mild and tractable; but when put upon their defence, they make good use of their powerful lyrate horns, like the Gnoo, dropping upon. their knees before charging, and after advancing some distance in this position, suddenly darting with great force against the hunter. ‘The flesh is much esteemed, being more like ox-beef than that of any other Antelope, except, perhaps, the Eland. The Strepsicerae (twisted horns) is another small group refer- red to in the “ Penny Cyclopzedia,” under the name of Antelopes, and including some very interesting Ruminants. They are named from the subspiral, or twisted form of their horns; and distinguished among the “ Hollow-Horned Bovine Ruminants,” by being marked with white stripes and spots. Agassiz has 242 _-RUMINANTIA. remarked, that the horns of the Strepsicerae and the sheep are twisted in opposite directions. A. Stepsiceros. ‘The Kupoo. This magnificent animal is found in South Africa. It is one of the largest of the Antelopes, being upwards of eight feet long, and four feet high at the shoulder. The horns of the Kudoo, for which it is most remarkable, are nearly four feet long, and beau- tifully twisted into a large spiral form, of about two turns anda . half. A bold ridge runs over the horns and follows their curvature. (Plate VI. fig. 15.) The leading color is a bright fallow-brown, with a narrow white stripe along the spine. In its external aspect, the animal more nearly resembles the ox than the Antelape. Although large and heavy, it can leap with wonderful activity. The weight of the horns is considerable, and in part to relieve itself from that weight, and in partalso to keep the spreading horns from entanglement in the bushes on which it lives and feeds, the Kudoo usually bends its head back and rests its horns upon its shoulders. When closely pursued, it takes to the water, and seeks to escape by its power of swimming. A. oreas. (Gr. ogevcés, oreias, of the mountain.) The Exanp, or the BoseLapuus, (ox-stag.) of the ancients. We have in this animal the largest of the Antelopes,—measur- ing eight feet two inches in length, and full five feet in height at the shoulder —being quite as large asa good sized horse. It has very thick, nearly straight horns, about a foot and a half long, and covered, for the most part, with a thick spiral wreath. ‘The ears are large. A protuberance, of the size of a man’s fist, appears on the larynx ; from this organ, the animal probably de- rived the name of Edand, (as it is called at the Cape Colony.) When full grown, it weighs from seven tonine cwt. ; and, contrary to the usual rule observed among Antelopes, is commonly ex. - tremely fat. The flesh is more highly prized than that of any other animal in South Africa. ‘The Eland is mild and inoffensive in its disposition, so that a man may penetrate into the very midst of a herd without alarming them. Being quite heavy, the great ob- ject in hunting this animal, is to turn the game in such a direc- tion as to drive it close to the residence of the hunter before it is killed; and the Cape farmers, it is said, “very frequently succeed in accomplishing this master piece of South African field sports.” A. picta, (painted.) The Nyu-Guav. This large and magnificent Antelope is about the same size as the Gnoo, standing about four feet high at the shoulder. It is found in the forests of N. W. India, ranging thence as far as Persia. The face of this species is long and narrow, surmounted RUMINANTIA. 243 with short, smooth, and nearly parallel horns. The fore-quarters are considerably raised, and there is a slight elevation upon the withers; the neck is long and horse-like; from the throat and shoulders hangs a dense bunch of hair; the haunch is small and low, so that the hinder limbs are short. The Nyl-Ghau is less graceful in its proportions than the Stag, but more muscular and powerful. The color of this animal isa slaty blue ; it has, how- ever, several white spots which, contrasting with the slaty blue, or dark brown of the other parts, suggested the specific name of picta. It is extremely vicious, and cannot be approached with- out danger. In making an attack, it first falls upon its knees, like the Gnoo, and then springs violently forward. It is the common prey of the tiger ; and hunters erect their platforms near the mangled remains of this animal, well knowing that the tiger will return to glut himself with the remainder of his prey. During the day, the Nyl-Ghau conceals itself in the forests, and at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing harm to adjacent cultivated fields. It has been often taken to England, where it breeds, and is not an uncommon animal. 3 QUESTIONS ON ANTELOPES. What is the derivation of the word Antelopidae? - What families are the Antelopes thought to connect? In what respect are they like the goats? In what like the deer? What advantages do their hind limbs give them? State the color of the larger part of them. What is said of the tail, ears and hoofs? What is the most general character of the family? Are their horns solid or hollow? What is said of their tear-pits? From what do these distinguish them? What makes this family an intermediate link be- tween the two kinds of horned animals? What additional glands are spoken of? What is said of the form of the upperlip? What of the hair? Are they gregarious? What two grand divisions do the Antelopes em- brace? What is the most obvious distinction between the two? Name the groups of Antelopes of the Field, with their characters. Where is the Gazelle found? Give some account of its peculiarities and habits. Where is the Mohr? Why is it sought after by the Arabs? What is the locality of the Springbok? Is it larger or smaller than the Gazelle? What is its most marked peculiarity? What is said of its leaps? What of its migra- tions? How widely is the Common Antelope diffused? What is said of its horns? Illustrate its swiftness) What animals are used in hunting it? How large is it? What Antelope is next mentioned? What is said of it? Where is the Alipspringer found?» What is peculiar in its hair? What enables it to bound with very great agility? Who first discovered the Madogua? What is said of its size, color, &c.? Where is the Aleenbok found? What is said of it? To which division of the Antelopes of the Field do the preceding ones belong? Where is the Oryx found? What is its size? Give some description of it? What is said of it by Anderson and others? Which is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelopes ? To what fabulous animal did it give rise? How? Where is it found sculp- 244 7 CETACEA. tured? What is its range? To what division do the two preceding Ante- lopes belong? Which is the only Antelope of Europe? What characteris- tics are mentioned? Further describe it. What is said of the hunt of this animal? How is its flesh esteemed? To what genus is the Prong-Horned Antelope referred? Name its characteristics and habits. To what division do the two last named species belong? What are Antelopes of the second group called? Which of these is first mentioned? Name its dis- tinctive traits and habits. Give some account of the Lecama. What other sinall group of Antelopes is mentioned? Why are they so named? What distinguishes them? What has Agassiz remarked? What is said of the Hudoo? For what is it most remarkable? What animal does it most re- semble? Which is the largest of the Antelopes? What gave it the name Hyland? What is said of it? Where is the Nyl-Ghau found? Give a description of it. ri iret Name the species on the Chart. Trace them. Give the most prominent characteristics of each as a general review. SECTION XXXI, Tuirp Sus-Ciass. Marine MamMALs. NintH Orper. CETACEA. (Gr. x7t0s,a whale.) WHALEs, DoLpHINs, ETC. ~\ Marine-MamMMaA.s. This is an order of mammiferous animals inhabiting the sea; surpassing all others in size, though lower in organization than those living upon the land. Moving in the water by means of fin-flippers, or paddles, “the earlier naturalists placed them among the fishes; but all now unite in placing them among the mammals.” Like them, they are viviparous, (born alive,) suckle their young, have warm blood, and breathe by means of lungs. The contour of the body, is fish-like, no neck being distinguisha- — ble, and the whole tapering down gradually from the head to the tail. The tail, however, terminates, not vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, in a cartilaginous fin, and is moved upwards and downwards by muscles of enormous force and volume. In length, it is only five or six feet; but in width, from eighteen to twenty-six. So powerful is it in the largest varieties, that they frequently force themselves out of water. The greatest velocity is given by the upward and downward strokes; a siower motion is obtained by cutting the water sidewise, and obliquely down- wards, as a boat is forced along by a single oar in the operation of skulling. So rapid are the movements of the Cetacea, they have been called the “birds of the sea.” The flippers, or pad- . dles, the anterior limbs, are generally stretched out in a horizon- tal position. When dissected, the bones of the paddles are found CETACEA. 245 to be short and flattened, yet distinct and handlike; but the whole of this osseous frame-work is enveloped in a cartilaginous cover- ing, so as to form an undivided oar. The chief use of the pad- dies seems to be that of balancing the animal, for as soon as life is extinct, it falls over upon its back; they are also employed in turning and giving direction to the velocity produced by the tail. The Cetacea regularly resort to the surface to take in a fresh supply of air. They also descend into the remotest depths of the ocean ; in the case of the larger animals sometimes encountering a pressure which has been estimated at two hundred thousand tons, or one hundred and fifty times as great as that of the atmos- phere, and sufficient to force water through the hardest wood, causing it to sink like so much lead. | For sustaining so vast a pressure, their structure is most wisely adapted. The body is covered with a coat of peculiar elasticity. The naked skin is itself much thickened; but by an open texture of its interwoven fibres, it is made to contain within itself, a thick layer of oil or blubber, and thus the animal can endure, without injury, the greatest weight of water. ‘A soft wrapper of fat, though double the thickness of that usually found in the Cetacea, could not have resisted the superincumbent pressure; whereas, by its being a modification of the skin, always firm and elastic, and in this case, being never less than several inches, and some- times between one and two feet thick, it operates like so much india-rubber, possessing a density and resistance which, the more it is pressed, resists the more.”* As the blubber is specificaily lighter than water, it also makes the animal more buoyant. What fact is given showing the longevity of the Golden E.? What is said of the size, plumage, &c. of the Bald or White-Headed E.? What is one of its favorite haunts? What does Dr. Franklin say of it? When was the Washington Sea E. first observed ? What is said of the Harpy Eagle? What of the Caracara Eagle? What is said of the Fish-Hawk or Bald-Buzzard?. What of the Harrier ? What characters separate the Kites or Second Family from the other Birds of Prey? What is said of the Common Kite or Glede? What of the Swallow or Forked-tailed Hawk? What of the genus Zlanus and its RAPTORES. 297 species? What of the genus Jctinea? What species is mentioned, and what is said of it? Give some account of the Third Sub-Family. What is said of the Com- mon Buzzard? What of the Red-tailed B.? What other species of the genus Buico is mentioned? What is said of the Honey Buzzard? What is the Fourth Sub-Family? Which is the typical genus of the Fatconip&? What is said of the plumage and flight of the Peregrine Falcon? What gives peculiar interest to this bird? What is meant by Falconry? State some particulars respecting it? What is said of the Jer- Falcon? What of the Merlin and Kestrel? What is the Fifth Sub-Family? Mention their characters. Give an account of the Gos-hawk? Which is the type bird of this Sub-Family? What is said of it? Whereis the Chanting Hawk found? Why is it so named ? Which is the Szconp Famiry of the Birds of Prey? On what do they feed? To what climates are they confined? How are they treated by the inhabitants? What has been a disputed point? How do they compare with the Falcons? What characteristics are given? What is said of the Griffen Vulture? What of the Turkey V. or Buzzard? What of the Black V. or Carrion Crow? What of the Egyptian V.? To what genus does the Condor belong? Give particulars respecting it. What is said of the King V.? To what genus does the Lammergeyer or Bearded V. be- long? What is said of it? What of the Secretary Vulture or Serpent Eater ? Which is the Turrp and last Famity of the Birds of Prey? Give the characteristics and habits of the Owl Family. What is their Geographical distribution? Into what divisions are they arranged? What species of the Barn Owls are mentioned? What is said of them? How do the Tuft- less O. differ from the Barn 0.? What is said of the Great Cinerous O.? What of the Burrowing Owl? What of the Great Snowy 0.? Why are. the Horned Owls so called? What is said of the Great Horned 0.2? What of the Virginia 0.2 What of the Little Screech 0.2 What Eared Owls are mentioned of the genus Otus? Trace thus every bird of this Family men- tioned on the Chart. The Harpy Eacte is of the species destructor, genus Harpyia, sub-family Aquitina, family Fatconip&, order RaproreEs, sub- _ class, Lanp Birds, class Birps, division of WarM-BLoopED ANIMALS, sub- kingdom, VERTEBRATES. Give the derivation of these several terms, 298 INSESSORES. SECTION II. Orver IJ.—INSESSORES, OR PASSERES. Percurne Birps. These birds are of smaller size than those of the other orders. Naturalists regard them as exhibiting, in the highest degree, those properties by which, as a class, birds are distinguished. So many are the variations of form and structure which are found in this group, (about equaling in number that of all the other orders taken together,) that but few positive characters can be assigned, which are common alike to the whole group and to a particular division. Its distinctions are mostly negative; for the group includes neither swimmers, waders, nor climbers, neither rapacious nor gallinaceous birds; and yet, by comparing the va- rious tribes which it includes, a general resemblance of struc- ture becomes apparent. These birds have the power of grasping the branches and twigs of trees with their feet, and are accustomed to rest upon them ; hence they are called Perchers ; (Plate X. fig. 4.) the hind toe is al- ways present and placed on the same level or plane as those in front ; and the claws are incapable of being raised as in the Birds of Prey. The larger portion of the species usually dwell in woods and thickets. All have the faculty of flight in full perfection, and in the Swifts and Humming Birds it may be regarded as at its highest development. The beak in the Perchers differs greatly in form, but its common shape is that of a cone, more or less lengthened. In some of the genera a notch appears near the tip of the upper mandible, indicating some affinity for the habits of the Falcon tribe ; but this gradually disappears in the others. The food of these birds is various in its kinds; but by far the larger part feed either upon insects or the seeds of vegeta- bles, which they almost always procure by the beak alone. This order has peculiar interest as including the sweet song- sters whose soothing influence is so widely felt and acknowledged. The larynx, or organ of voice, is in these birds always of complex structure, so that there are few of them that do not, du- ring the pairing season, either sing or utter some peculiar note or chatter analogous to song. The instinct of birds in building their nests, is in those of this order most strikingly displayed. Admirable indeed are the com- pact felted nests of the Humming-bird, of the Goldfinch or Yel- : ek rae igi he LAN 21ROS i Ins essores 3 “Ty, a Ser t a b RIA 2 Scansores. ate Cursores. Grallatores ee es ae | ule ah te . % By xX. EXPLANATION ,OF PLATE X. Fig. 1. The Dunuin or Purre, (Zringa variabilis,) showing the principal Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. parts of the plumage, particularly those most conducive to flight; a, the front; b, the throat; c, the occiput; d, the cheek; e, auri- cle, or auditory conch; 'f, breast; g, back ; h, scapularies : te lesser coverts; k, k. winglet or spurious wing; 1, |. greater coverts; m, m. the primaries or greater quill feathers of wing, which are suc- ceeded by n, n. the secondaries, and these by 0, o. the tertials; p, the upper tail coverts; q, the under tail coverts; r, the tail feathers, (rectrices. ) 2. The wing of common Buzzard, (Buteo vulgaris,) stripped of all its feathers excepting those which give it power and expansibility, and which are those arising from the hand and ulna, termed quill feathers. They form two sets; the first set, (m,) consists of those arising from the hand, (metacarpus and phalanges, ) constituting the most important of the series, being mainly instrumental, by their length and shape, their stiffness or flexibility, in determining the character or the power of flight. They are termed the pinions or primary quill-feathers, and are ten in number, but they differ in form, as in relative length. The second set arises exclusively from the ulna, and are termed the second- ariesor secondary quill-feathers, (n.) They are usually shorter, broader, and less rigid than the former. Their number varies. From the small bone which represents the thumb, arise certain stiff feathers, lying close upon the quills of the primaries, and constituting the spurious wing or winglet, (k.) Besides these, there is a group of feathers termed tertiaries, arising from the humeral joint of the fore-arm, and which in many birds, as the curlews, plovers, lapwings, &c., are very long, form- ing a sort of pointed appendage, very apparent during flight; in most birds, however, they are very short, or not to be discriminated from the rest of the greater coverts, of which, in fact, they are a continua- tion; hence they cannot be strictly reckoned among the quill-feathers. The same observation applies to the feathers (0,) attached to the upper part of the humerus and termed scapularies; these lie along the sides of the back, andin many birds are of great length. LAND BIRDS. OrpDER Ist. Birps or Prey, RaprorEs oR ACCIPITRES. 3. a, White-headed, Sea, or Bald Eagle, seizing the fish just obtained by b, the Fish-hawk or common Osprey. OrprR 2nd. PrErcHInG Birps, INSESSORES OR PASSERS. 4, a, Long-eared Podargus; b, Ruby-throated Humming-bird; ¢, Blue- jay; d, Green Tody; e, Black-cap Titmouse ; f, Wagtail. ORDER 8rd. OLimpBeErs, SCANSORES. 5. a, Cockatoo; b, Green Woodpeckers. ORDER 4th. ScratcHERs, RasorEs. 6. a, Ruffed Grouse; b, California Partridge or Quail. OrprER 5th. Runners or TRAVELERS, CURSORES. 7. Cassowary or Asiatic Ostrich. WATER BIRDS. Gnone 6th. AVADERE, Stitts, oR SHORE Birps, GRALLATORES, 8. a, Crowned Crane; b, Virginia Rail; ¢, Little Sand-piper, Orpver 7th. Swivuers, NatTatorREs oR PALMIPEDES, Fig. 9. a, Northern Diver; b, Patagonian Penruin, 13 302 INSESSORES. low-bird, and of the Bottle-tit or Penduline Tit-mouse, and the woven, purse-like nests of the Oriole and the Starlings. (Plate XI. ithe Perchers always live in pairs; in general, the female is smaller and less brilliant in her plumage than the male. The young leave the egg in a blind and naked state, and for a while are entirely dependent upon parental care for their subsistence. For convenience, this large order has been arranged into four tribes or sub-divisions, founded on the varying form of the beak, viz.: (1) Fissirostres, (Split-bills;) (2) Dentirostres, (Toothed- bills;) (8) Conirostres, (Cone-shaped bills;) and (4) Tenwiros- tres, (Slender-bills. ) First Division oF THE PERCHERS. SPLIT-BILLED Birps Fissirostres, (Lat. fissura, a slit ; rostrum a beak.) This division of the Insessores is a comparatively small one, but is readily distinguished from all the others by the beak. This is short but broad, and more or less flattened horizontally, often hooked at the tip, and very deeply cleft, so that the open- ing of the mouth, (or gape,) is extremely wide. (Plate IX. fig. 14.) Most of the species feed upon insects, which they take when on the wing, receiving them in full flight into their open mouths. One genus, Alcedo, the King-Fisher, subsists on fishes. The Fissirostres, like the birds of prey, may be divided into di- urnal and nocturnal. Their principal home is in tropical coun- tries. Some species are found in the temperate zone, but rather as migratory visitors than as permanent residents, and, on the ap- proach of winter, they depart to more congenial climes. Many of the species are celebrated for the brilliant hues which adorn their plumage. The Split-bills are divided into six families, viz.: (1) Capri- mulgide, (Night-jars ;) (2) Hirundinide, (Swallows;) (3) Mer- opide, (Bee-eaters;) (4) Trogonide, (Trogons;) (5) Todide, (Todies ;) (6) Alcedinide, (King-fishers. ) First Famiry. The Nicut-sars. Caprimulgida, (Lat. Caprimulgus, Goat-Sucker.) These birds have the beak exceedingly small, but the gape enormous ; (Plate 1X. fig. 14;) its sides are, for the most part fringed with long stiff bristles called vibrisse ; and the interior of the mouth is moistened with a glutinous secretion, both which aid them to secure their insect prey. The wings are long and INSESSORES. . 803 formed for powerful flight ; the feet very small and feathered to the toes, which are connected at the base by a membrane. The claw of the middle toe, in most of the genera, is extended on one side, the edge being cut into regularly formed teeth, like those of a comb, and used, as is thought, for cleaning thei: plumage. The Night-jars are nocturnal or crepuscular in their habits, chasing their insect food by night, or at dusk, when the beetles and large moths are on the wing, for the capture of which the formation of the mouth is admirably fitted. In their nocturnal movements, their feathered feet, their large ‘ears and eyes, and in other additional respects, an analogy is dis- coverable between these birds and the Owls, and one which is recognized in the common names, Fern Owl, Churn Owl, &c., applied to some of the species. Indeed, the Night-jars are evi- dently to be regarded as a connecting link between the Perchers and Birds of Prey. The species of these birds are widely spread. ‘Their colors are usually various shades of black, brown, gray and white, beautifully intermingled with minute waves, lines and spots. Instead of being noxious and mischievous, they are the most harmless and useful of birds, destroying the scavenger beetles and moths, those great enemies of vegetation. The term Goat Suckers, also applied to these birds as far back as the days of Aristotle, is derived from a silly notion that they suck goats, an idea about as credible as the one some- times entertained that hedgehogs suck cows, or cats the breath of children. The voices of the Night-jars, like those of the Owls, are often harsh and strange ; and sometimes they show a peculiar vibratory or quivering character. Some of these noc- turnal birds, (Podargus, Gr. pous, a foot; argos, inactive,) have a beak nearly as strong as an Owl’s; others of them, (Psadurus, Gr. psalis, scissors; oura, tail,) have forked tails of excessive length ; and one species, (C. diurnis, Lat. diurnal,) is ‘seen in cloudy days in troops of fifteen or twenty, skimming over the surface of ponds precisely in the manner of swallows.” The Common Goat-Sucker of Europe, C. Europeus, (see fig. on Chart.) This is a beautiful Night-jar, in its migrations reaching Ene- land about the middle of May, and departing near the end of September. Its length is about ten inches. It builds no nest, but lays two mottled eggs on the ground. Frequently this bird sits on a branch or a fence-rail, and with the head as low as the feet, utters, with swollen, quivering throat, its singular jarring 804 INSESSORES. note, fora long space ata time, and without seeming to draw breath. ° The CHuck-wiLu’s-wipow, C.-Carolinensis, is an interesting American Night-jar, but rarely found beyond Mississippi or the Carolinas on the sea-board. It is the southern species of the United States. In sound and articulation, it seems to express the words of its name, putting the chief emphasis upon the last word. Its head and back are of a dark brown color, mottled with red, and streaked sidewise with black ; the lower parts are of a dull reddish yellow. The length of the male is twelve and three-fourths inches; of the female thirteen and one-fourth inches. The notes of this bird are seldom heard in cloudy weather, and never when it rains. It forms no nest; its eggs are oval, of a dull olive speckled with brown, and are placed in a little space carelessly scratched amongst the dead leaves. If the eggs are touched, both parents remove them to some other place of deposit in the woods, where they cannot easily be again discovered. The Wuip-Poor-wiLL, C. vociferus, (Lat. vor, voice; fero, to bear or give forth,) is seen at the approach of spring in most parts.of the Western and Southern States, and in small tracts, thinly covered with timber, in the Middle States also. Like its near relative, the Chuck-will’s-widow, it is not often seen during the day, except when discovered casually in a state of repose ; and it is much distressed by being forced to face a brilliant light. In the dusk of the evening, however, this bird becomes active and diligent in securing its insect prey. Its flight is light and noiseless, the motion of its wings only causing a gentle undula- tion in the air, scarcely noticed by a person a few feet distant. An imagined resemblance of its notes to the syllables whzp-poor- will, has given this bird that common name. Its song is pro- longed for several hours after sunset. The male bird is nine and one-half inches long. (See Chart.) Steatornis, (Gr. stéar, fat; ornis,a bird.) The birds which this term includes were ranked by Cuvier in the genus Podargus, but on account of their peculiar food and habits, were erected by Humboldt into a separate genus. The Gvuacuaro-Birp, S. Caripensis, (belonging to Caripe,) _ takes its name from the mountain of Guacharo, near the valley of Caripe, South America. It has a wedge-shaped tail, is about the size of a common fowl; and covered with plumage of a brownish gray color, mixed with small furrowed lines and black dots. ‘The Guacharo mountain is noted for its large cave, pierced in the vertical profile of the rock, eighty feet broad and seventy- INSESSORES. 305 two feet high, which was entered by Humboldt and his com- panions. After penetrating not far from four hundred and fifty feet, they heard from afar the hoarse cries of the Guacharo Birds. These birds quit the cavern only at nightfall, especially when there is moonlight. Humboldt remarks that they are the only frugivorous birds of the night yet known. They feed on very hard fruits, and reject the insect food of which other Goat- Suckers are fond. Once a year, near midsummer, this cave is entered by the Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the greater part of the nests, while the old birds hover over the heads of the robbers, as if to defend their brood, uttering, at the same time, horrible cries. The young which fall down are killed upon the spot. The inner parts of these birds are laden with _ fat; darkness and repose, as Humboldt suggests, favoring its for- mation, as in the case of geese and oxen. ‘The fat of these birds, when melted, is called the butter or oil of the Guacharo; it is half liquid, transparent and inodorous, and so pure that it will keep a year or more without becoming rancid. The crops and gizzards of the young birds, when opened in the cavern, are found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits, which are con- veyed to them by their parents. ‘These are preserved, and, un- der the name of Guacharo-seed, are considered a remedy against intermittent fevers. ‘The cave of the Guacharo is situated in South Lat. 100 10’. Seconp Famity. The Swaxttows or Martins. Hirundinide, (Lat. Hirundo, a swallow.) The family of Swallows resemble the Night-jars in the small- ness of the beak, and the great width of the gape, as they do also in the weakness and greatly reduced size of the feet. They, however, differ from the Night-jars in being active during the day, and hence are included in the sub-tribe, Fisstrostres diurni, or Diurnal Split-billed Birds. The Swallows are also of far more powerful wing than the Night-jars, nor have their feathers the lax softness, or the mottled style of coloration common to birds of the night; but on the other hand, the plumage is close, smooth, and often burnished with a metallic gloss; while the pre- vailing shades are black, (more or less changing into blue or green,) above, and white, often varying with dull red, beneath. The smallness of their feet is in correspondence with their al- most perpetual flight; they even drink on the wing; and their feet, being small and weak, are little used, yet as these birds often cling to rocks and walls when they do rest, their toes are 306 INSESSORES. furnished with sharp crooked claws, and the hind toe can either wholly, as in the Swifts, or partially, as in the common Chimney Swallow, be brought to point forward. The Swallows are widely scattered overthe globe, but still are eminently fond of warm latitudes; they roam, indeed, over the temperate zones, and even advance as far north as the Arctic circle, but only in the summer season; when cold weather ap- proaches, they hasten to equatorial climes. Everywhere they are known as birds of great speed, for which they are fitted by the firm and close plumage of their bodies, their long, stiff, and pointed wing-feathers, and their long and forked tails. — Cypselus, (Gr. kupselos, a martin.) Swirrs or Martins. The birds of this genus have the toes thickly feathered, and all the four toes directed forwards. The species C. apous, (Gr. without feet,) is the Swirt, or Biack Martin. This specific name is given to this bird on account of the exceeding smallness of its feet. It is spread over Europe in the summer season, and is popularly known as “Jack Screamer.” ‘This is one of the swiftest of the Swallow family, appearing to spend the whole day on the wing, and occasionally soaring almost out of sight, but screaming so shrilly that the sound is plainly heard. The Black Martins destroy a very great number of insects, retaining them in a kind of pouch under the tongue for the use of their young, and constantly renewing the supply. Chaetura, (Gr. chaité, bristle; oura, tail.) Sprne-Tatts. The Spine-tails have the tarsus bare and longer than the mid- dle toe; the tail short and even ; the shafts prolonged into sharp points. C. pelasgia, (Gr. pelazo,to come near,) is the AMERICAN Swit, or Cuimney Swa.tow, a bird which seems to show its appreci- ation of the progress of civilization by leaving its old abodes in the hollows of trees, and taking possession of chimneys free from smoke in the summer season. ‘This bird builds its nest in a semi-circular form. The nest is glued together with the saliva or unctuous matter secreted in glands provided for that purpose, and with the same saliva it is fastened to trees or to a chimney wall. When the nest is in a chimney, it is usually placed on the east side, from five to eight feet from the entrance ; when in the hollow of a tree, it is placed high or low, according to con- venience. Audubon counted more than a thousand that “entered one chimney before dark,” and he estimated that nine thousand roosted in a single tree which he watched near Louisville, Ken- tucky. This Swallow rears two broods in a season. It does not INSESSORES. 307 migrate farther east than Nova Scotia. In the State of New York it appears about the last of April. The Escutent Swattow, H. esculenta, is the maker of the edible bird-nests, (see Chart.) esteemed such a delicacy among the Chinese, and a considerable article of their commerce. These nests are made of a species of sea-weed, (fucus.) The bird macerates and bruises it before forming the material in lay- ers so as to construct the whitish gelatinous cup-shaped nests. The finest are those obtained before the nest has been contami- nated by the young. ‘These are pure white, scarce and valuable. The inferior ones are dark, discolored, or mixed with feathers. These are generally converted into glue. ‘The only preparation for sale which these bird-nests undergo, is that of simple drying, without exposure to the sun, after which they are packed in small boxes. They are assorted into three kinds for the Chinese market, according to their relative values, and distinguished into first or best, second and third qualities. These nests are found in Java, and they are particularly abundant in Sumatra. They are regarded as an article of ex- pensive luxury, and sold at most extraordinary prices; they are consequently consumed by persons of rank alone. ‘The sensual Chinese use them under an impression that they are powerfully stimulating and tonic; but probably their most valuable quality is their perfect harmlessness. The Barn Swattow, H. rustica, (Lat. of the country,) ranges in the spring from New Orleans to Newfoundland. The same name is given to the Chimney Swallow of England, which in its song this bird entirely resembles. ‘The nest of this bird is something like a section of an inverted cone, and is attached to the side of a beam or rafter in a barn or shed. ‘The Barn Swal- low surpasses in speed every other species, except the Humming Bird. ‘The tail isdeeply forked, the side feathers of which much exceed the wings in length. The Purrre Martin, H. purpurea, (Lat. of a purple color,) is seen early in April, and for its reception in our cities habita- tions are sometimes furnished; occasionally its nests are seen in the corners of houses. Its flight is easy and graceful, but not so swift as that of the Barn Swallow. Audubon was of the opin- ion that this Swallow goes farther south than any other of our migratory birds. Other interesting species are H. riparia, (Lat. ripa,a bank,) the Bank Swa.tow, or Sand Martin, which perforates sand banks and makes its nest in the holes; (Plate XI. fig. 10;) H. thalas- sina, (Gr. thalassa, the sea,) the VioLET GREEN SwaLiow; H. 308 INSESSORES. fuiva, (Lat. tawny,) the Repusiican, or CuirF Swattow. This latter species was described by Gov. De Witt Clinton, in 1824. Its winter retreat is in Mexico. In summer, it is found in dif- ferent parts of the United States, taking the course of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio. Its nest is composed of mud or clay, with a narrow tubular neck, and resembles a coarse retort. (See Plate XI. fig. 11.) Tutrp Famity Bee-Earers. Meropide, (Gr. “égoy, merops.) We place the Bee-eaters next the Swallows, following in that arrangement the classification of Swainson, though sometimes, on account of the lengthened form of the beak in this family, they have been placed immediately before the tenuirostral, or thin- billed birds. In addition to the long, slender and tapering beak, the Bee- eaters are distinguished by their long pointed wings; the first quill, for the most part, being nearly or stae as long as any other. These birds are generally of a green color varied with blue. They associate in flocks, and in their appearance and rapid dight are much like the Swallows. The food of the Meropide, con- sists of large insects, which they capture and eat during flight. One species is said to perch and watch for prey on the horn of the Rhinoceros, giving notice to that animal of the approach of the hunter ; but usually they take their food onthe wing. ‘These birds are entirely confined to the continents and islands of the eastern hemisphere. They do not construct nests, but lay their eggs in holes. The European Bes-Eater, WM. apiaster, (Lat. a bee-eater,) in its coloring and shape, is not unlike the King-fisher. It an- nually visits the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, ap- pearing in flocks of twenty or thirty, and skimming over the . vineyards and olive plantations in pursuit especially of bees and wasps: It is remarkable that these birds are never stung ; they seize the insect, and with their strong beak crush it at once. The flesh of the Bee-eater is sufficiently esteemed to be sold in the markets both of Italy and Egypt. The boys of Candia, it is said, take it after this manner: they bend a pin like a hook, and tying it by the head to the end of a thread, they thrust it through a Cicada, (as boys bait hooks with a fly.) ‘holding the other end of the thread in their hand. The Cicada so fastened, neverthe- less continues its flight, which the merops perceiving, pursues and catches it, swallowing pin and all, whereby she is captured. LINSESSORES. 309 The Rotters, which are insome respects intermediate between the Swallows and Bee-eaters, have been variously arranged by naturalists. With Swainson, we place them among the Meropi- de. These are represented by the genus Coracias, (Gr. kora- kias, raven-like,) the birds of which have a straight and moder- ate sized bill, and very short perching or insessorial feet. One species, C. Abyssinica, has two long, loose processes, terminat- ing the two external quills. The Common, or Garrutous Rotter, C. garrula, (Lat. talk- ative,) is plentifully found in most parts of Europe. The mouth is slightly furnished with bristles like those of the Night-jar; the voice is loud and chattering, whence its specific name. To the species C. orientalis, (Lat. eastern,) Linn, the name of Dot- LAR Brrp is given. Swainson refers it to a sub-genus Eurysio- mus, (Gr. eurus, broad; stoma, mouth.) It resembles the com- mon Roller, but has a shorter and wider bill, and longer wings; the sides of the gape are smooth. It is a native of South Aus- tralia. ‘The natives near Sydney call it the Natay-Kiy; the Colonists name it Dollar Bird. (See Chart.) Fourty Famity. Topipz, (Lat. todus, asmall bird.) Toopiss. The Todies are a small family, resembling the King-fishers in their general form, and found chiefly within the tropics of both hemispheres. Their legs are rather long ; their wings short and rounded, and incapable of any but the most feeble flight. The beak is broad and much flattened, usually blunt or rounded at the tip. In their habits they resemble the Fly-catchers, hopping about among the slender branches of the trees, and occasionally making a short flight to capture insects; these form their princi- pal food, to which, in the case of some species, berries are added. “They have scarcely any voice except at pairing time, and their color closely resembles that of the trees in which they dwell.” The species included in the genus Todus are confined to Tropi- cal America. The Green Topy, 7. viridis, is very common in the greater West India Islands. This is a very familiar and beautiful bird; (Plate X. fig. 4d.) while sitting upon some twig or low bush, watching for flying insects, ‘it will often let aman come within a few feet and look at it for minutes together, before it moves.” It is interesting to note the various means Divine Wisdom has ordained for the attainment of a given end. The Swallow and Tody live upon the same food, (insects;) the Tody’s short, hol- 310 INSESSORES. low and feeble wings, are to him as effectual for securing his prey, as are, for the same purpose, the long and powerful pin- ions of the Swallow to him. * Eurylaimus, (Gr. eurus, broad; Jaimos, throat,) is a genus of Todies peculiar to the Eastern Continent. Onespeciesis E. Ja- vanicus, in which the beak is, at the base, nearly as broad as its length. Sir Stamford Raffles says: “It frequents the banks of rivers and lakes, feeding on insects and worms. It builds nests pendent from the branch of a tree or bush which overhangs the water.” Firta Famiry. Troconipz. Trocons. This is not a large family of birds, but one pre-eminent in beauty and brilliancy of plumage. The color is usually a me- tallic golden green, strongly contrasted with scarlet, black and brown. The Trogons have two toes behind and two before, as in the Woodpecker; still they have not the habit or power of climbing. The wings are very short but pointed; the quill-feathers stiff; the general plumage soft andthick. The beak is short, triangu- lar-shaped and strong; the tip, and generally the edges are notched; the gape is wide. The head is rather large, and the form full and plump; the tail remarkably long and ample; the feathers regularly decrease in length outward; and in one genus, Calurus, (Gr. kalos, beautiful; oura, tail,) the tail-coverts are so greatly developed as to conceal the tail, and hang down in nar- row flowing plumes of great length. (See Chart.) The food of the Trogons consists principally of insects, “ which,” says Mr. Gould, “they seize upon the wing, as their wide gape enables them to do with facility ; while their feeble tarsi and feet are such as to qualify them merely for resting on the branches as a post of observation, whence to mark their_prey as it passes, and to which, having given chase, to return. Daz- zled by the brightness of the meridional sun, morning and even- ing twilight is the season of their activity.” The recesses of the thickest forests form their chosen abode for the entire year. The Trogons of the most exquisite plumage are found in South America. According to Mr. Gould, twenty-three species are inhabitants of America and its Islands, ten of the Indian Islands and India, and one of Africa. The remarkable plumage and shy habits of the Trogons were closely observed by the ancient Mexicans. According to Cortes, three hundred men were employed in taking care of the Royal i S__ °° — - INSESSORES. 311 Menagerie in which large numbers of these birds were kept; physicians were also appointed to watch their diseases and apply timely remedies. This was by order of the King, who not only delighted in the sight of so many species, but was very careful of their feathers for the sake of the famous mosaic images and pictures, as well as other works which were made of them. The Trogon (Calurus) resplendens, (Lat. shining brightly.) is the QuesaLt of Guatimala. Unlike some others of the family, its beak is not serrated; the head is surmounted with a com- pressed and elevated crest; the upper tail-feathers are so enor- mously developed as to hide the tail. (See Chart.) “It is scarcely possible,” says Mr. Gould, “ for imagination to conceive anything more rich and gorgeous than the golden-green color which adorns the principal part of the plumage, or more elegant” and graceful than the flowing plumes which sweep pendent from the lower part cf the back, formiug a long train of metallic brill- iancy.” From the feathers of this, “the most beautiful of a beautiful tribe,’—not excluding, however, those of some other species—the Mexicans made Mosaic pictures, together with orna- ments for their head-dresses. A picture in mosaic, made from the feathers of this bird, is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Eng. The subject is “Christ fainting upon the cross.” The entire picture is about as large as the size of the palm of the hand, and the figures are only half an inch in height; yet it is said, the very expression of the features is preserved. Prionites, (Gr. serrated ) The Mormot. The name of this genus is derived from the serrated margins of both the mandibles, in which particular it differs from the other Trogons. ‘The Motmot, P. Braziliensis, is a very curi- ous and handsome bird, inhabiting many parts of South Amer- ica. J What is said concerning the size and number of the Percuine Birps? What of their variations in form and structure? Why are they called PERCHERS? What is said of their power of flight? What of their beak, food, and musical powers? What of their instinct in building their nests? How do they always live? Into what Tripes are they arranged, and upon what is the arrangement based? How are the Split-Bills distinguished from all the others? How and upon what do they feed? Is there any exception to this? Where is the home of the Fissirostral birds? Are any found in temperate zones? Name the Famities into which this tribe is divided. _ Give the characteristics of the Night-jars. In what respects do they re- semble the Owls? Why are these birds called Goat-Suckers? What is said of their voices? What sp. are mentioned? Which is diurnal and what is said of it? Describe the Common G. S. of E. What is said of the 312 INSESSORES. Chuck-wills-widow? What of the Whip-poor-will? Repeat what is said of the Guacharo B. What is the second Famity of the Split-billed birds? Are they noctur- nal or diurnal? In what respects do they resemble the Night-jars? How do they differ from them? Whatis said of their flight? What other char- acteristics are noted of the Swattow Famity? What popular name has the Swift or Martin? What is said of this bird? What characteristic of the Spine-tails are mentioned? What is the scientific name of the AmeERtr- cAN Swirt or CHIMNEY SwaLLtow? Whatisits signification? Repeat what is saidof thisbird. What is said of the construction, uses, &c. of the edible bird-nests ? Where are they found and how regarded? What is the range of the Barn Swallow? What English bird does it resemble? What other sp. are mentioned? How are the Brsr-Earers distinguished? What is the general color of their plumage? What birds do they resemble? To what birds are the-RoLtiERs intermediate? What habit is peculiar to one sp.? To what hemisphere are the Rollers confined? To which sp. of R. is the name Dollar Bird given? Describe the E. Bee-Eater? How do the boys of Candia take this bird ? Give the characteristics of the third Faminy or Topizs. To what region are the birds of the gen. Todies confined? What is said of the Green To- dy? What. gen. is peculiar to the Eastern Continent? What is said of the number, plumage and size of the Trogons, or the fourth Faminy ? What are their characteristics? Where found? How many sp. according to Mr. Gould? How did the ancient Mexicans regard these birds? What use did they make of their feathers? What does Mr. G. remark of the Quesat of Guatimala? Which is the most beautiful of the Trogons? What mosaic picture was made of its feathers? Where is the Mormor found? SECTION IV. Seconp Division oF THE PERcHERS. ‘TootH-BILLED Birps. Dentirosires. (Lat. dens, a tooth; rostrum, a beak.) The upper mandible in this division is notched on each side near the tip, whence the name Dentirostres, or ‘Tooth-billed. In the Shrikes, or Butcher Birds, the indentation is very decided, and attended with a projecting tooth, so as to show a connecting link with the Birds of Prey; the beak being also very strong, hooked, and sharp pointed, and the habits of the birds ferocious and carnivorous. Even the Shrikes, however, differ from the Falcons in having the notch confined to the horny surface of the beak, whereas, in the Falcon, it is a true process, extending into the bone itself. The favorite food of the Tooth-billed birds consists of insects, though some of them join with this food, berries and other soft fruits. Excepting the Finches, belonging to the Cone-billed INSESSORES. 