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BOOKS BY B. P. COLTON

Physiology: Experimental and Descriptive.

For High Schools, Normal Schools, and Colleges.
pages. Illustrated in colors. :

440

Physiology : Briefer Course.

For High Schools. 400 pages. Illustrated in colors.

| Elementary Physiology and Hygiene.
For grades below the High School.

320 pages. Illustrated.
Zoology: Descriptive and Practical.

PART I.— DESCRIPTIVE. 376 pages. Illustrated.
PART II.— PRACTICAL. 234 pages.

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

Teacher's Manual

Bert OGY
DESCRIPTIVE AND PRACTICAL

BY.

BUEL P. COLTON, A.M.

AUTHOR OF ‘‘ PHYSIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL AND DESCRIPTIVE,” ‘‘ PHYSIOLOGY:
ILLUSTRATED BY EXPERIMENT,’’ ‘‘ ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY,”
‘* PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY”; AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL
SCIENCE IN THE ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL
UNIVERSITY

BOSTON, U.S.A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

1903

28. PAC Ag Ee Gepynght Entry
Cee fe a % ‘ gt.21.1903

THE VOICE OF THE SEA

“The child holds a shell to his ear and hears the roaring of
the sea. Do not yet tell him that the sound he hears is only
the echo of the rushing of blood in his own head. Ina higher
sense the child is right. To him it speaks of the sea, its home.
It brings the inland child a message from the vast ocean —the
distant — the mysterious. It widens his narrow horizon; it
takes him to the shore whose waters wash all other shores. He
is no longer isolated, but put in touch with all the world. And
this typifies the broad principle that one fact — considered in all
its relations — involves the whole universe.”

COPYRIGHT, 1903,
By BUEL P. COLTON.

THE LIBRARY OF
ess CONGRESS,

Fw Copias Received

SEP 21 1903

|} CLASS ‘Q XXe. No |

| OF7ES |
COPY 5B.

QL53

j3

EQUIPMENT AND CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL

INSECTS .

STUDY OF A HIVE OF BEES
CRAYFISHES

CRABS .

EARTHWORMS
FRESH-WATER CLAMS

SNAILS

FISHES .
Frocs .
SNAKES .
TURTLES
_BrrRDs .
MAMMALS
PROTOZOA
SPONGES

CCELENTERATA

ECHINODERMS

FLAT WoRMS
ROUND WoRMS

ROTIFERS

MOLLUSCOIDA AND POLYZOA.

REFERENCE BOOKS
ZOOLOGICAL SUPPLIES

CONTENTS.

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER OF
ZOOLOGY.

EQUIPMENT AND CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT.

Tables. — In most schools it is necessary to economize in space
as well as in the expense of equipment.’ The plan suggested will
be to have two students at one table. This has some disadvan-
tages, but economizes material, thus saving expense, and sometimes
the teacher can get a specimen for each two, but not one apiece.
Again, on some material two can work together to good advantage,
one reading the directions while the other does the dissecting.
By taking turns at the dissecting, each learns how to do the work,
and sees about all there is to beseen. Such a table, for two,
should be about twenty-nine inches high, four and a half feet long,
and twenty-four inches wide. ‘There should be at least two
drawers, in which should be kept the tacks and pins in pattypans,
or similar tin trays; a foot rule; a blowpipe with glass mouth-
piece and nozzle connected by a foot of rubber tubing; the
student’s dissecting set, especially if he can carry a key to the
drawer ; scratch book, drawing pad, pencils, etc., as convenient.

Light. — ‘The room should have mainly north light, and the tables
should face the windows during the work of dissecting. If the
teacher has a chance to plan the building, the windows should be
ordered to extend 7 dhe ceiling; inside light is what is wanted,
instead of architectural effect on the outside. Low windows do
not let enough light into the back part of the room. If the room
is on the top floor, a skylight is often desirable for lighting the

back part of the room.
I

2 Teacher’s Manual.

Ventilation. — A room used for dissecting, or any practical work
in zoology, should be unusually well ventilated, because with a
whole class at work, even if the material is fresh, the odor given
off may be considerable. If the room has only ordinary means of
ventilation, the teacher must look to the matter with care.

Water Supply. — It is seldom that there is an over-supply. In
a large room a sink, with hot and cold water, in each corner of the
room is none too much. With large classes there should be every
convenience for the economy of time. Let each student have a
certain sink to which he is to go, so there will be no confusion in
passing. Ifthe work must be done in a room where there is no
water supply, a good-sized tank, with faucet, may be used to supply
water, and large waste pails, made of galvanized iron, may receive
the waste ; and for washing the hands at the close of the work, a
shallow wooden trough, lined with zinc, and of suitable length, may
be used. ‘This should have a spout, with faucet, or plug, at one
end, so it may easily be emptied into a pail.

Towels and Soap.— There should be a good supply of towels hung
on rollers, at least one at each sink. Soap should be always at
hand, in soap dishes that are easily kept clean, and may stand in
the sink. There should also be kept at each sink at least two
nailbrushes, the cheap, wooden-backed kind serving very well.
Suppose there is a class of thirty, not an unusual number in many
schools ; if they all have to wash at the same sink, they must wait
one for another. But if there are three or four sinks, and each
student knows where he is to go, much time may be saved. The
teacher can find by a few trials how much time is required for a
class to “clean up,” and the science teacher must be careful not
to detain a class, and thus encroach on the time that belongs to
other subjects. It is well to have several large sponges and
scrubbing brushes. Occasionally scrub the sinks with “lye.”
Any such material as drops of blood should be carefully wiped
up from table or floor before it has time to dry.

Paper. — There should be kept on hand a good supply of paper
on which to lay any material that would soil the tables. Manila

Equipment. 3

paper, or the straw paper such as butchers use, serves well for this
purpose. Large sheets of old wrapping paper may be saved for
this work, or even old newspaper will do.

Metal-top Table.— In a convenient part of the room there
should be a table with a metal top. The edge of the table should
be raised about two inches, making a shallow sink. The metal
may be zinc, or, better, if durability is considered rather than first
cost, block tin. At one end of the table there should be a sink,
with water supply, set just under the metal, so that the table, made
very slightly sloping, will drain into the sink. On this table all
‘wet or sloppy material should be placed, as fish, clams, dishes to
be washed, jars of alcoholic specimens, etc. When it is soiled, a
stream of water may be played over it by means of a rubber tube
attached to the faucet.

Exhibition Table.— There should be a table devoted to the
showing of any specimens that may be brought into the class from
day to day. This should be placed near the entrance, so the stu-
dents will have a chance to see the specimens, at least while they
are passing into and out of the room. The students should be
encouraged to bring in specimens, and each should be expected to
contribute something at least once or twice during the term. The
common name of the specimen should be printed on a slip of
paper and laid beside it. It is well also to state the locality from
which it came and give the name of the collector. This gives the
student credit for his work. It is well to give some attention to
the forms thus brought in from time to time, even if they are not
in line with the work of the day, for it is likely that many of them
cannot be preserved, and similar forms may not be accessible
again during the term. Sometimes it is a good plan to have the
student who secured the specimen tell what he can about it, or
detail a student to read up on the subject and report to the class.
If there is a good reference library, it may be well to have the whole
class read up on the subject. But usually the regular line of work
will give them enough to do, and it saves time, and makes the
members of the class mutually helpful to have individual reports

4 Teacher's Manual.

as above suggested. Judicious praise will stimulate pupils to do
their best on such occasions. At any rate, such casual specimens
should be used to the best advantage, and to take a little time daily
for such incidental subjects adds variety to the work. If such
talks are given at the beginning of the hour, it may help to over-
come a tendency toward tardiness on the part of some pupils.

Preservation of Material.— Very early in the term show the
class how to preserve a bird skin, so that all birds brought in may
be kept in this way. Do the same with all other forms whose
skins may be kept, as mammals, snakes, some fishes, etc. If
alcohol can be obtained, use it for the preservation of suitable’
material. Have all insects saved, and, unless they are to be added
to individual collections, let them increase the school collection.
Thus a school will soon possess the nucleus of a museum. Let
each pupil contribute something to this school collection, giving
him credit on the label. Consult the directions given under the
study of birds; also read the works on taxidermy in the list of
books given. Have the pupils do as much as possible of the work
of collecting, arranging, and labeling the collection. Rivalry
between different rooms or different neighboring schools, is not a
low or unworthy motive to stimulate such work. In all this work
the teacher must lead, yet seem to follow; while directing, he
appears merely to cooperate. He must be thoroughly in sympathy
with the work.

Cages. — Many animals are so shy or so rare that the pupil has
little chance of seeing them in their homes. Such forms as the
raccoon, opossum, muskrat, mink, etc., are caught by trappers and
frequently may be obtained alive. ‘The teacher should see to it
that there is a supply of cages in which to keep such animals. A
good cage is rather expensive, but the school should own a few
such. Others may be made by the teacher and pupils, with
wooden frames, and wire-netting walls. The woodwork exposed
may need to be covered with netting, or zinc, or tin, if gnawers
are to be caged. Such cages should be kept near, if not in, the
schoolroom, so the children may watch the animals, feed them,

Equipment. 5

and learn as much as possible about them. Birds are more easily
kept. Turtles, snakes, and frogs are spoken of elsewhere.

Aquariums. — A fairly good aquarium may be made as follows.
It is to have a wooden bottom and ends, and glass sides. Geta
piece of pine board fifteen inches long, a foot wide, and two inches
thick ; this for the bottom. For the ends take two pieces of pine
board a foot square and one inch thick. Half an inch from the
edges of the bottom and ends make grooves to hold the edges of
the glass. ‘These grooves should be at least a quarter of an inch
deep and wide enough to take in loosely glass of double thickness.
Fasten the end pieces to the bottom with screws, making the
grooves match. Partly fill the grooves with putty or aquarium
cement, and slide the glass sides into place. Then carefully fill
all cracks around the glass with cement. ‘Take two light strips of
wood of the length of the aquarium ; lay them along the top at the
sides, covering the edge of the glass sides, and screw them to the
ends. Then paint the inside of the bottom and ends with good
white paint, and the outside wood with any desired color. Let
the paint become thoroughly dry before using the aquarium. Before
putting animals into it, keep water in it awhile to remove anything
from the paint that might injure live animals.

While such an aquarium may serve very well for a while, it is
likely to warp and leak after a time. It is better to buy a good
aquarium with iron frame ; though the cost of it may be from five
to ten dollars, it will prove a good investment. For smaller aqua-
riums use candy jars, battery jars, fish globes, etc. There should
be a number of these, for, generally speaking, different kinds of
animals should be kept separate. The bottoms of most of them
should be covered with gravel or sand, and the animals feel more
at home if there are caves and grottoes in which they may hide.
An aquarium should usually have some aquatic plants to keep the
water fresh. Some of these may be found in the streams near
you ; if not, you can get them from dealers in aquariums. They
are usually kept in bird stores and often by florists. Sometimes
snails are desirable to help keep the aquarium clean. Aim to

6 Teacher’s Manual.

keep a “ balance’”’ between the animal and plant life in the aqua-
rium. Avoid overfeeding fishes. See that the water is renewed,
but this will not need to be done often if proper balance is main-
tained. Do not allow an aquarium to be overcrowded. It should
be covered when a room is swept, to keep dust out. Examine the
aquarium every day and remove any dead specimens. Experiment
to learn what animals can well be kept together, and also what
plants are best.