313 birds—all the musigal birds, including the Nightingale of the Old World, and the Mocking-bird of the New, belong to the division which we are now to consider. The Dentirostres are spread over the globe. They are com- prised in five families, viz: (1.) Sz/viade, or Warblers; (2.) Merulide, or Thrushes; (3.) Muscicapide, or Fly-catchers ; (4.) Ampelide, or Chatterers ; (5.) Laniada, or Shrikes. ; First Famity. ‘THe WaARBLERS. Stlviade. (Lat. Sylvia, or Silvia, a wood.) The small singing birds comprised under the general name of Warblers, form a very numerous, as well as interesting group. The bill in these birds is slender, straight, awl-shaped, higher than it is wide at the base, and furnished with bristles, the lower mandible being straight. Audubon enumerates no less than forty-four species of these birds found on the American Conti- nent. The habits of the different species vary considerably ; but in general, the Warblers frequent groves and woods, and search for the small insects, which are their food, among the leaves and twigs, and the crevices in the barks of trees, rather than on the wing, like the Swallows. Excepting the Humming Birds, we find among this group, the smallest birds of the creation. ‘The diminutive Golden Crests, Regulus; the Nightingale, Philomela; the White-throat, or Petty-chaps, Silvia, or Curruca, (Lat. caterpillar;) the Wood- warbler, or Wood-wren, Sylvicola, (Lat. wood inhabitant,) are examples of genuine warblers. Diffused over all parts of the habitable world, it seems to be the office of these birds to prevent an undue multiplication of the innu- merable insects which lurk within the buds, the foliage or the flow- ers of plants. The smallness of these insects, causes them to elude the notice of the Thrushes and the larger insectivorous birds, whilst their habits secure them against capture by the Swallows and other birds that take their prey only when on the wing. The Warblers are, for the most part, migratory birds. When the increasing warmth of spring is ushering the insect tribe into renewed life and activity, the return of these birds is providen- tially and wisely ordered, to prevent its troublesome increase. In autumn, when the hosts of insects begin to diminish, and no longer require to be kept in check, these useful little creatures take their flight to other climes. The Warblers may be conveniently arranged into five groups, ~ 314 INSESSORES. having different tribes of insects allotted to them respectively, and showing a correspondent diversity in their favorite haunts. i) Tur GoLpEN Crests, Sylviade, and Woop-warBLERs, Sylvicolide, are the true warblers, confining | themselves mostly to the taller trees, where they search for winged insects among the leaves, or capture them, like the Fly- catchers, when attempt. ing to escape. Of these, the Gold-crested Wren, or Kinglet, Regulus, (Lat. dim. of rex. king ;) cristatus, (see Chart,) is one of the most attractive species, and the smallest of the European birds, three and a half inches long. The Golden-crested Kinglet, of America, Regulus satraps, is half an inch longer than the European species,yet agrees with it in its general appearance. ‘The color is olive green; beneath whitish, but the crown is orange, or gold colored. It isan active and restless bird, generally found in groups, on the extremities of twigs and bunches of leaves. The Blue Bird, Erythaca, or Stalia Wilsonii, or Blue Robin, as it is called in some districts of the Union, bears considerable resemblance to the Robin Red- breast, of Europe. It is a lovely warbler, found in all parts of our country, appearing in New York early in the spring, (March,) but leaving in November for the South, as far as Mex- ico. It is very useful as a destroyer of multitudes of noxious insects. The Myrtle Bird,.so called from its feeding in autumn and winter on Myrtle-wax berries, (Myrica cerifera,) or the Yel- low-crowned Wood-warbler, Sylvicola coronata, is perhaps the best representation of the Wood-warblers,—it is very common in the State of New York, and ranges from Mexico to 650 N. Lat. The summer Yettow Birp, Sylvicola estiva, (Lat. of sum- mer,)—so called to distinguish it from the Common Yellow Bird, ( Carduelis tristis,) is “remarkable for its instinctive Sagacity in getting rid of the eggs of the Cow Black Bird, (Molothrus peecorts.) As the egg is too large to.be thrust out, this Yellow Bird com- mences a new nest above it; thus almost horizontally closing it up, and then proceeds to deposit her own eggs.” The Tattor Birp, Silvia, (Lat. a tit-lark,) constructs a nest of a curious kind,—by sewing leaves together. (See Plate XI. fig. 8;) (2.) THe Reep-warsiers and NicHTineates, of Europe, Philomeline, which haunt the vicinity of waters, or the more dense foliage of hedges, for insects found in such situations. These are larger than the true Warblers, and live partly upon fruits as well as insects. (3.) THe Sronecuats, Saxicoline, (Lat. saxum, rock; colo, INSESSORES. 315 I inhabit,) which prefer dry commons, or wide extended plains, and feed on the insects peculiar to such localities. The Robin Red-breast, Erithacus,* (Gr. erithacos, Red-breast;) rubecula, (Lat. a Red-breast,)—of ballad and song celebrity, and a bird that sings throughout the whole year,—belongs to this third group. It is smaller, and more familiar in its habits, than the American Robin, Turdus migratorius. (4.) Tue Wae-raizs and Tir-tarxs, Motacillide, (from mota- cilla, Lat. for wag-tail,) in some respects like the Wading birds, and which have for their food the insects that frequent humid and wet places. — The American Pipit, or Tit-lark, Anthus, (Lat. a tit-lark,) ludovicianus, is of this group,—a little bird about six and a half inches long, varying in its plumage with age and sex; in the male, of grayish brown on the upper parts, and dusky white beneath. It feeds on minute shells, shrimps, and aquatic insects found on rocky shores and the banks of streams, or on insects and various seeds which it finds in meadows and ploughed grounds ; when feeding in the latter places, these Tit-larks are seen in small flocks; to this the specific name probably refers. These birds appear in New York about the first of May,—but range far North and West; wintering in Louisiana and still farther South. (5.) Tue Tit-mice, Paride, (from Parus, Lat. for tit-mouse, or tom-tit,)—birds which search assiduously for insects among the buds and tender shoots of trees. At the same time, they are quite omnivorous, sometimes laying up stores of grain, and even eating small and sickly birds, when they are able to destroy them. Of this group, the Black-cap Tit-mouse, or Chickadee, P. atricapillus, (Lat. black-haired,) is a familiar example, (Plate X. fig. 4e,) a truly Northern species, and so abundant in the fur countries, that companies of them may be found in almost every thicket. The penduline Tit-mouse, or Bottle-tit, Parus penduli-. nus, derives its name from its purse-like, or bottle-shaped nest, suspended on the branch of a willow or some other aquatic tree, with an opening on the side for the ingress and egress of the bird and its young. (Plate XI, fig. 5.) Tue CHEsTNUT-cROWNED Tit-mouse, P. minimus, (Lat. least,) of the Wahlamet, (near the Pacific coast,) constructs a curious nest, resembling a long purse, and hanging from a low bush. (Plate XI. fig. 1.) It is made chiefly of moss, down, and lint of plants, and lined with feathers; the female lays six white eggs. * This is spelled Hrythaca, on the Chart, after the manner of Swainson and others, but the true orthography is that given in the text. me 316 INSESSORES. The length of this pretty bird is only four and a half inches. Linnzeus included the entire group of Warblers under the one genus Motacilla. Seconp Famity. 'THRUSHES. Merulide, (Lat. merula, a black bird,) or Turdide,. (Lat. Turdus, a thrush.) The Thrushes are the most numerous and diversified of the tooth-billed division of birds. The average size is considerably greater than that of the Warblers. The beak of these birds is as long as the head, and compressed at the sides; the upper mandi- ble arched to the tip; the notch is well marked; the gape is furnished with bristles; the feet are long, with curved claws adapted for walking as well as perching, for exercising on the ground as well as moving among the trees. The food on which the Thrushes subsist, is less restricted than that of the Warblers; for, besides insects and their caterpillars, snails, slugs, earth- worms, etc., they feed largely on pulpy and farinaceous berries. Many of the species are gregarious in the winter, and some, as the common Fieldfare, T. pilaris, (Lat. like a ball,) are so during the year. The colors of the Thrushes are, for the most part, sombre, but often elegantly arranged; various shades of olive are the pre- vailing hues, and these often take the form of spots running in chains upon the breast and under parts. The Orioles are dis- tinguished for their fine contrasts of rich black and golden yellow; the Breves, Pitta, (Gr. pitch,) with remarkably short tails, and found in India and Australia,—are distinguished for their dazzling blue and green; while some of the African Thrushes shine like the metallic lustre of burnished steel. The Thrushes are common in all parts of the world, and many of them are eminently birds of song. As illustrating the general character and habits of the family, we may refer to the Song Thrush, Mavis, or Throstle, (T. musicus,) which sings with sweet and varied note from the commencement of spring, and even earlier, to the close of summer; to the Blackbird, (T. merula,) whose song is less varied, but still richer and mellower ; and to the Fieldfare, or Gray Thrush, (T. pilaris.) Tue AFRICAN SHorT-LEGGED TurusHES, Brachypodide, (Gr. brachus, short; pous, a foot,) are a sub-family ; from having four long bristles on the back of the neck, sometimes calied Bristly- necked Thrushes. Another sub- family, isthe BapBiers, or Lonc-LEGGED THRUSHES, INSESSORES. 317 Craterpodide, (Gr. crater, a wine-cup, or opening; pous, a foot.) of Australia, which have large and strong feet, and send forth loud and disagreeable notes. Among the true Thrushes, Meruline, is the American Rosin, T. migratorius, (Lat. migra- tory,) whose cheerful note is always most welcome in the open-, ing spring, and whose large nest, in which may be seen five beautiful sea-green eggs, appears to be regarded, even by boys, as more sacred than others. Tue American Mocxine Birp, Orpheus, (Gr. proper name of a famous musician;) polyglottus, (Gr. many-tongued,) is another true Thrush,—having a voice capable of every variety of modulation, surpassing, in this respect, even the European Nightingale; but not noted either for its gay, or its brilliant plumage. The Mocking Birds are much sought after on account of their extraordinary vocal and imitative powers, which remain undiminished even in confinement. ‘They are easily raised; a single bird sells for from seven to fifteen or twenty dollars; the sum of fifty dollars has been paid, and that of one hundred dol- lars refused for an exquisite singer. The first brood of the Mocking Bird are always largest and stoutest. This bird is usually about ten inches in length. -The Car Brrp, T. lividus, (Lat. livid,) is an aberrant form, of Orpheus, and, in some parts of the United States, very numerous. It is nearly as large as the Mocking Bird, (see Chart,) and has a note which closely im- itates the cry of a young kitten. The Mistetoe Turusn, (T. viscivorus, (Lat. viscus, a misletoe; voro, | devour,) is said to “surpass all other Thrushes in size, and is decidedly the largest songster of the European birds.” It is particularly fond of the berries of the misletoe ; next to these, it prefers the berries of the mountain ash. Its length is eleven inches. Some persons call it the Strormcock, as it ‘pours forth its melody when the bleak winds of winter roar through the leafless trees.” The Warer- Ouzet, or Dipper, Cinclus, (Gr. Kinklos, the name of a bird,) aquaticus,—is an interesting bird, found principally in hilly places, where there are clear and rapid brooks and rivulets. It dives for considerable distances with apparent ease, and may be seen perched on the top of a stone in the midst of a torrent, in a continual dipping motion, while watching for its food, which consists of small fishes and insects. It has been said to possess the extraordinary power of ‘walking, in quest of its prey, on the pebbly bottom of a river, and with the same ease as on dry land.” !! Respecting this alleged power, it has been well re- marked, “If the Water Ouzel, which is specifically lighter than water, can manage, by some inherent power, to walk on the 318 INSESSORES. ground at the bottom of a rivulet, then there is great reason to hope that we, who are heavier than air, may, any day, rise up into it, unassisted by artificial apparatus, such as wings, gas, steam, or broom staff.” Tuirp Famity. Fry CatcHers. Muscicapide, (Lat. musca, a fly ; capio, I catch.) This very musical family, which receives its popular name from the expertness of the birds which it comprises, in catching the flying insects upon which they feed, is found widely diffused throughout both the Eastern and Western Continents; and in- cludes many of the most beautiful of the feathered tribes. They appear to be a connecting link between the Split-billed and the Tooth-billed birds. Like the former, they have a beak which is broad at the base, and hooked at the tip, while the gape is surrounded with bristles; like them, also, their feet are unusually feeble, or less developed than the wings, and they feed upon insects which they take in their flight. Indeed, they are the most insectivorous of all the tooth-billed birds. In their generic details, the Fly-Catchers widely differ; all, however, are united by common peculiarities of structure; and, particularly, by having the beak strong, broad, flat, angular on the summit, or culmen, and notched at the tip; and by having the side of the mouth defended by thick bristles. The European birds of this family, are sometimes called “Restricted Fly-Catchers,” having shorter bristles around the mouth, and much more slender bills than the others. Of these there are but two species, Musicapagriséla, the Gray, or Spot- TED Friy-Catcuer, known by several provincial names, all derived from its habits;—as the ‘‘ Beam Bird,” from a favorite site of its nest, and the “Cherry-chopper,”’ from its supposed taste for the fruit of that tree. In some portions of England, it is called the ‘Post-bird,” and in other parts, the “ Bee- bird.”’ It is about six inches in length; its breast is of a dull- ish white, slightly tinged with a dull orange, and the upper part of the body is brown. It is a very tame bird, often build- ing its nest in places where persons are constantly passing and repassing,—seeming particularly partial to the vine and sweet- briar, as the support of its nest. The note of this Fly-Catcher is a weak chirp, and even that is not often heard. The other European species, M. luctuosa, (Lat. sorrowful,) is: the Pied Fly-Catcher, about as large as a Linnet, found in Prussia, Sweden, and sometimes in England. It has been ealled INSESSORES, 319 «a Magpie in miniature.” The bill, and the crown of the head, are black; the other parts of the body present various shades of black, brown and white; there is a white spot on its forehead, from which its name is derived. The female lays five very pale blue eggs. Of the numerous American Fly-Catchers, we name first, the King Bird, or Tyrant Fly-Catcher; JM. tyrannus, (Linn.,) or Tyrannus intrepidus, (Lat. undaunted,) ranging during summer from the temperate part of Mexico to the remote interior. It receives its name from the authority which it assumes over other birds during the time of breeding; the eggs are five in number, of a pale green color, or dullish white. At the breeding season, the King Bird’s extreme affection for his mate and for his nest and young, makes him suspicious of every bird that happens to pass near his residence, so that he attacks, with- out discrimination, every intruder. In the months of May, June and part of July, his life is one continued scene of broils and battles; in which, however, he generally comes off conqueror. Hawks, and Crows, the Bald Eagle, and the Great Black Eagle, , all equally dread an encounter with this dauntless little cham- pion, which, mounting to a considerable height above these birds, darts down upon their backs, sometimes fixing himself there, to the no small annoyance of his powerful antagonists. In teasing the Eagle, he constantly keeps up a shrill and rapid twittering ; this, in fact, is his only song. The Purple Martin, however, from its more rapid flight, is more than a match for the King Bird, eluding all his attacks, and teasing him as he pleases. “‘T have,” says Wilson, ‘also seen the Red-headed Woodpecker, while clinging on a rail of the fence, amuse himself with the violence of the King Bird, and play bo-peep with him around the rail, while the latter, highly irritated, made every attempt, as he swept from side to side, to strike him,—but in vain.” In fields of pasture, the King Bird often perches upon the tops of the mullein, and other rank weeds, near the cattle, and makes occasional sweeps after passing insects, particularly the large gad-fly, so annoying to horses and cattle. This bird preys upon bees, but in his watchings of the bee-hive, it is said, he picks out only the drones, and never injures the working bees. He must, however, be regarded as the farmer’s friend, in de- stroying great multitudes of insects, whose larve prey upon the productions of his fields and gardens. Like all Fly-Catchers, the King Bird disgorges the harder parts of insects. This bird reaches New York the last of April or the first of May ; it leaves the Middle States earlier than most other species. The King 320 INSESSORES. Bird is eight inches long, and fourteen in the expanse of its wings. ; Tue Puese Birp, or Pewit Fry-Catcuer, M. fusca, (Lat. dark or dusky.) The notes of this bird are pleasing, not for any melody which they possess, but from their association with the returning verdure of spring. The favorite resort of the Phebe Bird is by streams of water, under or near bridges, in caves, &c. Near such places, he sits on a projecting twig, calling out, pe-weé, pewittitee pe-weé, for a whole morning,—occasionally sallying after insects, and returning to the same perch. ‘The Pewit appears in New York State the last of March or the beginning of April. It lays four to five white eggs, with a few reddish spots near the larger end, and it sometimes rears three broads in a season. Insects are its summer food; berries and seeds, its winter fare. Whenever the Pewit appears, Mr. Bartram says, it is safe to plant almost all kinds of esculent garden seeds, as, after the arrival of this bird, there are rarely frosts severe enough to injure them. The plumage is a dark olive brown, the bill entirely black; the tail emarginate, the feathers whitish on the outer web. This familiar and favorite little bird, winters from South Carolina to Mexico. % Tue Woop Pewee, MM. virens, (Lat. green, or lively,) is gen- erally found in the interior of forests; it is considerably more abundant than the Phebe Bird; is rather late in entering the Middle States, seldom reaching Pennsylvania and New York until from the 10th to the 15th of May, but it advances as far North as Labrador, and is seen on the Rocky Mountains. Tue American Rep-start, M. ruticilla, (Lat. red, inclining to golden yellow,) is found, during the summer, throughout the United States, but winters between the tropics; it is shy and solitary, and varies much in the brilliancy of its colors. Genus Culicivora, (Lat. gnat-eaters,) includes the Blue-grey Fly-Catcher, C. cerulea, (Lat. dark blue,)—a lively little bird, four and a half inches in length, noted for its being frequently the foster parent of the young Cow-bunting, the real mother of which drops her egg in its nest. It ranges from Texas north- ward. The Greentets, which by some naturalists are included among the Fly-catchers, are by Audubon and Dr. Dekay erected into a separate family, Vireonide. They include about eight species, and are peculiar to Amer- ica. The bills of these birds are of moderate size, but strong, and broader than high at the base, which is furnished with bris- tles. ‘The upper mandible is notched, and the tip bent; the tar- INSESSORES. 321 sus of moderate length, as is also the tail, which is more or less emarginate. We can only glance at the principal species. ‘They feed upon insects and berries. The Yertow-Turoatep Greentet, V. flavifrons, (Lat. yel- low-front,) is of an olive green color; it winters in Texas and Mexico, but in summer advances as far north as Nova Scotia. This Greenlet is said to construct a pendulous nest. The length is from five to six inches. The Souitary GREENLET, V. solitarius, has a bill that is very short and nearly as broad as the Fly-catcher’s. The color of this Greenlet is dusky olive; the length five inches. It winters in Mexico, but is seen as far north as Nova Scotia and as far west as the Columbia river. The Wuite-Eyep Greentet, V. novoboracensis, (of New York,) has a short, straight bill, abruptly curved at the tip and flattened at the base. Its general color is a dark olive, with white underneath ; the third quill is the longest ; the length five inches. The notes of this bird are uncommonly sweet. It uses bits of newspaper in making its nest, and Wilson says is, therefore, some- times called politician. This Greenlet is seen in New York early in April, and is common; it leaves for the South in Octo- ber. The Warsiine GrEENLET, V. gilvus, (Lat. pale yellow,) is of a pale green color above, but whitish beneath ; the first and fifth primaries are equal; the bill short; the length five inches. This is a musical little bird, wintering in tropical America but reaching New York early in May, and advancing to 460 N. L.; it is seen westward as far as Columbia river. Its nest is pen- dent, containing from four to six white eggs, marked with brown spots and lines. “The length is five inches. The Rep-Evep Greener, V. olivaceus, (from Lat. oltva, an olive,) is of a light olive green above; beneath whitish, with a yellowish tinge on the sides. It has a long and_ strong bill. This is a common species, ranging from Mexico to 550 N. L. | The Lone-Beaxep Greenuet, V. longirostris, (Lat. long- beaked.) has wings not reaching to half the length of the tail; the first quill shorter than the fourth. It is foundin the Antilles ; the length is five and one-half inches. | Another genus of the Greenlets is [crer1a, with but one spe- cies, the YeuLow-Breastep Cnat, J. viridis, (Lat. green,) con- necting the Fly-catchers with the Greenlets, and also forming the passage between the Merula and the Vireo. This bird hasa strong and lengthened beak, curved and with small divergent 322 INSESSORES. bristles at the base; the wings are rounded ; the third and fourth primaries the longest; the first scarcely longer than the sixth. The color is a greenish olive ; the length seven inches. This bird attracts attention by its singular notes, and the oddity of its mo- tions. It comes from the tropical regions of America early in May; along the Atlantic does not advance farther than the southern part of New York; it is, however, not uncommon in the Western States. It leaves us among the earliest, going South about the middle of August. Fourtu Famity. CHATTERERS, or Wax-WINGs. Ampelida, (Gr. aumedis, ampelis, a vine or singing bird.) The beak in the Chatterers is stouter in proportion to its length than in the Fly-catchers, the form of the lower mandible ap- proaching that of the cone-billed birds; the upper mandible is, however, rather broad at the base, flat, with the upper edge more or less angular and ridged, and the tip distinctly notched. The feet are, for the most part, stout, with the outer toe united to the middle one as far as, or beyond the first joint. In many, the wide gape extends beyond the eye, and in some it is nearly as wide as in the Night-jars. The absence of bristles from the gape indi- cates that the wide opening is not to catch insects on the wing, asin the Swallow family. The Chatterers feed chiefly on ber- ries and other soft fruit, which they swallow whole; and this food naturally requires a wide passage ; occasionally they feed on insects. Their home seems to be in fruit-bearing trees, and they very seldom come to the ground. The species in this family are not very numerous; but they are of varying forms, and widely scattered. Many of them are distinguished for their soft and silky plumage and the brilliant colors which adorn it. ‘The plumage of the head forms a lang and pointed crest, which is capable of being erected, and is com- mon to both sexes. Some of these birds are distinguished by hav- ing singular appendages to the secondaries of the wing, and sometimes to the feathers of the tail; the shaft of the feather being extended beyond the vane, and its tip dilated into a flat oval appendage of a brilliant scarlet hue, and exactly resembling the appearance of red sealing-wax. Hence they are sometimes called Waz-wings ; from the silky softness and smoothness of their plumage, and particularly that of the tail, they are also named Siix-T alts. The Bonem1an Cuarrterer, or Sitx-Tar, A. garrulus, or Bombycilla, (Gr. Bombuz, silk-worm,) garrulus, is the only spe- INSESSORES. ley cies known in Europe; south-east of Germany it is quite abun- dant. Its general plumage is of a purplish red hue ; the crown and crest are of a chestnut brown; some five or six of the secondary feathers, and, in very old males, some of the tail feath: ers also, have the extended scarlet appendages which are refer- red io above. Prince Bonaparte gives a very amiable charac- ter of the European Wax-wing in a state of nature. In the spring it eats all sorts of flies and ther insects; in autumn and winter different kinds of berries. It is fond of the berries of the mountain ash; of grapes it is exceeding greedy, and is, therefore, with reason, called ampelis. When taking wing it ut- ters a note resembling the syllables 27, zz, 27, but itis generally silent, though it bears the name of Chatterer. In captivity it eats almost any vegetable substance, losing at the same time, all its vivacity and its amiable social habits. Its length is nine or ten inches. This bird was seen by Dr. RichardsoninN. Lat. 500, in flocks, near the Great Bear Lake ; it has also been pro- cured in the vicinity of Philadelphia. The Cepar Wax-Wine, or Cepar Birp, B. Carohnensis, ranges from Texas as far north as the Fur countries, and west- ward to the Columbia river. Its nest is built in the fork of a cedar or apple tree, and is composed of stalks of grass, coarse without and fine within. In this it lays three or four eggs of a bluish white, marked with dots of black and purple. It devours every fruit or berry that comes in its way. Dr. Brewer says it remains all the year round at Boston, and confers great benefit on the farmer by destroying thousands of the destructive canker- worm, Audubon thinks the name of Fruit devourers would be more appropriate for these birds than that of Chatlterers. “ By way of dessert,” however, they eat largely of winged insects, being troubled with most voracious appetites. The A. cotinga, (Gr. from kétillé, to chatter,) (see Chart,) an inhabitant of Brazil, is sometimes called the Pompadour Chat- terer, from having been introduced into Europe by the thought- less and extravagant mistress of Louis XV. The Rep, or Japanese Wax-Wine, B. phenicoptera, (Gr. phoinicos, red; pteron, wing,) bears great resemblance to the Cedar Bird. It was discovered by means of the scientific mission to Japan, instituted by the government of the Nether- lands. The Bexy-Birp, Procnias, (Gr. prokné, a proper name or Swallow,) carunculata, (Lat. from caruncula, a small piece of flesh,) is a species of the Chatterers distinguished by the soft car- buncle or fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak. It is the ~ 324 INSESSORES. . celebrated Campanero of South America, whose voice, during the stillness of mid-day, it is said, exactly resembles the tolling of a bell. . At uncertain intervals, the Chatterers appear in particular districts in immense flocks, and so remarkable have such visita- tions appeared, that they have been recorded as eventsof history, and regarded as ominous, in some way, of great public calami- ties. Firta Famiry. Surires, or Butcuer Birps. Laniade, (Lat. lanius, a butcher.) -The structure of these birds closely resembles that of the Perchers, but their beak is very similar to that of the falcons, in its strength, its arched form, its strongly hooked point, (see Chart,) and in the distinct tooth which precedes the usual notch of the tooth-billed tribe. This peculiarity of beak is accompanied by a carnivorous appetite, a rapacious cruelty, and a courage alto- gether raptorial, and which, as indicating a kindred nature, have induced naturalists to associate them with birds of prey. The Shrikes not only devour the larger insects, especially grasshoppers, but even attack and overpower small birds and quadrupeds, seizing them with their beak or claws, and bearing them to some station near to tear them in pieces with their toothed and crooked beak. ‘These birds live in families for a few weeks after the breeding season; they fly irregularly and precipitately, uttering shrill cries; nestle on trees or in bushes ; lay five or six eggs and take great care of their young. Many of them have the curious habit of impaling their prey upon a large thorn, and then pulling it to pieces and devouring it at their leisure. Hence they have derived the name of Butcher-birds. Mr. Bell, when traveling in Russia, had one of these birds given to him, which he kept in a room, having fixed up a sharpened stick for him in the wall; and on turning small birds loose in the room, the Butcher-bird instantly caught them by the throat in such a manner as soon to suffocate them, and then stuck them on the stick, pulling them on with bill and claws; and so served as many as were turned loose, one after another, on the same stick. The power which the Shrikes have of clutching with their toes is remarkably great. They alwavs hold their prey in one foot, resting on the tarsal joint of that foot, unless when they have fastened the prey upon a thorn, when they pull it to pieces in a contrary direction. They show great boldness in defending INSESSORES. 825 themselves and their nests from their more powerful enemies ; and the parents evince great attachment to each other as well as to their young. This family comprises a large number of © species, distributed through all quarters of the globe. Some of them have a remarkably melodious song. The Great Gray Surixe, L. excubitor, (Lat. a sentinel) re- ceives its specific name from its habit of watching for birds of prey, and chattering loudly as soon as it perceives them. Bird- catchers sometimes avail themselves of this peculiarity in taking hawks. A pigeon is fastened to anet by way of bait. A string is attached and brought within the turf hut where the bird-catcher sits. Close to the hut a shrike is tied to the ground, and two _pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for the bird from the weather, and as a refuge from the hawk. As soon as the hawk appears in the distance, the shrike becomes agitated ; as it draws nearer, he begins to scream with fright; and just as ihe hawk pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf, which is the sig- nal to the bird-catcher to pull the string, thereby enclosing the hawk within the folds of the net. The nest of this bird is built on trees, and contains about six grayish-white eggs, ash-colored onthe largerend. The length of the Great Gray Shrike is from nine to ten inches. The Great American Surike, L. borealis, (Lat. northern,) is larger in size, but in other respects, does not differ much from the preceding European Shrike. ~The Rep-Backxep Surixe, L. collurio, (Gr. kollurién.) has derived its English name from having the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts of a rusty red color. (See Chart.) What is the 2d Diviston ef the PrrcnEers? Why are they so called? In what birds is the notch most remarkable? What are their habits? How does their beak differ from the Falcons’? What is said of the Toorn-BILLED Birps? Do they include all the musical birds? What is the exception? Into how many Famitizs are these birds divided? What is the Ist Famity? What is said of their numbers? How many American sp. does Audubon enumerate? What is said of the habits and size of these birds? What office do they perform? What is said of their migrations? Into how many Grotps may they be arranged? Which are the TRuE Warsiers? What sp. are particularly mentioned? Which is the smallest of European birds? What birds are includedin the 2d Group? Whatin the 83dGrour? What celebrated bird is found in this group? How does it differ from the A. Robin? What is the 4th Group? What A. sp. is mentioned? What is the 5th Grover? What isa familiar example? Why is the Penduline Tit or Bottle Tit so called? Name the 2d Famiry. What is said of their numbers, favorite haunts and average size? What of their beak, food and plumage? For what are 14 326 INSESSORES. the OrIoLES distinguished? For what the Breves and Arrican THRUSHES? What sp. illustrate the general character and habits of this family? To what sub-family does the American Rosin belong? What is said of the Mocking-bird? What of the Cat-bird? Of the Misletoe Thrush? Of the Water Ouzel or Dipper? What is the 3d Famiry? Why are they socalled? How dothey appear to connect the Split-billed and Tooth-billed birds? Into how many genera does Audubon arrange them? What are the Europgan Fiy-CatcHers Sometimes called and why? Mention the sp. What is said of the King- bird? What of the Phebe B.? What of the Wood Pewee and the Amer- ican Redstart? How have the Greenlets been arranged? What is said of them? What is the 4th Famity? Give the characteristics of these birds. What is their food? What is said of their plumage? Why are they called Wax- Wines? Name and describe the only E. sp.? What is said of the Cedar B.? What of the Pompadour Chatterer? Of the Asiatic Wax-wing? Of the Bell B.? What has been inferred from the appearance of immense flocks of Chatterers in certain districts ? What is the name of the 5th and last Famity? What is said of the structure of these birds? What accompanies their peculiarity of beak? Is their food confined to the larger insects? What curious habit have they? What name is hence given to them?. What is related by Mr. Bell? What is said of the power of their toes? What of their boldness? Does this family include many sp.? What is said of the G. G. SHrikeE? What of the Great American §.? What of the Red-backed 8. ? Trace those mentioned on the Chart. SECTION V. Tuirp Division oF THE PERCHERS. CoNE-BILLED Brrps. Conirostres. (Lat. conus, a cone ; rostrum, a beak.) This division is less numerous than the Dentirostres, but still includes a great number of birds of varying size, structure and habits. Naturalists regard this tribe as typical, not only in the Order of the Perchers. but in the whole Class of Birds. The chief character by which they are associated together, is found in the beak, which, though differing in shape and compar- ative size, is generally short; at the same time, it is thick, and very strong. more or less contcal in form, and usually without a notch at the tip. Jn one pretty large group, however, the TanaceErs, of Louisiana, and South America,—gay, fire-colored birds,—the beak, while partaking of the conical form of this division, is distinctly notched; constituting them one link of connexion between this and the preceding tribe, (Dentirostres.) INSESSORES. | é‘ 327 The feet in the Cone-billed Birds are, upon the whole, formed more for perching than for walking, though many birds of this division, walk habitually upon the ground. Seeds and grain are the principal food of these, the “Hard- billed” Birds; and for opening the different capsules and seed vessels, as well as for crushing hard seeds themselves, their stout and horny beaks are peculiarly fitted. Some of these birds, however, join insects to vegetable food; and a part of them are nearly or quite omnivorous. Asthe form of the beak varies from that of a short and broad cone, so does the appetite proportiona- bly vary from an exclusive seed diet. The Cone-billed Birds, particularly the FincuEes, seem to prefer the temperate and colder to the warmer regions; but they are represented in all the countries of the globe. The families of this tribe are the follow- ing, viz: (1.) Corvide, or Crows; (2.) Sturnide, or Starlings; (3.) Fringiliida, or Finches; (4.) Loriade, or Cross-bills; (5.) , Bucerotide, or Horn-bills; (6.) Musophagide, or Plantain Eaters. First Famity. THe Crows. Corvida, (Lat. corvus, a raven.) Tue Crows are among the largest of the Passerine, or Perch- ing Birds. They are widely spread, but yet comparatively few in number. Their beak is powerful, more or less compressed at the sides, conical, but long, having the upper mandible usually arched, the gape nearly straight, and the nostrils concealed by stiff bristles, pointing forwards. The plumage is dark and som- bre, often black, more or less glossed, and sometimes varied with gray or white. ‘To this sombre coloration, the Jays, however, are an exception, being usually arrayed in the richest azure and purple. They are also more exclusively arboreal than others of the family which walk a great deal on the ground. The Corvide are birds of firm and compact structure; their wings are long, pointed and strong ; their feet and claws robust. Their disposition is bold and daring; they are very sagacious; easily tamed, and rendered familiar. Most of them have the faculty of imitating with much accuracy the sounds which they hear, and even words of human language. They show a strange propensity for thieving, and for hiding substances that can be of no use to them whatever, particularly if they display metallic or polished surfaces, or brilliant colors. They may be ranked as omnivorous; insects and their larve, grain, fruits, bread, flesh, ea ee sag. 5. WY Cera Sa Aen ae SSA Saks ey SeeeAay ; 328 : INSESSORES. both when fresh and when putrid, they can, by turns, devour with avidity. “ THe Crow, (Corvus,) “as Swainson strikingly remarks, “is the type of types, or the preeminent type of all birds, uniting a greater number of properties than are to be found in any other genus of birds. Like the Hawk, it soars in the air, and seizes living birds; like the Vulture, it devours putrid substances, and picks out the eyes of young animals; like the Climbers, it dis- covers its food when hidden from the eye, by pecking; like the Parrot family, it has a taste for vegetable food; has great cun- ning, sagacity, and powers of imitation, even to counterfeiting the human voice; like the Waders, it walks with facility, and has great powers of flight; like the Aquatic. birds, it ean both catch and feed upon fish. ‘Thus it unites some of the properties of all other birds, and stands the preeminent type of the Perchers.” The largest and most powerful species of the genus Corvus, is the well known Raven, C. corax, (Lat. a raven,)—the Corsts, of Scotland, celebrated even from the time of the universal deluge, and ever looked upon as a bird of dark omen. It is twenty-five inches in length, and fifty inches in the spread of the wings,—ranging from the Arctic seas to the Cape of Good Hope, in the Eastern Continent, and from the same seas to Mexico, on the Western; unchanged in character, amidst all the variations and extremes of heat and cold; traveling in pairs, and flying so high that it would escape notice but for its frequent erying, in all times and places, showing itself possessed of acute and powerful sight and smell; and at perpetual variance with all other feathered tribes. Tue Common Crow, C. Americanus, is seventeen inches in length, being somewhat smaller than the Common Carrion Crow of Europe, from which it differs in its voice, its gregarious habits, and the shape of its tongue. oth are regarded and treated as nuisances. ‘Tens of thousands of them are shot every season. They may be of some use to farmers in ploughing time, by picking up worms and the larve of insects; but of other good deeds of the Crow, we are ignorant. No sooner are the seeds in the ground, than he begins to search after and devour them; for Indian Corn and eggs he seems to have a wonderful inclina- tion; and even relishes young chickens, turkeys and goslings; at the same time, he is very cunning in avoiding the snares which are devised to entrap and destroy him. The Fisa Crow, C. ossifragus, (bone-breaker,)—found on the sea-coast as far North as New York, like the Raven and Common Crow, robs other birds of their eggs and their young; but, being regarded INCESSORES. 329 as inoffensive, it is usually unmolested. It takes the liberty, however, to feed with great freedom on the best garden fruits. The Maeriss, Pica, (Lat. magpie,) and the Jays, Garrulus, (Lat. chatting, or talkative,) are near relatives of the Crows. The well known Buve Jay, G. cristatus, (crested,) is capable of living in cold as well as warm climates, and is found in all parts of the United States. It is truly omnivorous, and, in times of scarcity, has been known to feed even on carrion. ‘Though extremely beautiful in its appearance and graceful in its movements, (see Plate X. fig. 4c,) it is a deceitful, and often a very mischievous bird. The Nut-cracxers, Nucifraga, (Lat. nux,a nut; frango, to’break.) all belong to this family. In their habits, they resem- ble both the Jays and the Woodpeckers,—climbing trees and perforating their bark, and devouring all sorts of fruits and insects, as well as small birds. The Fruir Crows, Coracine, _ are a sub-family of South American Birds, about whose proper place there has been some question among naturalists, but which are placed by Swainson with the Corvide. ‘The most remark- able of these are the Capuchin Baldhead, Coracina gymnocephala, (Gr. baldheaded,) a bird about as large as the Common Crow, of Spanish-snuff color, or, as some say, capuchin color. Its large beak and ample forehead, bare of feathers, to which the specific name refers, give it a very singular appearance. The Crested Crow, C. cephaloptera, (Gr. head-winged,) is also a sin- gular looking bird, of a uniform blue-black hue, having the head and base of the bill ornamented with a crest, forming a sort of parasol, to shade the face, and reaching to the end of the bill, compressed in the same manner as in the Rupicola, or Cock of the Rock. “The sides of the neck are naked, but long feathers forming a loose pelerine, and hanging down lower than the breast, spring from beneath the throat and from the sides of the neck. This crest and feathers of the pelerine give metallic reflections.’’ (Lesson.) In the family of the Corvide are included the Birds of Para. dise, which some naturalists have, with reason. erected into a separate family, called Paradiseada, including some of the most singular and magnificent of the feathered tribes. They are natives of New Guinea, to which they are almost confined. Of these birds, splendid as they are, fiction has presented many strange and exaggerated descriptions. For a long time, it was asserted that some of them are without legs! They considera- bly resemble the Crows in their general structure, and they also approach them in size. In these birds, the wings are long and round, the tail varying in length at the extremity, cr else 330 INSESSORES. rounded. ‘The tarsi are robust, long, and covered by a single feathered scale; the toes long and strong, especially the hind toe; the claws large, curved, and powerful. The sides of the body, the neck, the breast, the tail, and sometimes the head, are ornamented with lengthened and peculiarly developed showy feathers; the plumage of the face and throat, is commonly of a scaly or velvety texture, and most richly glossed with metallic hues, while other parts of the body are frequently arrayed in rich and brilliant colors. | There are several species of these birds, but the EmEratp Birp oF ParapisE, which is figured on the Chart, is the one best known. It is impossible adequately to describe its beauty of form, and the vivid and changing tints of its plumage. The generic part of the scientific name, Paradisea apoda, is from the Greek Paradeisos, a pleasure-ground; the specific name, which means footless, was given it by Linneus, “ because the older naturalists called it footless.”” The truth is, the natives of New Guinea were accustomed to dry birds of this species, (having first cut off the legs,) and to offer them for sale. They were taken to other countries in this *footless’’ condition; and hence, conjectures arose that they lived in the air, buoyed up by the light- ness of their feathery covering; that she shoulders were used for a nest; that the only rest which they took, was by suspending themselves from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail , that their food was the morning dew,—and other things of a like character,—amusing enough, but entirely without foundation, in fact. So far from living wholly on dew, this bird eats no small amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, etc., which, however, it will not touch when dead; it also feeds largely on the seeds of the teak tree, and on figs and aromatics; when alive, it is about the size of a Common Jay, or Pigeon; its note is like that of the Starling. The body, breast, and lower parts, are of a deep rich brown; the forehead is clothed with close-set feathers of a velvety black shot with green; the throat of a rich golden green; the head yellow; the sides of the tail are clothed with a splendid plume of downy feathers of a soft yellow color. By these are placed two long filaments, or thread-like shafts, which extend nearly two feet in length. (See figure on the Chart.) “Of these beautiful feathers, the bird is so proud, that it will not suffer the least speek. of dirt to remain upon them, and it is constantly examining its plumage, to see that there are no - spots on it. When in its wild state, it always flies and sits with - its face to the wind, lest its elegant flying plumes should be dis- arranged.” The female is without these floating plumes of the INSESSORES. 331 male, and her colors are less lustrous. The Emerald, in its motions is lively and agile, and, in general, it perches only upon the tops of the most lofty trees. These birds are killed by the natives with blunt arrows, and sold to the Europeans ; this forms a gainful trafic; and hence, the Chinese, it is said, fabricate imitations of these “celestial fowls,” of the feathers of Parrots and Paroquets, which they sell at high prices to strangers. Seconp Famtity. THe STARLINGS. Sturnide. (Lat. Sturnus, a starling, or stare.) THE STARLINGS are u numerous and widely distributed fam- ily; larger, for the most part, than the average of the perching birds; but of less size than the Crows, which, in structure and manners, they much resemble. The beak in these birds, is of a form well adapted for penetrating the earth in search of the worms and urderground larve upon which they feed. The plumage 1s commonly of dark colors, but has a peculiar richness; black, glossed with lustrous hues of stee! d!ue, purple, or green, of the prevailing color, but occasionally it is relieved by broad masses of crimson or yellow, (and, in a few instances, of white,) as in the Icterus, or Baltimore Oriole. The Starlings live in societies, sometimes immensely numer- ous, and seem universally to prefer the locality of plains fre- quented by cattle; in this particular, resembling the Maize Birds. THe Common Sraruine, (S. vulgaris,) it has been observed, becomes wonderfully familiar in the house; is very docile; always gay and wakeful; soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself ‘o their humors; he repeats correctly the airs which he is taught, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the same room with himself; but his acquirements are of little value, for he forgets as fast as he learns. The Starling lays, twice in a year, from four to six eggs of a delicate pale blue, or of an ashy green color. It is about the size of the Blackbird. Tue Meapvow Staruine, or Meadow Lark, (Sturnel/a ludo- viciana.) 