Drawings. — The suggestions on this subject to the student are
made on the supposition that he has had little training and experi-
ence. If otherwise, the teacher may modify the directions to suit
their needs. The teacher will do well to have the first drawings made
of very simple subjects, and give very explicit directions. Further,
he should have the preliminary drawings made in the class room
(always from specimens) and go about watching to see how they
proceed. After a few trials under close supervision they may per-
haps be trusted to work more independently. Many who might
learn to draw very well are allowed to work without help; getting
poor results, and being reprimanded, they become discouraged
and no longer try. Show each one carefully just where his trouble
is; encourage every good effort, even if it is far below standard.
See that the student gets a good, square view, and in good light;
otherwise you cannot expect good results. When a side view is
represented, let it be the left side. When a student makes a
drawing of a fish, see that he does not put in a human eye or a
human mouth. The preconceived ideas are likely to ruin draw-
ings, especially of such forms as are often seen in conventionalized
drawings. Make him draw what he sees, and nothing else.

Notes. — Directions have been given the student on this subject.
In addition the teacher may assign special subjects. It is interest-
ing to detail one student to make special study of a specimen that
he, or any one, may have found or brought in. Have him make a
study of the thing itself, and read up on it in the best references at
hand ; then write a short account and read it to the class. In this
way they will maintain their interest and greatly help each other.

Class-room Management. 7

Such division of labor enables the class to get much more than
they otherwise could. It is a good plan to have some, if not all,
of the class read some good book, such as Darwin on Earthworms,
or Huxley on the Crayfish, and write a brief review of the book.
For your own convenience have each student put his name and
the date on each paper. You may find it convenient also, especially
if you have several classes in the same subject, to have each stu-
dent indicate the hour of his class and his seat. For example, if
you have three classes, and the room is divided into two parts by
a north and south aisle, and there are five rows of seats, the
mark 1—E-—1 would show that the student belongs to the first hour
class, sits on the east side, and in the front row. This plan has
been found very convenient in collecting, marking, and distributing
the notebooks. By having these items placed on the margin
between the perforations, with any marks you may make in correc-
tion, they are kept out of sight when the leaves are bound
together.

Orai Presentation by Students. — In addition to having students
make individual written reports of their study of specimens, it is
a very helpful thing to have them make oral reports to the class.
Instead of having one read a paper, let him merely give a talk ;
this, of course, should be carefully thought over (as all extempora-
neous speeches should be). Have the student stand, facing the
class across the exhibition table, as the teacher should do. Then,
taking his specimen in hand, let him call attention to the more
striking or interesting features, and explain how they are useful,
whether it be a point of structure, the color, or whatever it may
be. This gives him excellent practice in oral presentation, which
he is not likely to have otherwise. Many students who recite very
well when standing at their desks, would fail, on account of em-
barrassment, if called to the front of the room and made to face
the class. But when he has an interesting specimen, which he
has studied with some care and about which he feels that he is
telling something new to his classmates, and especially as his hands
have something to do, he is less likely to be conscious of the

8 Teacher’s Manual.

fact that he stands facing the class, and he does not think of his
timidity. This is a kind of training that most students very much
need. Many persons, after leaving school, hesitate to face an
audience ; they know they have something to say, but are afraid
to say it. Or, if they attempt to speak, their confusion greatly
hinders them. The trouble with the old-style declamation was
that the student had no thought of his own to utter. He was con-
scious that he was playing a part. And the majority of students
shrink from such exercises, and, probably, when forced to perform
them, derive little benefit. But the practice of writing, or talking,
about something real, something present, something interesting,
and having something to occupy the hands and keep the mind
from the consciousness of the situation, —all these points give a
motive, which the artificial nature of the old formal essay or
declamation could never supply. The teacher should not fail to
utilize such a fine opportunity to develop the student’s power in
expression, and so cultivate the art that he may acquire not only
ease, but skill in it.

Microscopic Work. — If the school has but one or a few micro-
scopes, as is the case in the large majority of schools, the teacher
will have to prepare most of the mounts and have the students
pass and look at them. The danger, in this work, is that the
student may not see the relation of the minute part that he sees, to
the whole from which it is taken. To make clear, the teacher
should make a simple sketch, showing the relation of part to whole,
labeling so much as is necessary. Of course the teacher should
not tell the student all he is to see, for he should see for himself.
Still, as this takes so much time, and should show something
clearly, the teacher must make all effort to have it effectual. Sup-
pose the teacher is to show the microscopic structure of an earth-
worm, the spinal cord, or the intestine of a cat. Let him then
exhibit at least three, or better, four, specimens: (1) the thing
itself, or at least a part of it large enough to show clearly to the
naked eye, the spinal cord in position, an earthworm, or a section
of intestine an inch or so long; (2) a microscopic section (trans-

Class-room Management. 9

verse) held by a clamp on a retort stand, set up so the students can
see it on the level of the eye, toward a window (they can thus all
see it well, save the time of handling, and not soil it or run the risk
of dropping and breaking it); (3) a cross section undcr a very
low power of the microscope (say a two-inch objective) so they
can see the whole cross section moderately magnified ; (4) a sec-
tion under a medium or high power objective. By this means
they will have passed gradually from the thing as a whole to the
part under special study ; from the gross to the minute, from the
macroscopic to the microscopic. If something similar to this is
not done, it will too often turn out that the microscopic work
amounts to almost nothing. ‘The teacher must help the student at
first, for until he can zzzerprez what he sees under the microscope,
it is to him a foreign language (and a dead one, too). Of course
it is to be hoped that many of the students may learn how to
manipulate the microscope for themselves. Still, it is easy to overdo
this sort of work. In all elementary courses the student must first
learn what is to be seen with the naked eye, and there is so much
of this work to do that the use of the microscope should be left, in
the main, to advanced students. If there are two microscopes, it
will save time to mount two objects alike and have the class pass
in two columns, each in its own circuit. This is especially desir-
able if the class is large, or when viewing such interesting objects
as protozoans or the circulation of blood in a frog’s web, where it
is desirable that each student have as much time as possible at the
instrument. To avoid confusion and save time have a regular sys-
tem of passing.

Dissecting. — The teacher’s set of dissecting instruments should
be more complete than that of the student, including in addition
to what is recommended for the student, extra forceps, perhaps
one pair with curved tip, extra scissors, finer, and perhaps one pair
with bent blades, and a medium-sized pair of bone forceps. ‘The
teacher must see that the student does not get the instruments
designed for medical students ; such instruments as the tenaculum,
and chain with hooks, are not needed by either student or teacher.

IO Teacher’s Manual.

Many of the sets offered for students are unfit, especially in con-'
taining only a weak pair of tweezers, instead of good forceps that
will grip at the tip. Such a set as the author recommends is now
put up by Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., of Rochester, N.Y., and
designated as set No. 14,042. ‘The teacher will need, of course,
to make many dissections for demonstration of points too difficult
for the student to work out for himself. Many of these dissections
take considerable time, and, so far as possible, should be prepared
the day before they are to be shown.

In supervising dissection by students, the teacher will probably
need to give especial attention to the following points: (1) that
the student cut mostly with the scissors rather than with the scal-
pel; (2) that when he uses the scalpel, he use the handle more |
than the blade; (3) that the left hand be kept in constant use —
with the forceps, holding and steadying the parts under examina-
tion ; (4) that the forceps be held like a pen, and not like tongs ;
(5) that organs be not touched with sharp point unless direction
is given for so doing; (6) that when an organ is to be pushed aside
or lifted, this should be done with fingers, or forceps, or the handle
of the scalpel; (7) that he foWow all directions faithfully, for if he
is allowed to do otherwise, he is almost sure to waste both time and
dissecting material.

Dissecting Boards.— There should be a dissecting board for each
student. It should be a foot wide and eighteen inches long, of
inch pine, dressed. In use this should be covered with paper,
which may need to be held in place by tacks. By renewing the
paper as needed, the boards may be kept clean, and thus last for
years. Smaller boards may be found convenient for some of the
work, but the above will serve for rabbits and pigeons, which
probably are as large as any specimens dissected.

Dissecting Pan.— Get granite-ware pans about a foot long.
There should be no handles either at the ends or side, as these
are likely to be in the way. The most convenient form that the
writer has found is an elliptical pan, one foot long, known in
the market as “ oval pudding pan.”’ This has a smooth, rounded

Class-room Management. Ei

edge on which the hand or wrist may conveniently rest. For a
bottom board on which to tack the specimen, when dissecting
under water, get a piece of soft board, ten inches long, six inches
wide, and three sixteenths of an inch thick. A piece of shingle
may be used, but it is better to have it dressed at least on one
side. For a weight to hold it down get a piece of copper trolley
wire, one fourth of an inch thick and two feet long. Bend this
into a C-shape, which should be about ten inches long and five
inches wide. These weights have the advantages of not rusting
and not being easily broken, and their shape can be readily
changed to suit convenience. For tacks get ordinary carpet
tacks, the tinned ones preferred, as the others rust so readily ; also
the double-pointed tacks, such as are used in fastening down mat-
ting and oilcloth. In fastening such a form as the crayfish this
kind of tack may be straddled over the slender bases of the big
claws, and will hold the specimen, which would be a difficult
thing to do with ordinary tacks. ‘There should also be a supply
of common pins for each student, for dissecting such small
animals as the earthworm. After removing the tacks or pins they
should be promptly and thoroughly dried to prevent rusting. To
do this it is well to spread them out on paper, rolling them about
to absorb the water. The board should be set on end to dry.
The teacher must see that the student renews the water in his
dissecting pan as often as it becomes turbid. The beginning
student is likely to lift his specimen out of water, thinking to see
it better, and he may not realize that he cannot see as well as
before. See to it that he keeps the specimens under water unless
for some needed manipulation. There should be a dissecting
pan, with complete equipment, for each student.

If the student does much dissection of small specimens, it may
be desirable to have a set of smaller dissecting pans, with boards
and weights to match.

Laboratory Period. — It is best, when possible, to arrange the
work so that there will be a double period for laboratory work.
For instance, suppose the regular recitation period is forty-five

12 Teacher’s Manual.

minutes. If, on the days when dissecting or other laboratory
work occurs, two periods, that is, ninety minutes of continuous
work, can be arranged, it will save time. It may be possible to
have all laboratory work in the afternoon and get double time
two or three days a week. In doing laboratory work in the ordi-
nary recitation period there is often considerable loss of time. If
a dissection is not completed, the material has to be put away and
gotten out again the next day. By carefully planning the work
the teacher may save both time and material.

Preserving Specimens during Dissection. — When a student has
to lay aside a specimen before finishing a dissection, two plans
may be followed. First, provide each student with a wide-mouthed
jar containing a preservative. This is probably best for small speci-
mens. When using larger specimens a large earthen jar or metal
can or tank may be used. In this case each student should label
his specimen with a metal tag on which his name is written or
scratched. Of course the jars should be kept tightly covered.
But if the school has no alcohol or formalin, and a good supply of
material can be secured, the class can get along very well. In the
dissection of the crayfish, for instance, if the circulatory and digest-
ive system be studied the first day, another specimen may be used
the next day for the muscles and nervous system. This plan is
suggested for schools where there are plenty of boys to gather
specimens, but limited funds for buying formalin or alcohol.