1s a beautiful bird, found abundantly throughout the United States, and as far North as the Fur countnes, wintering in the Carolinas, or Florida. It builds its nest at the foot of some tall, strong grass. This bird, though useful in destroying oon INSESSORES. thousands of larve in meadows, is a little too fond of scratching © up the seeds of grain, and of plucking up young corn; it has been known even to kill and eat small birds. The male is about eleven inches in length. Tue Rep-wincep Stagiine, S. predatorius, (Lat. plunder- ing ) ranges from Labrador to Mexico,—north of Maryland being migratory. From its strong predilection for corn’ or maize, and its extensive depredations upon the young ears, it has acquired a bad reputation, having among other names, that of Corn or Maize Tuier. A remarkable characteristic of this bird is, that the male is nearly two inches longer than the female, and of proportionate magnitude. Tue Boat-taits are American Birds, and the largest of the Starling family, and might easily be mistaken for Crows. Their tails are so concave on their upper sides as to resemble a boat, whence the sub-family name, Scaphidurine, (Gr. skaphis, a boat; owra, atail.) The typical birds of this group, (Scaphi- dura,) are found in South America. Another genus, sometimes included in the Boat-tail Birds, is Quiscalus, which has several representatives in the United States. Among these are (1) the Boat-tailed Grackle, or Great Crow Black Bird, Q. major, (Lat. greater,) about sixteen inches in length, and found in the Southern States, particularly on the sea-coast. The food of this species consists, principally, of the small crabs, called “fiddlers;” (2,) the Purple Grackle, or Common Crow Black- bird, is a constant resident in the Southern States, but migrating very far North. It appears in the State of New York about the middle of April, and is notorious, and dreaded for its attacks on Indian Corn; (3,) the Rusty Crow Blackbird, Q. ferrugineus, (Lat. iron- colored ,) of similar character and habits with the pre- ceding, but ranging still farther North. The sub-family, Lamprotornine, (Gr. lamprotes, splendor; ornis, a bird,) includes Grackles found in Asia and Africa, in which they represent the Boat-tails of America. THE Ortoues, or Hang-Nests, Icterus, (Gr. Yellow Thrush,) —sub-family, Icterine,—are a numerous and beautiful group of American Birds, of which the Baltimore Oriole, I. Baltimore, is the most noted. This is sometimes called Golden Oriole, Golden Robin; and also Fire-Bird, Fire Hang-Bird, from the bright orange seen through the green leaves, and resem- bling a flash of fire; but more generally, the Baltimore Bird ; its colors of black and or ange, resembling those of the arms or livery of Lord Baltimore, formerly proprietary of Mary- land. ‘The materials which this bird uses for making its nest, INSESSORES. 300 vary with the temperature. In Louisiana, its nest (see Plate XI. fig. 4) is constructed of moss, woven throughout, so that the air can easily pass through it, and it is placed in the coolest posi- tion; so strongly is it secured, that no wind can carry it off without breaking the branch to which it is suspended. In Penn- sylvania and New York, the nest is constructed of the warmest and softest materials, and so placed as to be exposed to the sun’s rays. In summer, the Baltimore Orioles are dispersed over the United States, and as far North as Nova Scotia. The song of this bird, is a clear, mellow whistle, repeated at short intervals. ‘The male, according to Audubon, does not receive its full plumage until the third spring. The principal food of the Oriole consists of caterpillars, beetles, and bugs, particularly one of a brilliant glossy green. Dr. DeKay, in the Natural History of New York, includes the Crow Blackbirds, (Quiscalus,) the Orioles, (Icterus,) the Cow Bunting, (Molothrus,) and the Bob-o'link, (Dolichonyz,) in one family, Quiscalide. But Audubon arranges these together, with the Marsh Blackbird, Agelaius, in the family Agelaine, Mino Birp.—Among the Starlings we also place the Mino Bird, Eulabes, (Gr. eulabes, circumspect, or religious,) Javana- cus, or Gracula religiosa ; following Swainson in this arrange- ment, who deems it quite unreasonable to place this long-legged | Grackle close to the :short-legged Rotizrs, as M. Lesson has done. This bird has a short and stout beak, with the tip dis- tinctly notched. Its plumage is of a deep velvety black, with a white space in the middle of the wing; behind the eye spring fleshy carbuncles of a bright orange :color. The Mino Bird feedson insects and fruits. Itis easily tamed ; learns to whistle and talk with great facility, and is therefore a great favorite with the Javanese. Marsden says, it has the fac- _ulty of imitating human .speech in greater perfection than any other of the feathered tribe. ‘There is ‘said to be a smaller _ variety of this bird in India. ‘Tuirp Famity. FIncHEs. Fringillide. (Lat. Fringilla, a finch.) The Finches are a large and interesting family, the smallest of the Perchers, and, for the most part, excellent songsters. They have short, thick, and powerful beaks; both mandibles are usually of equal thickness, and their length and breadth nearly alike, so that when the beak is closed, it generally appears like a very short cone divided in the :middle by the gape. In some the interstices of walls, or other similar retreats, in the spring emerging from their state of rest and seeking the water in order to deposit their eggs, in the form of strings of jelly three or four feet long, with a double row of black dots, when their loud croak may be heard at a considerable distance. They are two or three weeks later than the Frogs in depositing their eggs, after which process they return to the land. In August, the tadpoles, having completed their transformation, leave their native element for the land, dispersing themselves in all directions. Of the genus Bufo, about twenty species are enumerated ; several are found in the United States, but only one is seen in the northern parts of the Union. These have simple toes and a distinct tympanum. The Common American Toap, B. Americanus, (B. vulgaris, Storer,) is about three inches in length. It is furnished with a’ sac for holding the water which it obtains through the skin. The skin, shed at certain intervals, is, according to Mr. Bell, swal- lowed as soon as it is detached. The Natrer Jacx, or Runnine Toapv, B. calamita, is a spe- cies of toad of a yellowish brown color, with a bright yellow line running down the middle of the back. It never leaps, nor does it crawl with the usual toad-pace, but its motions are more like running. ‘This species is found in Ireland. The Banta Toap, Phryniscus nigricans, is a species noticed by Mr. Darwin, at Bahia Blanca. He graphically says of it, “If we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest ink, and then, when dry, allowed to crawl over a board freshly painted with the brighest vermilion, so as to color the soles of its feet and parts of its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will be gained.” Instead of being nocturnal, like other toads, it crawls about during the heat of the day, over dry sand-hillocks and arid plains. The Mirren Toan, B. margaritifer, (Lat. pearl-bearing,) re- ceives its name from the peculiar conformation of the head. It is an American species. The Surinam Toap, (see Chart,) Pipa Surinamensis or mon- strosa, is from six to eight inches in length, and four to five in breadth. It has a large and triangular head, is without teeth or a tongue ; its tympanum is concealed beneath the skin ; its eyes are small and placed near the margin of the upper jaw. The skin is of dirty brown color, thickly studded with reddish tubercles. The general uncouthness of its appearance is increased by a phenomenon almost unexampled in the animal kingdom. The female has the back-pitted with a great number of small cells, 034 _AMPHIBIA. and in these. the male. carefully places the eggs which she has deposited. When this has been done, she repairs to the water : the skin of the back now swells; the pits deepen, and in due time the Tadpoles appear; on the back they pass the Tadpole state, and do not emerge till they have lost their tail and their limbs are developed. ‘The female then returns to the land. This Toad is not unfrequently found in houses. The Pipa is not restricted to Surinam, but is found in various parts of South America. TaiLeEp Ampuipra. Uropeta. (Gr. ovgd, oura, a tail; d7jhos, délos, manifest.) This division is one of peculiar interest to the naturalist, as well from the variety of forms which -it includes, as from the successive changes which these forms exhibit. ‘They are charac- terised by their permanent tail, their rudimentary ribs, the pos- session of four or two limbs, the absence of a breast bone, the simple lungs, the teeth in both jaws, and the want of an external ear. ‘These amphibia are widely dispersed over the northern temperate portions of both continents. North America and Japan possess the largest variety of forms. : FourtH Famity. Salamandride, (Gr. cehauévdea, salamandra, a salamander.) NEwrTs. Of these, some species are terrestrial, visiting the water only in the breeding season; others make it their permanent or nearly permanent abode. The Tadpoles, or young of the Newts, un- dergo a transformation, essentially resembling that of the Toads and Frogs, with this difference, however, that the tail merely changes its form, and is never lost. In their general appearance, they resemble Lizards. The jaws have minute teeth, and a ' double row also extends down the palate. ; Lanp Newrts. (Occasionally found in water.) The Land Nevwts, included in the genus Salamandra, have the tail, when the animals are adult, round and tapering; on each side of the head is a gland, similar to that of Toads; the tongue is short and thick, enlarged above, and attached by a slender root in the center. The breathing in the first aquatic or tad- pole state, is by external gills; afterwards atmospheric by lungs. These reptiles frequent humid places, and take up their abode _AMPHIBIA. 835 in the ‘soft-ground, among decayed trees in wooded districts, in ditches and shady spots, and in caves and old crumbling buildings. They are sluggish and slow in their movements, not ‘often quitting their retreat, except during rainy weather, and at night.. The courage in danger. for which they have been re- -nowned, is nothing more than stupidity. Flies, worms, slugs, &c., constitute their food. Their size varies from two to seven inches, and they also show great varieties of color. For example, we have the Yellow-bellied Salamander, with the upper parts reddish brown; the Violet-colored ; the Red-backed; the Slate-colored, (with orange beneath;) theSalmon-colored ; the Blotched, (gray, with large bluish-black blotches ;) the Yellow, (spotted with black,) -otherwisethe Long-tailed Salamander ; the Granulated, (greenish above, varied with gray and brown beneath ;) the Red; the Scar- let ; the Black; the Spectacled Salamander, &c. The number of species is very large, even as found in the United States, and this general reference to them must suffice. They are said to pass the winter in a kind of underground burrow, numbers assembling together, and intertwining them- selves for the sake of mutual warmth. Like other reptiles, they shed their cuticle; they are ovoviviparous, forty or fifty being the produce at the same time, of a single female. Though tenacious of life, a little salt or vinegar thrown on the Salamander, pro- duces convulsions and death. . From some species, there exudes a milky or glutinous secretion, which is occasionally projected several inches; it is acrid, and of a powerful odor, and is de- scribed as fatal to small animals. In this fact, we perhaps have the origin of Pliny’s statement, that the Salamander “ infects with its poison, the vegetables of a vast extent of country, and even spreads death around, like a pestilence.” This, and the ancient stories of its being a body of ice, and uninjured by the »strongest heat, and of its having a deadly bite, are now regarded as utterly groundless.. It may be, however, that larger and more formidable species formerly existed. _ The Triron is distinguished by its fish-like tongue, which is attached more or less at its borders, and has only the front ex- tremity free. Of this genus, there are several species found in brooks and marshy places,—varying in length from three to six inches.. The Tiger Triton, T. tigrinus, is of a bluish-black color, with numerous irregular blotches over the head, body, tail, and. extremities. The length is from six to seven inches, including the tail, which is longer than the body. Specimens of this Newt have been obtained from the vicinity of Oneida Lake, (N. Y.) 536 AMPHIBIA. _ The largest Water Newt of England, is the Crestep Triton, T. cristatus, about six inches in length, and which feeds on aquatic insects, the Tadpole of the Frog, and even the smaller species of Water Newts. ‘The manner in which the female de: posits her eggs, is very singular. When present, she chooses the leaf of the smart-weed, (Polygonum Persicaria,) as the place for the deposit. “She first applies her head to the edges of a - leaf, and turns it with her snout in such a way that the lower surface of the leaf is turned towards her breast; then, with her fore-paws, she passes the turned leaf beneath her body, seizes it with her hind-paws, and conducts it beneath the vent, folding it, at the same time, and forming with it an angle, the opening of which is directed towards the tail. The egg, in escaping from the vent, would thus pass through the middle of the angle formed by the leaf, but the Salamander (or Newt) stops it in its fall by her hind feet, shuts up this angle with them, and thus forms in the leaf a fold in which the egg is held. Still, on the removal of the feet, the egg would fall to the bottom of the water ; but the careful parent, before she quits the leaf, folds it so firmly with her hind feet, that the gluten with which the envelop of the egg is surrounded, spreads from the pressure on the two internal surfaces of the leaf, and prevents the folds from opening.” (See Plate XIII. fig. 9, which represents the Triton on the leaf; also, for the figures in the same plate, representing the animal as it appears in the transition from the tadpole to the perfect state, and the explanations of these figures, as attached to the plate.) Aquatic Newts. _ ie These are distinguished by having the tail flattened on the sides, and by the absence of glands from the sides of the head. The body is covered with watery excrescences. i These reptiles spend nearly all their lives in water. They are remarkable for the facility with which they successfully reproduce their tail when it is cut off. | The males, during the breeding season, are distinguished by a high membranous crest upon the back, and another one along the upper side of the tail. ‘The limbs are short and feeble, and progression in water is effected by the paddle-like action of the tail. It should be remarked, that as the Land and Water Newts are, some of them, at least, closely alike in anatomical structure, some naturalists reject this division, and have introduced other distinctive terms, / AMPHIBIA. 587 Firto Famity. Amphiumide, or Menopomide. These tailed Batrachians are nearly all found in North Amer. ica. The gills, after a short time, suddenly disappear, leaving orifices upon the neck, and the respiration is performed by the lungs alone. They are not known to undergo any transforma- tions. Among them are included the genus Menopoma, charac- terised by having a robust and flattened body, with the head distinct from the neck, and. the skin wrinkled into numerous folds. The tail is broad and much compressed, and the soles of the feet have a marginal fold of skin, qualifying the animal for rapid movement in the water. It rarely leaves that element except at night. These creatures, sometimes twenty or twenty- four inches in length, are extremely voracious, feeding on in- sects, fish, and in some instances, on small mammals. They are of a slate or blackish color. As they bite at a hook, they are sometimes caught by the angler, to his disappointment, and per- haps terror, though, as their teeth are very small, they are not capable of doing him any serious injury. The Grounp Puppy, AtLEcHANY HeELuL-BENpDER, MZ. Allegha- niensis, is a species found in the Alleghany river, coming from the Mississippi waters. Its tail is nearly as long as its body. The Ameniuma has an eel-shaped body, with the head and neck continuous. The limbs are exceedingly minute, and di- vided in one species into two, in another, into three jointless toes. The Turee-Ttoep Ampuiuma, A. tridactylum, (three-toed,) is found in Alabama and Arkansas. The largest member of the present family Megalobutrachus, (Gr. great batrachian,) is found in Japan. Specimens of it have been seen more than three feet in length, and weighing eighteen pounds or upwards. SecoND Sus-OrpER. PERENNIBRANCHIATA. (Lat. perennis, enduring ; branchia, gills.) The name of this sub-order is applied to Amphibians, respect- ing some of which diversity of opinion has been entertained, and still exists. ‘Though they acquire lungs, at least rudiment- ary ones, respiration is aquatic by means of gills which are external and persistent,—the animals ‘continuing in a perfect tadpole state, by an arrest of development. These singular forms the Chart arranges in one family. Famity. Proteide, (Gr. Wowtevs, Proteus, a proper name.) The name which DeKay gives to these reptiles, is Sirenida, (Gr. siren.) More recently they have been included in a sub- 538 AMPHIBIA. order of the Urodelan Batrachians, termed Trematodera, a name referring to the perforations or apertures on the side of the neck, which remain through life. The first genus we shall notice, is Proteus, of which there is a single species, P. anguinus, (Lat. snaky.) Few reptiles have excited more interest than this curious species,—an apparent link between the amphibia and fishes. Its branchiz are not, indeed, covered as in fishes, but are exposed, presenting the form of a beautiful pink tuft on each side of the head; the body is eel-like, as are all its movements; the tail is compressed; the eyes are rudimentary,——with small black dots under the skin, (as has been discovered by dissection;) the jaws are furnished with minute teeth. The limbs are very small and feeble, and, in fact, almost useless; the toes are three on the front, and two on each hind limb. The skin is smooth and delicate. The Proteus dwells in the subterraneous waters of the great cavern of Adelsburg or “Grotto of the Maddalena,” situated near the main road from Trieste to Vienna, (Austria.) “ These sub- terranean waters communicate with, and supply a small lake in the celebrated cavern; and it is in this lake, where no sunlight ever enters, inclosed by barriers of piled up rock, deep in the bowels of the earth, that the Proteus is found, reposing in the soft mud, precipitated by the fluid, and lining the rocky basin.” At Sittich, which is about thirty miles from the cavern, it is also noticed, though rarely, being “thrown up by water from a sub- terranean cavity.” According to Sir Humphrey Davy, the Protei are seldom found in dry seasons, but are often abundant after great rains. The length of a moderate-sized one, is about a foot; the thick- ness varies from that “of a quill, to that of the thumb.” The nature of its food is not certainly known; though its numerous teeth would indicate it to be carnivorous. ‘The skin is of a pale flesh color, but when exposed to the light, it approaches olive brown. The light appears to act upon it with a power that is too stimulating, and the animals; when exposed to it, creep under any object that may shelter them from its influence. In the mysterious nature of the Proteus, and its singular dwelling-place, how manifest is the hand of the Creator, assigning to every thing the bounds of its habitation, and so organizing every thing, that it shall accomplish its allotted destiny. - The Menobranchus, (Gr. enduring gills,) or Phanerobranchus, (Gr. manifest gills,) of Fitzinger, is clearly allied to the Proteus. It has a body moderately elongated’; the tail is deep and flat- tened at the sides; the head is flat and large. There are two AMPHIBIA. 539 rows of small conical teeth in the upper jaw, and one row be- neath. The branchial tufts are large. The toes are four on each “foot. The species called the Banpep Proteus, or Big Witch Lizard, M. lateralis, (Necturus lateralis,) is of a brownish color, with blackish spots, and often a dark lateral line. It is stouter and longer than the Proteus, the length varying from one to three feet. It is found in the great northern lakes of this continent. A spotted species, JZ. maculatus, is found in Lake ‘Champlain and Lake George; and a third species, M. punctatus, having more uniform markings than the others, lives in Santee River, South Carolina. ‘The Menobranchus has been found in the Erie Canal, (N. Y.) The animal appears to move slowly in the water, but the powerful tail must render it able to move with much celerity. Though its flesh is white, and perhaps savory, it is looked upon by fishermen with disgust and aversion. _..The term Siren represents eel-like animals, having three gill- tufts on each side, and utterly destitute of hinder limbs. The ‘frout limbs are feeble; the toes are four in number, small and clawless. ‘The lower jaw has teeth, the upper none; but there are ranges of teeth on the palate. The eye is very small, and the ear hidden from view. The gills in these animals have less external development than in the Menobranchus; but, on the other hand, the lungs perform their part more completely. The Lacertine Siren, (S. lacertina.) is probably the largest species, reaching the size of three feet. It is black above; dusky beneath; and found in the muddy marshy grounds of South Carolina and Florida. The Axotott, Siredon pisciformis, of Mexico, is common to the lakes in the vicinity of the city of Mexico. It is found in the coldest mountain waters. The length of the Axolotl is eight or ten inches ; its general color green, spotted with black. The flesh resembles that of an eel, and is considered quite agreeable. The gills and gill-openings of this animal are highly developed; a continuous flap extends across the throat; the tail is compressed and fin-like. _ Respecting this creature naturalists have been much per- plexed. Many doubt whether the gills be permanent, and are of the opinion that the Axolotl is nothing more than the tadpole of a large species of Salamander, or else of some species, the perfect form of which is yet to be discovered. Fossil remains of Amphibia have been found both in Europe and America: ‘Traces of batrachian foot-marks are thought to be discernible in the new red sand-stone of Massachusetts and Con- 540 AMPHIBIA. necticut; and in the coal measures of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, are found foot-prints which are regarded as those of airbreathing vertebrates. i What is the 4th Order of Reptiles? Describe their skin. How is it ex- uviated? With what furnished? What kind of changes do the vessels of the skin undergo? What is necessary in order to their action? How is the skin moistened? What is said of its healthy action? What is the re- mark of Dr. Townson? What is said of the form of the Amphibians? What other characteristics are mentioned besides their naked skin? What changes of form and habit do they undergo? How do some naturalists regard them? Into how many orders are they divided? What is the lst? Name its distinguishing characteristics. How many families does it include? What is the Ist Family? Where did Cuv. place it? What has been proved by Muller? Why was the name Cecilia given to these reptiles? How are they characterized? What is said of their habits? What sp. is men- tioned? What is said of it? What do the Taittess AmpuHipians include? What characters of this group are given? Name the 2nd Family. Give its characters. In what condition do they spend the colder months? Upon what do they feed? How do they secure their food? Whatis said of their eggs? What changes do these animals undergo? Can they be tamed? How long do they prob- ably live without air or food? At what time were they introduced into Ireland? What Frog peculiar to N. A. is mentioned? What is said of it? What other sp. are named? Give some account of them. Describe the Tree Frogs. In what respects do they differ from common frogs? Do they never leave the trees? What is said of their young, &.? What sp. are mentioned? What isthe next Family? How does Cuv. distinguish them? Is their saliva poisonous? What is said of their skin? Of their habits? How many sp. of them? Which are named? State what is said of them? How are the TarLep Ampuipia characterized? What is the 4th Family of Amphibians? What division is made of the Newts? Des- cribe the Land Newts? What places do they frequent? What is said of their size and color? Of the number of species? What else is said of them? How are the Tritons distinguished? In what places are the sp. found? What is said of their size? Describe the Tiger Triton? Which is the largest Water Newt of England? In what manner does the female deposit her eggs? What are the characteristics and habits of the Aquatic Newts? What is the 5th Family? Where are they nearly all found? Do they undergo any transformation? How is the gen. Menopoma char- acterized? What further is said of these animals? What sp. is referred to? Describe the Amphiuma? What sp. are mentioned and what is said of them? What is the 2nd Sub-order? Repeat what is said of it. In what family does the Chart include these Amphibians? Has it received any other name? What genus is first noticed? Can you give its char- acter? Whatis said of its places of abode? What does Sir Humphrey Davy remark respecting it? What is its size, &c.? Give the characters of the genus Menobranchus? What is said of the Banded Proteus? What other sp. are mentioned? Describe the animals included in the gen- eric term Siren. Which is the largest sp.? What is said of the Axolotl? What of Fossil Amphibians ? Name and trace the Amphibians figured on the Chart. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XTIL THE FROG IN ITS DIFFERENT STAGES. . Just emerged from the egg, a tadpole, fishlike creature, . Gills, in branching tufts, on each side. . The blood is seen to course through the gill filaments. . The gills begin to disappear, the eyes are formed, and the little tadpole or pollywog begins to devour vegetable matter with voracity. . Ceases to respire water and the hind legs begin to show themselves. . The fore legs appear and the tail is being absorbed. . It breathes by lungs, the tail has disappeared, and the legs are perfected. . The full grown Frog, living upon insects, mice, birds, &c. COTO? Ov OD bO bat GREAT WATER NEWT IN DIFFERENT. STATES, May 6th. The young Salamander Tadpole or Newt just escaped from the ege May 18th. The fore feet have léngthened, and the eyes are perceived. May ray The hind feet begin to appear, and the fore feet are well devel- oped. June 12th. The hind feet almost developed, and lungs extend half way down the trunk. July 18th. It has arrived-at the maturity of its tadpole state, and after the 27th respires atmospheric air, having attained its perfect state. 9. The Great Water Newt depositing its eggs on the leaves of the smart- weed, or amphibious knot-weed, (polyyonum persicaria.) She is folding the leaves over to protect the eggs. FOURTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. ICHTHYOLOGY. (Gr. +7605, ichthus, a fish; 4670s, logos. a discourse. ) = Class, Pisces. Fisnes. Coip-BLoopED VERTEBRATES. SECTION VII. WE come now to that part of Zoology which treats of Fishes, their structure and form, their habits and uses, and their classi- fication. The Fishes, as a class, poSsess a greater ‘number of species than any other of the primary divisions of the Vertebrates ; and, indeed, the species not improbably exceed in number those of - the Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles taken together. Our limits will therefore allow us to do nothing more than present. a gen. eral view of this part of the Animal Kingdom, followed by suc- cinct notices of the orders and families. , The most prominent characteristics of Fishes are (1) that they. generally have cold red blood; (2) they breathe by gills instead of lungs; (8) they havea two-chambered heart; (4) they use fins as organs of progression ; (5) they have the skin naked or covered with scales of varied structure; (6) eS are almost incredibly prolific. The blood, generally cold, assumes the temperature of the surrounding elcmetit. It should be stated, however, that in some of the swift Oceanic Fishes of the Mackerel family, such as the. Tunny and the Bonito, the blood is found to be 100 higher than that of the surface of the sea, even within the tropics. The blood-disks are sometimes circular, and sometimes oval; they are larger than those of the mammalia and birds, smaller than those of reptiles, especially the amphibia. The gills consist of bony or cartilaginous spines, usually placed parallel with each ICHTHYOLOGY. 545 4 other like the teeth of a comb, but sometimes arranged in bunches, These organs are analogous to lungs in terrestrial animals, being _adapted to extract from the air contained in the water, the oxy- gen which is needed for the renewal of the blood. The breath- ing apparatus formed by the gills is double in form, placed on each side of the neck. Most commonly it consists of several series of laminz, or membranous plates, fixed upon slender arches of bone. Over these thin membranous plates branch out innumerable blood vessels, whose walls are so thin as to permit the fluid contained in them to absorb the oxygen with which they are brought in contact when the fish takes in water througn ne mouth. In order to carry off the water when deprived of its oxy- gen, and to bring in fresh portions to be successively respired, a constant current is produced over the surface of the gills, by the action of the fish while taking in water at the mouth, and throwing it out on each side, behind the gills, through orifices which it has for the purpose, called the gill-openings. ‘The apparatus for breathing is protected by large bony plates, or opercular bones, making up the chief portion of the sides of the head. These are four in number, and are termed the operculum, the sub-oper- culum, the pre-operculum, and the inier-operculum. ‘The first of these covers the gills. The branchiostegous rays, often mentioned in descriptions, are situated under the opercular bones. In the Sharks, Squadide, (Lat. squalus, a sea-fish,) and the Rays, Rada, (Lat. raia,a ray,) the gills are attached at their outer margin, with a separate orifice to each, through which the water escapes. The orifices, usually five in number, are, with the mouth and nostrils, on the under surface, and completely hid when the fish is laid on its belly. The heart consists of but one auricle and one ventricle. The blood collected from the venous system, is accumulated in the single auricle, thence it is sent into the ventricle, and this drives it into the gills where it is changed from venous to arterial blood, and thence circulated through the body in arteries, aided by the contraction of the surrounding muscular fibres. Hence it will be perceived the heart never contains any but venous blood, the arterial first proceeding from the gills. ~ Most of the bony fishes have a membranous bladder, com- monly of a lengthened form, placed along the body between the spine and the bowels, and having a structural relation to the lungs in the higher Vertebrates. This is filled with air, and well known as the air-bladder, or swimming-bladder.. When- ever possessed, it aids more or less the process of respiration. It also serves another important purpose, which is to enable the fish 546 ICHTHYOLOGY. to vary its specific gravity, and thus float at any desired eleva- tion in the water. In appearance it varies; sometimes, as in the Sea-Porcupines or Hedge-Hog fishes, (Diodon, double toothed, ) and their allies, it is two-lobed ; in the Electric Hels and the Carp fishes, Cyprinidea,(Gr. kuprinos, a carp,) it is divided by a trans- verse partition, which in the latter allows of inter-communication, through a narrow orifice. In the (Pimelodus catus,) or Com- mon Cat-fish, Family Szduride, (Gr. silouros, a sheat-fish,) it is divided into four cavitiesor compartments. In many species there are closed or blind tubular processes proceeding from various parts of the surface ; in others the bladder is sub-divided into as many irregular cells; all this showing it to possess the rudimentary re- mains of the lungs of air-breathing animals. In marine fishes the bladder usually contains a gas having in it a greater proportion of oxygen than of atmospheric air, while in those of fresh water, ni- trogen predominates. The species which are without the air-blad- der, or have it only in a rudimentary state, are generally Ground Fishes, keeping close to the bottom. Sometimes the possession of an air-bladder exposes fishes to danger; Gurnards, Trighda, (Gr. trigia.) and Conger Eels, (Anguilla conger,) at times ap- pear to distend, the air-bladder so much that it loses its elas- ticity or power of contraction, or as fishermen say, these fishes ‘‘blow themselves,’ becoming unable to sink or to make their escape. The Sea-Porcupine, (Plate XIV. fig.7,) has the habit of filling its body with air, and of floating helplessly in this condition at the surface ; but in the case of this fish, the air is taken, not into the bladder, but into the huge stomach. A writer speaks “of a gentleman of his acquaintance who had a Gold-fish which swam about for more than two months, with its belly upwards, appearing perfectly healthy and lively,” and who attributed this change in the natural position of the fish to an enlargement or defect in the air-bladder. Water is the well known sphere of life and motion to fishes. The Flying fishes, Exocetus volitans, (Plate XIV. fig. 3,) and some of the Gurnards can indeed raise themselves into the air and keep their position there for a few seconds ; some of the Frog-fishes, Lophida, (Gr. lophos, a neck or crest,) and Eels, Anguillide, (Lat. anguilla, an eel,) can crawl upon the exposed mud or sand in the in- terval occurring between the ebb and flow of the tide ; and the An- abassidz, or Climbing Perches leave the water in order to obtain food ; butthese are only deviations from a generalrule. Some in. habit fresh water only ; some only the sea; others can exist in both, either by periodical migration, or at pleasure. Near the city of Bristol, (Eng.,) the Eels are known annually to ascend the trees ICHTHYOLOGY. - 547. whose branches hang into a pond, pass over to the opposite branches and drop into an adjoining stream, and thus migrate to far distant waters. The trees at such times appeared to be quite alive with the eels. (Gosse.) Eels descend rivers to spawn in the brackish waters of estuaries. Salmon ascend rocky rivers from the sea, leaping cascades and overcoming various obstacles to de- posit their eggs in fresh water. The form of the fishes is decidedly the one best adapted to facili- tate progression through such a medium as water, being commonly that of a spindle, swelling in the middle and tapering to each extremity. To this, however, there are exceptions. The Skates, Razide, and Flat-fishes, Planide, are flattened horizon- tally; the Chaetodons, or Hair-Tooths, Chaetodontide, and the famed Dories, Zeina, (Gr. from Zeus, Jupiter,) a branch of the Scombride, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel,) are flattened vertically ; some are of a globe-like form, as the Diodon and the Sun-fish, Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucking-pig ;)some of serpent-like form, as the Eels and Lampreys, Petromyzon, (Gr. stone-sucker ;) and some, as the Ribbon-fishes, Cepolida, resemble in length and thinness the fabric after which they are named. The organs of motion in this class are fins. These have the form of a delicate membrane, investing a series of bony or cartilaginous rays, and which is more or less transpar- ent. These rays are slender bones, consisting, in some cases, of a single piece, stiff and spinous; in other instances, they are made up of several pieces jointed together, and hence flexible ; the latter are frequently divided each into two or more branches at the tip. The bony character of the fin rays affords a basis for two of the orders, viz: AcANTHOPTERYGII, Spiny-finned Fishes, and MaLacoprTeryell, Soft-finned Fishes. The fins of Fishes are of five kinds, which have received their names from their position upon the body, viz.: (1) the dorsal or back fins, (Plate XII. fig. 3a,) usually single, but some- times divided into two or three fins, at varying distances from each other; (2) the caudal or tail fins, (c.) which in the true fishes are vertical, but in the fish-like mammalia are horizontal ; (3) the anal or vent fins, (d;) (4) the pectorad or breast fins, (f;) (5) the ventral or belly fins, (e.) 3 The pectorals and ventrals are arranged in pairs, and corres- pond to the fore and hind limbs in other vertebrate animals ;. the pectorals, for instance, representing the wings in birds; the ven- trals the feet. The dorsal or medial fin aids in keeping the body in a perpendicular position in the water; scarcely any fishes are without this fin, many have two dorsal fins, and a few, as the 23 548 ICHTHYOLOGY. Haddock and Cod, have three dorsals. The anal fin’ corres- ponds to the dorsal, but is placed beneath the body, just behind the vent. The principal instrument of motion is the tail fin. In those fishes which swim most swiftly, the tail is forked, each division being pointed, as are also the pectorals; while in those of less active or sluggish habits, the tail fin, as well as the pec- torals, is commonly short, even or rounded. The rapid and powerful strokes of this fin, given obliquely right and left upon the water, urge the fish rapidly on in a straight course. The pectorals and ventrals do not appear to be much used for com. municating motion ; their chief office is to balance the body, or for turning, and for rising and sinking in the water. Fins without distinguishable rays, or in which the rays are covered with a mass of fatty matter, or else entirely absent, are called adipose. A fin of this description is found on the back of the Brook Trout, (Sadmo fontinalis,) in the rear of the main dorsal fin. ¥ The bones are less dense and compact in their structure than those of the other Vertebrates, yet some of the Spiny-rayed Fishes possess considerable hardness. In the third group, Caon- DROPTERYGII, or CARTILAGINOUS Fisues, (see Chart,) which in- cludes the formidable Rays and Sharks, the skeleton is com-. posed of gristle or cartilage instead of bone. Some of the species of this order seem, however, to make an approach to the osseous divisions. Thisis especially true, (1) of the Spoonsitt, Po/ydon reticulatus, an extraordinary fish, two feet or more long, found in - the Mississippi, known at once by its snout, which is excessively prolonged, very flat and lanceolate, and in length nearly equal to the whole body; (2) the Commen or Suort-Nosep SturGEoN, Acipenser (Lat. a sturgeon.) brevirostris, which has the body’ covered by hard bony tubercles; (3) the Chimeride, or SEA Monsters, so named from the fantastic shape of their heads, which have a singular hoe-shaped appendage, tipped with spines and somewhat-like a crest,azpon their snout, (see Chart.) The body of one species, Chimera borealis, which looks almost as much like a reptile as a fish, terminates gradually in a long slender filament. The cone-shaped cavities ofthe vertebra, or joints of the spine, are in the Fishes filled with a jelly-like substance, continued through the whole spine, by means of a hole pierced through the center of each vertebral joint. Though the tubular perforation is usually small, yet ia many of the .gristly or cartilaginous fishes, it is of so great a diameter as to reduce the vertebre to mere cartilaginous rings. | » Connected’ with the vertebrae above and ‘below are spinous } ICHTHYOLOGY 549. processes for the attachment of muscles. Within the cavity of the belly the inferior processes are absent, but are replaced by lateral ones, to which the ribs are attached. ‘These are usually numerous, slender and flexible bones, each of which sends off a branch of almost equal length and thinness. Some species, as the Herring and Pilchard, Clupide, (from clupea, a shad or her- ring,) send off thread-like branches from each of the vertebre, so that the bodies of these fishes seem to be filled with long and slender bones. The form of the skull varies much in the different orders, but generally it consists of pieces corresponding to those which form the head in other vertebrates. The line of distinction between the head,and body it is difficult to draw, in consequence of the entire absence of a neck. : Teeth are very numerous, sometimes being found in almost all the bones of the. mouth. They are usually simple spines, curved backwards, but the form is often much mcdified. The teeth of the voracious Suarks, for example, are flat and lancet- like, the cutting edges being notched like a saw. In some spe- cies of these terrible fish they are so numerous that upon. open- ing the mouth “ the eve sees nothing but a forest of pointed teeth, any one of which, if detached, would. be sufficient to inflict a most severe wound.” Inthe Sharks of the genera Pristis, (Gr. Saw-fish,) and Mustelus, (Hound-fish,) the teeth differ, being flat, blunt, and tesselated. It is a remarkable provision that insome species the teeth are arranged in series of rows of which the outer one only is in use, the others remaining flat in the mouth until called into exercise by the injury or destruction of the outer row. The front teeth of the FLounpers, (Platessa,) are. compressed plates; the Wrasses, Labride, (from Gr. Jabros, greedy,), have flat grinding teeth ; the Suerp’s-Heaps, (Sargus, or Sparus ovis,) have the grinding surface convex; the Gilt-heads, Chry- sophrys, (Sea-Breams,) have round, flat grinding teeth, ar- ranged like the stones of a pavement, and often with strong pointed canines in front, able to.crush and grind to powder the shells of the crustaceans and mollusks upon which they feed ; the beautiful Chaetodons of warm climates, have, as the name denotes, teeth which resemble bristles; the Perches have teeth on the upper and lower jaw, slender, minute, numerous and closely set ; the bold and fierce Pikes have teeth scarcely less formidable in size, form and sharpness than the canines of car- nivorous animals. The number as well as the form of the teeth greatly varies. While the Pike, the Perch, the Cat-fish, and) many others have 550 ICHTHYOLOGY. the mouth crowded with almost numberless teeth, the Carp and the Roach, Cyprinidae, have only a few strong ones in the throat and a single flat one above; and the Sturgeon, the Pipe-fish, Syngnathus, and the Sand-launce, Ammocates, (Gr. sand-bedded,) are entirely toothless. The skin is either naked or covered with scales which appear in various states of development, as true imbricated scales, as isolated scales, as spiny bristles, hard, bony, enamelled plates. Most of the fishes have ontheir sides a longitudinal row of scales, in each of which is a perforation. ‘These perforations were for- merly thought to secrete mucus; but Prof. Agassiz has proved them to be the openings of tubes, which together with similar tubes opening on the skull, penetrate all parts of the frame and freely admit water, which serves to counterbalance the external pressure. The colors of Fishes, including as they do all shades and lus- tres, are not surpassed even by those of the Birds. The hues are, however, evanescent, disappearing immediately after death. The effect of fear in changing the color of the human hair is well known. From the statement of a writer in the “ New Sporting Magazine,” it would appear to have a similar effect upon some Fishes, particularly Trout. The brain is small and the face has not much expression ; the tongue is mostly cartilaginous, and sometimes covered with teeth. This, connected with the fact that the food is almost always swal- lowed whole as soon as it is seized, seems to warrant the infer- : ence that Fishes‘have not acute taste. The sense of smell they probably possess in considerable perfection, the olfactory nerves being very large, and distributed over a great extent of surface. There is no external ear, nor even an auditory orifice, yet there is a complex internal apparatus of large size for the reception of sounds. , The eyes are distinguished by their almost immovable posi- tion ; the cornea is flat, but the crystalline lens is perfectly spher- ical; the latter is familiar in the form of a white globule in a boiled fish, the transparency being destroyed by heat; eye-lids are not present. From the density of the watery medium inhab- ited by Fishes, a large number of the rays of light are absorbed and lost in passing through it; hence the eyes of fishes are very large, so as to collect as many of the remaining rays as possible ; they are also of brilliant hues. These hues are owing to a membrane called the choroid, spread around the back of the eye, composed, to a large extent, of highly reflecting microscopic - crystals. The eyes of some species gleam like quadrupeds.. i ICHTHYOLOGY. Neel 55] * Generally they are placed opposite to each other on the two sides of the head, so as to look sidewise, but in species that ha- bitually live in deep water, they are placed on the top of the head, and look upward. In one genus of Sharks, called, on this account Hammer-heads, the head is enormously widened, so as to present two long lateral processes, at the extremities of which the eyes are placed; the shape of the head, much resembling that of the hammer used in caulking ships, (see Hammer-headed Shark on the Chart.) We must not omit here to notice the fact that a species of blind fish, Amblyopsis, (Gr. amblus, dim. opsis, vision,) speleus, (Gr. spélaion, a cave,) has been found in the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. The Saw-fishes have the snout prolonged into a straight bony blade, along the edges of which are set pointed teeth directed outward. | Some of the species are endowed with a property quite pecu- liar to this class of Vertebrates. ‘This is the power of giving electric shocks, at will, to other creatures, possessed by the Tor- pedo, (Plate XIV. fig. 13;) and the Gymnotus, or electric eel. The electric organs consist of numerous six sided cells containing a number of delicate membranous plates, sepa- ‘rated from each other by a transparent jelly-like fluid. In the Torpedo, the plates are placed vertically, and form two masses one on each side of the head ;\in the Gymnotus, they are. hori- zontal and form four sub-organs, one pair on each side of the body. The organs of voice are, in fish, entirely wanting. ‘The Cat- fish, Pimelodus, is, however, said to make a peculiar sound by the vibration of its cirri, or barbels, (Plate XIV. fig. 8.) The Weax F'su, Otolithus regalis, makes a peculiar and seemingly abdominal grunting when caught, as does also the Brack Drum, Pogonias chromis. The food of fishes is, for the most part, animal. Some browse the sea-weeds that wave around the rocks of the coast, and oth- ers nibble the soft parts of fresh water vegetation ; but the great majority are carnivorous. ‘The soft-bodied animals of the sea, such as the Actinia, the Medusa, the Annelida, and the naked ‘Mollusca, afford food to multitudes ; others are furnished with strong teeth to grind down the newly formed parts:of coral, and devour the living polyps; and a large number feed greedily on Star-fishes, Crustacea, and the Shelled Mollusca. In fresh wa- ter, worms, leeches, and the larve of insects satisfy the appe- tite of.many. Besides these sources of supply, Fishes every- \where feed upon Fishes, the larger upon the smaller. Their voracity is extremely great, no limit to their appetite appearing 6b2 ICHTHYOLOGY. ‘but the actual capacity of the stomach.