How to dispose of Refuse. — After dissecting under water there
remains the water with more or less of small scraps of tissues. If
this is emptied into a waste pail, it makes a heavy weight to lift ;
if emptied into a sink, the scraps are likely to clog the pipes. ‘The
following method of separating the scraps from the water is recom-
mended. Make a strainer by nailing wire screen, of quarter- -inch
or half-inch mesh, over the bottom of a shallow box after remov-
ing both top and bottom. This should be set on a support ina
sink, so the water can run freely through it. Lay over this strainer
a piece of mosquito netting. When the students are done dissect-
ing, have them first remove the tacks or pins; when they pass to

Class-room Management. 13

the sink, they are to lift out the board and weight ; then empty the
water into the strainer ; after this the netting, with the scraps, may
easily be transferred to the waste pail. Each student should then
thoroughly rinse the pan, board, and weight, and leave them in the
sink, if they are to be used soon by another class, or put away
where they are regularly kept. When a whole class is to pass at
one time to empty their dissecting pans, they must be cautioned to
hold the pan firmly, to walk slowly and carefully ; otherwise they
are likely to spill the water on the floor or on each other’s cloth-
ing, especially as they crowd up around the sink. Each one
should be cautioned not to come up close to the one in front of him,
nor to make any sudden backward movement. ‘There should be a
regular system of passing so they will not interfere with each other.

After dissection on paper the soiled paper and refuse may be
dumped into the waste pail. Before starting from his table the
student should carefully wrap the paper in from all sides around
the remains ; if he simply folds the two opposite edges of the paper
together, as he is apt to do unless specially instructed, when he is
carrying the paper, scraps are likely to fall out at either end. The
worst of it is these scraps are often unnoticed and are tramped
on, especially in the haste of dismissal at the end of the laboratory
period, and the material is carried along, staining the floors of other
rooms as well as the room where the dissecting was done. The
material, left from dissecting without water, is best disposed of by
burning.

Getting Alcohol. — Alcohol for school use may be obtained by
the barrel without paying the internal revenue tax. Write to the
internal revenue collector of your district for instructions as to the
form of procedure. After complying with the prescribed condi-
tions, the alcohol should be ordered from the nearest distillery.

Formalin. — Formalin is an excellent preservative and is much
cheaper than alcohol. Dilute one pound of formol in twelve quarts
of water. ‘This makes a good solution for general laboratory use,
being about four per cent. For some purposes a weaker solution
will be sufficient. In using either alcohol or formalin there should

14 Teacher’s Manual.

be at least twice as much bulk of liquid as of material to be pre-
served. But, of course, after a time the preserved material becomes
saturated, and then it may be kept in a smaller quantity of the
liquid. It is desirable, in shipping, to use as little liquid as
possible.

Laboratory Supplies and Apparatus. — Of course all laboratory
supplies, apparatus, microscopes, etc., should be furnished by the
school. But the teacher who introduces practical work into a school
where such work has not been done may find various hindrances. In
the first place, there will be little provision for such work, sometimes
absolutely no equipment. In the second place, the school board
may not see the necessity of spending money for such an outfit as
the teacher may desire. In such cases it may pay the teacher to
go ahead and get some things at his own expense. If, later, he can
show the board that these things have been wholly devoted to school
use, and that they have been the means of teaching lessons that
otherwise could not have been learned, and that it is worth while,
then such a board is usually ready to say, “ Yes, certainly, the school
ought to pay for these things, and not expect the teacher to take
from his meager salary to supply a school district that is well able
to buy what its children need.” Especially are such men likely to
be ready and willing to use school funds for such purposes if they
find that their own children have learned something valuable, and
are becoming more interested in school work than they were before.
The average business man judges by vesud¢s, and the wise teacher
will sometimes wait to show results instead of asking in advance
for what seems to be a mere fad. In school, as in business, men
will invest in what says. The writer knows this to be true from
his own experience, even to the extent of buying a fairly expensive
microscope.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL.

Excursions. — The only way to get acquainted with Nature is to
visit her. ‘If you study Nature indoors, when you go outdoors
you cannot find her.” The teacher must go afield, and take his

Material. 15

students with him. It is well, before taking a whole class, for the
teacher to go over the ground alone, to “spy out the land.” But
the teacher must not hesitate to take the children because he does
not know all about all he sees; if he waits for this, he will never
go. ‘To know animals one must see them in their homes. On as
many Saturdays or afternoons as possible take the entire class with
you, and show them how to collect specimens. But when you wish
to collect material for class use, it is better to take a few of the
“big boys” who are interested in outings. They may soon be
trained to be valuable assistants, both in the field and in the class
room. ‘To spend the day thus with enthusiastic boys is ideal teach-
ing, and the writer recalls with pleasure many days thus spent ; he
cherishes the hope that some of his students also look back upon
them with pleasant memories. Often more may be learned during
a day in the field than in a week of laboratory and library work.
And the great point about it is that what is so learned is remem-
bered, while what has been merely read has completely escaped
the memory.