* Some, as the Trout, act the’ part of tyrants over their fellows. Fishes are almost incredibly prolific. One species, the Blenny, produces its young alive, sometimes two or three hundred ata time, and able to provide for their own support. A species of viviparous fish, but two inches in length, inclusive of the caudal ‘fin, and containing twenty-two perfect fish, has also been found in a canal connecting with Lake Pontchartrain. Larger-speci- mens have been received by Agassiz from Lake Erie, and also from California. But, generally, the continuation of the race is accomplished by means of eggs, called, in the aggregate, spawn; and before exclusion, roe. ‘The eggs are deposited in various ‘places, on sticks, stones, grass, furrows in the’sand,ete. In rare cases, as the Goby of the Mediterranean, some North Amer- ican Cyprinide or Carps, and the Hassars, Callichthys, of Dem- erara, a nest for the reception of the spawn is built, consisting -of 'a single pile of stones, or else, as in the last named fishes, a more complicated structure of grass and sticks. ‘The Stickle- back, (Gasterosteus,) forms of sea:weed and common coralline, -pear-shaped nests, which hang from the rocks, variously inter- mingled with each other, The- Shark, instead of depositing — almost innumerable eggs in a season, like the Cod or the Her- -ring, produces two eggs, of a square or oblong form, (see fig. on ‘Chart,) the coat of which is composed of a tough, horny and semi-transparent case; each corner is prolonged into a tendril, -of which the two which ‘are next to the tail of the enclosed fish, are stronger and more prehensile than the other pair. The use of these tendrils appears to be their entanglement among the stalks of sea-weeds, and the consequent mooring of the egg in a situation of protection and comparative security. The part of the skin near the head, is weaker and more easily’ broken than any other part,—a provision for the easy exclusion of the animal, which: occurs ‘before: the entire absorption of the yolk. of the 'egg,—the remainder being attached to the body of the young fish, enclosed in a capsule, which for a while it carries about. The position of the animal while within the egg, is, with the head, doubled back towards the tail,—one very unfavorable for the process of breathing by internal gills. But as a provision * “Ata lecture delivered before the Zoological Society of Dublin, Dr. _ Houston exhibited, as ‘a fair sample of a fish’s breakfast,’ a Frog-fish two — feet and a half long, in the stomach of which was a Cod-fish, two feet in ‘length; the Cod’s stomach contained the bodies of two Whitings of ordi- ‘nary size; andthe Whitings; in their turn, held the half digested remains of ~ many’ smaller fishes, too much broken up to be identified.” newt _ ICHTHYOLOGY. 3 553 for this emergency, on each side a filament, of the substance of the gills, projects from the gill-opening, containing vessels in which the blood is exposed to the action of the water. These processes are gradually absorbed after the fish is excluded, until which ‘the internal gills are incapable of respiration. This pre- sents an analogy with the Frogs and Newts. We advert to it thus particularly as impressively manifesting the Divine benevo- lence when the object of so much contrivance and care, is the dreaded and hated Sparx! The horny cases just referred to are frequently found on the sea-shore, and are called Sea-Purses, Mermaids’-Purses, &c. Some species, asthe Penny Doe, Galeus vulgaris, and the Smoota Hounn, (Musielus levis.) bring forth their young alive, without any capsule or covering at all. Some species, as the Pipe-fishes, (Syngnathus,) are ovo-vivipa- rous. What is very singular, the male Pipe-fish is provided with ‘a pouch, into which he receives the spawn as it is deposited by his mate, and in which he carries it about until the young are hatched. And, as if to make the resemblance to the Marsupials complete, the young are in the habit of retiring for shelter into the paternal pouch, for sometime after they are able to leave it and roam at their own pleasure. It is somewhat remarkable, that it is the male, generally, who assumes the care of the eggs, and the construction of the nest. Instances are not wanting, of ‘striking parental devotedness and foresight. The following Table of Mr. Harmar,’ (Phil. Trans.,) shows the different degrees of fecundity in different species of fishes. : =< — ‘ - = ' NAME OF FISH. | bree of | Weight of | Number of spawn. Eggs. ozs. drs. ers. Saeed ies Jeoen es 2.571 205,109 Cod, cihealts seitaitos 12.540 | 3,686,760 BLO WBME RB ariuiln, Sipder hes, imcoels rodent 2.200 | 1,357,400 Herring, anor RAs 6 10 480 36,960 MAGKEREL ok atte. o 18 1.223 546,681 ETCH, see a Mantes 8 9 b, 28,328 Pike, ODUM veld, hase. 4 5.100 49,304 MHACH, oy RLS a eee 10 64 361 $1,586 Bmelt, 6 pei ue jeype nwt 214.0 149 32,278 Oy in a ai) Seah a 14, <8 bat 100,362 SHOINCDY su ay <4 sh se trae hie 40 O 883.252 But far more productive than these, is the Salmon, (Sazmo Salar,) for “the ovarium of one female, has been known to pro- duce 20,000,000 eggs!” Prof. Dana estimates the greatest number of eggs in the Thick. 554 ICHTHYOLOGY. lipped Grey Mullet, (Mugzl Chelo.) to be 13,000,000; in the Cod-fish, (Gadus Morrhua,) 11,000,000 ; in the Turbot, (Pleu- ronectes maximus,) 9,000,000 ; in the Plaice, (P. platessa,) 6,000,000; in the Carp, (Cyprinus carpio,) 600,000 to 700,000 ; in the Perch, (Perca fluviatilis, ) 71,000. It has been estimated that the progeny of a single Herring, if allowed to multiply, undisturbed for thirty years, would not only be sufficient to meet every, demand for this fish, but become even inconveniently numerous; and that, too, notwithstanding hardly one among the millions of young Herrings comes to maturity, in consequence of the ravages made by rapacious fish, and by other means. Although so extensively used, the supply of this fish is always found equal to the demand. The same might be said of the Cod, the Mackerel, the Tench, &c. The longevity of feed seems to be undoubted, however it be true that few reach their natural term of years. Pike and Carp kept in fish ponds, have been known to live to a great age. A Pike taken in Prussia, in 1754, bore a ring which testified to its having been placed in the pond two hundred and sixty-seven years before ; how old it was when put in was unknown. Carp, it is clearly shown, have attained the age of a century. Buffon speaks of one that was one hundred and fifty years old. “Cartilaginous fishes,” says Swainson, “continue to grow all their lives; and as many of these, particularly the Rays, habitu- ally live in the deep recesses of the ocean, and thus seldom run the risk of being captured by man, we may probably attribute their enormous and almost incredible size to their great age.” It is thought to be “a rare thing for a fish to die of natural de- cay.’ But owing to the ravages made among them, the actual average of life is with fishes of comparatively short duration. They are capable of enduring great extremes of temperature,— a fact which may be regarded as indicating their low place in the scale of organization. Experiments have shown that several species of fresh-water fish can live many days in water so hot that the hand could not be held in it a single minute. Eels have been alive in hot springs, in which the temperature is pretty regularly 1180 Fahr.’ But such cases are far less wonderful than that recorded by Humboldt and Bonpland, who “saw living fishes, apparently in health and vigor, thrown up from the bottom of a volcano, with water and hot vapor that raised the thermom- eter to 2100 Fahr.,—a heat only two degrees less than that of ‘boiling water!” On the other hand, the cold of freezing does not always destroy ‘the life of fishes. Eels and Perch are conveyed from place to ‘ICHTHYOLOGY. , __ 555 place in a frozen state, which revive on being thawed. So is it, according to Dr. Richardson, with the Grey Sucking Carp. Gold fishes which have been thawed out of a solid body of ice, have completely revived. Species which live near the surface of the water, have less tenacity of life than those which seek the deep waters. Mack- erel, Salmon, Trout, and Herrings, of the former kind, die almost as soon as they are taken out of the water; while Carp, Eels, Tenches, Skates, and the Flat-fishes, which live near the bottom, and have a low standard of respiration, and a high degree of mus. cular irritability, with less necessity for oxygen, sustain life for sometime after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh continues good for several days. The Eels, Muraenide, and the Blade-eels, Ophidiada, show extraordinary tenacity of life ; even removal of the skin, and the division of the body into parts, not immediately producing death. The flesh of the larger part of fishes is useful for food ; though that of some species is somewhat indigestible. Fish of fresh. water are more generally edible than those of the sea; but asa whole, are not so savory. Fishes are also valuable for other purposes: some for the oil which they yield; the air-bladder of the Sturgeon furnishes the isinglass of commerce; the roes of the Sturgeon, Pike and some other fish, furnish caviar; the sha- green skin of some Placoids is employed for polishing and for making ornamental coverings. ‘The bones are used for fish- hooks and other purposes. 3 The first scientific CLassiFicaTIon of Fishes is that of Artedi, which was made in 1738; the next, that of Linneus, made be- tween twenty and thirty years later. The Classification of Cuvier is generally adopted, and the one to which the Chart most nearly conforms. ‘The entire class of Fishes is first divided into Osseous and CarTiILaGINovus. ‘The Osszous FisHes are sub-divided into Sprine-rAYED and SoFT-RAYED. They are also arranged into three sections,—I. Pectinibran- chii, which have the branchia, or gills, in continuous, comb-like ridges, and include all the ordinary and typical fishes. This section is comprehended in two orders. J. AcantHorTeryei, (Gr. spine-rayed,)—distinguished by having the anterior part of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins, furnished with simple, spiny rays. The Perches, Mullets, Gur- nards, Mackerels, &c., belong to this order. II, Matacopteryatt, (Gr. soft-rayed,) having all the fin rays 556 ICHTHYOLOGY. 7 ae soft and flexible, with the exception, sometimes, of the first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins. There are also three Sub-or- ders, founded either upon the position of certain fins, or their absence, as (1) the Abdominales, in which the ventral fins are situated far behind the pectorals, as in the Carp, Tench, Bream, Dace, Roach, Pike, Salmon, etc.; (2) the Sub-brachials, or Sub- brachiati, (terms derived from the Latin sub, under; brachialis, armlet, or brachium, arm,) in which the ventral! fins are immedi- ately beneath the pectoral fins or armlets, (or even a little before them,)—as in the Codfish, Haddock and Whiting. To this group also belong the Flat-fishes,—such as the Plaice, Flounder, Turbot, Sole, ete.; (38) the Apodes, (Gr. footless,) including the Eels, which receive this name from their possessing no ventral fins. The other sections of the Osseous division are, (2) Lopho- branchia, (Gr. tuft-gills,) including Bony Fishes which have the gills in tufts, (not pectinated,) and arranged in pairs along the branchial arches; (3) Plectognathi, those in which the bones of © the head are closely combined, including the Gymnodonizde or Naked-toothed Fishes, the Balistide, or File-fishes, and the Os- tracionide, or Trunk-fishes. The Cartitacinous FisHes are sub-divided (1) into those which have the gills free, Eleutheropomi, (Gr. free-covers or _opercule.) The gills in these, are pectinate or comb-like, and there is only a single gill opening. Of these, the Sturgeons furnish an example; (2) those with fixed gills, (Branchiis fixis,) and which have more than one gill opening on each side,—including the Sharks, (Squalide,) the Rays, (Razde,) and the Stone-Suck- ers, (Petromyzoneda,) The division Plagiostomi includes those Cartilaginous Fishes which have on the under side of the face, and at a greater or less distance from the extremity, the broad transverse mouth,— such as the Sharks and the Rays. ‘The gills in all are fixed with five or six gill-openings. The Cyclostomi, (Gr. with circular mouths,) are those Cartila- ginous Fishes which breathe by a “series of cells,” the gills not being comb-shaped fringes, but forming sacs or pouches by the union of two opposite ones along their edges. Here are found the Stone-Suckers, so called because the animal applies its circular lip to the surface of a stone or other solid body in the _ water, and drawing in the piston-like tongue, produces a vacuum in the mouth, while the pressure of the super-incumbent body of the water causes the lip to adhere to the stone with immense tenacity, until, by the protrusion of the tongue, the vacuum is voluntarily destroyed. ICHTHYOLOOY. 557 The lowest and most anomalous of all the species of Fishes, is the Brancaiostoma or Lancexet, (Amphioxus lanceolatus,) usually about two inches in length, and generally distributed. throughout the seas of Europe and North Africa. So unique is the structure of this minute creature, that, on the Chart, it is dissevered from the Stone-Suckers. ‘A vertebrated animal without a brain, a fish with the respiratory system of a mollusk, and the circulatory system almost of an Annelide,’’—presents a combination of characters which has challenged its right to a place among the Vertebrates, and seems to justify its separation from the Lampreys, with which some naturalists have ranked it. The Myxines, or GiutTinous Haes, of the most Northern and Southern seas, are almost equally strange in form and structure, having been classed by Linnzeus and other writers, among the Worms. x Their place is filled in the higher parts of the Southern hem- isphere, by the equally curious and nearly allied genus, Hepta- irema.* The Lepidosiren, (Gr. scaly-siren,) is the connecting link be- tween Fisues and Reptiles, being so dubious in its organization, that its true position is disputed. Most naturalists of Continental Kurope consider it to be a reptile, while Prof. Owen confidently maintains its claim to a place among the Fishes. If assigned to the Reptiles, its position would be as a fourth order of the Batra- chians. Prince Bonaparte divides the Fishes into four orders, viz: Acanthopterygii. Malacopterygit, Plectognathi, and Carttlaginei. His arrangement is by many highly esteemed. . Agassiz names the orders of Fishes from their scales, (his classification being applicable to the foss¢Z as well as the living forms,) viz: (1) Crenorps, (from Gr. ktenos, a comb,) in which the scales consist of plates whose posterior or free margin is pectinated, or comb.like, as in the Perch, Bass, Pumpkin-seed, &c. * The name Heptatrema (meaning seven apertures or perforations) was given to this genus,by Dumeril. It is found, however, that the number of apertures varies. Mr. C. Girard describes one of these fishes of the South- ern Hemisphere, as having fourteen breathing holes. (See ‘ U. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition,” published at Washington, D. C., 1855.) He adopts the generic name of Muller, Bdellostoma, (Gr. Bdello, I suck; stoma, mouth,) founded on the structure of the mouth, and calls the speci- men which he figures, Bdellostoma polytrema, (Gr. many perforations.) @ 558 ICHTHYOLOGY. (2) Cyctorps, (from Gr. kuklos, a circle,) those whose scales are entire, as in the Salmon, Trout, Shiners, &c. (3) Ganorps, (from Gr. ganos, splendor,) having scales of an angular form, composed of horny or bony substances, covered with a thick coat of enamel, so that they become teeth-like in their structure, as in the Gar-pike. | (4) Piacorps, (from Gr. plaz, a plate or slab,) thus named from the irregularity which the scaly coverings exhibit, so that the skin resembles shagreen as in the Sharks, Rays, &c. What is the fourth branch of Zoology? Of what does it treat? What is said of the number of fishes? What are their most general characteristics? What is said of their blood? Describe the breathing apparatus and the circulation of the blood. What have they analogous to the lungs in higher vertebrates? What purposes does it subserve? State its variation in different fishes. Of what kind are the fishes which have not the air- bladder? How does its possession expose to danger? What habit has the Sea-Porcupine? What is related of the Gold-fish? What fishes sometimes leave their proper element? Relate facts respecting the migration of Eels. What is the usual form of fishes? What exceptions are mentioned? What are the organs of motion? Of what do they consist? What orders are based upon differences in their structure? Of how many kinds are the fins? Name them, and describe their uses. What additional fin is men- tioned? How do the bones compare in structure with those of other verte- brates? What forms the skeleton of the Cartilaginous Fishes? What is said of the vertebre of fishes? What of the bones of the Herring and Pilchard? What of the head? Describe the teeth, with their variations as to form and number? What is said of the skin? What of its color- ings? Of the senses of taste, smell, and hearing? Of their eyes? What causes their brilfiant hues? Where are theeyes placed? Are these organs wanting in any species of fish? What power is peculiar to some of this class? Describe the electrical organs. Have they a voice? Do any give forth sound? Describe their food. Are any fish viviparous? What are the eggs in the mass called? What before exclusion? Where are they deposited? What fish construct nests? Are any ovo-viviparous? What singular facts are mentioned in regard to the male fishes? What of the Shark’s eggs? Which is the most prolific fish? Give other instances from the table. What facts show the longevity of fishes? What their capacity to endure heat and cold? Which species show the greatest tenacity of life? What is said of their flesh? Explain the classification of Fishes as given on the Chart. Which is the most anomalous of all the species? What other strange fish are mentioned? Which connect the Fish and Reptiles? Into how many orders are the Fishes arranged by Prince Bonaparte? Give their name, and also the orders of Agassiz and Muller? a Which of Agassiz’ orders of fish figured on the Chart has a hetero-cireal or uneven tail or caudal fin? How has this order been otherwise divided ?. ' Upon what are these divisions based? Name the prominent fish in each. Trace each family upon the Chart, giving some prominent characteristic of each. Name some of the fish in each family, giving both the common, s en ICHTHYOLOGY. 559 generic, and specific names when they are mentioned. Which is the most numerous family? Which isthe smallest? Which most useful for food? NOTE. Miller’s classification of fishes (made in 1846) is the most recent, but. it has since been somewhat modified. This gives eleven orders, viz: 1. DEr- MOPTERI, in which he includes the Amphioxide or Lancelets, placed in the sub-order Pharyngobranchii ; and the Myxinoidei, (Myxines,) and Petro- myzontide, (Stone-Suckers,) in the sub-order Marsipobranchii ; TI. Mat- ACOPTERI, with sub-orders Apodes, Abdominales; II. Pharyngognathi, with sub-orders Malacopterygu, (including Scomberesocide) and Acanthop- terygit, (including Chromide, Cyclo-Labride, Cteno-Labride ;) IV. Anacan- THINI, with sub-orders Apodes, (including Ophidide,) and Thoracici, (in- cluding Gadide, Pleuronectide, and Echineide;) V. Acanruoprerr; VI. PiecrocnatHi; VII. Lopnoprancuit; VIII. Ganoiper; IX. Proroprenrt, which includes the one family Sirenoidei, made up of Lepidosirén paradora, of Brazil, and “Lepidosirén or Protopterus annectens, of the Gambia River, Africa; X. Hotocepsati, (including Chimeroidei and Edaphontide;) XI. Plagiostomi. _, Agassiz, in the “Essay on Classification,” contained in his recently pub- lished work, thus remarks,—‘‘I am satisfied that the differences which exist between the Selachians, (the Skates, Sharks and Chimere, ) are of the same kind as those which distinguish the Amphibians from the Reptiles proper, and justify their separation, as a class, from the Fishes proper. I consider also the Cyclostomes as a distinct class, for similar reasons; but I am still doubtful whether the Ganoids should be separated also from the ordinary Fishes. This, however, cannot be decided until their embryological devel- opment has been thoroughly investigated, though I have already collected data which favor this view of the case. Should this expectation be realized, the branch of Vertebrata would contain the following classes:— “Ist class: Myzontes; with two orders, Myxinoids and Cyclostomes. 2d class: Fishes proper; with two orders, Ctenoids and Cycloids. 8d class: Ganoids; with three orders, Coelacanths, Acipenseroids and Sauroids; and doubtful, the Siluroids, Plectognaths and Lophobranches. 4th class: Selachians; with three orders, Chimezre, Galeodes and Batides. 5th class: Amphibians; with three orders, Cexciliz, Ichthyodi and Anura. 6th class: Reptiles; with four orders, Serpentes, Saurii, Rhizodontes and Testudinata. “th class: Birds; with four orders, Natatores, Gralla, Rasores, Insessores, (including Scansores and Accipitres. ) 8th class: Mammalia; with three orders Marsupialia, Herbivora and Carnivora,” ‘ 560 ACANTHOPTERYGIe SECTION VIII. Osstous FISHES First Orper. ACANTHOPTERYG!I, (Gr. é*av6o, akantha, aspine ; mtégoyv, pteron, Wing.) The Crenorps, or ACANTHOPTERYGIIANS, including three. fourths of all known fishes, are almost all marine. They are ornamented with hard, shining, tooth-like scales of beautiful colors. The spiny fins of most of them are constructed for long continued motion. FAMILIES. (1) Percide, (Gr. perké, a kind of fish.) Tue Percues, These comprise one-seventh of all spine- rayed Fishes. Most of them, including the Gropers or Mailed Perches, are marine, but the typical species, the Common Perch, of Europe, (Perca fluviatilis,) with two separated dorsal fins, the rays of the first spinous, of the second flexible, is found only in fresh water. To this nearly corresponds the YeLLow Perch, P. flavescens, the most conspicuous of the numerous North American species, and found both in salt water and fresh. In 1825, Yellow Perch were transported from Skaneateles to Otisco Lake and Onondaga Lake, and appeared to thrive after the trans- fer. They are common in ponds and streams, and in all the great lakes. The eggs of the Perch are of the size of a poppy seed, and joined together by a viscid substance, in long strings. Among the most remarkable fishes of this group are those in- cluded in the genus Polynemus, (Gr. polus, many; néma, a thread or filament,) distinguished by having the ventral fins in- serted farther back than the pectorals, and also for having nu- merous iong flexible filaments placed near the latter fins, from four to ten on each side, and sometimes twice the length of the body. Interest attaches to these fishes from the fact that the bladders of several species yield pure isinglass. The SuLeaH Fish of India, P. sede, is the one from which it issaid to have been first procured. Shoals of this species are found in the estu- aries of the river Ganges; they are three to four feet in length, and eight to ten inches in depth. The species P. Americanus has several rays attached to the pectoral fin. It is about a foot in length, and of a silvery color. All the fishes of this family ACANTHOPTERYGII. 561 agree in the toothed or comb-like edges of the scales, and in having serrated or spined gill-covers, and fins destitute of scales. The Rocx-FisH, or Srripep-Bass, Labrax lineatus, is a fish that has the tongue covered with teeth or prickles; the oper- cula are somewhat different from those of the Perches proper, but in other respects it closely resembles them. It is much es- teemed, especially when taken in autumn. ‘These fishes are brought into market, (dead,) during the winter, and sold in great numbers. Like the shad, with which they are taken, they run from the salt waters into the fresh for the purpose of spawning. (For other genera and species of this numerous family, see Chart.) (2) Triglde, (Gr. trigla, a surmullet.) : The Gurnarps, or Maitep Cueexs. These have enormous pectoral fins, yet live near the shore. The name Gurnard is supposed to he derived from the French word gronder, to grumble or emit sounds. Cuvier called them “ Fishes with hard cheeks,” referring to the encasement of the head and face in a solid buck- ler of bone, which is their most obvious character. Like other bottom fish, they live for some time out of the water. The Pirer, Trigla lyra, is rather an uncommon European species. [The Rep Gurnarp, 7. cuculus, a well flavored fish, occurs on the coast of the United States. Other American spe- cies are found in the genus Prionotus, which closely resembles Trigla. Among the Gurnards is included the Flying-fish, Dac- tylopterus (Gr. finger-wings) volitans, (Lat. flying,) having very large pectoral fins divided into two portions and serving as wings; but it is not so good a flyer as the Flying-fish, Exocetus, belong- ing tothe Pike family. To this family also belongs the genus Gasterosteus, (Gr. bony-belly,) including quite small, but, very active and voracious fish, found in both fresh and salt water, and popularly called StickteBacxs. ‘They are only from one to two and a half inches long, butso elastic is the Three-spined Stickle- back, (represented half the usual size, Plate XIV. fig. 2,) that it leaps nine times its length, in perpendicular height, from the water. Its extraordinary voracity is shown by the fact that it has been known to devour in five hours, seventy-four young dace, and on the following day, sixty-two; (some dace, it should be mentioned, are exceedingly small.) Several species of Stickle- backs are found in the waters of the United States. In some parts of England, these fish are so numerous as to be used for manure. ‘hey are so pugnacious as to destroy each other; and yet some of them manifest great care in building and watching their nests. 562 ACANTHOPTERYGII. (3) Scenida, (Gr. skiaina, a sea-fish.) N The Maigres. 'These resemble Perches, but live in the sea, and attain toa great size. ‘They make a sort of purring sound. The air-bladder is long, tapering, and fringed along each side, giving it a singular appearance; the head is generally enlarged with cavernous swellings. Among the American fishes of this family are the Weaxk-FISH, Otolithus regalis, abundant on the Atlantic coast, and an excellent salt-water fish. It is called Salt-water Trout on the southern shores. ‘The Rep-sass, or Sea- bass, Corvina ocellata, is taken off the coast as far north as Long Island Sound, and for~food, is highly prized. The LaFayette, or Cuus, Leiostomus obliquus, abounds on the coasts of the Mid- dle States, and is in some estimation for food. A species, L. xanthurus, (Gr. yellow-tail,) known as the Yettow Jack, or YeLLow Tait, is found off the coast of South Carolina. The Kine-FisH, Umbrina nebulosa, distinguished from others of the family by a cirrus or tuft on the under jaw, is thought by many to be the best fish which appears in the New York market. The Drum, Pogonias chromis, (Gr. pogonias, bearded ; chromis, a fish,) isa large and fine flavored fish. : (4) Sparida, (from Lat. sparus, gilt-head.) The Sea Breams. These fishes have flat grinding teeth, sometimes strong pointed canines in front.. The common Gilt- head, chrysophris, (Gr. chrusophrus,) aurata, can crush such thick stony shells as the Periwinkles, Whelks and Turbos, (or Tops ;) a more voracious fish is scarcely known. The famed SHEEPSHEAD, Sargus ovis, abundant on the coast, and much és- teemed for food, is of this family. (5) Maenide, (Gr. mainé, a small sea-fish.) The Menvotes. ‘This is comparatively a small family, (not mentioned on the Chart.) The common Mendole, Maena vulga- ris, is considered so utterly worthless that the name is used at Venice as a term of derision. A West India species decom. — poses with remarkable rapidity, the flesh becoming soft almost immediately after it is dead. The species of the genus Smaris, (Gr; a sea-fish,) are sought for in the Mediterranean. One spe- cies is called the Kine-Fisuer of the Sea, S.-alcedo, in allusion to its beautiful tints. (6) Chaetodontide, (Gr. chaité, hair or bristle ; odous, tooth.) The Chaetodons. ‘These are thus. named because their teeth are so long, fine and slender as to resemble the bristles of a brush. Cuvier called them Squamipennes, to express the man- ner in which their fleshy fins are covered with scales, like the rest of the body, which is flat or round, and thin, with long bat- ACANTHOPTERYGII. 563 like fins. The scales reflect the most brilliant hues. The spe- cies are numerous and tropical. The ArcHers, Toxotes, (Plate XIV. fig. 4,) eject water out of the tubular mouth with such pre- cision as to bring down any insect within their reach. In Java, they are kept in glass vessels for amusement, an insect being suspended by a thread above for the fish to shoot at. (7) Anabasside, (from Gr. anabaino, to ascend.) CLIMBING PERCHES. This family includes but one genus, Anabas, fishes whose res- piratory organs are so constructed as to enable them to sustain life for a space of time out of water, by having small apertures or some receptacle where they can preserve sufficient water to moisten their gills. ‘There is but one species, A. scandens, (Lat. climbing.) When a pond is dried up in which these Perches are found, it is said they are guided by a remarkable instinct in traveling towards the nearest water. Swainson says the Climb- ing Perch “quits the water and ascends the roots of the man- grove trees, (in East India,) an effort it accomplishes by using its ventral fins as little feet.”” (These fish are by some natu- -ralists included in the family Labyrinthibranchia, a name refer- ring to the vascular membrane, folded together in a number of lamine, and occupying the upper part of the front branchial arches, and which serves to retain water for moistening the gills during the travels of these fishes on the land.) (8) Scombride, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel.) This includes the Mackerels, an important as well as numerous family of al- most entirely marine fish, found in all seas. Many are pelagic, (roving far from land.) They are taken in such quantities as to prove them to be inexhaustible. They live near the surface and are among the fishes which quickly decompose. The Tunny, Thynnus, of the Mediterranean, is from three to four and even fifteen feet in length. Fried in cutlets, this fish resembles veal, the flavor being quite as much like that of flesh as of fish. The Bonita, (Scomber pelamys,) found on our coast, is a species of Tunny, which in the tropics pursues the Flying-fish. The Sworp-rFisu, Atphias gladius, the largest of the order, be- ing from twelve to fifteen feet long, has the beak lengthened into a long, powerful weapon, which it sometimes drives with such violence as to penetrate to a great depth into the timbers of ships. The Pitot Fisn, Naucratés ductor, follows vessels, and thus acts as a guide to the Sharks. Among the other American fishes of this family found on our coast, are the following ; the Spanish Macxeret, Cymbium, (Gr. kumbion, a small bowl ;) the CraB-Eater, Elacaie, (Gr. a distaff;) the Caronmna Licura, 564 ACANTHOPTERYGII. Lichia Carolina; the Tracutnote, Trachinotus ; the Yettow and Spottep Macxerets, Caranz crysos, (Gr. yellow or golden,) and C. punctatus, (Lat. spotted:) the Hair-FINNED BLEPHARIS, (Blepharis crinitus,) which is the Zeus crinitus of Akerly, kin- dred to the well known Dory or John Dory, Z. faber, an Euro- pean species much esteemed by epicures, and of which strange things have been often recited; the Suiner, Vomer, (Lat. a plough-share ;) the Serioie, Serzo/a, (Lat. a small jar;) the Buive Fisu, or Green Fis, Temnodon, (Gr. temno, to cut; odous, tooth ; so named from the very sharp teeth,) sometimes called Horse Macxeret; the principal species, T. saltator, be- ing the Taitor, or Sxip-sack of the more southern waters, “twenty of which,” it was formerly said, “ would fill a barrel; ” the BotrLe-HEADED Do.puin, Coryphena, (Gr. korus, a helmet; phaino, | display.) globiceps, (globe-headed.) The fishes of this genus, including the fishes generally known as dolphins, and celebrated for their beauty, are, however, rarely found off the coasts, being mostly inhabitants of mid-ocean. ‘The species C. hippuris, is famed for its beautiful play of colors when dying. The Dolphins are conspicuous enemies of the Flying-fish. Other fishes of this family are, the Lampugus, a rare and exceedingly beautiful fish, and the Harvest-fish, Rhombus. (9) Cepolkde, or Teniade. (Lat. tenia, a ribbon.) This is a small family of fishes allied to the Mackerels. They are chiefly distinguished by an elongated, flattened shape; their general appearance being that of a bright silver ribbon. They have the popular names of Ribbon-fish, Lath or Deal fish. The body is not thicker, except in the middle, than a sword. Most of the species inhabit the Mediterranean. The eleven-rayed Band-fish, Cepola rubescens, (Lat. turning red,) is seen on the coasts of England; it displays brilliant colors; sometimes is called Fire-flame and Red-ribbon. As showing the appropriate- ness of the name Ribbon-fish, it is related, that a specimen of this species, ‘“‘ though nineteen and a half inches in length, hav- ing been carefully folded up like a ribbon, passed to Belfast, (Ire- land,) in a franked letter of the ordinary size and legai weight, viz., less than an ounce.” (Magazine of Nat. Hist.) The Silvery Hair-Tail, Trichiurus, (Gr. hair-tail.) Jepturus, (Gr. thin-tail,) having a tapering tail, ending in a filament, is found off the coast of the U.S. ; (10) Teuthide, (Gr. Teuthis, a kind of fish.) : This is another, not numerous family, sometimes called Lan- cet-fish, resembling the Mackerels in appearance and some other respects, but peculiar for the cutting spines in each side of the a ACANTHOPTERYGII. 565 tail, and a horizontal spine before the dorsal fin. ‘They have but one row of teeth, and are among the small number of the class that feed entirely on vegetable substances. The Docror-risu, Acanthurus, (Gr. spine-tail,) c@ruleus, (Lat. dark blue,) has caudal lancets which are short, hard, and glassy, and are en- closed ina yellow membranous sheath. It is common on the coasts of the West India islands, South Carolina and Florida. The Surceon-Fisu, A. phlebotomus, (Gr. vein-cutting,) is another species found off the coasts of the United States. The caudal lancets of these fishes are analogous to the horns of ruminating animals, and to be regarded rather as defensive than offensive weapons. (11) Atherinide, (Gr. athérina, from ather, a thorn.) _ This is a family sometimes included in the Mugilida, called Silver-sides, from the silvery band on the side; the two dorsal fins are far apart; the anterior one spinous. The genus Atherina is represented by several species of small fishes. Silver-sides used to be caught in New York Harbor, and sold for bait, under the nameof Anchovies and Sea-smelts. These small fishes were for- merly supposed to be all included in the genus Atherina, but Mr. Charles Girard, (see “ United States Astronomical Expedi- tion,”) has, within a few years, proposed three additional genera, of which several species are found in S. A. (12) Mugilide, (Lat. mugil, a mullet.) The Mullets are lengthened, and often cylindrical in form, with ‘a somewhat projecting snout, and an extremely small mouth, placed beneath. They inhabit both salt and fresh water ; indeed, a change from salt to fresh water seems necessary to them. A number of species of the genus Mugil are found in the United States. The Common Mullet, M. albula, is throughout the greater part of the year, taken in large numbers on our Southern | coast. These fishes have not been considered carnivorous; but the shells obtained from the stomach of one of them by Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, (Ireland,) filled a large sized cup. They swim in large shoals near the surface ; Gosse says that the Grey Mullets, M. capito, assemble to feed every evening at a certain knocking, and are the only fish with which he is acquainted, that select for food nothing that has life, except that they some- times swallow the Sand- Worm. (18) The Gobide, Gostss, and Blennide, Bienntrs, are, on the Chart, included in one family, both having flexible and slender-dorsal spinous rays. They have no swimming bladder. Some of the Gobies proper, have no visible scales. This numer- ous family of small unimportant fishes, have not even beauty to fad 566 ACANTHOPTERYGII. recommend them. They are soft to the touch, being invested with a mucous slime; hence the generic name, Blenna. (Gr. mucus. ) The Wotr-Fisu, or Sea-Cat, Anarrhicas lupus, is much larger than others of this family, being a formidable, voracious fish, from three to eight feet in length, with a broad cat-like face, and a grinning mouth, bristling with stout, sharp teeth, so strong as to crush the hardest shells, and even stone. The genus Zoarces, (with three American species,) has the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united. The Butter-fish, Gunnellus mucronatus, (pointed,) has a long compressed body, and the ventral fins rudimentary. The German Draconet, Callionymus lyra, is an exception to others of the family, in having beautiful colors. It has no visi- ble scales. In Italy, Blennies are fried in numbers, like Sprats in Eng- land, and eaten by the poorer classes. Some species of the genus, Zoarces, and probably others, produce their young alive by dozens. The SHanny, Pholis, (Gr. a scale,) deposits its eggs on the roofs or sides of cavities in rocks, near the low water mucks, and being of a bright amber color, with a polished ‘sur- face, it appears as if paved with round stones. ‘The Physis, of the Mediterranean, forms a nest of sea-weed in which to deposit its spawn, and attends upon the young. (14) Lophide, (Gr. lophos, a crest.) These are distinguished by the lengthening of the carpal bone, by which, as on an arm, the pectoral fin is supported. The family saelddes some of the most singular looking fishes in the entire class, such as Frog, or Toad Fishes, &c. -» grotesque and reptile-like; without scales; hiding themselves in the mud, and attracting their prey by agitating the filamentary processes on the head. The feet-like pectoral fins assist them to crawl on the bottom of the sea, and also upon land. ‘These, on account of the soft and yielding nature of the skeleton, were formerly classed with other Cartilaginous or Soft-rayed Fishes, (see Lophius Americanus, Squalide, on the Chart) but Cuvier demonstrated its fibrous structure, and fixed its position among the bony fishes. The Antennarius, (Lat. from antenna,) is found in tropical seas. It is said to crawl about the fields for two or three days at a time. So tenacious of life are the fishes of this genus, that they have been transported alive from tropical seas to Holland, and sold “for twelve ducatsa piece.” Their voracity is great,— in fact, they seem to be mostly mouth and stomach. On the MALACOPTERYGII. 567 coast of Scotland, these ‘“Sea-Devils” are met with, four and even five feet long. The Mouse-fish and Toad-fish are small species of this family. (15) Labride, (Lat. labrum, a lip,)—a family deriving its name from the fleshy lips appended to the jaws. It has been divided into two sections, Cyclo-labride, having cycloid-scales, and Cteno-labride, having a dorsal fin supported in front by spines. This family includes the Wrasses or Rock-FISHEs,— numerous small fishes of brilliant orange and blue color, ar- ranged in stripes with wavy lines. ‘The genus Ctenolabrus is represented by the Nipper or Common Bereatu, C. ceruleus, found on the coast from New Jersey northward. On account of its prevailing color, it is also called the BLug-FisH, BLue Percu, Cunner or Conner, and Cuoeset; the last mentioned name being derived from the Mohegan tongue. The flesh is insipid and watery. The Yautoga Americana, the Common Buack-FIsH or Tautoc, (in the Mohegan dialect,) much valued for the table,—is found on the coast between Massachusetts and Ches- apeake Bay. Seconp Orper. Matacopreryer, (Gr, wésixds, malakos, soft ; mtéeguy, pleron, Wing or fin, =, The Cycroms. These fishes are a step lower in organization. Soft-fins or rays distinguish them from those of the preceding order. The genera and species are less numerous, but as fur- nishing food for man, the order is the most important of all, in- eluding such fish as Salmon, Pike, Herring, Cod, Carp, Turbot, Halibut, &e. The order comprises all the Ground Fishes,— those which are restricted to fresh waters, and lie in wait for their prey. Sus-Orprr. ABDOMINALES. The fishes of this sub-order have the ventrals behind the pec- toral fins, and not attached to the humeral or shoulder-bone. (16) Siluride, (Gr. silouros from seio, 1 move; oura, the tail.) This is a family represented by the Cat-fish, Bull-pouts, Bull- heads, and Horned-pouts, (Pime/odus,)—the last name _ being derived from the fleshy filaments, (ctrrt or barbels,) floating from the mouth. These cirri are supposed to aid them in obtaining food, while groping inthe mud. They are without scales, and covered with a slimy coat of mucus. Some South American species have large angular, bony plates, and are, therefore, said to be mailed. The Oceanic Cat-fish has only six barbels. 568 MALACOPTERYGIIL. The Sheat-fish or Sly Silure, (see Chart,) SiJurus glanis, (Gr. a kind of shad,) is the only species of Europe, and perhaps the largest of European fresh-water fishes,—attaining the length of ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet. One species, Silurus electricus, (the Malapterurus electricus, of later writers,) an inhabitant of the Nile and of the rivers of Central Africa, has electric properties similar, or intermediate to those of the Torpedo and Gymnotus, though the organs are of much finer texture. Ofthe American fresh-water forms the most noted are included in the genus Pimelodus, (Gr. Pimelé, fat,) distinguished by having an adipose dorsal fin. One species, found in the Mississippi, has been known to weigh one hundred pounds. The genus Noturus, (Gr. back-tail,) includes the Stone Cat-fish. It has its generic name from having the back fin confluent with the tail-fin. The Pzmelodus cyclopum, (Humboldt.) of South America, in- habits the highest regions in which fish are known to live, occurring at Quito, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. They are found in subterranean lakes, and sometimes are ejected from the craters of the Cotapaxi and Tunguaraga volcanoes. . In this family are included the Biinp Fisues, Amblyopsis speleus, (DeKay,) of the Mammoth Cave, (Kentucky,) in which the eyes are invisible, or appear in a rudimentary state, on the dissection of the fish. It is said “they are acutely sensitive to sounds, as well as to undulations produced by other causes in the water.” (Silliman’s Journal, second series, Vol. XVII.) (17) Cyprinidae, (Gr. kuprinos,a carp.) This family includes by far the greater part of fresh-water fishes, though the flesh of not very many is valuable for food. Few of them are found in tropical waters. The Carps have no teeth in the mouth, but they appear in various kinds upon the posterior branchial arch, (or pharyngeal bone.) ‘These and eels live a hundred years. The species Cyprinus Carpio, (Lat. a carp.) is highly prized for food. It is particularly abundant in Europe, and has been naturalized in waters of the United States, especiaily in the Hudson River.* The Gotp-Fisu, Cyprinus auratus, of our parlors, so conspic- * These fish were first successfully introduced by H. Robinson, of New- burgh. The spawn is deposited among the grass along the sides of the ponds or rivers which they inhabit. These fishes reach the size of three or four inches the first year, and sometimes become quite large, though the size varies considerably. The Breams are from five to seven inches long; the Chubsuckers from seven to twelve; the Suckers from-seven to eighteen. They, together with the Dace, Sheepshead, Killi-fish, Red-fin, &c., are found in the waters of New York. ‘ ; MALACOPTERYGII. 56% uous among fresh-water fish for the beauty and variations of their colors, are of this family. The true home of these fishis a lake in China, whence they have been taken, and introduced to other countries. When kept in globes, care should be taken not to give them more food than they can eat at a time, as the uncon- sumed portion, dissolving in the water, may affect their breath- ing. ‘The eggs should be removed to another vessel, or else the fish will eat them. : The Gupceons, C. gobio, appear to delight in slow rivers, and swim together in shoals. They seize the bait with avidity, and hence afford excellent amusement to anglers. The Sumy Tencu, Tinca vulgaris, is common in lakes of the European continent, and sometimes found in ornamental waters and ponds, but is seldom found in rivers, being fond of still and muddy waters. It is considered a very prolific fish, and of quick growth. ‘The Tench ranks among the most useful fresh-water fish of Europe. The Bieax, Cyprinus alburnus or Alburnus lucidus, is another European species, from the scales of which is chiefly obtained the silvery matter used in the preparation of artificial pearls. The VartecatepD or Carr Bream, Abramis versicolor, is a savory fish, sometimes called the Yellow-bellied Perch and Wind- Fish; found in the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers, and in other waters. When a light breeze ruffles the water, thousands of these fish are sometimes seen darting to the surface. Near Peekskill, N. Y., it is called the Dace, from its resemblance to Dace of Europe, C. leuciscus. The Barbet, of Europe, Barbus, (Lat. from barba, a beard ;) vulgaris,—named from the cirri or barbs attached to its mouth,— frequents the deep and still parts of rivers,—is very numerous in the Thames, Eng. Its flesh is coarse and unsavory, and held in little estimation. Several species of Dace are found in North America. Among them are the Black-nosed Dace, Leueiscus atronasus, (Lat. black- nosed ;) the Spawn-Hater, L. Hudsonius, supposed by fisher- men to live entirely on the spawn of other fishes,—first described by DeWitt Clinton, formerly governor of the State of New York ; the Suiner, L. chrysopterus, (Gr. yellow-finned ;) the Sinvery Dace, L. argenteus, found in Massachusetts; the Piemy Dace, L. pygmeus, which is only an inch long. Other species are sometimes quite small. The Suckers, Catastomus, (Gr. kata, against; s/oma, mouth,) embrace many species known by their very fleshy lips, which can be applied to any object like a sucker. Different names are 570 MALACOPTERYGII. applied to the several species, such as Mullet, Buffalo-fish, Red- Horse, &c., &c. The species of Cyprinide are extremely numerous in Ameri- can waters, and many, no doubt, are yet to be described. But We must not omit to notice two singular species; the first, Cy- prinodon umbra, remarkable as being one of the inhabitants of the subterranean lakes in Austria. where darkness perpetually reigns; the second, the Four-EveEp Loacu, Anableps tetrophthal- mus, (Gr. four-eyed,) found in the Brazilian rivers. ‘It is,” says Mr. Edwards, in his “ Voyage up the Amazon,” “always seen swimming with the nose above the surface of the water, and pro- pelling itself by sudden starts. The eye of this fish has two pupils, although but one crystalline and one vitreous humor and but one retina. It is the popular belief that, as it swims, two of its eyes are adapted to the water, and two to the air.” (18) Esocide, (Gr. isox, a kind of pike.) The Pixes, (Esoz,) are the most voracious and destructive of all fresh-water fish. Their lengthened form enables them to live in shallow waters, — sud even when considerably large they sometimes are found in small brooks. The Trout alone can compete with these fishes, and not often are both found in the same waters. Lacepedé calls them the Sharks of our ponds and rivers. Only one species, E. luctus, is tound in Europe; sometimes attaining a length of nineteen feet, and a weight of seventy pounds. A skeleton of one has been preserved at Manheim, which weighed three hun- dred and fifty pounds, and was probably between two hundred and three hundred years old. The species are numerous in the waters of this Continent. Those of Lake Erie and other Northern lakes, as the Muskalonge or Muskellunge, E. nobilior, E. estor, are very large. ‘The more Southern species are smaller. The American species form two divisions; one of which has the oper- cular or gill covers entirely scaly, and dark reticulated mark- ings; the other having scales only on the upper half of the gill covers, and marked with light spots on a dark ground. The Common Picxeret, E. reticulatus, abounds throughout the Eastern and Middle States, and in the waters of Ohio. The Banded Gar-fish, Belone truncata, has very minute, soft scales, and the upper part of the body is of a beautiful transparent sea-green. The Scomberesoz, or Bill-fish, (S. Storeri, Mass. Report.) has a broad silvery band onthe body; and is, hence, sometimes called the Silver-Gar. Both these fish have the head and snout very much elongated; the Bill-fish has the dorsal and anal fins divided into finlets, as in the Mackerel,—hence, the name Scom- . MALACOPTERYGII. 571 beresox, or Mackerel-Pike. The two last named genera are sometimes united in a separate family, (Scomberesocide.) The Flying Fishes of tropical seas, Exocetus, (Gr. E&wxertos, exokoitos, (sleeping out of the sea,)—were so named because believed by the, ancients to sleep on the beach. They have the specific name volztans, ( Lat. flying,) from having the pectoral fins so enlarged as to resemble wings, (Plate XIV. fig. 3.;) when in the air they move so rapidly as to resemble birds more than fish. They fly straight forward, remaining out of the water thirty seconds or more at atime. Two or three hundred of them are sometimes seen together. (19) Fistularidea, (Lat. from fistula, a pipe or tube.) This family includes the Pipe-mouthed. and Trumpet fishes having tubular mouths, which, it is thought, they use in drawing. up their food, like a syringe. The genus fstularia, (the tobacco- pipe Fish,) has several species on our coast. The Trumpet-: fish, Centriscus, besides the tubular snout, has a short com- pressed body, of which the head forms the larger portion. (20) Salmonide, (Lat. salmo, a salmon.) This is the Trout family, inhabiting both fresh and salt wa- ter, and the most completely toothed of all the fishes. They agree with the Herring family in the structure of the upper jaw, and are distinguished by having a small fatty fin behind - the true dorsal fin. Their flesh is unrivaled; all the members of the family are eagerly sought for by anglers, from the sal- mon or lake trout, the mackerel trout, the white fish of the large lakes, and the Bass of Otsego, to the small frost-fish or smelt caught in Lake Champlain, through holes in the ice, to which the fish rush in crowds to breathe the fresh air. Different causes have been assigned for the various shades of color in the flesh of Salmon. Such as live upon fresh water shrimps and other small crustaceans, are said to be the brightest; those feeding upon aquatic vegetables dull, and the darkest of all. DeKay thinks it doubtful whether any trout feed on vegetables. Those of ponds are externally dark colored; those in clear streams with sandy bottoms, are bright; and those in salt, brack- ish streams are not only bright externally, but have the flesh more of the Salmon color. The most conspicuous species is the Salmon salar, (Lat. a kind of trout,) which is the true Salmon found on the northern shores of both Europe and America, and ascending the rivers in summer; sometimes attaining a weight of fifty pounds or more. Itis not only valuable for food, but the women of the Tungooses, in Siberia, tan the skin so as to render it flexible, for the purposes of clothing, The Broox Trout, S. fontinalis, is met with from Maine to 24 572 MALACOPTERYGII. the southern parts of Virginia. This seldom exceeds four pounds in weight. Dr. Mitchell speaks of a Salmon of Lake Huron, which weighed one hundred and twenty pounds, but the Lake Salmon are not now often found to exceed eighty pounds. .To the prolific nature of the Salmon we have already referred. These delicious fish were formerly quite abundant; indeed, it is not many years since they were, in Massachusetts, a perfect drug. We have read of a boy who was apprenticed in New- buryport, with the special condition in his indentures, that he should not be obliged to eat salmon more than three times a week. ; (21) C/upeide, (Lat. clupea, a river fish or shad.) The fishes of this family, including Herrings. Pilchards, Sprats, Sardines, Anchovies and Shad, are among those esteemed as most useful and indispensable. Both the maxillaries and inter- maxillaries are employed to form the margin of the upper jaw. These fish are exceedingly abundant. Four hundred thousand Anchovies are said to have been taken at one haul, on the coast of Sardinia. These latter fish are preserved with salt, after removing the head and intestines. They are about the size of the little finger, and used as a condiment. Herrings, (Clupea harengus.) are now supposed to live in the vicinity of the places where they are caught, approaching the shore to spawn in such numbers that the water is filled with loose scales rubbed off in the crowd. The Herring fishery along the coasts of Europe and America, gives employment in sum- mer to many thousands of people. The consumption in Europe alone of two thousand millions of these fish, annually, does not seem to decrease their numbers. ‘They are valuable in com- merce, either pickled or smoked. To prepare the. Red or Smoked Herring, the fish are sprinkled with salt, and lie about six days in heaps on a brick or stone floor. Rods are then passed through the gills, care being taken not to have them touch each other. These rods are suspended in tiers, in ovens, hold- ing from ten to twelve thousand, where the herrings are smoked for a month with hard wood, and after being cooled, are packed for market. The Emperor Charles V, in 1556, erected a mon- ument, and ate a herring over the grave of a fisherman of Zea- land, who had improved the art of pickling herring. Several species of Herring are caught on the coasts, and in the rivers of the Atiantic States. Some idea of the extent of the herring- fishery in Maine may be obtained from the fact that at Treat’s island, there were in five days, caught, salted, and stored up for smoking, what would make or pack five thousand boxes. Some kinds of Herring are used instead of guano, for enriching land. MALACOPTERYGII. Y 573 SarDINEs are a small species of Herring, much prized as a rel- ish. From forty to fifty thousand are often taken at a single haul in the Mediterranean, the Baltic and the Atlantic. The American Shad, Alosa prestabilis, (Lat. excellent,) or A. sapidissima, (Lat. most savory,) is a beautiful and savory fish which enters our rivers between January and May, the time va- rying with the latitude, passing to a considerable distance from the mouths of the rivers in order to spawn. ‘They descend the Hudson river during the latter part of May, when they are called Back Shad, and are lean and scarcely fit to eat. Shad are caught in large seines, and in gill-nets attached to long spears, and often set in from seven to ten fathoms of water. They are taken in large numbers in the Hudson and other rivers, and more especially in Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. In abund- ant seasons they are sold at from six to ten dollars per hundred, and packed away in salt. This species is of much finer flavor than the Common Suan, A. vulgaris, of Europe. The Atrewives, A. tyrannus, appear in great numbers in Chesapeake Bay, from March to May. In New York waters, they appear with the shad, about the first of April, but not in numbers sufficiently large to form a separate fishery. ‘They are numerous on the coast of Massachusetts, and very good food. The Mosszonker, A. menhadan, is valuable and largely used for manure, and in some places as bait for mackerel, cod, and halibut. This fish also has the names, Bony-fish, Hard-head, and Menhadan, “the last being the name given by the Manhat- tans.” It is dry, full of bones, and without flavor, and therefore is seldom eaten. SuB-BRACHIALS. These are distinguished by having the ventral fins under the pectorals, and the pelvis immediately attached to the bones of the shoulder. (22) The Gadide, or Cop Fisu family, have an elongated body, covered with soft scales not extending on the head.. The genus Morrhua represents the true Cod. The best known species is the Morrhua vulgaris, found in the seas of Europe as far south as Gibraltar, and in those of America as far as Newfound. . land; its maximum size is sixty or seventy pounds. The spe- cies commonly. found throughthe whole year off the coast of the United States, and going into deep water in the spring, is M. Americana, from one to three feet in length. Occasionally it attains an immense size. Specimens are sometimes taken which 574 MALACOPTERYGII. weigh seventy or eighty pounds. Dr. Storer speaks of one which reached the enormous weight of one hundred and seven pounds; acod of fifty pounds, however, is thought to be very large. The Cod-fishery, it is well known, is extensively followed in the Eastern States, particularly Massachusetts; giving em- ployment to a large number of persons and requiring an amount of tonnage which ranks only second to that employed in the whale fishery. Fishing vessels of all nations are found off the Banks of Newfoundland. Cod fish are taken with hooks or seines sunk to a considerable depth in the sea. The months of May and June are the season forsecuring them. They are pre- served by simply salting them green, or they are salted andthen dried. The oil, olewm jecori, from the liver of the cod, is quite largely used as a medicine, and considered to be highly valua- ble, especially in pulmonary complaints. The roe is also exten- sively used as bait for herrings. Other fishes of this family are the Power Cop, M. minuta, from four to eight inches long; the Tom Cop, or Frost-FisH, M. pruinosa, (Lat. frosty.) a savory fish, and caught in large quantities ; the Haddock, M. eglefinus, nearly as common in our market as the Cod, but inferior in size and as an article of food; the Wuitine, Merlangus vulgaris, an European species; (the name Whiting is also applied to the American species, M. albidus, Lat. whitish ;) the Burbot, Lota vulgaris, is cqnsiderably esteemed ; the Cusk, Brosmius vulgaris, (Storer ;) the Hake or Codling, Phycts Americanus.. These are all equally palatable with the Common Cod; the Coal-fish, M. carbonarius, (Lat. from carbo, a coal,) ranging on both shores of the Atlantic; M. purpureus, (Lat. purple-colored,) abundant on the shores of New England and sometimes on that of New York, and known under the name of Pollack. > ie (23) Planide, or Pleuronectide, (Gr. pleuronectes, side-swim- mer,) the Fiat-FisH Famity. ’ These, from their want of symmetry, really stand alone among the VERTEBRATES. The eyes are both on one side of the head, usually one above the other, and often varying in size. The upper surface of these fishes resembles the ground in which they lie in wait for their prey; the under surface, from being never exposed to the action of light, is white. The upper and - white surface are really to be regarded as the two sides, right and left, so that instead of being depressed, it is compressed, or flattened vertically, like the Chaetodons, though the latter, like other fishes, swim with the back uppermost, notwithstanding their thinness; but the Turbot swims or grovels along the’ bottom up- on its side, the colored side, right or left, being uppermost. To MALACOPTERYGII. 575 this the term Pleuronectes refers. DeKay designates tne Friar. FISH, having the eyes and colored surface on the right, as dex- tral species, and the FLounpEers, which have the eyes and col- ored surface on the left, as sinistral species. Of the latter is the Ostone Friounper, Platessa oblonga, (Plate XIV. fig. 5,) found on our coast, and from fifteen to twenty inches in length. The Turbot, Rhombus maximus, is considered the best of. Euro. pean fishes. The Sporrep or Watery Tursot, Pleuronectes maculatus, or Rhombus aquosus, (Storer,) is found on our coast and sometimes called the English Turbot, but is distinguished from that fish by the.absence of the numerous tubercles on the colored side, which characterize the latter. The Halibut, (Hippoglossus vulgaris,) has a longer body and sharper teeth than others of the family. Sometimes it reaches a great size. Dr. Storer speaks of one that weighed six hundred pounds, though a Halibut weighing two hundred. pounds is con- sidered large. The fins are regarded by epicures as a very choice part of this fish. There are several species of Flat-fish, Piatessa, most of which are prized for food. The Froox, P. flesus, and the Das, P. limanda, are European species. The Common Sore, Achirus mollis, is found abundantly on our At- lantic coast. _ (24) Cyclopteride, (Gr. circular or cup-shaped fins.) The Lump-Ftsues, or Lump-suckERs. | These are a small family, having the ventral fins so united as to form a sort of cup-shaped disk, with a funnel-shaped cavity in the center, by which they adhere firmly to any solid object. The body is rough, being covered with very bony tubercles. They are called Suckers on account of a curious sort of suck- ing disk, by means of which they adhere to the rocks of the bottom, or to any other substance. ‘The skeleton is so soft that some members of the family are said to dissolve after death into a mucilaginous jelly, in which hardly any trace of bone remains. These fish are represented by three genera: Lepidogaster, Lum- pus, and Liparis, the two latter having American species. The Lump-sucker, Lumpus anglorum, or Cyclopterus caruleus, is called in Scotland, the Cocx-pappte. In England it has the name of Sea Ow1, as well as Lump-fish and Lump-sucker. Its appearance is remarkably grotesque. | The ventral unite with the pectoral fins, and form a single disk. Some of the family have two disks, one formed by the pectorals, the other by the ventrals ; hence these fish have been called Discoboli, (Gr. throw- ers of the piscus, or quoit.) They are now sometimes included with the Blennies. Pennant says that one of the Lump-fishes 576 MALACOPTERYGIfe thrown, into a pail of water, adhered so firmly to the bottom that the pail was lifted by taking hold of the tail of the fish. (25) Echeneida, (Gr. echo, to hold; méus, a ship.) This family is represented by the genus Echeneis, the name referring to the flattened disk of cartilaginous plates, covering the top of the head, and enabling the fish to attach itself to other bodies. The Common Sucker, E. remora, (Lat. delay,) is found throughout the Atlantic Ocean. It has sometimes been taken from the bottom of vessels in the harbor of New York. One species, the Wuite-Taitep Remora, E. albicauda, (Lat. white- tail,) is called the SHarx-suckER, from being frequently found attached to that fish. Sus-Orper Apopes, (Gr. footless.) These are without ventral fius. (26), Anguiliide, (Lat. from anguzila, an eel, or Muraenide, (Gr. muraina, a kind of fish.) 7 This is the Eel family, which have long, snake-like bodies and small scales so imbedded in the soft, slimy skin, as to be scarcely perceptible. ‘The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are united, and the rays so delicate as to be with difficulty enumer- ated. ‘They have been estimated to be as many as three hund- red and twenty, or three hundred and forty. During the season of its activity the eel is a voracious feeder. Conger or Sea Eels, Anguilla conger, (Lat. sea-eel,) or Conger occidentalis, (Lat. western,) are larger than the Common Eels. Yarrell, in his British Fishes, says that “specimens of Conger Eels weighing eighty-six pounds, one hundred and four pounds, and even one hundred and thirty pounds, have been recorded, some of them | measuring more than ten feet long and eighteen inches in cir- cumference.”’ (See fig. on Chart.) | ee “The ancient Romans reared these fish with great care, in consecrated ponds, and they even decorated them. with jewels. Six thousand were served up at one entertainment given to Ca. sar when he entered upon his dictatorship.” The branchial pouches of Eels enable them to crawl and remain some time out of water, and thus they can move from one place to another in search of food, being hardly inferior to any other fish in the power of enduring abstinence from their native element. They are. strongly susceptible of magnetic or galvanic influence. Their eggs are so diminutive as to escape observation, which may have given rise to the notion that these fish are viviparous. BTS, | 7 oe: MALACOPTERYGIle 577 The Erectric Ee, Gymnotus (Gr. gumnos, naked ; nétos, back,) electricus, has no tail fin, and the scales are imperceptible. It is sometimes five or six feet long. By its electric shocks, it knocks down men and horses, and by repeating its discharges is able to kill them. It can be obtained only after its electric power has been ex- hausted by successive shocks. The Indiansof South America drive wild horses into the muddy ponds in which these Eels abound, in order to secure them. ‘I'wo specimens, taken in the waters of the Amazon, have been sent to Professor Henry, of the Smith- sonian Institute. The Gymnotus, (see Chart.) andthe Torpedo are able either to emit or withhold this electric power. (N. B. The Electric Eels are sometimes separated from the Common Eels, and formed into the family Gymnotide.) Suz-Orper LopHosprancuil, ok LopHoprancuia. (Gr. tuft-gills.) The fishes of this sub-order are characterized by having the gills in small tufts along the branchial arches, instead of being comb-like. In this and the following sub-order the internal skeleton is but partly ossified. (27) Syngnathida, (Gr. stn, together; gnathon, jaw.) Pips. FIsHEs. These fishes have the body covered with angular, bony plates, so arranged that the body itself is many sided. The gill-covers are large, but soldered down for the greatest part of their edge, leaving only a small orifice for the discharge of the water which has been respired. The male pipe-fish, Syngnathus, has a pouch: or pocket in which he receives the eggs as they are laid. In this he also carries the young for some time. Some species are without pouches, but have indentations on the abdomen where the eggs are placed. The Sea-Horse, Hippocampus, (Gr. a sea-horse,) has eyes which move independently, and is the only fish known to have a prehensile tail. It is found in the Hudson river from five to six inches in length. When dried this fish curls up and in form resembles a horse. (See fig. on Chart.) The SHort-Nosep Sea-Horse, H. brevirostris, is found on the coasts of Great Britain. It is about five inches long ; some- times it is found coiled up in oyster shells. Sup-Orper Piectoenatui. (Gr. plaited or twisted jaws.) This sub-order is Sui by the interior union of some of the bones of the head. 578 MALACOPTERYGIIe (28) Gymnodontide, (Gr. naked-teeth.) Batioon and GLose- FISHES. : These can scarcely be said to have real teeth; but the jaws are covered with enamel so divided into plates as to answer the purpose of teeth. In the Sea Porcupine, Diodon, (Gr. two teeth,) each jaw has a single piece ; hence the generic name. ‘The form of this fish is somewhat cubical; it has the singular property of pufhing itself up into a globular ball, (Plate XIV. fig. 7,) and in this shape floating on the surface. The length varies in different species, from two to seven inches. In the Puffer or Balloon- fish, Tetraodon, (Gr. four teeth,) the suture in the middle of each jaw gives it the appearance of four teeth. Like the Diodon it can inflate and contract itself at pleasure. When it inflates itself the formidable spines with which the body is covered, be- come erected. Its flesh is unwholesome if not poisonous. The Puffer can bite severely, and can emit water in self-defence; its spines are also an effectual guard, but the most curious thing about it is that when handled, it emits a beautiful red excretion, which stains ivory and paper a permanent carmine red. The small Giose Fis, Acanthosoma (Gr. spiny body) cari- natum, (Lat. ridged,) is armed with spines and susceptible of in- flation, (Plate XIV. fig. 6.) It is quite small, being only one inch in length. The color is of olive brown above, silvery be- neath. The Grose Fisu, T. /evigatus, (Lat. smoothed or pol- ished,) is from one to two feet in length. The Common Puffer, T. turgidus, (Lat. swollen,) is from six to twelve inches long. A species of electrical Globe-fish, T. dineatus, is found in the Nile. The Sun Fisu, or Moon Fisu, Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucking pig.) appears as if the fins were set in or near the head, and the tail abruptly cut off, so that its aspect is most singular. The Sun-fishes are without spines, and have not the power of infla-- tion. A species found on the coast of France weighs over three hundred pounds. Balistide, (Gr. from balista, a military engine resembling 4 stringed bow.) FiLe-FIsHEs. : These are fishes of a less grotesque appearance than the Dio- dons and Tetraodons, found most largely in the still waters of tropical seas. The body is compressed and has a lengthened conical or pyramidal snout, ending in a small mouth having dis- tinet teeth in both jaws. The skin is roughened with scaly gran- — ulations or prickles: in the typical forms there are two dorsal fins; in others, the front dorsal fin is sometimes represented by a single spine. The ventral fins are often wanting or else indis- (et oA eee te TO AS SRA TT ee nan ween ee GANOIDS PLACOIDS. Fig. ae ‘Fig. Fig. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. . Crenoips, (Toothed scales.) . 1. Perch; a, anal fin; b, ventral fin; c¢, Se fin; d, dorsal fin; d2, second dorsal fin; e, pectoral fin, . 2. Three-spined Stickleback. . 8. Flying-fish ; a, long wing-like pectoral fins. . 4, Archer-fish, with a mouth fitted for shooting insects. CycLorps, (Round scales.) . 5. Plaice, showing the eyes both placed on one > side, as is usual in the Flat-fishes. ” . 6. Short Head-fish. . . 7. Porcupine or Balloon-fish. . 8. Bull-pout, or Cat-fish ; a, barbels or cirri. Ganorps, (Enameled scales. ) ta Buffalo Bony Pike, or Gar fish; a, long narrow jaws, covered on the inside with rasp-like ale a row borders the edge, of bony pointed ‘ones: PLacolDs, ee 10. Spiny Dog-fish ; a, branchial openings on each side, in the place of gills for breathing; b, the heterocercal tail, as in all Sharks and Sturgeons; the back bone runs to a point above the tail, which ‘is placed below like a triangular rudder. 11. Ray; body flattened out like a dish; tail longand slender, with the dorsal fins upon it; pectoral fins large, uniting with the snout in front. 12. Amphioxus, or Lancelet, the lowest form of Vertebrates. 18. Torpedo, or Numb-fish. 582 MALACOPTERYGI Ile tinct. One of the dorsal fins is fronted with a strong bony spine. The bones or rays of this fin are so contrived as to act in concert for suddenly elevating it at the pleasure of the fish. It isa singular fact that if the foremost or largest ray be pressed ever so hard, it will not stir; and yet if the last or least ray be pressed very slightly, the other two immediately fall down with it, just as a ¢ross-bow is let off by pulling down the trigger. To this peculiarity there is a reference in the name of the typical genus Balisies. The fishes of this genus are cov- ered with large and hard rhomboidal scales. The Dusky Bat- astes, B. fuliginosus, (Lat. dusky.) twelve inches long, is found ‘off the coast of the United States, The Massacnusetts Fite- FIsH, Monocanthus, (Gr. asingle spine,) has very small scales,.and a single large spine in place of the first dorsal fin. Its length is from three to five inches. The Lone-TarLtEpD UNICORN-FISH, Aluteres cuspicauda, (Lat. pointed or spear-tailed,) has the skin covered with small and almost invisible granules. Length from six to nine inches. . (30) Ostracionide, (Gr. ostrakion, a shell or covering.) Trunk FIsHEes. | é These are a group of singular fishes, found principally in the American and Indian seas. They are enveloped in a bony crest or covering, so united as to form an inflexible shield, leav- ing only the tail, fins, mouth, and a small part of the gill-open- ings capable of motion, passing through openings in the Arma- -dillo-like shield. There are no ventral fins, and but one dorsal. These fish have little flesh, but a large liver, abounding in oil. The surface, in some species, is armed with spines. There is but . one North American genus, Laciophrys. The species.L. cameli- nus, (came]-like,) has the back elevated into a spine, and is three and a half inches in length. GANOIDS. These are characterised by having the scales bony, and covered, externally, with enamel, generally angular and contin- uous. Most of them are extinct species. ee (31) Sauride. This name has been employed by Agassiz to designate the fishes of this group, which also comprises the Polypterus, (Gr. polus, much or many ; pteron, fin,) of the Nile. This latter (fresh-water) fish is usually about eighteen inches in length, and partakes both of the osseous and cartilaginous kinds; . but is thought by some to be “most nearly allied to those species of the genus Esox, which are furnisked with large, long, and bony scales.”” Its color is sea-green. It is called by the Egyp- CHONDROPTERYGII- 583 tians, Bichir, and is said to be one the best of the Nilotic fishes for the table. The back has a long row of finlets. (See Chart.) The ALLIGATOR-Gar, Lepidosteus, (Gr. depis, scale; osteon, bone.) is confinedto North America. ‘The scales are smooth and of adamantine pan Sh the upper jaws consist of many pieces. (Plate XIV. fig. 9.) 0 The Burrato Bony Pixs, L. bison, is sometimes three feet in length. The Fuat-nosep Bony Pixs, L. platyrhynchus, (Gr. broad- snout,) is two feet in length, and found in Florida and the West- ern rivers. Puacoips. (Gr. wiaé, plax, a plate or tablet.) Plate-like scales. Cartitacinous FisHes. CuonproptTeryall, (Gr. cartilage- winged or finned.) The skeleton in these fishes is not entirely destitute of calca- reous matter, but this is arranged in separate grains, and does not form fibres or plates. The gelatinous substance, which in other fishes, fills the intervals of the vertebra, and communicates from one to other by a small hole, forms in several genera of this division, a continuous cord, which perforates them all. First Orver. Exevrueropomi, (Gr. ededdegos, eleutheros, free ; TWUC,, POMa, cover. ) The fishes of this order have pectinated or comb-like gills, which are free, as in ordinary fishes, with one large external opening on each side, furnished with a strong operculum or cover; they are without rays; the upper jaw, formed by the palatial bone, is firmly united to the maxillary; the intermaxil- lary bone is rudimentary. (82) Chimeride, (Gr. chimaira, fabulous monster,) Sega- MowsTERs. These are so called from the fantastic shape of the head, which has a singular hoe-shaped appendage, tipped with spines upon the snout. “The second dorsal fin extends to the tip of the tail, which is drawn out into a long slender filament. The eggs are large, coriaceous, and have flattened hairy margins; these are esteemed by the Norwegians, who use them mixed up with their pastry. The only species of the genus Chimera, viz: C. monstrosa, is abundant in the Arctic seas. (See Chart.) (33) Sturiontide. The Sturcrons. These fishes have the body covered by hard bony tubercles or bes) og aa CHONDROPTERYGII. plates. The mouth, situated beneath the head, is small and toothless; it is placed on a sort of foot of three joints, by means of which it can be protruded and retracted at pleasure. On its under surface, as in most cartilaginous fishes, are several cirri, beard or worm-like appendages, which hang down in front. It is so much like India-rubber, that boys put pieces of it in their balls, to make them bound. The body is long and tapering, ending in a tail unequally forked, the upper lobe being consid- ‘erably the longer. Sturgeons live on small fishes and worms. They grow to a great size, many of them measuring more than twenty feet long, and some weighing more than two thousand pounds. The roe is remarkable for its quantity of eggs, con- ‘taining sometimes one hundred and fifty millions, and weighing one-fourth of the whole fish. It in fact constitutes its chief value, as from it cavéar,—so much prized, is furnished. For preparing it, the roes, taken out and placed in tubs, are cleansed with water; the fibrous parts, by which the eggs are connected, being “removed, the spawn is rinsed in white wine or vinegar, and spread to dry. It is then put into a vessel and salted, being crushed down at the same time with the hands, and afterwards inclosed in linen bags to drain off the moisture. Lastly, it is packed in tubs, pierced in the bottom, that any remaining moist- ure may yet drain off, and closed down for domestic use or ex- portation. Sometimes it is said to be preserved, after having been salted and seasoned, by being rolled up into large balls, and immersed in vessels of oil ;‘or the rolls are inclosed in wax, so that the air may be more effectually excluded. (Gosse.) The flesh of the Sturgeon is another article of considerable com- merce. It is smoked or broiled in slices, and pickled, and in this form exported. So fat and unpalatable, (as some regard it.) ‘it was deemed by the ancient Romans one of the most sump- tuous dishes; and at all “great dinner-parties, this fish was ‘always carried by servants decked with garlands and flowers, and attended by a band of musicians. On the Hudson River, it ‘is called “Albany Beef,” from its frequent exposure in the markets of that city. The swimming bladder of the Sturgeon is also profitable. If cut open and washed, and its silvery glutinous skin be exposed for some hours to the heat of the sun, and sepa- rated from the external skin, it furnishes the best isinglass, the value and uses of which are well known. They migrate during the early summer months, deposit their spawn, and return again to the sea. ‘Those of North America are almost fresh-water fish. _ The chief species are the Common Sturceon, Acipenser, (Lat. ‘a sturgeon,) sturio, of the seas and rivers of Europe; the Bz- CHONDROPTERYGII- 585 tuca or Istncuass Sturceon, A. huso, of the Caspian Sea, probably the largest species, sometimes weighing, it is said, three thousand pounds, and from which the caviar of commerce is made in great quantities; the Srertet, A. ruthenus, of the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas, which is said to yield caviar of a very superior sort; the Lake Sturcson, A. rubicun- dus, (Lat. ruddy,) four feet long, of a yellowish red on ‘the back, and olivaceous red on the sides, found in Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the upper lakes; the Sharp-nosed Sturgeon, A. oxyrhincus, (Gr. sharp-nosed,) seven feet long, and found in the rivers of the United States. A species of the genus Scaphirhyn- cus, (Gr. boat-nosed,) viz: the SHovet-risu, S. platyrhynchus, (Gr. broad-nosed,) is found in the Mississippi river. Of the genus Po/yodon, (Gr. many toothed;) is the Spoon-bill, 2. folium, (Lat. aleaf,) (previously referred to,) and also an inhabitant of the Mississippi. ‘This fish has an enormous gill-cover, with a large branchial aperture, nearly like that of the generality of fishes; and it is also furnished with an air-bladder: hence, though placed next to the Sharks, Swainson appears to doubt the propriety of such a position of it. It has a snout greatly ex- tended, much dilated, and, together with the head, nearly as long as the body ; the tail is highly heterocercal, and the skin entirely naked. Seconp Orper. Puaciostoma. (Gr. wié&yios, plagios, trans- verse ; ot6uo, stoma, mouth.) Gills not free. The fishes of this order have a cartilaginous cranium, in which the parts are not separately discernible. The cartilaginous, teeth-bearing jaws are attached to the skull, also by cartilages. The gills are fixed by their external edges, with five small ex. ternal openings on each side. The face is prolonged in front ; and on its under side is situated the broad transverse mouth ; the ventrals and pectorals, soft and fleshy, like the other fins, are always present; the pectorals, in the male, having long append- ages on their internal margins. The covering of these fishes , consists of shagreen, or of plates variously modified. The swimming-bladder is wanting; the teeth are placed on the roof of the mouth and the lower jaw. The order includes two fami- lies, Sgualide, (Sharks,) and Razide, (Rays.) (34) Squalide, (Lat. squa/us, a kind of sea-fish.) The Suarks. This dreaded family of fishes are distinguished by having the branchial openings lateral, the eye-lids free, the pectoral fins distinct from the head, the body slender, and somewhat spindle. 5686 CHONDROPTERYGII. -shaped. The mouth is generally placed far beneath the end of the nose; and the upper part of the tail is longer than the lower. These fish are generally of a large size, sometimes almost gigantic. They are carnivorous, and very voracious. Some of them are universally dreaded on account of their ferocity, their appetite for human flesh, their strength, and the formidable array of teeth with which their mouth is furnished. ‘These are triangular, finely serrated, and exceedingly sharp, lying quite flat in the mouth ; but when seizing their prey, are raised by the action of muscles by which they are joined to the jaw. To this, and the singular method in which these formidable creatures are continued, we referred, however, in the general description of the Fishes. The most useful part of these fishes is the liver, from which oil is obtained ; a Shark twenty feet in length, yield- ing about two barrels. The rough skin is used for polishing ivory and wood, and for making thongs, &c., for carriages; con- verted into shagreen, it serves for covering small cases and boxes. The flesh is not eatable, being coarse, and of a disagree- able flavor. The Waite Snark, Carcharias, (Gr. marine-dog,) vulgaris or Squalus Carcharias, found in tropical seas, has been known to cut a man’s body in twain at a single snap; and it is stated that human bodies have been found entire in the stomachs of these terrible monsters. It is suggested, that their insatiate voracity may result from the great quantity of gastric juice with which they are supplied, causing them to digest with great rapidity, and from the tape and other worms which abound in their intes- tines. Their sense of smeil is acute, so that they discover their victims at a distance; and they follow in the wake of ships for the purpose of devouring whatever may be thrown or fall from them into the sea.’ The White Shark is said to measure, scme- times, thirty feet in length, and to exceed one thousand pounds in weight. The Turesner Suark, Carcharias vulpes, has the upper part of the tail nearly as long as the body, or even longer. ‘The tail is its principal organ of defence; it literaily threshes its enemies, Sometimes it is called the Fox-Shark, and the SwINGLe-TAIL, This species, which is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, is: found on the coasts of North America as far North as Nova Scotia. The Smart Brive Saark, C. obscurus, from two to six feet in length, is frequently taken on our coast. ; The Macxeret Porseacie or Mackeret Suark, Lamna, (Gr. a plate,) punctata, has a pyramidal snout, with the nostrils a. CHONDROPTERYGII. 587 under the base, and the gill-openings all in front of the pectorals; there are no pectoral orifices. Its general color is a dark slate. The oil of its liver is much esteemed by curriers. The length is from four to ten feet. The surface under the lens, exhibits numerous minute plates; to this its generic name has reference. The Hounp-risu, Mustelus canis, has blunt teeth, forming a closely compacted pavement in each jaw, with temporal orifices. The lower lobe of the tail-fin is short. Its length is from two to four feet. _ The Basxine Suarx, Selachus maximus, has the gill-openings _all before the pectorals, long, and nearly surrounding the neck; it has no air-holes behind the eyes; the teeth are small, of vari- ous forms, but generally conical. This species is over thirty -feet.in length. It is said its liver will yield eight. barrels of oil. It has the popular name of Basking Shark, from its habit of con- tinuing for some time in one place. It is sluggish, inactive, and less fierce than the other species, and inhabits the Northern seas, but is.occasionally seen off our coast. The Smauzu Spotrep Dog-risu, Scyliium canicula, has a prom- inent and slightly pointed jaw, with the nostrils pierced near the mouth, and a cylindrical shaped body. It keeps near the bottom of the water, and feeds on fish and small crustaceans. This, and the larger Dog-fish, Scy//ium catulus, are found on the British and French coasts. The larger species is three or four feet in length, and does much damage to the fisheries on account of its voracious habits. In Scotland, these fish are said to form no Inconsiderable part of the food of the poor. The species S. ca- tulus, is sometimes called the Rock-Shark. This, or a similar species, is found on the coast of the United States. The Spiny Doe-Fisu, Spinax acanthias, (Storer,) is easily recognized by the spiracles or air-holes which are placed, one on each side of the temple, just behind the eye. It has a sharp, strong spine in front of each of the two dorsal fins. (See Plate youl V5 ” fiz. 10.) Its teeth are in several rows, small and cutting. The color is slate; the length from one to three feet. This species is very numerous about Cape Cod, where they are much sought for the oil which they furnish. Of the immense numbers of them found in tropical seas, some idea may be formed from the fact, that in the single harbor of Kingston, (Jamaica,) from one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand are destroyed | annually. Twenty thousand, it is said, have been taken in a seine at one time. _., The Ance-Fisu, Squatina ange/us, seems, in its form, to unite together the Sharks and the Rays. Swainson includes it with 588 CHONDROPTERYGIIe the Rays, remarking that this and the species S."Dumeriii, found on the American coast, have the two dorsals and the caudal fin in shape and situation the same as what is seen in the Torpedoes, The length of the American species is from three to four feet. It is said to have acquired the name of Angel-fish from its ex- tended pectoral fins having the appearance of wings; and it is called Monx-FisH, because its rounded head appears as if envel- oped in a hood. The Saw-risp, Pristis, (Gr. pristis, a saw.) has the body flattened in front, with the gill-openings beneath, as in the Rays; but they are chiefly distinguished by a very long snout, which is in form like the blade of a two-edged sword, and armed on each sidé with pointed bony spines. This saw-like weapon, the fish often buries in the flesh of the whale and other marine animals. The Saw-fish is sometimes included with the Rays. (35) Raiide, the Rays. ‘These are a family of fishes which have the body flattened as in the Saw-fish, and the pectorals greatly enlarged, as in the An- gel-fish, both which, in their structure, seem to approach the pres- ent group. In the Rays, the pectorals are very broad and continuous with the head, sometimes stretching out in front of it in the form of Jobes, so that these fishes present an appear- ance disk-like, or more or less rhomboidal, the snout forming one corner, and the projecting fail another; the other two corners being the angles of the pectoral fins; the ventrals, in the males, have appendages like those of the Sharks; the dorsal fins, two, sometimes three in number, are small, and placed far back on the slender tail. The eyes areon the upper surface, as are also the temporal spiracles ; the mouth, the nostrils, and the gill-open- ings are placed in the under surface, and thus concealed from view. The mouth is small and set with numerous teeth, which are placed in close array, like paving stones. As in many of the Sharks, the eyes have a nictitating membrane or skin which can be drawn over the eye at pleasure, and serves as an eye-lid. The young of the Rays are enveloped at birth in capsules of a thin horny or leathery substance to which filaments are attached. The prolongations of the angles of the envelope give it some re- semblance in shape to a hand-barrow. But the most distinguish. ing peculiarity of the Rays is their barbs or prickles, varying in lensth, according to the size of the fish, by which they are able to tear the flesh and inflict severe wounds. These fishes are sitictly ground feeders, groyeling along on the soft muddy bot- tom, and moving with a peculiar undulating action of the ee ral fins. CHONDROPTERYGII. 589 Some of the species of the tropical seas grow to a great size and are proportionally ferocious. The Rays Proper, Raia, include several species, some of which are found on our coast, such as the CLear-Nosep Ray, R. Diaphanes, (Gr. clear,) from one to three feet long, caught with cod-fish, and sometimes eaten; the Prickty Ray, A. Amer- icana, from one to two feet long, (Plate XIV. fig. 11;) the Spor- TeD Ray, A. ocellata. When captured, this species whips its tail about with great activity, and hence has the name of Whip Ray; the Hepee-Hoe Ray, R. erinaceus, length about eighteen inches; the Prickiy-Stine Ray, Pastinaca, (Lat. sting-ray,) hastata, (Liat. from hasta, a spear,) having two or more spines or barbs in the tail, which is longer than the body; the whole length is from five to eight feet; this species is numbered among the edible rays; the SmootH $xaTe, Raza levis, in length from two to four feet; the THornpacx, R. Clavata, (Lat. knotted or thorned,) has large and numerous spinous tubercles. _ The Hace Rays, Cephaloptera, (Gr. head wings,) often grow to an enormous size, specimens having been seen twenty-five feet in length and thirty in breadth. One was taken at Barba- does a few years ago, which weighed thirty-five hundred pounds and required seven pair of oxen to draw it on shore! (Kirby.) The Eagle Rays are nearly or quite as dangerous to man as the Sharks. They are known to fishermen under the name of “Devil Fish.” The species C. vampirus, the Oceanic VAMPIRE, is from sixteen to eighteen feet in length. It is very powerful, sometimes seizing the cables of small vessels at anchor, and drawing the vessel for several miles, with great velocity. Pass- ing by some other divisions, we must refer to the ‘Evectric Rays, or Torreposs, Torpedinida, fishes which have long been celebrated for their electrical powers, while their shape is so singular that they look more like gigantic tadpoles than fish, (Plate XIV. fig. 13.) The head is entirely surrounded by the pectoral fins, which give to it in some species, a completely circular appearance; the tail is thick, fleshy, and only moder. ately long, terminated by a distinct, large, and triangular fin. The electrical organs constitute a pair of galvanic batteries, arranged in the form of perpendicular hexagonal columns, placed on each side of the head and gills, the small cells being filled with mucus. ‘These fishes are less powerfully electrical than the Gymnotus, but can benumb the arm of a person touch- ing one of them, 590 CHONDROPTERYGII. Tuirp Orper. Cyciostomi, (Gr. xt«Aos, kuklos, a circle; otduc, stoma, a mouth.) The fishes of this order have already been referred to as hav- ing sac or purse-shaped gills. These are fixed and open out- _ wards by several apertures. The mouth consists of a circular fleshy lip, with a cartilaginous ring supporting it; this peculiarity gives name to the order. , (36) Petromyzonida, (Gr. stone-suckers.) These have length- ened, cylindrical, eel or worm-shaped bodies, destitute, both of pectoral and ventral fins, but having foldings of skin above and below, serving the purpose of dorsal, caudal and anal fins, though without any supporting rays. The Sea Lamprey, Petromyzon Americanus. In making its furrow, preparatory to spawning, it uses its sucker-like mouth; with it separately removing stones of large size, and thus quickly constructing a large furrow. It is from two to three feet in length. The Mup Lampreys, Ammocetes, (Gr. sand-bedded,) include several species which differ from the true Lampreys chiefly in the form of the mouth, which is not suctorial, but composed by the projecting upper lip, the lower one being transverse. These fish are found in large numbers, in sand or mud flats. They are from three to four inches in length, varying in thick- ness “from that of an earth worm to that of.a swan’s quill.” They are dug up from a depth of four or five inches below the level of the water, and used as bait for fishes. The Myxtinorps or Glutinous Hags, Myxynoidet, approach the lowest form of the Vertebrates, and by Linneeus and other writ- ers, are classed with the Worms. ‘These curious animals are eel-shaped, and measure, when full grown, about a foot and a half. The head is scarcely distinguishable from the body, and is obliquely truneated in front, ending in a large round mouth, the frame-work of which is a membranous, maxillary ring, fur- nished above with a single tooth. The tongue has in each end two rows of strong teeth. The Hag has no eyes; the branchial openings are two in number; the skin is covered «with slime, furnished from a row of pores on each side of the belly. An obscure fin runs along the hinder portion of the back; and is continued round the compressed tail. The color is of a dark bluish-brown above, and whitish beneath. The Hac or Borer, M. glutinosa, is found in the northern seas of Europe. It does mischief by entering the mouths of fishes caught in the lines of the fishermen and eating up all the fleshy parts of their bodies, leaving only the skin and bones. The name Borer is given to it, because, as is said, it pierces a ' CHONDROPTERYGII. 59] small aperture, and thus makes its way into the body of Cod, or other fishes which it attacks. (See general account of Fishes. ) FourtH Orper. Brancuiostoma, (Gr. branchia, gills ; stoma, mouth. ) The term here used to designate an order, is sometimes em- ployed as generic, and the name Amphiozide, (37,) given to the family of which it constitutes the sole genus. Miller, (see his classification,) ranks it in the sub-order PHarRYNGOBRANCHH, (Gr. throat-gills,)a name referring to the position of the branchial sac. This extraordinary animal, at an early period thought to be a mollusk, was first discovered on the British coast, during the latter part of the last century. Miiller is no doubt correct in saying, “it is evidently a vertebrated animal and a fish,” though it has more the aspect of a worm than a fish. Yarrel in his “History of British Fishes,” calls it the Lanc&Let, Am- phiorus lanceolatus, (Plate XIV. fig. 12.) It has a naked skin and no fin except the dorsal, which extends over the entire length of the back. The mouth is entirely inferior, elongated or circu- lar, the margins having a row of filaments. The vertebree are reduced toa single, cartilaginous column or thread, flexible, transparent, and scarcely to be distinguished from the horny pen enveloped in the flesh of some of the Cut- tle-fish. There is no trace of a brain, and the heart “ presents entirely the form and distribution of blood vessels and extends over wide spaces,” characters of themselves sufficient to distin- guish the Branchiostoma from all other fishes. ‘The blood is white. Miller considers it connected with the Cyclostomatous fishes through its dorsal chord and the absence of j jaws ; but as inferior to them in not having a distinct brain and in the pecu- liarities of its respiratory system. The Lancelet is only about two inches in length, and lives in sandy ground at a depth of be. tween ten and twenty fathoms of water. It probably buries itself in the sand. Other curious particulars could be given relating to this lowest of the Vertebrates, did our limits permit, but here we close our account of the Fishes and of the sub-king- dom VERTEBRATES, to which they belong. It is difficult to state with accuracy the number of species be- longing respectively to the several families of Fishes, as new researches, made from time to time, vary the assigned numbers. The following tabular view is given, however, as an approxima. tion to a true account: 592 CHONDROPTERYGII. 1 Percide, 600 species. | 19 Fistularide, 20 species. 2 Triglide, 260" "4 20 Salmonide, 132%.5.%4 3 Scienide, BAO ier 21 Clupide, 180 $ 4 Sparide, 240 “* 22 Gadide, Tier 5 Maenide, GL 2 of 23 Pleuronectide, baw 6 Chaetodontide, Ibo. 24 Cyclopteride, 40 « 7 Anabasside, RS 25 Echeneide, 20 8 Scomberide, 400 ‘“ 26 Anguillide, gH es ggg 9 Cepolide, : 34 CSS 27 Syngnathide, 169 79-% 10 Teuthide, 30 5 28 Gymnodontide. 100°" 1% 11 Atherinide, 50:-:.f¢ 29 Balistide, - IQA jes 12 Mugilide, BG4.% 30 Ostracionide, Ae, 8 13 Gobide, 400 “ 31 Sauride, 14 Lophide, oy. 32 Chimeride, 15 Labride, ~ 5OO * 33 Sturionide, 94 «8 16 Siluride, 400 ‘“ 84 Squalide, 114. « 17 Cyprinide, 723 85. Raiide, 130.