Collecting Outfit.— As early as possible the teacher should see
to it that he has the necessary equipment for collecting. Among
the things he needs are a minnow seine twenty or twenty-five feet
long, three or four feet deep, with one fourth inch mesh, with
sinkers and floats; seines are not expensive and can be obtained
of dealers in fishing tackle. Care must be exercised not to tear
the seine on snags; when it gets caught, stop and loosen it, as
effort to drag it loose often tears the net. After using the seine,
dry it thoroughly before putting it away, or it will soon rot. Fork
handles may be used as handles ; but it is often more convenient
to carry it without handles, as temporary handles can usually be
made along the shore where seining. It is hard to drag such
a small-meshed seine against a current; unless there are strong
persons to handle it, it is better to drag down, or across stream,
or especially in still bays, where it is easy to corner many speci-
mens. Care should be taken, in dragging the net, to “keep the
lead line down’”’; otherwise many fine specimens may escape

16 Teacher’s Manual.

under the bottom of the net. Select a smooth, clean landing
place. A third person should follow with a minnow pail, in which
not too many specimens should be placed. Give plenty of fresh
water, and, so far as possible, keep the minnow pail standing in
water near the bank, but be careful that it is not washedaway. If
it has means of fastening, use it, so if the pail is accidentally upset,
the specimens will not be lost. Do not set the pail in the hot
sunshine. Renew the water on the way home if needed. Wading
boots are necessary, but in warm weather old clothes and old
shoes to protect the feet may be used. The mackintosh wading
pants are excellent for the seiner who carries the far end of the
seine. There should also be a supply of fish baskets (for collect-
ing birds), shell bags, boxes and bags for specimens. Find out
what boys in the class have guns, and enlist their services in
securing birds and mammals. But be sure to instruct them as to
what birds to shoot and when, and how to care for the specimens.
Do not allow needless shooting, none in breeding season, none of
the home or song birds, and as few as possible of the useful ones.
Crows, jays, crow blackbirds, and most of all, the English sparrow,
are suitable for class work. In short, have the best equipment
possible, and enlist the whole class in the work of collecting. In
the field work they will often learn more than in the class room.
Each Monday, at least, should see a number of new specimens on
the exhibition table. In the warmer weather have the material
kept in a cool place till used.

Reserve Material. — Plan all your work well ahead. Have on
hand a good supply of material so you will not have to resort
to book work ahead of practical work. If you have nothing in
reserve, you may often lose valuable time. For instance, suppose
you plan to get clams or birds on a given Saturday. You may be
disappointed, the water may be too high to get the clams, or they
may be scarce where formerly you have found them abundant ;
“there’s many a slip.” Get clams, crayfishes, and such forms
that can easily be kept alive, some time before you expect to use
them. Turtles, frogs, clams, crayfishes, earthworms, snails, pro-

Insects. 17

tozoans, and perhaps some other forms may be obtained early and
kept on hand; alcoholic specimens should of course be secured
early as they keep indefinitely. Insects may be obtained early,
though it is best to study them when they are most active, and as
the student should do most of the collecting of insects, it is better
to study these as they are collected. Birds cannot well be kept,
but must be studied as fresh as possible. The order is not of very
great importance, and the teacher must be ready to change his
plans to suit the existing conditions. For instance, if a class has
become interested in outdoor work, the teacher may, any morn-
ing, find in his class room a fine lot of material that a student has
brought in. Often it is desirable to study this at once. Of course
it may be inconvenient to change one’s plans suddenly, but unless
the teacher can do this, valuable material often fails to be used to
the best advantage.
INSECTS.

Collecting Insects. — Collecting insects is comparatively easy,
and as it is so well suited for the work of the students, directions
have been given in the suggestions “To the Student.”” The teacher
should aid the student by setting the example, for such matters are
learned better by example than by precept. The teacher should
provide himself with the best available directions for collecting
and preserving insects, such as “ Directions for Collecting and
Preserving Insects,” Riley (Bulletin of the United States National
Museum, 25 cts.).

While the students should collect insects for themselves, it often
happens that when you wish a uniform lesson, they have not all the
same kind. The teacher will do well, therefore, to secure a good
supply of specimens to use when needed. Often in September or
October the monarch butterfly may be found in flocks. If they
are found in numbers during the day, watch them, or detail a stu-
dent to do this, and find where they settle for the night. Ona
frosty or cold morning they may sometimes be caught by hun-
dreds. For this a long-handled, large-mouthed net is desirable.
Sometimes they “roost high,” and it may be necessary to use long

18 Teacher’s Manual.

ladders. On one occasion the writer found them at the outer end
of ahigh limb. How to get them was the question. The problem
was solved by getting a long ladder, guying it by ropes held by
three or four strong young men, while one climbed the ladder and
scooped them in. They may be killed by chloroform, and if not
to be used at once, should be folded in papers as directed for
students. A good supply of bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, bees, and
flies should be made. Most of these are best kept in alcohol. A
whole hornets’ nest may be captured by slipping a net over it.
This is more convenient if the nest is near the end of a branch,
so the net will not be torn before it incloses the nest. The writer
has thus captured an entire hornets’ nest, and taken them home
alive. Then by making a small hole in a corner of the net they
may be let out, one at a time, under tumblers on a plate or piece
of glass, and each student, or each two, may have a live specimen
to study. By introducing a drop of honey or sirup the method of
feeding may be learned. A nest may also be captured by quickly
plugging the entrance and then injecting chloroform till they are
killed. Most boys know how to capture bumblebees in a jug.

STUDY OF A HIVE OF BEES.

Time of the Year to study Bees. — The best time of the year to
make a study of the honeybee is in the spring. Begin the work
during the fruit-blooming period, and continue it to the end of the
school year. The work may be done later in the year, commenc-
ing with the opening of school in September ; but an early frost or
an exceptionally dry season would produce conditions unfavorable
to the best work. In either case, the bees would probably have
difficulty in securing nectar and pollen, and brood rearing would
be greatly restricted or cease entirely. Under these conditions
the study could not be otherwise than unsatisfactory. The writer
has had classes pursue this study during each of the seasons men-
tioned, and though those studying during the latter period met
with a fair degree of success, it was by no means equal to that
attained by those making the study earlier in the year.