“ 18 Esocide, =p Pa 115 Sli 36 Petromyzontide, 37 Amphioxide, What is the 1st OrprR of Ossrous or Bony Fisnes? What other name has it? How is it characterized? What is the number of the Percn Fam- ily? Are they marine or fresh water fish? Which is the typical species? What other sp. closely resemble it? What is said of the Striped Bass? Which are among the most remarkable fishes of this group? What issaid of them. In what respects are all the perches alike? How are the GuRNarRps characterized? Whence is the name derived? . What did Cuy. call them? What sp. are mentioned? What two remarkable fish are found in this family ? State what is said of them. What is the 3d Famity? What is said of them? What of the 4th and 5th Families? Why are the CHAarropons so called? » What does Cuv. name them? Why? What is peculiar in the Archers? What gen. includes the Cuimpinc Percurs? What is said of them? What is the next Family? What is said of their numbers? What is said of the Tunny, Bonito, and Sword-fish? Name the other sp. What is said of the Bottle-headed Dolphin? Which is the 9th Fammy? Why are they called Ribbon-fishes? What fact shows the name to be ap- propriate? What sp. is found on our coast? What is the next Family? What fishes do they resemble? What is said of the Doctor-fish? What of the Surgeon-fish? What is the ilth Famity? State what is said of it. Name the next Family. Repeat what is said of them. In what respect are the Blennies and Gobies alike? What other characters are given? State what is said of the sp. referred to. How are the Lopuipz distin- guished? What singular looking fishes does this family include? What is said of the Antennarius? Why are the Labride so named? . What two sections do they include? What is said of the Wrasses or Rock-fishes? What sp. are mentioned? Name the 2d Orper of Fisnes. What is said of their organization? How distinguished from the preceding order? Why is it esteemed impor- tant? What Sus-Orper is first mentioned? How characterized? What is the 16th Famity? What fishes represent it? What is said of the Horn- pouts? Of the Sheat-fish or Sly-Silure? What is peculiar tothe S. electri- cus? What is said of the gen. pimelodus? What large sp. is referred to? What remarkable S. American sp. is mentioned? What is said of the CHONDROPTERYGII. 593 Buinp-FisHes? What is the 17th Famity? How numerous are they? Are they found in Tropical waters? What is said of their teeth? Where is the sp. Cyprinus car pio particularly abundant? Who first introduced it into American waters? What is said of the Gold-fish, the Gudgeon, and the Slimy Tench? What fish furnishes the silvery ee for artificial pearls? Name other fishes of this family. What remarkable sp. are found in Austria and Brazil? How are the Pires characterized? What does Lacepede call them? What is the only: European sp. and what is said of it? Are the American sp. numerous ? How are they divided? What sp. are mentioned? Whatis said of the Bitt-riso? What of the FLyinc-risa or Hxocetus? What family includes the Pipe and Trumpet fishes? What -is said of them? Which is the 20th Family? How are they character- ized? How regarded by anglers? What is said of their color? Which is the most conspicuous sp.? What is said of the Broox Trout? ‘What ‘of their numbers in former times? What is the 21st Famity? How are they esteemed? What is said of their abundance? What of the Her- RING fishery? How are the Red or Smoked Herring prepared? For what are the H. used besides food? What is said of Sarpines? What of SHap, &e.? How are the Sus-BRACHIALS distinguished? Whichis the 22nd Famity? Which is the best known sp.? Which is common on the U.S. coast? What is said of it? What other sp. are PERN Daa Which is the next Famity? In what respect do they stand ‘alone among vertebrates? Describe them. How does DeKay designate the Fuat-riso? How the FiounpeR? What sp. of Turbot are mentioned? _What is said of the Hatisut? What is the 24th Famiry? How are ‘they characterized ? Why called Suckers? What genera represent them? What is said of the Lump-sucker? What does Pennant state? What is the next Family ? What gen. represents it? To what does the name refer? What sp. are mentioned? What is said of them? What is the next Sus-orper? Name the 26th Family? How are they characterized? What is said of thenum- ber of fin rays? Which sp. are the larger? What does Yarrell say? What enables these fish to remain out of water? What is said of their eggs? Repeat what is said of the Electric Eel? What is the next Sun- ORDER? How is it characterized? What is the 27th Famitv? Give their general characters? What is remarkable in the male Prer-risa? What in the Sra-Horse? What is the next Sup-orper? How distinguished? What is the 28th Famity? Have they real teeth? What have they instead ? What is said of the Sea Porcupine? What of the Puffer, or Balloon-fish ? What of the small Globe-fish? What other Globe-fishes are named? What is said of the Sun-fish? Mention the next Family? What is said of it? What is said of the Trunk-fishes? How are the Ganorps characterized ? What is the 81st Family? What is said of the Polypterus of the Nile? What other sp. of this family are mentioned ? What is said of the Pracoins or Cartinagtnous Fisnes? Name the Ist OrpER? How is it characterized? What is the 82d Family? What is said of it? What is the next Family? What is said of their covering? What of their mouth and body? Of their size? In what respect is the roe remarkable? What valued food does it furnish? How is it prepared ? 594 CHONDROPTERYGII. From what part of the Sturgeon is isinglass obtained, and how is it pre- pared? What sp. of Sturgeon are mentioned and what is said of them? What is the 2nd OrpER of CartinaGinous FisHes? How is it character- ized? What is the 34th Famity? What is said of their size, voracity, &c.2? What is said of the White Shark? Of the Thresher 8.2? What other sp. are mentioned? What is said of the Spiny Dog-fish and the Spotted Dog-fish? Of the Angel-fish and Saw-fish? What is the 35th Famity? Give their characters? What sp. of Rays Proper are mentioned? What is said of the Eacte Rays? Of the Electric Ray ? What is the 3d OrveEr of Carrinacinous Fisnes? What peculiarity gives name to the order? What is the 36th Famity? What is said of this Famitry? What of the Sea Lamprey? What of the Mud Lamprey? Of the Myxinoids or Glutinous Hags? What is the 4th OrprEr of CartTiLacinous Fishes? How is the term sometimes employed? What Family does it include? How does Miller rank it? What is it called by Yarrell? Describe this fish. Name and trace from the Chart some of the largest fish, giving a sketch of each from the book. Which is the largest of the Mackerel Family? Which next? Which is the largest of the Flat-fishes? In what do they differ from all other fish? Which of the Placoids is the largest? How do the caudal fins of this order differ from those of other orders? What fam- — ilies present the most singular forms? Which are nearly round? Which long and slender? Which three or four sided? Describe the Sun-fish and Chimera from the Chart. Which fish crawl upon land or climb trees, and in what orders are they found Coleoptera INSECTS. . i : Strepsiptera. é E me y _ Saltatoria.- Trichoptera. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XY. INSECTS WITH BITING JAWS. Fig. 1. Larva of a beetle, usually consisting of thirteen segments; a, the head; b, the three segments of the thorax, to which thelegsand wings are attached; c, the nine segments of the abdomen. Fig. 2. The Lady-bird or Lady-bug, Coccinella septempunctata; a, pupa with the outer case, b, larva; c, pupa; d, complete insect. Fig. 8. Wasp-fly, Stylops. Fig. 4. Harwig, Forficuia ; a, the large posterior wings; b, anal forceps; c, the antennz with fourteen joints. Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, belong to the four sections of the Order Orthoptera. Fig. 5. Cockroach, Blatia orientalis. Fig. 6. Walking-leaf Insect, Phylliwm siccifolium ; a, foliaceous expansions upon the feet; b, the true wings, far exceeding in size the wing covers. Fig. 7. Praying Mantis, Maftis religiosa, named from the attitude they as- sume while waiting to grasp their prey with their raptorial feet, a. Fig. 8. Walking-stick, Walking-beetle or Spectre, Spectrum femoratum, without wings or wing covers, can scarcely be distinguished from the branch on which they rest. p Fig. 9. Katydid, Platyphyllum concavum; a, the curved ovipositor, about one-fourth of an inch long. Fig. 10. Caddis-fly, Phryganea; a, front wings, fibrous with branching nerves; the hind wings are largest, but folded when at rest. Fig. 11. Dragon-fly or Darning-needle, Libellula; the compound eyes, nearly cover the entire head, and contain about 12,000 lenses. Fig. 12. Hornet, Vespa crabro; a, antenne; b, head; c, thorax; d, abdo- men; 1, the coxa or hip joined to the body; 2, trochanter, or second joint of the leg; 3, femur or thigh; 4, tibia or shank; 5, tarsus, com- posed of five or less joints, and terminated by two hooked claws. WITH MOUTHS FOR SUCKING, PUMPING, OR PIERCING. Fig. 13. Cabbage Butterfly, Pontia brassica ; a, the knob at the end of the antenne, distinguishing butterflies from moths or millers, whose anten- . hee are feathery or saw-like; b, anterior wings; c, posterior wings. Fig. 14. Cochineal Insect, Coccus cacti ; a, the male, with red body, white wings and two setz or bristles c, at the apex of the abdomen; b, the female, without wings, having shorter antenna, and a beak of which the male is destitute. Fig. 15. Blow or Blue-bottle Fly, Musca vomitoria; a, the only pair of\ wings, which are transparent and without scales or dust. There are no wing covers, as the lower wings are reduced to two small knobbed threads, called haJterers or poisers. Fig. 16a. Flea, Pulex irritans; b, Jigger or Chigoe, P. penetrans, feet long, bristly, and adapted for leaping. Fig. 17a. Louse, Pediculus ; b, Lepisma. Fig. 18a. Thousand-legged Worm or Millipede, Julus terrestris, has usually two pair of feet to each segment, each foot ending ina claw. The feet in different sp. vary from 12 to 800 pair. b, Brush-tailed Centi- pede. Fig. 19a. Scorpion, Scorpio afer; the extended tail-like abdomen ending with the sting; b, Spider, Arachnida; no distinct head, eyes from two to eight, neither wings, antenn®, or upper lip; c, Tick Jxodes, SECOND SUB-KINGDOM. ARTICULATES. (Lat. articulus, a joint.) SECTION I. In leaving the Vertebrated Animals, we, in the descending scale, first come tothe class of ArticuLaTEs, (articulata.) These rank first among the INVERTEBRATED Group, or those animals that are destitute of a back bone. They are so named because the different pafts of their body are composed of movable pieces articulated or jointed to each other. ‘They deviate from the Molluscous animals in generally possessing a skeleton; but the skeleton, unlike that of the Vertebrates, is exterior instead of interior, being composed of a series of rings, protecting the in- ternal parts, and serving as points of attachment for muscles... Though exhibiting considerable diversity of character among themselves, the Articulates are usually provided with a skin, which is either soft, as in the leech and earth-worm, or horny and ecrustaceous, as in the crab and craw-fish. Some families are destitute of feet, but the greater portion possess these mem- bers. When limbs are present, they are never fewer than six. Articulated animals have the trunk of the body, for the most part, long, cylindrical, and divided transversely into segments. In the lowest of the series, where there are no appendages for locomotion, and all the movements are effected by the body itself, as in the common worm,—the segments appear to be per- fectly simple, but, as ascending in the scale, we observe that gradually, the segments develop lateral organs, which are of kinds quite various, according to the character of the animal. In many of the Annelidans, and in the Myriopoda or Centipede ‘tribe, especially, the articulated character of these animals is conspicuous, the segments being numerous, and all of nearly equal size, and each possessing a short pair of legs, which are themselves also jointed. In the Crustaceans and the Arachnida or Spiders,—the divisions are reduced to eight or ten in number; and in the Insects, to six. Where the design is to lighten the ARTICULATES. 599 body, there the segments are reduced in number and size, as in the insects and the crabs; inthe Annelidans, asthe Earth-worms and Lug-worms,,we find the number of segments increased. The animals of this class are active; hence, their skeletons are light and thin. The muscles or organs of motion are at- tached to the interior of the skeleton; but as this is hard and unyielding, it is necessary that it undergo a process of exuvia- tion, which occurs in all the Articulate animals, going on through all the stages of their existence. Phosphate of Lime, which enters into the bones of the vertebrate classes, constitutes also the material out of which the skeletons of a majority of these animals are formed. Considering their size, it may be doubted whether any other animals possess so large an amount of muscu- lar power as the Articulates. The bulk of their bodies is really made up, in great part, by the muscles which move them. Throughout the animal kingdom, the muscular power corres- ponds with the amount of respiratory action, and the development of animal heat; in various forms of the Articulates, this law is remarkably displayed. The strongest resemblance to each other, exhibited by these animals, exists in the nervous system. ‘The brain is extremely small. ‘Two nervous cords, surrounding the zsophagus or gul- let, run along the centre of the lower surface of the animal; these cords are studded, at regular intervals, with knots or ganglia, forming so many centers from which the nerves pass off to the different segments. The head also has its ganglia, in which the cords terminate anteriorly. In cases where the members are not distributed along the entire body, but limited to one part, as in Insects, Arachnidans, and the higher Crustaceans, there is a corresponding concentration of the ganglia in that particular part; indieating by its degree, the elevation of the animal in the series. The organs of sense are very imperfectly developed, and in some instances, entirely wanting, excepting that of sight. No organ of smell has been discovered, unless it be assigned to the antenne. Some naturalists have described organs of hearing in the insects, while others regard the antenne as instru. ments for the exercise of that sense, and: also of feeling. The digestive apparatus is, for the most part, in accordance with the carnivorous habits of the Articulates. Where animal food is eaten, the process of digestion is less complicated than where vegetable food is used. | The lengthened form of these animals impresses its character upon their digestive, and also upon their circulating apparatus. ae 25 | . 600 ARTICULATES. In most of the Articulates, the blood moves forward in one or more large dorsal arterial vessels, from which side branches are given off, terminating in various trunks that convey the blood - backwards to the dorsal vessel. The blood is more highly or-_ ganized, has a deeper color, and contains a larger quantity of corpuscles and fibrin than in either the Radiates or Mollusks. Respiration is accomplished by organs which, in all cases, are perfectly symmetrical in those of this class which, like the Crus- taceans, habitually live in water by means of branchiz or gills ; in others, by means of trachee or air-tubes, which receive air by certain lateral openings, called Stigmata, (Gr. dots or marks.) In rare instances, there exist cellular cavities, analogous to lungs. The ArricuLATES may be arranged into the following classes: I. Insecta, Insects; I]. Myriapopa, Thousand-legged Worms, &c.; III. Aracnnipa, Spiders, &c.; IV. Crustacea, Crabs and Lobsters; V. Cigruopopa, Barnacles; VI. ANnNnewIDA, Anneli- dans or Worms. #(Plates XV. and XVI.) Firta Part. ENntTomotoey. (Gr. EyToue., entoma, an insect; doyos, logos, a discourse. ) First class of Articunates. Insecta, (Lat. from iseco, to cut into.) Insects. The name given to this class refers to the divided structure of the body or trunk of the animals which it includes. This is generally composed of thirteen (sometimes fourteen) sections, of which one forms the head; three the intermediate thorax, and nine the abdomen. The head of a perfect insect has usually three pair of jointed appendages. The first pair are ealled antenne or feelers. ‘They are affixed to the sides of the head for the most part, between the eyes and the mouth, and have from one to sixty joints or articulations. All true insects have six jointed or articulated legs, attached to the thorax, and, usually, two or four wings, situated upon its three rings. (Plate XV. fig. 12.) The abdomen, which is fur- nished with many rings, contains the digestive organs. The breathing process is accomplished by means of spiracles or pores, on the side of each ring, for admitting the air, which is thus made to permeate the whole bedy. Insects have a circulating apparatus, of which the central . orgas, corresponding to the heat or the aorta in the higher orders of animals, is a vessel or tube running beneath the skin of the | back, from which the white and cold blood is distributed in tis- ARTICULATES. 601 sued channels or veins. ‘The corpuscles have forms like those which are found in animals of the superior grades. The ner- vous system consists of a symmetrical arrangement of nervous threads in two lines, situated on the face of the abdomen, and connected by knots or ganglia, at every ring of the body. The mouth of insects, although made up of the same essential parts, has these modified into two principal forms of structure, one of which is adapted to chew, and the other to suck food. The former are named mandibulate, (from Lat. mando, to chew ;) the latter, haustellate, (from Lat. haustellum, a sucker.) In the order Hymenoptera, however, biting mandibles are united with sucking jaws. (Plate XV. fig. 12b.) But the most striking peculiarities of insects relate to the _ehanges or metamorphoses which they undergo during their stages of growth, corresponding, in some degree, with the developments made in other animals, yet differing from them in being station- ary at certain periods. (Plate XV. fig. 2.) By far.the largest part are oviparous. The eggs are generally oval, but they are seen in other forms,—sometimes round and sometimes cylindrical. Some are smooth and shining; others are beautifully sculptured. ‘They vary as to color, but white and green predominate. © The Flesh-Fly, Musca carnaria, is ovoviviparous, the eggs being hatched within the body. The larva state of insects commences when the egg is con- verted into a footless worm, resembling the higher Entozoa, or the inferior Annelidans, in its organization, and continues until the wings begin to appear. ‘The term Jarva, (a mask.) was ori- ginally adopted by Linnzeus, who regarded insects, while under this form, as. masked. It is applicable to the young of all insects. In the Scaly-winged Insects or Butterflies, (Lepidoptera,) and most of the Sheath-winged Insects or Beetles, (Co/eoptera,) the larva, at the time of its escape from the egg, has the rudiments of three pair of legs upon the thorax,—though these are little more than simple claws, except in the Carnivorous Beetles. The soft, white larvee of the Beetles are called Grubs ; those of certain Flies or Two-winged Insects, (Diptera,) are called Maggots ; those of Butterflies, Moths, and Millers are termed Caterpillars. The young of the Hemtrrera, including Bugs, Cicade, Plant- ice, &e.; and of the Orruorrera, including the True Locusts, Crickets, Cockroaches, &c., do not emerge from the shell until they have a close resemblance to the parents in every thing, excepting wings; and they can hardly be regarded as having the characteristics of real Zarve. 602 ARTICULATES. In the larval state, insects eat most voraciously,—indeed, their entire energy seems to center in the eating process. Their growth is great, and often rapid. The comparative weight of that remarkable insect, the Great Moth, Cossus ligniperda, to that of the young one that has just crept out of the egg is, as 72,000 to 1,—an increase of seventy-two thousand times! This insect accupies three years in attaining to its perfect state. The Maggots of Flesh-Flies are said to increase in weight two hun- dred times in twenty-four hours. Caterpillars, in the same time, consume three times their weight of food. ; Larve are subject to moultings, or changes of the skin; the number varying with the species. This moulting is most strik- ingly exhibited in the Silk-worm, Bombyx mori, which casts its outer skin five times in a month. While undergoing this pro-— cess, the larva does not eat, but it absorbs the fat beneath the outer skin, which favors casting it off. The larval state is the one in which insects continue the longest, varying, however, in duration, from hours to months and years. The Caterpillars of several Butterflies and Moths, live in large societies, in habitations or tents, sometimes of a pyramidal form, and which are constructed by their united skill. When the worm has fixed itself in some suitable and secure retreat, the pupa is formed, and encased in the last skin, which, in two winged insects, becomes more rigid; or else a new and beautiful case is made,—a robe of silk, impervious to water, being laboriously woven from.a single thread, which is formed and spun from the juices of the body,—impressively illustrating the instinctive power of the insect as related to its successive developments. The name of the third state, pupa, (child or doll,) refers to the swathed appearance of most insects during its continuance, it resembling, in miniature, a child trussed up in swaddling clothes. . This state has two modifications. (1) That of those which, in general form, resemble their larve; (2) That of those which are entirely unlike their larve. Of the first kind are the He- miptera, &c.,—which have the pupa somewhat incomplete, and possess rudimental wings; also those which have an incomplete pupa, and are also without wings, as Lice, Pediculus, which, and the Spring-tails, Podura, together with some other wingless insects, undergo no metamorphosis, coming forth from the egg almost in the condition in which they remain all their lives. ARTICULATES. 603 Of the second kind, are those which undergo a complete met- amorphosis. ‘These include those in which no trace of a future insect can be perceived, as in the Fly, Musca, and others of the dipterous or two-winged insects; those in which the thorax and abdomen are distinct, and enclosed in a horny case, as in the Butterflies; and those in which the parts are covered by a mem- brane, but distinct, as in the order Hymenoptera, and some of the Two-winged Insects. In the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, and some of the Neuroptera, the pupa state is one of complete inac- tivity as to all manifestations of animal life, while yet the interior formative processes are carried on with extraordinary energy. _ In the egg, the development in the case of these insects, was only carried far enough to enable the larve to come forth, and to obtain their own food. In the pupa state, it is continued at the expense of the nutriment which they had collected and stored up within their bodies, so that the passage into the pupa state might almost be compared to a second entering into the egg. Of those which are not, like the Silk-worm, protected by a cocoon, some suspend themselves by their hind extremity ; others, as the Butterfly, Papi/io, attach themselves, with the head above, and a thread around the body to keep it in its position. Some of these hanging pupe exhibit bright colors and golden spots, whence the name Chrysalis, (from Gr. chrusos, gold.) In the Ant-tribes, the Neuters do not acquire wings. Some of them, which are two or three times as large as the rest, and somewhat differently formed, are named “soldiers,” it being their special office to defend the nest, rather than to nurture young; and in the White Ants, Termites, the “soldiers” appear to be pupze arrested in their development, while the ‘‘ workers” have the characters of permanent larve. The period of inactivity in the pupa state, greatly varies in duration; some insects remaining inactive for years or months, while others pass through that state in a few days or hours, and reach the fourth or last stage, when the insect is called Imago, (Lat. image.) Now, having laid aside its mask, and cast off its swaddling bands, it becomes a proper image or representative of its species. Whenever an insect is spoken of without the restrict- ing terms Jarva and pupa, it should be remembered, the tmago state is meant. In this state, the three principal parts of head, thorax, and abdomen, are distinctly perceptible; the insect now eats much less food than when in its first state. Some, indeed, live so short a time as to need no food, as the Silk-worm and the 604 ARTICULATES. Gad-flies.. The May-fly or Day-fly, (Ephemera,) commits its eggs to the water, and dies in a few hours, though ineluding its larva and pupa states, it had previously lived two or three years. The Butterfly needs only a little honey; the Fly daintily sips its food, while the larve of both eat most vordciously. Some insects are able to endure abstinence from food for a long time. The Ant-lion, Myrmeleon, (Gr. murméx, ant; leon, lion,) can remain for six months, uninjured, without food, though daily devouring an insect of its own size when it can be obtained; Beetles have been known to live two or three years without food of any kind. Most insects feed themselves, but the young of those which live in societies, and continue longer than most oth- ers in the adult state, as the Bees, Wasps, Ants, &c., are fed by the older ones, which also store up food for future use. Most insects are extremely prolific. They are, as we have seen, produced from eggs laid by the female; though there is one remarkable exception to this rule in the Aphis or Plant-lice, (order Hemiptera,) which increases by a process of gemmation or budding, somewhat after the manner of the Polypi,—females being thrown off at once for several generations, of which each* has the power to multiply its kind in the same way,—even to the seventh or ninth generation; when eggs are again laid, and the gemmating or budding process.is again renewed. Accord- ing to calculations based upon observation, the whole brood in a season from a single Aphis, will amount to the immense number of 1,000,000,000,000,000,000! but the insect is extremely fee- ble; “the touch destroys it; the winds, rains, and cold, sweep off its numbers by hundreds of thousands.” (Emmons.) The Queen-Bee, Apis mellifica, (Lat. honey-bee,) lays fifty _ thousand eggs; the female White-Ant, Termes bellicosa, has an abdomen fifteen hundred or two thousand times as large as the rest of the body, and lays eighty thousand eggs in twenty-four hours, and forty or fifty millions in a year. Insects usually deposit their eggs where the young larve may find appropriate food. Thus, the Silk-worm places hers on the leaves of the Mulberry, Morus multicaulis, (Lat. many-stalked mulberry.) The Hessian-fly, Cecidomya destructor, deposits its eggs upon the young leaf of the wheat, where it joins the stem or straw (culm) near the earth; while the Wheat-fly, C. tritict, places hers in the wheat-head; the Gad or Horse-Fly, Oestrus, (Gr. oistros, a gad-fly,) equz, (Lat. of a horse,) deposits hers in hundreds upon the hairsof the horse. Ichneumon-Flies, Ichneu- monide, deposit theirs in or upon the bodies of Caterpillars and other larve, by means of a sharp and strong abdominal tube or ARTICULATES. 605 ovipositor (egg-placer) of great length. The larva ofthe Pimpla -tinator, according to Prof. Emmons, sometimes, in company with the Strez, deposits its eggs in young maple trees, introducing the Ovipositor into the wood, sometimes to the depth of three inches. There is indeed scarcely any organized substance upon which insects are not adapted to prey. Growing vegetables and living animals are alike subject to their attacks,—these, when dead, also supply with food many kinds of insects; and even when such substances are decomposed or much decayed, they furnish nutriment to particular species. Hence, though sustaining much damage by the injury which the insects do to plants and trees, man also derives important benefit from them, by their removal of putrid substances, the noxious exhalations of which would poison the air, and thus detract greatly from his health and com- fort. ‘They are frequently useful to plants in bringing the pollen to the pistils, and thus effecting the continuance of the species in cases where it could not be done except by extraneous methods. Large Grasshoppers are in the Levant, dried and consumed for food; some savage nations eat the large grubs which are found in rotten wood. The ‘Great-Moth, Cossus, which the ancients esteemed as a delicacy, was a larva of some kind; anda species kindred to this one is at this day eaten in Brazil. Ants are also eaten by the natives in that country. While attending to these uses of insects, we may also refer to that which is made of the Cantharides or Blistering Flies,—to that beautiful dyeing material, cochineal, furnished by insects of the genus Coccus —to the galls formed on oak trees by the genus Cyn7ps, and which are em. ployed in the arts; to the art of Caprification or causing figs to ripen by suspending upon the trees branches of the wild Fig- tree, (Caprificus,) which is infested by an insect that pierces the fruit and hastens its maturity ; and to manna, used as an agreea- ble food in the East, which, though not directly produced by insects, is made to flow from the Tamarisk mannifera, (manna bearing,) by the puncture of a small species of Coccus. ‘The de- struction of the larve of some insects by those of others, is in some instances, actually enormous, so that the undue multiplica- tion of insects, which might result from the very great number of their eggs, and from their rapid growth, is counteracted not only by the influence of the many beasts, birds, reptiles and fishes, which feed upon them, but also by the numerous onsets which insects make upon each other. In these, they sometimes show considerable contrivance, availing themselves of traps, ex- cavated in the sand, by which they secure their prey, as in the case of the Ant-lion, an insect, in its perfect state, resembling the 606 ARTICULATES. Dragon-fly. If by any means any poor, unwary insect, found in the neighborhood of the Ant-lion larva, seems likely to escape, jets of sand arrest his progress, and carry him to the bottom of the pit-fall, where he is instantly seized; his juices sucked out, and the body jerked out of the den, which, if injured, is soon re- paired, and ready for another victim. A plan quite similar to this is aiso adopted by the larva of a Fly, (Leptis vermileo.) The locomotive powers of insects are unsurpassed by those of any other animals. These are peculiarly conspicuous in the Dragon-flies, Termites, Bees and Ants. Even the Swallow is unable, in this respect, to match the Dragon-fly or Darning- needle, which can elude its pursuer by flying backwards and forwards, right and left, without turning its body. Its twenty- four thousand eyes guard it against surprise, by enabling it to see in all directions. The wings of Musquitoes are said to vibrate three thousand times a minute. The organs of sense in Insects have a high degree of devel- opment. ‘This is more particularly true of the sight. Of the two kinds of eyes found in adult insects, compound and simple, the latter, termed ocel/, (eyelets,) and stemmata, (stems;) are alone present in the larve, though these are sometimes entirely without visual organs. In perfect insects, the eyes are com- pound, that is they consist of many eyes, each of which is per- fect in itself, having the proper humors and lenses necessary for the exercise of vision. In addition to the compound eye, which often fills up the largest part of the head, [nsects sometimes have simple eyes upon the forehead, generally three in number, set in the form of a triangle, which are suited to view only such ob- jects as are near. ‘The compound eye is immovable, round, oval, or kidney-shaped, and examined under the microscope, ap- pears reticulated, this appearance being occasioned by the hex- agonal lines which bound each eye or lens. The number of lenses, each fitted for vision in its own sphere, is almost incred- ibly great. The number in the Dragon-Fly has already been mentioned ; that of the common Fly is 4,000; of the Butterfly, from 6,000 to 30,000; and of the Mordella Beetle, 25,000 ; while that of the ant has but fifty lenses. There seems no doubt that insects have the sense of hearing, for though the precise organ which is subservient to it has not been fully ascertained, there is abundant evidence that they are guided and influenced by sounds, one of the most striking in- stances of which is that the male of some Insects, such as Cica- de, Crickets, é&c., emit peculiar sounds, which attract the fe- males to them. A nocturnal butterfly, Acherontia atropos, pro- COLEOPTERA. 607 ‘duces a plaintive cry which is said to proceed from the head. These sounds are produced entirely by mechanical means, and cannot be considered vocal. It is thought by some naturalists that the organ of hearing is situated in the base of the antennee. ‘These are supposed to be also the chief organs of touch. (Plate XV. fig. 4c.) . Insects seem to possess the sense of smell. The F'lesh-fly deposits eggs inthe thick fleshy petals of the Carrion-flower, (Stapelia,) deceived by its odor, which resembles tainted meat. Many insects, particularly the Coleoptera, which include the Snap-Bug, Elater, and the Fire-fly, Lampyris, are luminous at night. Several North American species of the Sphinx, or Hawk Moth, seem to be phosphorescent, by dim candle-light, or when shaded from direct light. When the light is extinguished, noth- ing appears, however, excepting a peculiar reflection. Insects are essentially terrestrial, but many, as the Whirligigs or Water-Fieas, (Gyrinus,) swim on fresh water; and some, as ‘the Skippers, (Hydrometride,) walk with the body raised above it, the tips of their feet touching the surface ; and a genus Halo- _ bates, (Gr. hals, the sea; baino, to go,) is seen in the Southern Atlantic, far out from the land. / | The Insects are divided by Kirby and Spence, into twelve or- ders, as presented on the Chart, viz. : 1. Coleoptera. 7. Hymenoptera. 2. Strepsiptera.} 8. Lepidoptera. 3. Dermaptera. 9, Hemiptera. 4. Orthoptera. 10. Diptera. 5. Tricoptera. 11. Aphaniptera. 6. Neuroptera. 12. Aptera. First Orper. Coxreoprera, (Gr. xodsds, koleos, a sheath; mtegoy, pieron, a wing.) Bereties. Mouth mandibulate. These insects are almost incredibly numerous, between seventy and eighty thousand species being found in the cabinets of col- lectors. In the Royal Museum at Berlin, Prussia, is a single ‘collection of forty thousand species. The singular forms and brilliant colors of many of these insects, the size of their bodies, the solid texture of their integuments, which renders preserva- tion comparatively easy, and the nature of their habits, which affords every. facility for their capture, have combined to render Beetles objects of peculiar attention and interest to entomologists. The upper wings of these Insects are horny or leathery, and shield or sheathe the lower ones; the metamorphosis is perfect, 608 COLEOPTERA. the pupa being torpid; the mouth is mandibulate or chewing. The wing-cases are called elytra, (Gr. coverings,) and are un- suited for flight. Many of these Insects, particularly in the lar- va state, are quite injurious to vegetation ; but at the same time, they are, as a whole, very useful in diminishing the numbers of other noxious or destructive insects, and in removing fungous and offensive matters. (1) The Ticer Beeties, Cicindelide, (from gen. Cicindéla, Lat. a glow-worm.) so called on account of their fierceness and voracity, are found in sandy localities and dusty roads. They feed upon other insects, are good runners, and fly with facility. Those of the genus Cicindéla are the most numerous. 2. Grounp Beetues, Carabidae, (from gen. Cardbus, a crab, i.e., crab-like,) are those which are commonly found under stones and rubbish, and generally, but not always, nocturnal. They are predaceous, feeding upon insects and larve. The colors are black, with blue and purple hues. The CaterPittar Hunters, Calosoma, (Gr. beautiful body,) in- clude species having colors in which green and blue predominate. They are found in trees, and lessen the number of injurious in- sects which infest them. _ 8. The Divine Beet es, Dyticide, (from gen. Dyticus, a diver,) are large hardy insects, sometimes seen in water bordered with ice. They feed upon minute fish, larvee and worms. 4. The Lavy Birps, or Lady Bugs, Coccinellida, (gen. Cocci- nella, from Gr. kokkos, a berry, i. e., berry-like,) are well known, small, hemispherical insects, having bright colors and often marked with spots. (Plate XV. fig. 1d.) They feast on gourd-like plants, such as melons and pumpkins, but are of great service, both in their larvaand perfect state, in destroying the Plant-lice. The lar- va is of a long oval shape, with a pointed tail; of a black color, with red and white specks, and a rough surface, (Plate XV. fig. 2b.) It changes to a short, blackish, oval chrysalis, or pupa spotted with red, (a, c,) and which gives birth to its beautiful inmate in May or June, (d.) The eggs of these insects may be seen upon the under surface of leaves, in a cluster of thirty or forty, placed in contact and gummed by one end to the leaf. These hatch within a few days. 5. The Water-Lovers, Hydrophilide, (gen. Hydrophilus, Gr. water-lover,) are found in ponds and ditches, or in stagnant waters, which they seem to prefer. 6. Carrion Beetuss, Silphide, (from Gr. silphé, a cockroach, i,e., cockroach-like.) These include the Sexton Beetle, Necro- phorus, (Gr. nekros, a dead body ; phoreo,I carry.) This is s . COLEOPTERA. 609 about an inch in length, of a black hue, and extremely fetid. It is noted on account of its finding the carcases of small ani- mals, such as mice, rats, birds, frogs, &c., shortly after death, burying them by working the earth from beneath them, and af. terwards covering them. In these dead animals, the Sexton Bee- tle deposits its eggs. 7. Dune Beeties, Geotrupide, (Gr. ge, the earth; trupad, to bore.) These, with other similar families, are, in their larva state, incapable of much locomotion, and generally live in the ground. 8. Scavencer BEETLES, Scarabeide, (gen. Scarabeus, from Gr. Skarabos, a beetle or scarabee.) ‘These Beetles use the flat shield of their heads for working in the ground and in the dung upon which they feed. One species labor in pairs, the one beetle pushing their ball backwards with the hind feet, and the other walking up the ball on the opposite side, thus making it roll. The Copris rolls together a small ball which it immedi- ately buries. 9. Stace Beeties, Lucanide, (gen. Lucanus,) include some very large sized beetles, distinguished by having the antenne terminated by a large jointed club. The males of Lucanus cer. es have singular horns affixed to the head and thorax. (Plate Il. fig. 8. 10. mite BeETLEs, Dynastide, (gen. Dynastes, Gr. a ruler.) These include some of the largest of the order. The males have horns or tubercles arising from the head or thorax. A most remarkable species is the Hercules Beetle, Dynastes Hercules, found in South America, measuring sometimes not less than five or six inches in length, having a horn of enormous length in pro- portion to the body, proceeding from the upper part of the thorax. Its larva continues about six years, and is three or four inches long. It is sometimes eaten fried, and esteemed a luxury. 11. Rose Beetues, Cetoniide, (of which Cetonia, is a prom. inent genus,) form an extensive group, including several which are distinguished for their brilliant colors. ‘The common Rose Cuarer, C. aurata, may be cited as an example, found in roses and upon the flowers of the privet, an insect nearly an inch long, of a shining green color above, and copper-red beneath, with white marks in the elytra. In its larva state, it feeds upon moist rotten wood, and is often met with under ground, in ants’ nests. | 12. Sprineine Breties, Elateride, (gen. Elater, a charioteer.) These have a strong spine situated beneath the thorax, which fits at pleasure into a small cavity ou the upper part of thte abdomen ; 610 COLEOPTERA. thus enabling the insect, when laid upon its back, to spring up with great force and agility, in order to regain its position. Their larvee are known in New England and New York, by the name of Wire-worms, and are injurious to corn and herbaceous roots. One species, Elater noctilucus, (Lat. shining by-night,) is one of the most brilliant of the fire-flles Which inhabit South America and the West India islands. In Cuba, ladies use these phosphorescent insects as ornaments for the hair. (See Chart.) 13. Woov-Borers, Piimde, (genus Plinus,) is a rather nu- merous family of insects, of small size, oval form and destruc- tive habits. They are of obscure colors, and counterfeit death — by withdrawing their head and antenne, and contracting their legs. The Wood-Borers are found.in old houses, which their larve perforate in every direction; also among furniture, books, &e. The Deatu-Watcu, Anobium, (Gr. and, 1 end; bros, life,) tessellatum, (tesselated or checkered,) is of this family. It strikes its jaws upon the wood in which it has its abode, so as to imitate the ticking of a watch. Tne generic name we suppose to refer to the superstitious notion that when its beating is heard it isa sign that some person in the house will die within a year, and hence is derived the name Death Watch. (See Chart.) 14. Frire-FLies, or GLow-worms, Lampyride, (leading genus Lampyris, Gr. lampuris, a glow-worm,) have a_ lengthened, depressed body, and flexible elytra. In some species the females are wingless, and in others they have only short elytra. They prey, in the larva state, upon the bodies of snails, and not upon plants. When alarmed, they draw in their antenne and legs, and remain motionless, as if dead. The common Glow- worm, seen in the Middle States of the Union, is the female of the species Photuris, (Gr. phés, light; oura, tail,) versecolor, (Lat. of changeable color.) 15. Corn and Nur Weevits, Curculionide, (Curculio, a corn- worm or weevil.) This family of Snouted Coleopterous insects includes the’ Diamond Beetles and other splendidly colored spe- cies, as well as the Corn or Grain,Weevils. The Nut Weevil, Balaninus, (Gr. from balanos, acorn or nut.) nucum, (Lat. of nuts, ) see Chart, is often found in the Chinquapin nut, and sometimes renders worthless almost the entire crop, which, in a short time, become wormy. 16. CocxcHarexs, Melolonthide, (leading genus Melolontha,) are well known and destructive insects. An instance isgiven of a . farmer whose crops were completely destroyed by the larvae of s STREPSIPTERA. 611 the common Cockchafer, “of which eighty bushels were gathered u Sei The genus Phyllophaga, (Gr. phullon, a leaf; phago, to eat,) includes several species, which are furnished with strong jaws for cutting the leaves of plants. They are injurious both in the larva and the perfect state; in the former, eating the roots of grass, &c., and in the latter, the tender leaves of fruit and other trees. Formerly they were included in the genus Medolontha. They are well known by the name of Horn Bugs, though their more appropriate name is May BEETLES. 17. Pea Bues, Wheat Weevils, &c., Bruchide, (genus Bru- chus, Gr. brouchos, a locust—locust-like.) The Pea-bug, Bru- chus, is a small hairy insect, gray and rather egg- -shaped, which deposits its eggs in the pea-pod in its early state, and in which they are hatched. Multitudes of the larvee are destroyed in pre- paring green peas for the table. The Calandra granaria, or Corn Weevil, of Europe, is a species that has been introduced into this country from Europe, in samples of grain, to which it is very hurtful. Linnzeus calls it Curculio granaria. 18. Buister Beeties, Cantharide, (Gr. Kantharis.) Among these are the C. vesicatoria, (Lat. from vesica, a blister.) of a beautiful changeable or metallic green color, about three-quarters of an inch in length, and well known for its medical uses. In Spain, Portugal, and Italy, these insects are abundant. Potato vines and other plants are, in mid-summer, often infested by in- sects allied to the Spanish-flies. N. B. The above account includes all the families of Beetles to which the Chart refers, though but a small part of the entire number. SEcoNnD OrDER. STREPSIPTERA, (Gr. orgentds, streptos, twisted ; mtegov, pleron, Wing.) This order of insects is named by Latreille, Rhipiptera, (Gr. fan- wings.) They have the front wings replaced by a kind of twisted halterers ; the posterior are large and folded likea fan. (Plate XV. fiz. 3.) The tarsi have from two to four articulations. The mouth is armed with two slender acute jaws wide apart, and two pointed palpi, or feelers. ‘The orderincludes a limited number of insects, arranged in the two genera Xenos, (Gr. a guest or stranger,) and Stylops, (Gr. stu/os, a stylos or graver ; Gps, face.) ‘The larve are vermiform, and have six feet. The pup are inactive. They are all small, mite-like creatures, the largest not being a 612 ORTHOPTERA. quarter of aninch in length. The larve are parasitic on the bodies of the wasps and bees, where they lose their feet and be- come larve of a different form—an instance of retrograde met- amorphosis. The perfect insects are very short-lived, but very active. They were first observed by Kirby. Tuirp Orper. Dermaptera, (Gr. déque, derma, skin; mtegov, pteron, Wing. ) The insects of this order are by some included among the OrtuopTera to which in the organs of the mouth they corres- pond, and which they resemble also in being active and in feed- ing during the pupa state. But they differ from them in the struc- ture of the wings, which fold both longitudinally and transversely to bring them under the elytra, (wing-covers.) This order in- cludes the Ear Wies, (Forficula.) Plate XV. fig. 4, which live in damp places and feed on vegetable food. These insects have the tarsi three-jointed ; their antennee are long and slender and made up of many articulations. The Ear-wig sits over her egos and assiduously watches the young when they appear. Fourta Orper. Orrtsortera, (Gr. é9%0s, orthos, straight ; ‘ mtegdv, pteron, Wing.) In this order the metamorphosis is imperfect, the elytra, or wing covers are coriaceous and veined, with the inner margins overlapping ; in some cases the wings are wanting, or so small as to be entirely useless ; the mouth is mandibulate, (with jaws,) and this organ and the thorax are much like those of the Bee- tles. The body is generally long; the head vertical, and the antenne slender. The feet are well developed; but though some are very active, others are remarkably slow in their move- ments. The order includes (1) Cockroacues, Blattide, (genus Blatia, Pilate XV. fig. 5,) hiding by day and seeking food by night, and in tropical countries extremely troublesome. Scald- ing or fumigating them in their hiding places is one of the best methods of exterminating them. They sometimes even penetrate the brick walls of buildings, destroying both animal and veget- able substances; (2) the Praytne Insects, Mantide, (Gr. Mantis, a prophet ) which use their fore legs as arms and hands, and when waiting for their prey, raise their feet as if in suppli- cation, (Plate XV. fig. 7,) whence their name. They eat other insects, are great fighters, and when confined will eat each other. The smaller kinds of these insects are seen occasionally in New England and New York; (8) Spectres, Phasmide, (Gr. phasma, ‘ORTHOPTERA. 