Bees. 1g

Placing of Bees in the Observatory Hive. — An observatory hive
is essential in the class-room study of the honeybee. ‘This hive is
narrow, being wide enough for one or two brood frames, as may
be desired, and is provided with glass sides. Any one handy with
tools can make one in size to correspond to the size of the brood
frame to be used. The A. I. Root Co., at Medina, Ohio, sell an
observatory hive for one Langstroth frame. Inquiry of them will
secure particulars concerning it. After making the observatory
hive, or securing it ready made, as the case may be, the next step
is to secure the bees and get them to working under as natural
conditions as possible; and at the same time have them where
observation may be made without the interruption of either the
observer or the observed. If the teacher or some pupil has had
experience in handling bees, few directions are needed; but if
they are without such experience, the services of some bee keeper
should be secured.

Select a brood comb containing brood in the different stages of
development. ‘There should be some honey in the cells along the
top bar, and pollen or ‘‘ bee bread”’ in some of the cells near the
brood. Place this comb, together with the bees which cling to it
when it is removed from the parent hive, in the observatory hive.
If the quantity of bees removed with the comb is not sufficient to
cover the comb, more should be gently brushed from other combs
upon this one after it is in place. There should be about a quart
of bees on the comb in the observatory hive. Securely fasten the
cover of the hive, having previously closed the entrance. Care
should be taken to avoid suffocating the bees. Provide for venti-
lation, if there is no provision for it, by boring a few holes in the
bottom, top, and ends of the hive and covering them with wire
cloth. This should be done before the bees are placed in the
hive. Before attempting to transport a hive of bees be sure that
no bee can escape. This is for the safety of all concerned, and
possibly of some that are not. The hive is now ready to be car-
ried to the place where it is to be set up for observation. A shawl
strap makes a convenient carrier. ‘The handle should be placed

20 Teacher’s Manual.

at the top of the hive. ‘The contents are then in the natural posi-
tion, and are little disturbed in transportation.

Placing the Hive at a Window. — Place a desk or table against
the wall before a window; a north window is preferable if one is
conveniently located, otherwise shade the hive from the direct rays
of the sun. The top of the table should be level with the top of
the window sill. A shelf on brackets will serve as well and may
be preferable. Place upon the table the observatory hive with its
contents. Push the entrance end of the hive up to the bottom
rail of the lower sash. Raise this sash two inches, and push the
entrance beneath it at as near the middle point as may be. Close
the opening thus made on either side between the hive and the
side of the window with strips of board of proper size. Be very
sure that there is no opening by which bees may get into the room.
Liberate the bees by opening the entrance.

If at any time bees escape into the room, they will probably fly
to the glass above the hive, and may be put out of doors by low-
ering the upper sash and gently brushing them upward to the
opening.

If the teacher has followed these directions, he now has a hive
of bees in a position where the bees are working under natural
conditions, and where the home life of the bees may be studied
by looking through the glass sides of the hive. If the light from
the sides upon the bees and comb is not as good as desired, a
mirror may be used to direct it. In this way light may be thrown
to the bottom of the cells. When not open for observation, the
sides of the hive should be kept closed or darkened, that the inte-
rior of the hive may be dark, and the conditions there in this
respect be the same as in a hollow tree, the natural home of the
honey bee.

CRAYFISHES.

How to capture Crayfishes. — Though they are found in the
largest lakes and rivers as well as in the creeks and ponds, they
are often near shore and in shallow water. One may wade in the
shallow water of a stony creek, overturn stones, and seize them as

Crayfishes. 21

they attempt to escape. The collector knows that they dart back-
ward, so he thrusts his hand down back of the.crayfish to allow for
the motion. In creeks running through or near towns frequently
empty cans have been dumped into the water. These furnish
good hiding places for the crayfishes and make their capture easy.
Boys may thus readily capture enough to supply a class.

They may also be obtained by seining. In creeks and ponds
when the water is low as in midsummer, or early fall, considerable
numbers may be thus obtained. In creeks it is well to ‘ work”
carefully the holes about trees and stumps, and if the net cannot
_ be drawn where they hide, the net may be held just outside and
the crayfishes frightened out by thrusting a stick or pole in among
the roots or under the ledges and other hiding places. A good
minnow seine is desirable for this work. One may be improvised
by using mosquito netting, but it is likely to tear easily and may
lose the best specimens.

A dip net may be made similar to an insect net, but it should
be stronger and heavier in every way. It is said that crayfishes
are attracted to the bank by carrying a lantern along the streams
at night.

Crayfishes may also be caught as crabs are caught, by tying a
string to a chunk of meat or liver and letting it down into the
water. The crayfishes often hold on till they are lifted out and
dropped into a pail, but it is safer to have a landing net and slip it
under them as the bait is lifted to the surface of the water ; other-
wise they often let go and are lost. Crayfishes may sometimes
be caught by baiting with a worm in a crayfish hole. It is said
that they may be induced to come out by making a slight noise at
the mouth of the hole as though some animal were trying to enter.
It is also stated that dropping a piece of lime into the hole will
make the crayfish come out.

How to carry Crayfishes.—If one wishes to keep crayfishes
alive, it is best not to try to carry many in a pail of water, but to put
them in a box or basket with a good supply of wet leaves or paper,
taking pains to keep them cool. ‘They cannot endure much heat.

22 Teacher’s Manual.

Crayfish in Aquariums. — It is best to keep only a few alive for
any considerable length of time. These should be placed in a
large aquarium with about two inches of water. It is well to have
the aquarium inclined, so that they may crawl out of the water if
they prefer. Place some bricks or stones in the water upon which
they can crawl.

CRABS.