613 a spectre or apparition,) These have the wings somewhat unde- veloped or entirely absent. They eat leaves, live upon trees, and present some very curious forms. Some are called walking- sticks, from their resemblance to a stick. One species, found in the Moluccas, is ten inches long. Phyllium, (Plate XV. fig. 8,) is a genus that has wings which look like a leaf, whence the name, which means a Walking-Leaf. One or two of these re- markable insects are met with in New York and in some of the Eastern States ; (4) the Crickets, Achetide, (acheta, a chirper,) which, although they present a general likeness to the Grass- hoppers, differ from them in their habits, being entirely terres- trial, and having, more or less, the power of burrowing. They appear to live both upon vegetable and animal food, which they search for at night. The Crickets are good runners, but do not fly as well as the Grasshoppers; (5) Locusts, Locustida, (Lat. _locusta, a locust.) ‘The abdomen of the female has a sharp, flat- tened ovipositor; the males make a loud stridulation, or whiz- zing, by means of their upper wings. ‘These insects are quite arboreal in their habits, and from the green color of many of them, they are hardly perceptible among the foliage. They sometimes appear in great numbers; (6) Grasshoppers, Acridiide, (Gr. akris, a locust.) The female is without an ovipositor. The males of these insects make their peculiarnoise by rubbing their hind-thighs against the wing-covers. ‘To this family be- longs the Karypip, Platyphyllum, (Gr. broad-leaf,) concavum, (Lat. concave or hollow.)—ranked among the Grasshoppers. This singular insect is of a grass-green color, and derives its name from the notes which it sends forth. It reaches its perfect state in September, depositing its eggs in a nest which with its Ovipositor it had previously prepared in the soft earth. (See Plate XV. 9, and explanations.) This order has been divided into four sections, founded on differ- ences of habit arising from the peculiar construction of the organs of locomotion, (Plate XV. figs. 5, 6, 7,8, and 9.) (1) The Runners, (Orthoptera cursoria;) (2) the Graspers, (Orthop- tera raptoria ;) (3) the Walkers, (Orthoptera ambulatoria;) (4) the Jumpers, (Orthoptera, saltatoria.) The Runners include the Cockroaches ; the Graspers, the Praying Insects ; the WALKgRs, the Walking Sticks, &c.; the Jumpgrs, the Grasshoppers and Locusts. 614 NEUROPTERA. Firth Orper. Tricnoprera, (Gr. 608, thriz, hair, wtegov, pteron, a wing.) The genus Phryganea, (Plate XV. fig. 10,) which is the only one of this order, is by some joined with the genera Hydropsyche and Limnophilus, to form the family Phryganeide, and referred to the order Neuroptera. ‘The insects of this order have four membranous and reticulated wings; the posterior pair are the larger; the front pair are generally hairy,—hence the name of the order. The name of Caddis- flies has been given to these insects which come from the various species of case-worms. The larve are inactive, residing in water, in a case formed of bits of shells or sticks, or of sand or saw-dust. The pupa is inactive. The Caddis- fly is often used as a fish bait. Sixto Orper, Nevroptera, (Gr. vetgov, neuron, nerve; mtEgov, pleron, a Wing.) This order of mandibulate insects exhibits a considerable variety of characters. According to Westwood, it includes twelve families. It is estimated to include not far from a thou- sand species. These insects have usually four reticulated nervures, (wings with horny divisions, thin, and lace-like.) The wings are of unequal size; instead of the hind-wings, there are sometimes only pedicles or stems. The antenne are usually short and bristly. The pupzare sometimes active and sometimes torpid ; the larve are six-footed and very active, mostly predaceous, and either terrestrial or aquatic. Piay The Dracon-Futes, Libel/ulide, (genus Libellula,) include nearly two hundred known species. ‘To these we have already referred. While on the wing, they deposit their eggs in water and in it pass both their larva and pupa state, gliding through it, or crawling about in the mud atthe bottom. The hinder part of the body has several leaf-like processes, which can be drawn together or opened at pleasure. These close the opening of a cavity having very muscular sides. When the Dragon-fly wishes to move rapidly, it opens this cavity, which thus becomes filled with water; then by contracting the walls of the cavity, it throws out the water forcibly, like a stream from a syringe ; aided by the re-action produced by the jet against the surround- ing fluid, the creature shoots forward, with its legs closely packed along the sides. The pupa is no less active, fierce and voracious than the larva, differing from it only in having upon the thorax the rudiments of wings, which in the perfect insect NEUROPTERA. 615 are so admirable for their firmness, transparency and gloss. Even after it has reached the imago state, its ferocious manners still continue. It has even been known ‘to devour its own body, when confined and deprived of musquitoes and the other insects upon which it usually feeds. The Ant-Lions, Myrmeleonide, (genus Myrmeleon, Gr. ant- lion,) are distributed throughout the world. ‘These are terrestrial, spider-like in their appearance, and short and thick, having man- dibles strongly toothed on the inside, so that the insect may suck the juices of its victims, and so constructed that it can hold its food firmly, though unable to chew it. To the curious devices which the larva of this insect employs for entrapping its prey, we have already alluded. The Ant-lions have been found under the limestone ledges of Schoharie, and the larve have also been seen beneath such ledges near Burlington, Vt.. (Emmons.) The May-ruies, Ephemeride, or Ephemeral- flies, are so named from the Greek. word ephemeros, (diurnal,) in allusion to the extreme brevity of their existence. Their larve live in the water; they take refuge under stones, and inthe earth and mud, feeding upon its slime. In their perfect state these insects gen- erally live but a few hours, taking no nourishment ; but if the sexes be kept apart, it is said, they will live from one to three weeks. Sometimes they issue forth in such numbers that “the ground is covered by their bodies when they die, to such a thickness as to make it worth while to cart them away as ma- -nure. The swarms of one species with white wings have been so abundant as to resemble a fall of snow.” The Termites, Termitide, which include the genus Termes, (Gr. terma, an end,) are distinguished by wings having few transverse nervures or horny divisions, and folding horizontally ; the tarsi are four-jointed; the antennee short and moniliform ; the body is white and oblong in shape. The head of the White Ants, as they are called, though differ. ing from the true ants, is large and rounded; and besides the ordinary compound eyes, they. have three ocelli or simple eyes, situated on the upper surface; the antenne are long, and com- posed of about eighteen joints. The Termites are chiefly confined to the tropics, though some few species extend into the gia dy regions. Swainson, Kirby and Spence, and other writers who have observed the operations of these ants, either in Africa or South America, present many interesting particulars respecting their wonderful economy and habits. ‘These insects unite in societies, composed each of an { . 616 NEUROPTERAs immense number of individuals. In the warmer regions, the ravages of some species are often fearfully great. A species discovered by Latreille at Bordeaux, (Fr..) frequently attack the wood work of houses, in which they form innumerable galleries, all leading to a central point. In building, they avoid piercing the surface of the wood-work ; and hence it appears sound, when the slightest touch is sometimes sufficient to cause it to fail to pieces. | : ‘One of the largest and best known species is the Termes belli- cosus, or Warlike Ant, (see Chart,) found on the coast of Africa. These Ants build conical nests or edifices, sometimes of enor- mous size, nearly as hard as stone, and very commonly twelve feet in height, (see Chart.) They are often quite numerous, ap- pearing almost like huts of savages; and Mr. Cummings says, “are of the greatest service to the hunter, enabling him to con. ceal himself with facility on the otherwise open plain.” The male and female, or King and Queen, have their royal chamber near the center of the hillock, and never leave it. They are both perfect insects, but the wings which they once had are lost soon after their admission to their place of abode. To the almost numberless eggs dropped by the Queen-mother, we have already referred. In times of scarcity, the Hottentots feast upon these eggs, which they call rice, on account of their resemblance to that grain. They usually wash them, and cook them with a small quantity of water, declaring that they are savory and nourishing. When they find out a place where the nests are numerous, it is said they soon become fat from eating the eggs, even when previously much reduced by hunger. “Sometimes they will get half a bushel out of a single nest.” The larve, in their full grown state, are perhaps a quarter of an inch in length. They are far the most numerous and the workers of the colony, building, foraging and nursing. The soldiers or fighters are comparatively few, not more than one to a hundred of laborers; but they are many times larger, and armed with sharper and more formidable jaws. They appear as defenders when the nest is assailed, and will even attack the assailants, biting with considerable force. The species T.fron- talis, of South America, works galleries in logs and stumps of trees, and in the ground also, plastering them with a hard mixture of clay. HYMENOPTERA. 617 Seventa Orper. Hymenoptera, (Gr. ‘uuty, humén, a mem: brane ; 7tegov, pieron, a wing.) In the insects of this order, inferior in numbers only to the Beetles, the nervures, or veins of the wings, form the basis of numerous sub-divisions. The wings differ from those of the Neuroptera in being of a less delicate construction, and having fewer nervures. ‘The mandibles are distinct, but better fitted for imbibing nourishment by suction than by mastication; the body is of a hard consistence ; the antenne are variable, but for the most part slender, showing twelve articulations in the male, and thirteen in the female; the tarsi are generally pentamerous or five-jointed. These insects are also peculiarly distinguished by the prolongation of the body in the case of the females, into an organ which in some is a sting, in others an ovipositor, or instru- ment for depositing the eggs—usually having the power of bor- ing a hollow for their reception. The Hymenoptera are among the most remarkable of the class, for their instinctive fac- ulties, their social qualities and habits, and their powers of loco- motion. ‘The Bees, the Wasps, the Ants, the Saw-flies, the Ich- neumons and the Gall-flies have, from the remotest periods, been objects of attention to the observers of nature. The order is sometimes arranged into two sections, viz.: the TEREBRANTIA, in which the female has a saw or borer for the deposition of eggs; and the Acuteata, in which the abdomen of the females and neuters is possessed of a sting, which is con- nected with a poison reservoir. The former section includes seven families ; the latter seventeen. . : TEREBRANTIA—BORERS. The Saw-rues, Tenthredinida, (Gr. Tenthrédén, from tentho, to gnaw,) are the only ones of the order which have feet. The larvee feed upon leaves or vegetable matter. The ovipositor of the female appears to combine the properties of a saw and file. The Saw-fly, Tenthredo, isalso named Cimbex ulmi, (Lat. of an elm,) because it inhabits the Elm. The Woop-Wases, or Horn-Tails, Urocerida, (from Gr. oura, a tail; keras, ahorn,) are a family of insects which often do great mischief to fruit trees and also to forest trees, especially resin- ous ones. ‘The females have an ovipositor in the form of a slen- der horn, consisting of five pieces—two outside grooved and forming a hollow tube; the other and inner pieces are nee- dles, with which the trunks of trees are pierced to make a 618 HYMENOPTERA. place of deposit for the eggs. The grub-like larve burrow in the green solid matter of trees and eat the wood. The Icunevmon-riies, Ichneumonide, (Gr. ichneum6n,) have narrow bodies and rather long anteune; the feet are long and adapted for running, and the ovipositor is straight. These insects fly and move about in a restless manner, keeping their antenne in a constant vibratory motion. ‘They perform a useful part in preventing an undue multiplication of Moths and Butterflies, upon the larve of which these flies deposit their eggs, but through so small an opening as not to check the growth of the larve. When the larva passes into the pupa state, the eggs of the ich- neumon hatch, and the progeny feed upon it, so that, in the end, instead of a butterfly, there comes forth a brood of ichneumons. This is a very numerous family, including thousands of species. The Gatt-Fuies, Cynipide, (genus Cynips,) are a small family of insects, the larve of which are parasitic in plants, where they cause the excrescences Called galls. The family Evaniide, (genus Evania,) includes the Amezt- can Hatcuet Wasp, Pelecinus (Lat. a hatchet) politrurator, (Lat. a furbisher or polisher,) (see Chart,) which is seen by the road sides in the fall of the year, flying slowly, as if borne down by its long and slender abdomen. The Snaxe Wasps, Ophidion, (from Gr. ophis, a serpent,) (see Chart,) of which there are several species, have the abdomen three times as long as the thorax, and the antenne nearly the length of the insect, which isaboutone inch. This wasp is seen late in the summer or the beginning of autumn, hovering over brambles, &c., looking after caterpillars as a place of deposit for its eggs. The genus Evania is parasitic in ship Cockroaches. ACULEATA-STINGERS. The Spider Wasps, Sphecide, (genus Sphex, Gr. a wasp,) have an elongated body; the abdomen is attached by a long, slender peduncle, (see fig. on Chart,) and armed with a sting. These wasps are extremely active and difficult to capture. In the perfect state, they suck the fluids of flowers, but the larve are furnished with animal food by the adult. _ The Wasps, Vespide, (genus Vespa, Lat. a wasp.) like the bees, include males, females and workers. Like the bees also, they are social and dwell in small communities, though there are some solitary species, among which no neuters are found. The Wasps and Hornets are natural paper makers, societies of them HYMENOPTERA. 619 living, during summer, in nests divided into hexagonal cells, opening downwards, formed of paper-like material, which is impervious to water. During a season, two or three broods are raised successively in the same set of cells. The nests may be seen on trees, sometimes from twelve to sixteen inches in diame- ter. The small “ Yellow Jackets,” as they are termed, build under ground. The Paper-Wasp, Polistes (Gr. the founder or chief of a state,) fuscata, (Lat. swarthy,) either fastens its comb to the branch of a tree, or to the shelving parts of a house. The Paste-BoarD Wasps, Chartergus, (Gr. paper-work,) make their nests of a solid and rather thick paste-board. Their struc- tures have been seen in Pennsylvania, but are more common in ‘South America. The Common Hornet, (Plate XV. fig. 12,) V. crabro, (Lat. a hornet,) is considerably larger and more formidable than the Wasp, building its nests in decaying hollow trees, or beneath their roots, and in timber yards, or under the eaves of barns, etc. Its sting, as is well known, often produces serious consequences. The Larce American Hornet, V. maculata, (Lat. spotted,) often enters houses to catch flies. The Ants, Formicidae, (formica, an ant,) a well known and interesting family, to be distinguished, however, from the White Ants already described, as belonging to another order. In addi- tion to the males and females, which form a small part in any community of ants, and which are alone furnished with wings, there are neulers, or workers, by which the labors are chiefly performed, not only constructing the nests, but feeding and tak. ing care of the young grubs. ‘These alone survive the winter, in our climate remaining torpid during that season; but it is otherwise with them in the torrid zones. ‘There they are active, night and day, during the entire year; to these the words of inspiration, (Proverbs vi.,) have particular reference,—so inde- fatigable is their industry—that to them the indolent and inactive may well be pointed for lessons of instruction. “ Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways and be wise.” The Rep Ants, Formica rubra, construct their nests upon the branches of trees. ‘These are said to be the only ones which feed upon their own species. Extremely lively representations have been given of the wars sometimes carried on between two or three Ant-cities, equal in size and population, and situated at about one hundred paces from each other. Of this ant a minute species, Myrmeca domestica, is found in com- panies, either under stones, or else in old galls upon oak shrubs, 620 | HYMENOPTERA. . which they enter by the opening that is made when the Cynips leaves. A few of these, which have large heads, appear to be the workers. These ants often swarm in houses. The Stave-maxine or Rufescent Ants, F. rufescens, make war upon other ants, for the sole purpose of procuring slaves to labor for them. Most of the slave dealers are reddish, while those who are captured to become their servants are black. Be- sides adults, however, larvee and pupe are seized, and brought up by their captors, commencing their labors when they reach their perfect state; yet their masters do some part of the work. According to Westwood, the large Yellow Ant of the United States, makes slaves of the Black Ants. Certain Ants, called Cow-Kerprers, are very fond of the liquid matter which is given out by the Aphides, or Plant-lice, and actually attend upon these “ Honey-flies,” as Swainson calls them, for the purpose of obtaining it. They even have the power of making them yield it at their pleasure, by patting the abdomen of the Aphis alternately on each side; and thus they “milk their cows.” They are called “Cow-keepers,” for the reason that they sometimes seem to claim a right to the Aphides inhabiting a particular branch or stalk, and resist the approach of strangers. To rescue the “Cows” from their rivals, they will take the Aphides into their mouths, keep guard around them, sometimes enclose a certain number in a tube of earth, or other materials near their nests, so that they may be always at hand to supply them with the desired food. ‘The most remarkable Cow-keeper is the Yellow Ant, F, flava, of Gould, which secures within the common nest, a large number of Honey-flies of the species Aphis radicum, (Lat. of roots,) which derives its food chiefly from the roots of grass and other plants. The Yellow Ants, it is said, bestow upon these little creatures care and solic- itude equal to that which they give to their own offspring. In India, the honey-like secretion which the Aphides cast upon the ground, is so abundant in quantity that the natives collect it when dry, and sell it in the country bazaars as a sweetmeat. The honey, it is said, may be kept for seven or eight years, without losing its sweetness. In Brazil, the insects not only furnish ants with milk, but, ruminant-like, have horns growing out of their heads; and hence are called the “cattle ” of the ants. The Driver Ants, of South Africa, according to the observa- tions of Dr. T. S. Savage, an American missionary to that re- gion, include in their communities, Neuters, Soldiers, Workers, and Carriers. These do not construct nests, but live tempora- rily in crevices, sometimes “ranging about in vast armies,” and 4 HYMENOPTERA. 621 when they enter houses, causing rats, lizards, &c., and even man himself to flee. They travel at night or in cloudy weather, as the direct rays of the sun are almost immediately fatal to them. ‘I know of no insect,” says Dr. Savage, “more fero- cious and determined upon victory. It may literally be said they are* against everything, and everything against them. ‘Conquer or die,’ is their motto.” They are useful in keeping down the more rapid increase of other noxious insects, and also in consuming much dead animal matter. The Sorirary Bees, Andrenide, consist only of males and females. ‘The species of the genus Andrena, are quite numer- ous. They make their appearance in the early spring and sum- mer months, and have very much the appearance of Hive-bees. The females collect pollen from the stamens of flowers, rather by means of the general hairiness of the body than with the pos-. terior tarsi. They burrow in the ground in sandy districts, especially, if exposed to the sun, often to a considerable depth. Of the Bees proper, Apida, (Lat. apis, a bee,) there are sev- eral groups, differing from each other, to some extent, in their qualities and habits) The Humsie (Bumble) Bers, Bombus, (from Gr. bombos, a humming or buzzing.) construct their nests: under ground, in fields and pastures. ‘The females, which are unlimited as to number, assist the neuters in working. The larger females alone survive the winter, and in the first fine days of spring, construct their cells, and rear a brood of. workers, which, in due time, assist in the construction of new cells. The honey which these bees collect, is of an inferior kind, and their wax is not so clean, or so capable of fusion as that of the True Honey-Bees. They are thought to live about ten years. The Mason Bees, Megachile, (Gr. great lips or jaws,) muraria, (Lat. from murus, a wall,) build their cells by agglutinating grains of sand and gravel. The Upnouster Bres, M. papaveris, (Liat of a poppy.) line the holes which they excavate for their young in the earth, with an elegant coating of leaves or flowers, preferring, for this purpose, the brilliant scarlet furnished by the leaves of the wild poppy. The species M. centuncularis, (from Lat. centunculus, patch- work,) coat their dwelling with the leaves of trees. * Carprenter Bess, Ayclopa, (Gr. Xu/on, wood; kopto, to vore with great labor out of solid wood, long cylindrical yes, and divide them into various cells, in which the young are placed with a quantity of pollen-paste. The Vroter CarrPenter Ber, X. violacea, is common about Paris, and in the gardens of Southern Europe. Among these f 622 HYMENOPTERA bees, the females perform all the labor; the males have no stings. The species X. viclima, is found in the United States, and bores in the lower surface of white-pine structures. But the most important, and, indeed, the most interesting of the family, is the Common Hive Bee, Apis mellifica, (Lat. mei, honey ; facto, to make.) ‘The Hive includes three kinds; the Female; the Male or Drone; and the Worker, (see Chart for figures showing the relative size, &c., of each.) ‘The bees col- lect honey, pollen, and propolis, feeding their young with the former two, and using the latter for filling up crevices in their cells, and for the needed repairs. ‘The wax is secreted by the workers, and appears between the segments of the lower side of the abdomen, in the form of small scales. Every hive is under the government of the Queen Bee. She is lady paramount, and suffers no other queen to share her do- minion. At the swarming season, the old queen becomes so sadly disturbed by the encroachments of the young queens, that she rushes forth from the hive, attended by a large body of her subjects; thus, the first swarm is formed. In seven or eight days afterwards, the queen next in age departs, also taking with her a supply of subjects. When all the swarms have left the original hive, the remaining queens fight until one gains the throne. The Queen Bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. About eight hundred of these prove males or drones, and four or five queens; the remainder are workers. The cells are six- sided. Those in which the drones are hatched, are much larger than the cells of the ordinary working bees. The royal cells are much larger than any others, and are of an oval shape. When a worker larva is placed in a royal cell, and fed ina royal manner, it imbibes the “ principles of royalty,” and becomes a queen accordingly. This practice is resorted to if the Queen Bee die, and there be no other queen to take her place. The form of the cells is such as to afford the greatest space and strength, with the least amount of material. How the bees are enabled to give them this form, unless by a divinely im- planted instinct, it is difficult to tell. Three figures will admit the junction of their sides without vacant spaces between them, viz: the square, the equilateral triangle, and the hexagon, the last being the strongest and most convenient. And this is the very form in which the bees build their cells. The bottom of each cell, on one side, meets three on the other, and is supported by the divisions between them; and it is formed by three plates that meet at an angle, which profound mathematical investigation demonstrated to be the very angle which combines the greatest ff LEPIDOPTERAs 623 strength with the least material. Kirby and Spence say,— “ Maraldi calculated that the great angles were 1090 28/, and the smaller ones 700 32’; and Konig calculated that they ought to be 1090 26’, and 700 34', to obtain the greatest strength with any given amount of mat terial.” But subsequent examination showed that the bees were right and Konig wrong. EieutH Orper. Lepipoptera. (Gr. Aens, lepis, a sanleg mtegov, pleron, a wing.) These insects, comprehending, perhaps, one-fcurth or one-sixth of the entire tribe, have a suctorial mouth and rudimentary man- dibles. Their metamorphosis is complete. The beautiful Butter- flies are the representatives of this order, and also of all those winged visitants that flit about our lamps during the evenings of summer; the one are diurnal; the other nocturnal. They all have four membranous wings, usually covered with minute scales ; the mouth is suctorial, consisting of a tubular thread-like organ, which, when not in use, is rolled into a compact spiral coil; their bodies are soft and covered with hair; the feet are penta- merous, (have the tarsi five-jointed ;) generally, they are hairy and of equal length; though sometimes the front pair are so small as to be of no use in walking. ‘The Lepidoptera feed upon the juice of flowers, but, in the perfect state, they sometimes need none. They may be arranged into three great divisions: (1) the Butterflies Proper, Papi/ionide, (Papilio,) which have thread-like antennz and bear a knob, (Plate XV. fig. 13;) (2) the Sphingide, (Sphinx,) or the Hawk-Moths, which have the antenne, thick in the middle, and at the tip often hooked; (3) the Moths (in general) having the antennze somewhat naked, of bristle form, or else feathered on the sides. I. The Butterflies Proper include at least three hundred spe- cies, sometimes most gorgeously colored, of which large diurnal ones are found in the United States. The Butterfly, P. turnus, is one of the most common species; in its markings and forms, re- sembling the P. machaon, or Swallow-tailed Butterfly of Europe. (See Chart.) Cappace BurrerFiies, Pontia, (Gr. a sea-green surface,) Brassica, (Lat. cabbage.) ‘These are common and destructive in our gardens. (Plate XV. fig. 13.) ‘The eggs are yellowish and laid on the under side of cabbages, turnips and radishes; the pale green worms come out in about a week, and attain their full size of an inch and a half, in three weeks. The Harr Streaks, genus Thecila, derive their name from the 26 . . 624 LEPIDOPTERA. delicate, straight, or zig-zag lines on the under side of the rings. Some species frequent hedges, others the oak and ash trees. The Nymphalidae, (Nympha, a nymph,) include many beauti- ful Butterflies, called Red and White Apmrrats, PainTep Lapis, .FRitTELaries, the front legs of which appear incomplete, but in their ability for strong flight, they are more than compensated for the deficiency of their feet. The genus Vanessa includes many species, of which V. Io, Peacock BurTTERFLy, is pictured on the Chart. | The TortolsE-sHELL ButTerrty, V. urtice, (Lat. of a nettle,) nearly resembles the Peacock Butterfly. ‘The Caterpillers live in societies, changing their skins frequently, and constructing a new tent on another part of the plant at each moult, until the last, when each individual feeds by itself, and the society is dissolved. The Skippers, Hesperiidae, (leading genus Hesperia,) have the four hind shanks furnished with two pairs of spurs. They have a jerking kind of flight, from which their popular name is derived; and in many respects, tiiey approach the moths. The Tityrvus Skipper, Eudamus tityrus, often strips the locust tree of its foliage. It forms its habitation of the leaves of that tree bound together by silken threads, and also feeds upon its leaves. | II. The Hawk-Moths, Sphingide, (leading genus Sphinz,) are also named Humming-Birds, being capable of flying for a long time, and of poising themselves in the air, like the Humming. Bird. (See Chart for figures of Sphinx ligusiri, or Privet-Hawk- Moth, in the larva, pupa, and imago or perfect state.) Many beautiful species of Hawk-Moths are seen on fine summer evenings, The Philampelus, (Gr. vine-lover,) Satedlitia, is of this family, (for figure of which see Chart.) III. Morus. The Ticer-Mortus, Arctiide, (Arctia,) have the feelers and tongue usually short and thick, and the antenne doubly feath- ered; both the Caterpillars and Moths are downy. They fly only at night. The family includes different genera, but we can only name the American Tiger-Moth, A. virgo, of a pink red color, with two central, triangular spots, and other markings ; and the Great-Ticer Motu, A caja, (see Chart) an English insect, but one that is represented in the A. Americana, which it closely. resembles. The latter has the base of the fore wings marked with white branching spots, which partly resemble a cress; the wing beyond the middle is also marked with a white irregular cross, something like an X. \ HEMIPTERA. 625, The S1tx-Worms, Bombycide, (leading genus Bombyz,) rep- resent some of the largest and most beautiful species of nocturnal Butterflies ; among which is the Ai‘acus luna, or Green EMPEROR Motu, which is about five inches in the expanse of wings, (see Chart ;) the Caterpillar is also of a bluish green color; when in motion, three inches in length, and in feeding, preferring the leaves of the hickory. For figures of the Bombyx mori, or Silk-. Worm in its different stages, see Chart. The larve have sixteen feet,—feed upon leaves; and spin the silken cocoon out of a single thread, with the assistance of a gummy matter, which soon hardens. Other species than the Bombyx mort, (Lat. of the mul- berry,) are reared for the silk, and more of it might be obtained, if warm water dissolved the gum of the cocoon, as it does in the true Silk-Worm. The Tineide, ( Tinea,) are the smallest Moths _in the section. These infest woolens, furs, ete. The best way .o protect such articles against these Moths, is to put them to- gether with tobacco-leaves, camphor, or turpentine, in a tight bag early in the spring, before the eggs of this insect are laid. The Honey-coms Morn, T. cerel/a, (Lat. from cera, wax,) is notorious for its depredations upon the wax of the Bee-Hive. The Lear-Roturrs, Tortricidae, ( Tortriz, i.e., twister or roller, ) comprehend many species of insects, the larvee of which do great damage to the fruit of apple and the foliage of forest trees. The larvee of the Carpocapsa, (Gr. fruit-eater,) pomone//a, (Lat. from pomum, fruit, apples, &c.,) known as the Apple-Worm, came to this country with the apple, and this worm has become natural. ized among us. Ninta Orper. Hemiptera, (Gr. “nuous, hémisus, half; wtegdy, pteron, wing.) This order is distinguished by having the rostrum or jaw compounded, i. e., formed for piercing and sucking. ‘The insects which it includes, live upon vegetables and animal juices, those feeding upon vegetables being the most numerous. The name Hemiptera, first used by Linneeus, refers to a characteristic of some of the order in having a thickening on the basal part of the anterior wings, while the other part is thin, and transparent, Others apply to it the term Rhynchota, (Gr. rhunchos, beak or gape,) having reference to the character of the mouth. The metamorphosis in this order is only semi-complete, both the iarva and pupa being active, and, at all times, taking food. The order includes two sections, viz: Homoptera, (Gr, like- wings,) and Heteroptera, (Gr. different wings,)—in the first of 626 © HEMIPTERA. which the wings are of a uniform; in the second, of a varied texture. (To the section Homoptera, Latreille gives the name Hemiptera, while Leach calls it Omoptera.)—Westwood divides the Homoptera, which he considers a distinct order, into ‘three sections, viz: Trimera, (Gr. three parts,) Dimera, (two parts,) Monomera, (one part or division,)—these terms having reference. to the divisions of the tarsi; and the Heteroptera into two sec- tions, Hydrocorisa, (residents of water,) and Aurocorisa, (resi- dents of air.) Of the Homopterous division, having the four wings all of a firm membraneous texture, are the BarxK-LIcE, or SCALE-INSECTS, Coccidea, (typ. gen. Coceus.) (Plate XV. fig. 14.) Of these there are several species,—found on the leaves and bark of dif- ferent plants. The Coccus cactz (of the cactus,) is, on account of its beautiful crimson color, used as a coloring-matter. It is a native of Mexico, and feeds upon a particular kind of Cactus, called Indian-fig, and extensively cultivated for the express pur- pose of rearing it. The annual amount of Cochineal exported to Europe is, according to Humboldt, eight hundred thousand pounds; and it requires about seventy thousand insects to make a pound. Lac or Shell-lac, employed for making sealing-wax, is the product of a species of Coccus. -The Mealy-Bug, Coceus adonidum, (of Adonises or flowers,) found in hot-houses, is red- dish, but covered with a white, powder-like substance. The Coccide belong to Westwood’s Monomera. The Puant-tice, or Vine-fretters, Aphide, (leading genus Aphis,) infest the roots of vegetables, (often doing them great injury,) and also the leaves of most plants, such as roses, asters, apples, pears, peaches, cabbages, &c.,—each plant haying its own peculiar species. Their bodies are soft, of an oval form and have upon the abdomen two tufts or pores. The females are usually wingless, but not always. The upper wings corres- ponding to the wing-covers in the Hemiptera Proper, are the larger and used for flight or as aids in leaping. To the prolific powers of the Plant-lice reference has already been made. A young leaf that curls, or that has an unhealthy appearance, is probably infested with these lice. Fumes of tobacco, turpentine or sulphur, are a remedy against them, and also against the Mealy-Bugs. The Aphide belong to the Dimera. | The Woot-FLy, or the Apple-tree-blight, Eviosoma, (Gr. erion, wool; soma, body.) is an insect of a woolly appearance; without wings, but wafted from tree to tree by its cotton envelope. Its thicroscopie eggs,—covered with the same soft, downy substance as the body, are found in the crotches and chinks of trees, where X HEMIPTERA.s 627 they hatch, and produce the Apple-tree-blight. The wounds of this insect produce warts and excrescences on the surface of the trees, and finally result in its death. The Jumpine Puant-tice, Psyllide, (Psylla, Gr. Pstlla,a gnat,) are similar to the Plant-lice, but more active. These are dimerous; they have ten articulated antenne, and the females have an ovipositor. The Lantern-FitEs, Fulgorida, (Fulgora, Lat. from fulgeo, to shine,) include a number of trimerous species of bright colors and large size. Many of them have a curious prolongation of the forehead, sometimes nearly as large as the rest of the body. Whether they are luminous or not, is a point not positively set- tled. They probably give out light at particular seasons. The species F’. candelaria, (Lat. from candela, a candle,)is yellow, and the elytra black, marked with yellow spots. It is said a Chinese edict exists against young ladies keeping Lantern-flies. The Harvest-F ies, Cicadide, (Cicada,) are distinguished by their robust body, their large and triangular head, with three stemmata, their prominent eyes; the antenne short and thin, with six articulations, and, usually, by large transparent wings. The Harvest-flies are trimerous. ‘They have. long been partic- ularly noticed on account of the noise made by the male, differ- ing in different species. ‘The species which has attracted most attention, is C. septendecitm, (Lat. seventeen,) the SEVENTEEN Years Locust, which often does very great damage to trees. The female, with her ovipositor, inserts her eggs in their tender branches, which causes them to die, so that the tops of the forests, sometimes, on this account, look as if they had been scorched by . fire. Miss M. A. Morris has ascertained that trees also suffer much from the darve of these locusts, which penetrate six inches under ground, and reach the roots. She says further, that the larvee are destroyed by those miners, the Moles. The Dog-pay Harvest-rty, C. canicularis, (Lat. from canicula, the dog-star,)—according to the observation of Mr. Harris, has, for many years in succession, been regularly heard at Cam. bridge, on the twenty-fifth day of July, between the hours of ten in the forenoon and two in the afternoon. Its body is thicker and proportionably shorter than that of the Seventeen Years Locust, but its habits:are quite similar. The Heteroptera, which have the upper wings partly thick, and partly thin, include several families. ‘Among these are the Notonectide, (Gr. back-swimmers,) the TRUE W aTErR-Bues, (Hydrocorisa,)—named from their habit of swimming with the back below. These, from the peculiar appearance of the body, 628 HEMIPTERA. are sometimes called Boat flies. The hind feet are long and fringed, held out when at rest, like a pair of oars, and used like them in swimming. The larve and pupe differ from the perfect insect only in their smaller size and the absence of wings. Hydrométridea, Water-Measurers, or Skippers, (Aurocorisa.) These live on the surface of standing or running waters, and sometimes move with great rapidity. _ The boat-shaped insects of the genus Hydrometra, (Gr. hudor, water; metron, measure,) are furnished with fore feet suited to locomotion. These move over the water rather slowly. ‘Their larvee have the abdomen extremely small, which is also true of the Oceanic Halobates, (Gr. hails, the sea; baino, to go,) which seems to confirm the general idea of Agassiz, (see our account of the Turtles,) that fresh-water forms are of higher grade than the marine. Reduviide, (Genus Reduvius.) These are another family of Skippers, which are active and predaceous, their strong beak or rostrum enabling them to pierce insects that have a covering tolerably hard. -‘The puncture which they make is said to be rather poisonous. ‘Ss Cimicide, or Land Bugs, (Aurocorisa,) include the Bed-bug, Cimex lectularia, (see Chart,) so odious, and so widely spread. It is said this bug was “unknown in England until after the -Great Fire of London, in 1666, when it was introduced in the fir-timber imported for rebuilding the city.” Westwood, how- ever, ‘asserts, it was known there as early as 1503. Coreida, (genus Corus.) These are small, elongated bugs, found’ in small fruits, some of them of a red and yellow color ‘bordering the elytra and upper surface. One species is the SquasH-Bue common on the leaves of the squash and pumpkin, which lays its eggs about the last of June. It should be crushed with the foot before that time. | Scutelleride, (genus Scutellaria.) 1. These insects derive - their family name from having the scutellum, (dimi of scwtum, a -shield;) so large as to cover the abdomen and wings. These are the bugs of unpleasant smell, found: on strawberry-vines and other berries. Some of them are above the medium size of in- sects, and not a few are clothed in bright colors... Those of the genus Pentatoma, (Gr. five sections,) are among the most com- -mon. Like others: of the family, they secrete’ an ill-scented fluid. The antenne are divided into five joints;—whence the name, ! eh DIPTERA. 629 Tento Orper. Dretera, (Gr. des, dis, twice or two; ztegor, pteron, wing.) These insects are distinguished by the possession of only two wings end a pair of small knobbed appendages, (as in the com- mon fly and the musquito,) called hadterers or poisers. The wings are membranous, and without any covering, except a few hair-like scales, which, in some species, appear at the base. They are never folded upon themselves, remaining expanded when at rest, as in the insects of the preceding order. Their nervation is quite different from that exhibited in the other orders. - The mouth is suctorial, and in many, has a fleshy proboscis, that encloses lancets capable of penetrating flesh, or the softer parts of vegetables. In a few genera, as the Oestrus or Gad-fly, the mouth is closed. These insects are all smail; but what is wanting in size is made up in numbers. They are every where, and also are attendants upon man,—sometimes to his great annoyance; but it should be remembered, they are highly useful in cleansing the earth’s surface of impurities, both animal and vegetable. In this order the transformations are imperfect. The pupz sometimes take the incomplete form,—having the limbs visible, and without a cocoon. ‘The Jarve are white and fleshy, cylindrical in shape, and without feet. They are seen in carrion and in galls; or in living caterpillars; and sometimes among vegetables pickled with vinegar, and in the brine of salt works. We can cnly refer to some of the more conspicuous families. 1. Culicide, represented by the genus Culex. (Lat.agnat.) This family includes the numerous Gnats and Musquitoes, C. pipiens, (Lat. peeping.) distinguished by the tufted antennze of the males. The pupe of these are active ; the larvee are inhabitants of water ; hence, these insects are abundant, chiefly in damp situations. Mankind are attacked by the female gnats alone; the Jancets of the mouth being in the males fewer and weaker. ‘These insects lay two or three hundred eggs in stagnant water, joined together so as to form a little raft floating upon the water, where they hatch in about three days, producing small greenish worms, that in fifteen days become the wrigglers of open rain. water casks and stagnant pools, breathing through the tail, and darting first one way, and then another. From this pupa state, they emerge as full-grown Musquitoes, Gnats, Midges, &c., breathing through openings in the sides, and ready to pierce the flesh, suck the blood, and instil their inflammatory poison into the wounds made by their pointed proboscis;—four or five generations may be 630 DIPTERA. produced ina summer. A few small fish kept in a cistern or open water cask, destroy the larvee of the gnats as fast as they hatch, and prove a sure defence against these annoying insects, so far as this source is concerned. In warm climates, these insects are a serious trouble; it there becomes indispensable to protect beds against them at night by a netting of gauze, called a Musquito-bar. 2. Tipulidae, (Lat. tipula, a water-spinner,) known asthe Dappy- LONG-LEGS. ‘These, in their slender body and feet, considerably resemble the gnats. Their antenne have, usually, from fourteen to sixteen articulations. Among them are found the insects which do the most serious injury to the crops of the farmer. These are represented in the genus Cecidomyia, including the Hessian-Fiy, C. destructor, (Lat. destroyer;) the WHEatT-FLy, the pest of wheat-fields, C. triticz, (Lat of wheat:) the WILLow- FLY, C. salicis, (Lat. of a willow,)—found in a reddish gall upon low willow-bushes. The Wueat Mince Parasite, Platygasier, (Gr. broad- belly.) ipule, (Lat. of the ¢zpula,)—a minute fly, somewhat re- sembling the Winged Ant,—performs the part of a public bene- factor, by depositing its eggs in the larve of the Wheat-midge,— (a single egg in each,) and thus preventing the development of great multitudes of them in the perfect form, though, like some other benefactors, it has been charged with committing the very injuries which it has instrumentally limited. ‘There have been collected in Europe twenty thousand species of insects preying on wheat. 3. Muscidae, (Lat. musca, a fly.) This is a well known and numerous family, as may be inferred from the fact that not much short of eighteen nundred species are described as existing in Europe alone, which is probably not half the entire number. Meigen, a German, described six hundred species which he col- lected in a distance of ten miles circumference. The type of the family, is the common House-fly, (Musca domestica.) but great diversity is exhibited in the habits of different species. Among the various kinds, are the FLesu-Fiies, Sarecophaga, (Gr. flesh-feeding ;) the Cuexse-FLies, Prophila, (Gr. very fond,) casei, (Lat: of cheese,/— the larve of which (skippers) infest cheese; and the species, P. petasionis, (Lat. of gammon,) are found in smoked hams. Piacus-FLy. During the prevalence of the Yellow Fever in Norfolk, Va., not very long since, the PLAGUE-FLY, as it is called, made its appearance there in large numbers. ‘This is a flat in- © sect, with black back and red belly, and has very large wings. APHANIPTERA. 631 its presence, during the time of pestilence, is regarded’ asa good omen, it being supposed to.devour the malaria. Bot-FLIES. 4, Oestride, (Lat. oestrus, a gad-bee,) The flies of this family, the larvee of which are known by the name of Dots, infest different quadrupeds, and a species fouud in Peru, as- sails man-himself. The horse licks them off his coat; they -are then hatched by the warmth and moisture of the mouth, and conveyed to the stomach; sometimes they are laid in the skin of the ox, Antelope, ete., and on the head of sheep. They are called gastric, cutaneous, and cervical, according to the place in which they breed. From the O. bovis (bovis Lat. of an ox,) oxen run to the water for protection. The Oestrus tarandi deposits its eggs under the skin of the Rein Deer. The presence of these insects occasions much annoyance and terror to these and other animals, upon whom the larve are deposited. GAD-FLIES. 5. Tabanide, (Lat. tabanus, an ox-fly, or gad-fly.) This family includes the largests insects of the order, having prominent eyes, and a mouth which, in the female, has six, and the male, four piercers. Many of the perfect insects are greedy of flesh and insects,—and some are so even in the larva state. They often become a great pest to cattle. In Africa, it is said, even the lion is afraid of them. The males of these insects draw their nourishment from flowers; the females alone are blood-suckers. ELEVENTH OrperR. APHANIPTERA. (Gr. ageric, aphanes, not manifest; ategdv, pteron, wing.) This order includes the tribe of Fleas, Pulicide, (Lat. pulez, a flea,) having no proper wings, but simply two scales on each side. All of them are very minute in size, and similar in their habits. In their perfect state, they are parasitic. The larve of Fleas, (Pulex trritans, (Lat. provoking,) issue from the ege in the form of very small worms, that attain their full size in about twelve days, and feed upon animal matter. In the silken cocoon , which they weave for themselves, they pass in quiet the pupa state. The Cuicor, Jiccrr, &c., P. penetrans, (Lat. piercing, ) is numerous in the West Indies and South America. It often buries itself deeply in the skin, both of men and animals, depos- iting an immense number of eggs, which, when hatched, are extremely irritating, and sometimes produce ulcers and death. dl 632 APTERA. Against these insects, wormwood is a remedy. For this order Latreille proposed the name SripHonostoma, (Gr. siphon, or sucker-mouth. ) TweELFTH Orper. APTERA, (Gr. dté90¢, apteros, wingless.) These wingless insects Latreille arranges into two orders,— (1) Tuysanaura, (Gr. thusanoi, hairs ; oura, tail,)—which in- cludes the Sucar-ttce, &c., Lepismide, (from Lepisma, a scale,)— so named from their minute silver colored scales. They have a row of movable appendages, resembling false legs, on each side of the abdomen, which is terminated by long jointed hairs or bristles ; and also the Sprine-taits, Poduride, (from Podura, Gr. pous, a foot; oura, a tail,) that have the abdomen lengthened into a forked tail, by which they are enabled to make surprising leaps. Some species are found on trees or among moss; others beneath stones, or, at the time of a thaw, they are sometimes seen hopping about on the snow. | (2) Parasira, which includes the different kinds of lice, Pedicu- lide, (from Lat. Pediculus, a louse,)—almost entirely destitute of eyes, most prolific and most disgusting ; —their very name presents a warning against a want of cleanliness; aiso Bird-lice, Nirmide, which infest birds, not feeding-upon blood, but ob- taining their food from the feathers, in which they are found. CaeEEs Which is the Szconp Sus-Kinecpom? Why are they so named? How do they differ from the Vertebrates and Mollusks? What is said of their skin, limbs and body? In which division is the articulated character of these animals most conspicuous? How is it in the Crustaceans, Spiders, &c.? What is remarked of their muscles? Of what material is the skele- ton of most of them formed? What is said of their muscular power? In what respects do these animals most resemble each other? Describe it. What is said of their senses? Of their digestive apparatus, &c.? Into how many classes may they be arranged? What is the Firra Part or Zootocy? What is the First Crass or AR- TICULATES? To what does the name Insects refer? Of how many sections is the body usually composed? What is said of the antenne? How many legs and wings have true insects? What contains the digestive organs ? How is the breathing accomplished? Describe the circulation and nervous system. What is said of the mouth? What forms the most striking pecu- liarity? What is said of the eggs? When does the larva state commence? What is said of it as related to different insects? What is the third state? Name its modifications. Describe it as presented in the different orders. What is the insect in its last or perfect state called? Mow does it differ from the insects as existing in the other states? Can insects long abstain from food? -What facts illustrate their prolific nature? Where do they deposit their eggs? In what respects are they beneficial, and in what inju- MYRIAPODA. 633 ‘rious? What is said of their locomotive powers? Of their organs of sense? Are they all terrestrial ? What is the First ORDER oF Insects? What is said of its number? Of its various forms, colors, &c.? What characters of this order are given? What is said of the Tiger Beetles? Give particulars respecting the other families named? What is the Seconp OrDER? What characters are given? In what two genera are its insects included? What is said of them? What is the THIRD OrDER? In what other order are these insects sometimes in- cluded? Why? How do they differ from it? Describe the Earwies. What is the FourtH OrpreR? Give its characters. Name the sections into* which the order has been divided. Upon what are they founded? De- scribe the families referred to. What is the Firra OrpER? What genera does it include? Describe the wings of these insects. Why called Caddis- flies? What is the Sixth OrpER? What characters are given? How many families is it said to include? What is said of the Dracon-Fity? Of the Anr-Lion? Of the May-flies? State particulars respecting the Txr- Mites. What is the SevenrH OrpER? What chaiacteristics can you give? In what respects are these insects remarkable? What two sections does this order include? What is the chief peculiarity of each? What is said of the Saw-riies? Describe the different species of Wasps. Of Ants and Brees. What is the E1gutH OrpER? What are its leading characteristics? What division of insects does it include? What are its leading characteris- ties? Give some account of the Butterflies. Of the Hawk-Moths and Moths Proper. What is the Ninra OxpEr? —Howis it distinguished? What two sections does it include? Howare the Homoptera characterised ? What is said of the Bark-lice? Of the Plant-lice? Of the Harvest-flies or Cicadide? Ofthe Tree-hoppers? How are the Heteroptera characterised? Describe the Families mentioned. What is the TenrH ORDER? How are these insects distinguished, &c.? Describe the families referred to. What does the ELEVENTH OrDER include? What is said of them? What is the TwreLrra OrpER? How does Latreille ‘arrange it? What is said of the Sugar-lice? Of the Spring-tails? Of the Lice-Tribe? SECTION II. Seconp Crass. Myriapona, (Gr. “vglos, murios, innumerable ; movs, pous, a foot.) The Articulates of this class occupy a position between in- sects and worms. They agree with the Annelidans in the lengthened extension of their trunk, in the similarity of the seg- ments from one end of the body to the other, and in their cylin. drical form. ‘They, however, have more complete eyes than any of the Worms; and in their breathing apparatus and other parts of their organization, are more like the Insects. From the latter they differ in the absence of wings, and in having the body divided into a series of segments, each of which is provided with a pair of legs. 634 CHILOPODA. The Class is divided into two orders: I. Curtoropa; Il. Cut- LOGNATHA. In both orders, the first segment, or head, is furnished with nu- merous eyes on each side, and also with a pair of jointed anten- nee; the mouth is fitted for mastication, being provided with a pair of powerful cutting jaws; in the centipede and its allies it has also a pair of appendages formed by a metamorphosis of the legs of the first segment of the body. These are adapted ._ not only to hold and tear its prey, but to ‘convey poison into the wounds thus made, the poison being ejected through a minute aperture near their points, (Carpenter.) The covering of these animals is firm and of a horny character. The number of feet varies from twelve pair to upwards of three hundred. The muscular apparatus consists of a series of distinct mus- cles for moving the segments and legs. When the young is hatched, it consists of but few segments, but these increase in number until it is fully grown, by the sub-division of the last segment but one. The firstnumber of segments is eight or nine; but they continue toincrease until the number is sixty or seventy. The larva has no legs, these organs not appearing until after the first exuviation of the skin. During their growth, the Myria- poda have considerable power to reproduce lost portions of their body, such as the legs and antenne, but this power is lost when their development ceases. ‘The bite of these animals: is said to be more injurious than that of scorpions, but not often fatal. Ammonia is the best remedy. First ORDER. CHILOPoDA, (Gr. ethos, cheilos, lip ; bus, a. a foot; i.e., lip formed from foot.) CENTIPEDES. This Order contains sixteen genera, including about one hund- red species, and arranged into four families. ‘The name Scolo- pendride, was formerly given to it, but is now appropriated to one of the families of which the leading genus is Sco/opendra. The CeNTIPEDE, Scolopendra, (Gr. centipede,) has four pair of eyes, a flattened body containing, with the head, twenty-two seg- ments, and one pair of legs to each segment. Under the second lip, which is formed by the second pair of dilated feet, and ter- minates in a sharp hook, is an opening through which a poison- ous fluid is thrown out. These animals are nocturnal; and in the West India Islands and the hot parts of this continent, they are formidable pests. They often find their way into beds, in the most cleanly houses. Their bite is extremely painful when CHILOGNATHA. 635 first given, and is followed by local inflammation and fever. The Centipedes of this genus live upon animal matter, and run rap- idly. They grow to be five or six, and even twelve inches in - length. ig The Exectric Centirepe, Geophilus, (Gr. loving the ground,) electricus, possesses electrical properties, giving out at night a light nearly equal to that of the glow-worm. Some species of this genus will live a day or two in water, and for the space of two weeks, parts of the body will stir after being separated. The Centipepe, Scutigera, (Lat. shield-bearing,) coleoptrata, is widely diffused on the Eastern continent. It is found in the United States, to which it is supposed to have been introduced in shipping. Other prominent species are the Lone-HorNED CENTIPEDE, (see Chart,) and the Brush-tailed Centipede, (Plate XV. fig. 18b.) SeconD Orpber. CuitoenaTHa, (Gr. xetdos, chetlos, a lip ; 7400s, gnathos, a jaw ; i.e., lip formed from the jaw.) MILLIPEDES. This order includes the Millipedes, which have two pair of feet, (Plate XV. fig. 18a,) attached to each of the numerous seg- ments, and usually terminated by a simple claw. They are nearly allied to the Centipedes, but the body, instead of being flattened, is often cylindrical. These animals move slowly ; when disturbed or at rest, they roll themselves up into the form of a ball. Their eyes are composed of numerous hexagonal lenses, as in the insect tribes. The spiracles or breathing holes are situated behind each pair of feet. Besides these, there are outlets for odoriferous glands, situated on the sides. ‘The Milli- pedes usually feed upon putrescent matter. They are included in fourteen genera, with about eighty species, embraced in six families. 3 The Gatity-Worm, or THousanp-LEGGED Worm, Iulus ter- restris, (see Chart.) has about forty segments, to which are at- tached innumerable feet, in pairs or fours. When disturbed, this worm gives forth a fluid of a very disagreeable odor, from the orifices on the sides of. the body. , There are five species of the genus Iu/us. The BorperEp lutus, I. marginatus, (Lat. bordered,) is about three inches long, blackish, with a rufous border on the segments. This is com. mon in the United States. The Pitt Centirepe, Glomeris, (a ball,) is a myriapode re- sembling the wood louse in its form, and its habit of rolling itself into a Dall. a 636 _ ARACHNIDA. Trirp Crass. ARacunipa, (Gr. dotyr7, arachne, a spider.) These animals, including Spiders, Mites, and Scorpions, are separated from Insects on account of their external form, struc- ture and habits. They differ from Insects in having no antenne, in the eyes, which are in most species eight, and even when two in number, are never placed on the side of the head ; in the legs, which are usually eight, though in some species six, and in others ten in number ; in the breathing apparatus, consisting of radiated wind-pipes, communicating with a sort of gills inclosed in pouches in the lower part of the abdomen. | The skin of the Arachnida is in general rather leathery and horny ; like the bones of the larger animals, giving’ support to the soft parts, and attachment to the muscles, the legs being ex- ternally united to a common breast plate, from which they radiate. The greater portion of these animals are carnivorous, and furnished with organs adapted to their predatory life. Nerve-knots, or ganglia, make up the nervous system of the Arachnida. ‘These are uniform in their composition, and more concentrated than in the Insects. The organ of hearing in these animals is not known; though it is certain that they hear. The eyes of Spiders and Scorpi- ons, externally formed in exactly the same manner, * are smooth, glittering, and without divisions; and are as much dispersed as _ those that are disposed at random over the body. The Wolf. Spider, which catches its prey by leaping on it, has its eyes placed in the same manner.” Male spiders are uniformly much smaller than the females, being often not one-fourth as large. The female spider lays nearly one thousand eggs in a season. These are soft and compressible, before they are laid, lying in the ovarium, or egg-bag, within the spider’s body, squeezed to- gether in a flat manner, but when laid, assuming a round form. The eggs are excluded unlike those of birds, from a cavity just behind the breast. Here there is a hook-like organ which the spider can move in such a manner as to direct each egg to the exact spot in the nest cup where it would have it placed. The sense of touch in this organ must be very acute, as by touch alone it can be guided, the eyes being so situated in the upper part of the head, that they cannot be brought within sight of the nest. Latreille arranges the Arachnida into two orders :— I. Pulmonaria, (Lat. pulmo, a lung.) which have pulmonary sacs or air-pipes for respiration, similar to those of Insects, and from six to twelve eyelets. These include the Common Spipers, _ ARACHNIDA. 637 Araneida, (Lat. araneida, a spider,) usually having eight feet, (Plate XV. fig. 19b.) The palpi or feelers resemble small feet, without a claw at the tip. The frontal ones are terminated by a movable hook curving downwards, having on the under side a slit for the emission of a poisonous fluid which is secreted in a. gland of the preceding joint. ‘Though much is said of the ef. fects of spider-bites, “ there is still wanting evidence on which to rest the charge of poisoning man by biting him,” even against spiders of tropical climates. Sometimes, however, the bite of the larger ones produces unpleasant inflammation. At the same time, people “ have been known to eat them with bread, as a great delicacy.” The most remarkable office of spiders is that of weaving their webs, by means of a silken thread drawn from fleshy warts sit- uated on the abdomen, four to six in number, containing thou- sands of openings, from each of which descends a thread, so thin as to be invisible to the naked eye until all are formed into a common thread. One set of warts or spinnerets is employed in producing threads which are glutinous, while another set pro- duces those which are smooth. ‘This may be shown by throwing some dust upon a spider’s web like that of the GarDEN SPIDER, Eipira (Gr. peiré, to affix,) diadema, which weaves one of the strongest, when it will be found to adhere to those which are spi- rally arranged, but not to those which radiate from the center, which are the stronger ones. ‘Their webs have been manufac- tured into stockings and gloves; to obtain one pound of spider’s silk, however, the webs of six hundred thousand spiders would be. needed. A curious thing in the natural history of spiders is their power of reproducing their limbs after they have been broken off; in such cases it is never a part of a leg which is reproduced ; but if a part of a leg be removed, it proceeds to throw off the residue, and after the next moult, the missing limb again appears. The Mason, or Trap-poor Spiper, Mygale, (Gr. mugalé, a mouse-spider,) cementaria, constructs a sort of tube in which it dwells and lies in wait for such animals as come within reach. Some of the holes or tubes are closed by a trap door. The largest species is found in South America. The Lycosa (Gr. lukos, a kind of spider, ) tarantula, the Ta. RANTULA Of Italy, is the poisonous species the bite of which, it has been supposed, could be cured by music. Some species of the same genus are found in the United States. The Pedipalpi, (Lat. feelers to the foot,) differ from the Spi- ders proper, chiefly in the great development of the palpi or feel- ers, which form long arms, ending in a pincer-like claw. 638 TRACHEARIA. ; The Scorpions, Scorpionide, form the larger part of this di- vision. These have a jointed, tail-like extension of the abdo- men, ending in a’curved spur. (Plate XV. fig. 19a.) They are found in temperate as well as tropical regions, living under stones, in damp places, and evenin houses. ‘They are particularly fond of the eggs of spiders and insects. Their sting is said to be- come increasingly poisonous as the animal grows older. The generality of Scorpions, as Scorpio Europeus, have six ¢yes; but there are some of the most formidable kind, as Scor- pio afer, the Arrican Scorpion, which have eight. Seconp Orper. TracHearta, (Gr. Toayev, tracheta, a wind- pipe-) This includes those forms of the class which have two or four eyes, and breathe by means of trachial tubes or air-pipes, simi- lar to those of Insects. These include, (1) the various forms of Mites, Acaride, such as the Caesse-Mites, Acarus, the Itch- Mite, A. scabiez, (of itch,) named from the cutaneous disease of which it is the origin; the Suecar-Mits, A. saccharinum, found in the brown sugar of commerce; the Rep Spiper, A. tellarius, the pest of hot houses and green houses, &c. Camphor and sulphur are the best remedies for removing these minute, and some of them almost microscopic animals. These are net now considered as ranking among insects, differing from them as they do, in structure, and having in most cases, like spiders, eight feet, while no insect has more than six feet. (2) Ticks, Ricinia, — ricinus, a tick,) embracing the genus Izodes, (Gr. sticky,) (Pl. XV., fig. 19.) some species of which are free, and others parasitic. The latter are without eyes. They are well known from attack- ing sheep, cows, horses, dogs, and even tortoises, burying their suckers so deeply in the skin that they cannot be removed with- out tearing the flesh. They deposit a prodigious quantity of esas, which are discharged from the mouth. (3) SHEPHERD Spipers, or Harvest-men, Phalangide, genus Phalangium, (Lat. a spider,) of which the greater part live upon the ground, on plants, or at the roots of trees, and are very active; others, which are less active, hide themselves between stones, or in mosses. Their legs are long and slender, the tarsi consisting of more than fifty joints. These spider-like creatures are known as Harry- long-legs. (4) The Sea Spivers, Nymphonide, are also in- cluded in this order, though sometimes referred to the class Crustacea,, Our limits do not allow us to enumerate a// the families, or to give any further particulars respecting those which are mentioned. | CRUSTACEANS. Entom o st¥aca. ze Soo ee ee ae Tetradecapoda. A — SBS ¢ (AA em ARCA a Pe ANNELIDANS,onm WORMS: Tubuhbranchiates : Dorsibranchiates 5 EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. CRUSTACEANS. Fig. 1. A. Kine Cras, Motiucca Cras or Horse Foor; a, the opening through which the animal emerges when casting off the old shell; b, small feet in front of the mouth, considered by some naturalisis as antenne, or feelers; c, the other five pair of true feet surrounding the mouth, used for walking and mastication; d, triangular shield cover- ing the body to which the five pair of false feet or swimming legs are attached; e, long pointed tail. B, Branchipus stagnalis, in road-side ditches and cart-wheel ruts. Fig. 2a. Sow Bue, or Woon-Louse; b, Limnoria terebrans; c, Fluvicola; 1, under side; 2, upper side, d, Trilobite, found only in a fossil state. Fig. 8. Craw-FisH, or FrResu-water Lopster; (Astacus fluviatilis ;) a, five pair of true feet; b, inner antenne, supposed-to be the organs of hearing; c, outer and longer antenne, organs for smelling; d, five broad caudal plates, by which the animal is assisted to dart about so rapidly. Fig. 4. A, Duck Barnacies, Pedunculated or Stalked Cirripedes; a, pe- duncle or stalk by which they are attached to submerged substances after the third moult; b, shell of five or more valves; c, six pair of feathery cirri for obtaining its food; B, Acorn Barnacles, (Ses- sile Cirripedes,) composed of six valves, with an operculum or cover of four pieces, between which the curly tentacule protrude. ANNELIDANS, OF WORMS. Fig. 5. Vermilia, (a,) lives in an irregular twisted tube, attached by its whole length to shells, stones, &c. Fig. 6. Sea Centipede, or Nereis; organs and gills distributed throughout the body; each of its numerous feethas two tubercles, two bundles of bristles, and a cirrus above and beneath. REP-RLOODED WORMS. Fig. 7. A. Medicinal Leech; a, the mouth, with three sharp teeth disposed in a triangle; no distinct head; moves by the adhesion and detach- ment of the sucking disks at each extremity. B. Earth or Angle Worm; eight retractile bristles on the under side of each ring, assisting in their contractions and dilations, enabling it to creep at a pretty good pace; no distinct head, but the fore part, (a,) acts as a sort of awl in penetrating the earth. ENTOZOA, INTESTINAL, OF WHITE-BLOODED WORMS. Fig. 8. Fluke, Distoma; a, upper side; b, under side; an inch long; two eyes; two suckers; infests the liver of animals. In sheep it pro- duces or aggravatesthe disease called the rot. Fig. 9. Tape worm; flat or ribbon-like: sometimes 60 or 100 feet long, with 500 divisions, each of which adheres to the intestine by a strong sucker, and may become a separate and perfect animal. Phe seg- ments diminish in size so as to form a thin neck with a small globose head, (a,) mouth very indistinct. SIXTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. CRUSTACEOLOGY. (Lat. crustaceg ; Gr. doyos, logos, a discourse. ) Crass Crustacea. (Lat. from crusta, a shell or crust. ) SECTION I. Tuts Class includes animals, some of which dwell on land, others in fresh or salt water, and which are- covered with a soft shell or crust. They are oviparous, and divided into segments or rings, articulated into each other, to the inside of which their muscles are attached. The outer covering generally possesses a considerable degree of hardness, containing no small propor- tion of carbonate of lime. Its solidity varies; sometimes it is membranous. The way in which the animals free themselves from the old shell is quite singular; they generally manage to get out of it without occasioning the least change in its ‘form. When the shell is first stripped off, the surface of their bodies is extremely soft; and it is some time before the substance which has been exuded from the pores on the surface of their skin, acquires a hard consistence. They generally have a distinct heart and a circulatory system or blood vessels, but no internal skeleton, properly so called. They breathe by means of gills or branchial plates, or else by the skin. The breathing apparatus is adapted to aquatic rather than aérial respiration. In those genera in which the head is ‘not separated from the thorax, the shield protects the whole of the thorax. Other genera have the head distinct from the body, which is divided into seven segments, to the lower sides of which \ is MALACOSTRACAs 643 the feet are attached; these, for the most part, have a tail, con- sisting of many segments. The limbs vary from six to four- teen, each having six articulations. The two front limbs, and sometimes even three on each side, are provided with pincers at other times they are terminated by simple hooks, and not un- frequently, they have appendages which fit them for swimming. There are two mandibles, a lip below, and from three to five pairs of jaws; these small, leg-shaped appendages are not adapted to locomotion, but being placed near the mouths, assist in the operation of feeding. The eyes vary in number, usually being compound, seated on peduncles, which are sometimes movable, and at others fixed. Some of the parasitic species are destitute of eyes in their per- fect state, though possessing them when young and able to swim about. ‘The Crustacea have the senses of taste and hearing, probably also have that of smelling, though the precise location of its organ has not been ascertained. Some of them have the power of emitting light in the dark. Others are able not only to detach one of their limbs when seized upon by an adversary, but can reproduce the severed limb. ‘This, however, is always of a less size than the others, until it has once or twice changed its crust. _ The Crustaceans include five orders. First Orper. Matracosrraca, (Gr. wahaxdcs, malakos, soft ; dateaxoy, ostrakon, shell;) or Decapoda, (Lat. ten-footed.) This Order is divided into two sections. (1) Brachyoura, (Gr. short-tailed,) including the Crass, the species of which are various in size, color, and modes of living, having bodies covered by an external skeleton or calcareous crust, with ten articulated limbs, adapted for swimming and for walking also, (with oblique steps,) and breathing by gills. They have two pincer-like claws, and jointed antenne, and throw off their crust annually, at the end of spring. When they have lost a pincer or foot, it is repro- duced with the new shell, and also at other times. When their legs or claws become injured or are touched with a_ hot iron, they themselves cast them off. The material out of which the new shell is hardened, is furnished by two calcareous con- cretions, called Crabs’ eyes, found in summer on both sides of the stomach. These animals live on dead bodies, pu- trid flesh, and all descriptions of worms and insects found in water. Our references to species must be confined chiefly to those noticed on the Chart. The Episte Cras, of England and 644 MALACOSTRACA. Western Europe, Cancer pagurus, (Gr. pagouros, a crab.) some- times attains a large size, weighing ten or twelve pounds. It casts its shell between Christmas and Easter. The Common EprpLe Cras of the United States, Lupa has- tata, (Lat. from hasta, a spear;) is of smaller size. In forty- eight hours after the old shell is cast, it is renewed and firmly consolidated. In the interval, these Crabs are termed * Soft- shelled,” and eagerly sought after. They are abundant in the muddy shores of bays and inlets. Lone-TAILED CRUSTACEANS. (2) The Macroura, (Gr. long-tailed.) are so named from the large and well developed tail, ending in a fan-shaped fin, which assists them in swimming. ‘They walk well, but are best adap- ted for swimming, shooting backwards through the action of the abdomen and the tail fin. The antenne are usually long, the first pair not being received into a cavity as in the Crabs. The Palinurus, is a large crab, shaped much like a lobster, but is more cylindrical with none of the feet cheliform or claw- like. It isarmed with a very hard crust, and is in general use when in season, as an article of food. Prof. Dana, (Silliman’s Journal.) speaks of two gigantic species of this genus, P. vu/garis, of the Mediterranean, (see Chart,) and P. alandii, of the Cape of Good Hope, each a foot and a half long, independent of the an- tenne. The Common Prawn, Palemon vulgaris, found near our coasts or at the mouths of rivers, is nearly allied to the Prawn of England, P. serratus, (Lat. saw-shaped ;) these’ are esteemed a great delicacy ; also allied to the species P. squii/a, (a prawn.) of the European continent. The Common Prawn is not more than an inch and a half in length; but the River Prawn of the Carolinas and Florida, P. fluviatidis, is seven or eight inches long. / The River Cray or Craw Fisu, Astacus, (Gr. astakos, a kind of lobster.) fluviatilis, (Plate XVI. fig. 3, with explanation,) ‘may be regarded as the Fresh Water Lobster. It is found in the fresh waters of Europe and the north of Asia, placing itself in holes of the banks, or under stones, where it lies in wait for small mollusks, little fishes, the larvee of insects and decom- posed animal substances upon which it subsists. It is said that it will live for upwards of twenty years, and becomes large in proportion to its age. The eggs, when laid, are collected under the lower part of the body or tail; the young, which at birth are very soft, take refuge under the tail of the parent for some days. TETRADECAPODAe 645 Several species of the River Lobster are found in the United States. It is supposed to live about twenty years. The LozstEr, Astacus marinus, is very abundant and of great commercial value. Good sized ones are four and a half inches long, from the tip of the head to the end of the back shell. The pincers of one of the tail claws are furnished with knobs, and those of the other claw are serrated. With the former it keeps firm hold of the stalks of sub-marine plants, and with the latter, it cuts and minces its food very dexterously. The fecundity of the Lobster is very great. Dr. Baster says that “he counted 12,444 eges under the tail of one female lobster, besides those that remained in the body unprotruded.” Ina boiled lobster they are bright red and called the coral. Lobsters are very voracious, and are caught at night in pots or traps made of twigs baited with garbage, (refuse flesh, entrails, &c.,) or in nets let down into the sea, the place being marked by a buoy. Some- times they are taken by torch light, with a pair of tongs or for- ceps of wood. Their eyes are placed so that they can see in every direction. When alarmed, they spring to a surprising distance. Usually they weigh one or two pounds, but sometimes four or even six. ! The Common Logster of this country, Homarus, (Astacus,) Americanus, (see Chart,) is, however, much larger, averaging in weight four pounds, and sometimes reaching the weight of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty pounds. The Common Shrimp of Europe, Crangon, (Gr. krangén, a shrimp.) vulgaris, is closely allied to the shrimp of our own country ; it is of a pale greenish color, about an inch and a half or an inch and three-fourths in length. The C. septemspinosus, (Lat. seven-spined,) is known by the name of Bait shrimp, and extensively used. It is found from Florida to the Arctic regions. (3) Anomoura, (Gr. anomalous tail.) This is a section inter. mediate to the two preceding, including crabs having the front part of the body crustaceous; the lower part soft and rolled upon itself. They are in the habit of resorting to the dead shell of a univalve mollusk, which is exchanged for a larger one as ~ they increase in size, and seem to prefer the shells of the Tro- choide, (see Chart.) Hence they are called Hermir Crass. Seconp Orper. Terrapecapopa, (Gr. fourteen-footed.) This includes several families of small Crustaceans, some of them marine or fresh-water species; some of them terrestrial or parasitic, which, from the number of their feet, may be referred 646 TETRADECAPODA. to the present order. We follow Prof. Dana in placing here (1) the Woov.tice, Oniscide, (Gr. oniskos. a wood-louse,)— sometimes referred to the order Jsopoda, (Gr. equal-footed.) These have fourteen slender feet, adapted to walking, and the first pair of antenne rudimentary ; the second pair being alone complete and conspicuous. . The species Oniscus asellus, (Lat. a chee-slip or sow-insect,) (Plate XVI. fig. 2a,) is the Common Sow-sue, found under stones and decaying wood. ‘The fourteen feet gradually increase in size from the front; the antennee have eight articulations. ‘The Sow-bug feeds upon decomposed veg- etables. It carries its eggs in a sac beneath the body. The color is dusky brown above; beneath greyish white. ‘The Porcel- lio, (Lat. a sow-bug or wood-louse,) spznicornis, (Lat. spiny horns,) is very similar to the Oniscus, but its antenne have only seven articulations. The third joint of the antenne is armed with an acute spine. This also has the popular name of Sow-bug, and is found in similar situations with the preceding. The species P. granulatus, (Lat. granulated,) or Hog-louse, is black and un- spotted. It is roughened with small elevated grains,—whence the specific name. To the Sow-bugs are similar, in most respects, those of the genus Armadillo, which, from their habit of rolling themselves into a ball, are known by the name of Pitt-sues. These are of - dull lead color, with three lines of large yellowish spots on the upper part. The WuHate-touse, Cyamus ceti, (see Chart,) referred by La- treille to the order Lamopipopa, (Gr. throat or jaw-footed, )—the Oniscus ceti, of Lion., has at least twelve feet, of which eight are perfect, and the others in the form of slender, jointed append- ages. It attaches itself to whales, and occasionally to tunnies and other large fish. (2) The Sanp, or Beacu Fieas, Gammaride.—sometimes re- ferred to the order Ampuipopa, (so named from having two kinds’ of feet, cheliform or claw-like, and simple.) The family in- cludes several genera and species. Orchestria, (from Gr. orchecomai, to leap,) longicornis, (Lat. long horned,) is a species having the lower antennze longer than the body, and the four front feet terminated in a compressed claw. They subsist upon dead animal substances. They are found on the shores of Long Island, where, to conceal themselves, they dig holes in the sand. Other Sand or Beach Fleas are included in the genus Talitrus. Of this is the species T. quadrifidus, (Lat. four-cleft,) which have a body composed of thirteen segments, exclusive of the head; and the antenne shorter than the body. ‘The tail has ENTOMOSTRACA. 647 three ‘appendages terminating in four spines,—whence the spe- cific name. These are of a dark horn color, and frequently found hidden under stones and sea-weed. The genus Gammarus includes FresH-water Surimes, which are very active, and common in running streams. ‘They may: often be found under stones and pieces of wood. These have the last joint of the antennze composed of numerous minute ones ; the upper antenne are as long as the lower, and sometimes longer, with four articulations, the last ending in a bristle,—the lower antenne have five articulations ; the tail has small, bundle- like spines... We can barely name the parasitic Cymothoids, (genus Cymo- thoa,) which are fourteen footed,—formerly arranged with the Isopoda, most of which attach themselves to the mouths and gills of fishes,—and of which the Seriolis has been thought to present, at first sight, a resemblance to the extinct form of the Trilobites, Ligia is another genus of the present order, having an oval, oblong body, with transverse segments, and two short append. ages at the end of the tail. The two outer antenne are quite conspicuous. (See figure of L. oceanica, Plate XVI. fig. 2b.) Limnoria is another marine genus, which has the head nearly as large as the first segment; the tail has six distinct rings with two appendages on each side. The species L. terebrans, (Lat. boring,) can roll themselves up into a ball. These, and the Ligia oceanica, both in great numbers sometimes attack the timbers of ships, docks, etc., and soon render them useless. Tuigp Orper. Entomostraca, (Gr. évtoue, entoma, an insect; datgaxoy, ostrakén, a shell, i. e., shell insects. ) This term is applied to Crustacean§ for the most part inhabit- ing fresh-water. In these, the nervous knots which supply the place of the brain, consist of one or two globules merely. The heart assumes the form of a long vessel. The gills are com- posed of hair-like processes, forming a portion of the feet, or of a certain number among them, and sometimes the mandibles and upper jaws. The number of feet varies, and in some genera is said to be over a hundred. Nearly all have a shell, consisting of one or two pieces, generally almost membranous and transparent,—the coverings are like those of the insects, rather horny than calcareous. ‘The antenne, varying much in form and number, serve in many species for swimming. Dr. Baird says, most of them are “ essentially carnivorous.” 648 ENTOMOSTRACA. In this he discerns a decided fitness, as tending to prevent the hurtful effects of putrid air that might attend the decomposition of the amazing number of these animals abounding in ponds and ditches. ‘These Crustaceans, however, in their turn, become the prey of other animals. They form a considerable part of the food of fishes; and it is thought that the quality of some of the fresh-water fishes, of which a species of trout may be particularly mentioned, may, in some degree, depend upon the abundance of this portion of their food. Among the genera belonging to this order, we refer first to the Cyclops, (see Chart,) (Gr. circular or rounded eye,)—a fresh-water genus, in which the body is pear- shaped, and the upper, or larger pair of antenne, are employed as aids to locomotion. Species of these may be seen jerking themselves along in springs and stagnant waters. When they lose part of an antenna, it reappears as, in the case of some others of the class, at the time of the next moult. . They are carnivo- rous, and when without other food, even eat up their own young. Some of the kindred marine species appear to be phosphorescent. These minute Crustaceans are very prolific. ‘They are tena- cious of life, reviving after having been frozen, though they soon die when removed from water and dried. Many of them furnish food to the water larve of insects. (2) Daphnia, (Gr. a laurel-berry,)—the ArBorescenT WaTER- Frea. In this genus the body is enclosed in a bivalve shell, though the head is exposed, having a compound and somewhat movable eye. These Crustaceans are found in stagnant waters in company with the Cyclops, which they resemble in their move- ments. ‘They are sometimes so numerous in water as to give it “a muddy hue, like the red dust of iron, or as if blood had been mixed with it.’ On the back of the shell is seen, at certain sea- sons, a black saddle-shaped appendage, containing two eggs, from which, in the spring, the species are reproduced. (3) Cypris, (see Chart.) This is likewise enclosed in a bivalve shell, with a dorsal hinge. ‘The antenne are four,—the second pair large, and fitted to aid in swimming. Many species may be seen in summer-time swimming about in stagnant pools, and they often show beautiful variations of color. (4) Limulus or Polyphemus,—this is sometimes referred to the order XipHosura, (Gr. sword-tail,)—a name referring to the long, hard, and sharp tail-spine of this creature, which, in some places, is used for pointing spears. The body is covered with a large carapace shield, (Plate XVI. fig. 1;) is rounded in front, having the hind part smallest, with spines on the sides, and deep notches behind; the gill-feet are appended to the abdomen. Six feet, CIRRIPEDES. 649 strongly articulated and adapted to walking, are attached to the thorax. The common name of these Crustaceans, is the King- Crab or Horse-foot. The first name refers to its size, the last to its shape. ‘They feed on animal substances, and are gathered as food for hogs and poultry, and also used as manure. Lamarck calls them giant branchiopods, in allusion to the gigantic stature of some of the species. The color is of a uniform dark brown. To this order we assign the T’R1LoBITEs, (sometimes arranged in a separate order,)—fossil animals, the knowledge of which is limited to the shell or crust. (Plate XVI. fig 2d.) Feet have not been found in connexion with their remains, so that it cannot be certainly known whether or not they possessed these mem- bers. Agassiz remarks, “there is an incompleteness and want of development in the form of their body that strongly reminds us of the embryo among the Crabs.” Their food is supposed to have been small water animals; their habitat the vicinity of coasts in shallow waters, where they lived gregariously in vast numbers. We here also place Pluvicola Herricki, a singular Crustaceous animal which has been found adhering to rocks in and near the water of West Canada Creek. “It is detached with considerable difficulty, and when so detached, partially rolls itself up.””. (DeKay.) The locality in which they are found, is noted for fossils and petrefactions; and, as De Kay intimates, it is a singular coincidence that it should furnish animals so strongly resembling the extinct trilobites, see Plate XVI. (fig. 1 and 2c,)— which presents figures of some of these animals that were found in Clinton, Oneida county, N. Y., in a ravine a little North of Hamilton College. They seem to be allied to the present order. FourtH Orper. CirripeDEs, or Cerruopopa, (Lat. cirri, ring. lets or tufts ; pedes, feet.) ‘hese animals were ranked by the earlier naturalists among the Mollusks, and they certainly possess many characters in common with some of those animals, yet exhibit greater sym., metry of form. The body is prolonged, and from each side pro- ceed long and slender feet, curving together into a kind of curl,— whence the name Ctrripedes, curl or tuft footed. They are in- closed in a shell, which is more or Jess conical. These animals are subject to a metamorphosis, the young having two valves like the bivalve Mollusks, and capable of swimming about until they become permanently affixed. In this state, they are able to protrude the limbs from the fore part of the shell, the front pair being of considerable size, and furnished with a sucker and | 27 650 ROTATORIA. hooks for attachment to submarine substances. The six hind pair of limbs are used for swimming. ‘The shell is not made up of simple layers, as in the Mollusks, but is traversed by a com. plex series of canals, through which nourishment is conveyed. The Cirripedes are divided into two principal groups,—the pedunculated and the sessile, both of which are widely distributed by ships, floating wood, sea-weed, mollusks, turtles, whales, etc. I. CampyLosomatTa, (Gr. xaumthos, kampulos, curved; oaua, soma, body.) The division contains the pedunculated forms, that is, those which are furnished with stems, (Plate XVI. fig. 4a,) by which they attach themselves to wood or other ob- jects,—among them are the Anatifa, (Lepas,) Common Barna- CLE, consisting of five pieces, of which two are large valves, somewhat like those of a muscle; two smaller are articulated to those near the point; and one unites the valve along the back edge; and thus they envelop the whole of the mantle. Barna- cles often adhere to:the bottoms of ships in such numbers as to, impede their sailing. II. Acamptosoma, (Gr. @xauntos, akamptos, uncurved; gue, body.) This section includes the sessile or unpedunculated forms. It is represented by the Balanus, (Lat. acorn,) or AcoORN-SHELL, (Plate XVI. fig. 4B,) so named from its resemblance to the acorn, it being short and conical in form. The mouth is protected by an operculum, consisting of two or more valves. These animals are found in great numbers on rocks and piers along the ccast. The species B. psttiacus, (a parrot,) is quite large; it is eaten _by the natives of Chili. The Coronuia attaches itself to the backs of whales, imbedding itself in the skin. Firtra Orper. Roratoria, or Rotirera. Wheel-bearing Animalcules. This order includes animalcules not to be distinctly perceived, except with the microscope. ‘They receive their name from peculiarities of structure, and are wonderfully minute,—some of them being less than the five-hundredth part of an inch in length. Nearly all of them are aquatic in their habits; their bodies are transparent; hence, their general structure can, with the help of the microscope, be easily recognised. They have usually an elongated form, similar on the two sides; and at the front ex- tremity are ene or two rows of vibratile cilia, usually arranged in a circuiar manner, which, when in motion, appear like re- volving wheels. The posterior extremity is prolonged into a tail, possessing three joints, each of which has a pair of prongs -ROTATORIA. 651 My or points. The circular arrangement of the cilia forms what are called the wheels. By the successive vibration of these, the ap- pearance of a continual rotation is produced; and their action creates rapid currents in the surrounding fluid, by which the supply of food is obtained,—consisting of other animalcules of still smaller size, and less complex structure. Between the wheels, the head is occasionally protruded, bearing two red spots, supposed to be eyes; on its under surface there is a projecting tubular spike, which is believed to act as a syphon conveying water into the general cavity to aid perspiration. ‘The vital power of some species is extraordinarily great, they having been known to revive after being kept in dry sand for four years. The wheel-animalcules do not propagate by spontaneous division, but by eggs inconceivably minute, so that they can be raised in the air with vapor, and transported in every direction. Much diversity of opinion has existed in relation to the proper classifi- cation of these animalcules, of the wonderful structure and variety which the microscope has made such interesting revelations; but the lengthened form of their bodies, the location of the mouth and eyes at one extremity ; the occasional appearance of cross or transverse linés shadowing forth a division into segments; and especially the character of the nervous system, so far as it can be ascertained, are among the proofs that they should have a place with the Articulates. With these, Dr. Grant was one of the first to place them. Leydig proposed to call them Ciniatep Crusta- cEANS. We follow the suggestion of Prof. Dana in placing them next the Cirripedes. The common species, Rotifa vulgaris, is remarkable for the two circles of»vibratile cilia or vibrille, referred to above, and for the posterior forceps or pincers. One species (Melicertaé ringens) has the power to withdraw itself into an outward case; and has the vibratile cilia distributed into four divisions. SEVENTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. HELMINTHOLOGY. (Gr. “shuws, helmins, a worm; 4doyos, a discourse.) Class ANNELIDANS or Worms, This lowest division of the ArticuLaTEs is arranged by Cu- vier and other naturalists, inta two sections; the one embracing the class Annelidans, or Red-blooded Worms, and ranked with the Articulates ; the other, including the Intestinal or White- blooded Worms, is ranked by them with the Radiates. Agassiz considers the nervous system of the latter Worms, which has been made a ground of their separation, though somewhat differ- ent, as yet essentially the same with that of the Articulates. We follow him as well.as other distinguished naturalists, in placing all the Worms in this latter class. First Division. ANNELIDA, (lat. annulus, a ring.)- Rep- BLOODED WorMs. These always have their bodies formed of a great number of small rings nearly equal in size, varying in number from twenty or thirty to more than five hundred, according to the length of the animals. Their skin is soft and pliable; and their bodies, not having any external skeleton, are also soft, and in general more or lesscylindrical. The head is usually distinct, furnished with two or four eyes; the sides have attached to them feet, or rather bristle-like projections, which are used for locomotion, and vary widely in different species. Most of the annelidans are marine; but some live in fresh water. TUBULIBRANCHIATA. 6538 First Orper. Tuburrancuiata, (Tubulicolide, dwelling in tubes, Cuvier.) SepENTARY ANNELIDANS. These are characterized by having their branchiz in the form of plumes, or of small tree-like figures, attached to the head or fore part of the body. Nearly all inhabit tubes, which are calcareous, sandy, or inembranous. ‘The order may be ar- ranged into two families. First Family Serpulide, (Lat. serpula, a small snake.) Worms, the tubes of which are calcareous and singularly twisted. They have the branchial tufts separated into two dis- tinct parts by a pendunculated operculum, or else protected by a solid one when they are drawn into the shell. 1. Serpula. This genus includes worms which adhere to stones, shells, and other sub-marine substances. ‘The branchie are of a beautiful red, or variegated with yellow and violet, and used in taking the minute living objects upon which the worm sub- sists. ‘T'hey are found in the Mediterranean and European seas. This genus has been estimated to embrace sixty or more re- cent and fossil species. (Fig. on Chart.) 2. Vermilia,—Worms’so named from the red line on each side of the ridge which appears upon the back. (Plate XVI. fig. 5.) 3. Ditrupa,—Worms free, living in a tubular shell, open at both ends, with twenty-two branchiz, in two sets, and feathered with a row of cilia. These are nearly allied to the Serpula. Seconp Famity, Amphitritide. Worms which have around the mouth numerous thread-like tentacles; and tubes formed by a mucous secretion to which are attached fragments of shells, etc. 1. Amphitrite. These have the thread or straw-like processes in the form of a comb or that of a crown. 2. Sabella,—Worms about the size of a finger, living in tubes composed of sand, clay or fine mud. ,The plumes are highly brilliant and delicate, sometimes of a rich orange color. 3. Terebella,— Worms living, in, tubes of similar composition be the preceding, having on the neck arborescent, not fan-shaped gills, a 654 ABRANCHIATAs Seconp Orver. Dorsterancatata, (Lat. dorsum, back; bran- chia, gills.) These Annelidans have their organs, and especially their branchia, distributed nearly equally along the whole or a part of the body. All the species are aquatic and worm-like, swim- ming with facility and active in crawling. The head is distinct from the trunk; they are furnished with two pair of rudimen- tary eyes. The order includes the Sea-Mice and the Sea-Centi- pedes, arranged into several families or groups. _ First Famity. Aphroditide, (Gr. from