Collecting Crabs. —Crabs are often easily caught by baiting
with meat. ‘Tie a piece of meat to a string and let down off a
wharf, or a convenient rock. Use a landing net when they are
brought to the surface clinging to the bait. Otherwise you may
lose a large share of them. Crabs may often be found in the tide
pools at low tide. ‘The fiddler crabs are often seen in great num-
bers on the southern coasts. ‘The sand crab is a good runner.
As you pursue him, be careful not to take your eye off him for an
instant. He buries himself in the sand by one or two quick
motions. As you approach, carefully keep your eyes on the spot
where he disappeared and you may see the eyes, like two black
beads, projecting from the sand.

Crabs may be obtained of fish and oyster dealers in nearly all
the large cities, especially near the coast.

EARTHWORMS.

Collecting Earthworms. — ‘These animals are so well known that
there should be little difficulty in securing them, though often it is
hard to get them large enough for dissection. They may be dug
almost any time except in winter. The teacher is not likely to
need them during the driest part of the summer, when they often
go deep on account of drought, as they do on account of the cold
of winter. It is well to get them some time before needed, as
leaving any collecting to the last moment is likely to lead to dis-
appointment. They should be kept in boxes of soil. For further

suggestions as to keeping them, see the directions for field and

laboratory study, given elsewhere. Specimens freshly killed by
chloroform, or by weak alcohol, may be used for dissection. But

Fresh-water Clams. 23

it is better to have them prepared beforehand, as follows. First
rinse them in water till they are clean. ‘Then kill them by put-
ting them into fifty per cent alcohol, using plenty of the liquid for
the number of specimens. They may also be killed by placing them
in two or three times their bulk of water, and slowly adding an
equal amount of strong alcohol. Let them remain in this about
twelve hours. It is best to see that they are well straightened
out; one good way to do this is to make a series of shallow
troughs, of wood or paper, and lay each worm in one of these to
keep it straight as it hardens. ‘Then put them into seventy-five
per cent alcohol for twenty-four hours. Last, transfer them to
strong alcohol for preservation till needed.

FRESH-WATER CLAMS.

Collecting Clams.—-Clams live in creeks and rivers, partially
imbedded in the sand or mud as shown in Fig. 64. They may
sometimes be found by tracing the furrow they have made as they
plowed their way along the bottom of the stream.

Time for Collecting. — This should be done in warm weather, or
at least before the water gets cold. Another advantage of collect-
ing early is that the water is usually shallower early in the fall than
later.

Method of Collecting. — If the water be warm, the collector can
conveniently wear old clothes and a pair of shoes full of holes, so
the water will run out of them. In colder weather thigh rubber
boots are desirable. The thigh boots stay on much better than
the hip boots. If the water be deep, the mackintosh wading
pants are convenient, but they are more expensive. In shallow
clear water the clams may sometimes be seen, though usually one
has to find them by feeling. Often they may be first felt by
the foot, but if the bottom be gravelly this is rather uncertain.
The sleeve should at the outset be rolled to the shoulder. It will
be seen that it will be very uncomfortable to do this sort of collect-
ing in cold water, especially when the water is more than arm’s
length deep. As the clams are picked up, their position should be

24 Teacher’s Manual.

noted. It is best to wash them as they are found, then throw them
ashore to be gathered up later. They will not be injured by lying
on the bank for an hour or so unless in very warm weather. They
can be carried in baskets or tubs or in gunny sacs, as they will
live a long time out of water if kept moist and cool. They will
stand pretty rough handling, such as a ride in the bottom of a
wagon box for a dozen miles, especially if cool water is poured over
them occasionally. They should then be put into a tank or tubs
in fresh water and kept in a cool place. By renewing the water
they may be kept for a week or so in ordinary weather. A tank,
with water supply and drain, built in the basement of the school
building is a great convenience for keeping clams, crayfishes, frogs,
or other aquatic animals.

Kinds of Clams to Collect.—In some localities the teacher
may be thankful to find any kind, and may have to resort to the
market and buy the salt-water clams that are sold for food. But
in many places, especially in the Central states, there are plenty,
and in variety; in some places the button-makers and the pearl
hunters have almost exterminated them. For the study of the
external features the clam known as the “sand clam” is one of
the best. It is moderately convex, with distinct lines of growth,
and is usually clean. It is therefore one of the easiest to draw.
This kind is also easily opened. For dissection the black flat
ones, with the high, sharp ridge below the umbo, is a good choice.
It is easily opened, is flat, and, in consequence, lies nearly flat and
does not need much water to cover it. It is especially good for
the dissection of the nervous system on account of the marked
orange color of the ganglions. Their color makes them easily
seen, whereas in many other clams the ganglions are of about the
same color as the surrounding tissues. The flat shells are also
best for labeling the inside. For the study of the structure of the
shell get the thickest shelled kinds. One especially thick and
rough shelled species is common in the Central states. One of
these thick-shelled species is more likely to have pearls, and 1s
therefore, in some localities, rather thinned out. It will be well to

Fresh-water Clams. ol:

get two clams for each pupil and perhaps three. If two pupils
dissect together, one may take the entire shell at the end of the
first day’s work, and the other the next day. It is better for
each pupil to have a complete shell to see how the two valves
fit together. One pupil may do all the dissecting the first day and
the other the second. For economy of material the examination
of the inside of the shell is placed after the dissection. If, how-
ever, the teacher has the cleaned shells all ready, this might be
done immediately after the study of the external features.

Preservation in Alcohol or Formalin. — If the school has alcohol
it will be well to preserve some of the clams in it. The dissection
of the nervous system and of the digestive system is much easier
in alcoholic than in fresh specimens. Where economy must be
practiced, boiling will serve fairly well. One great advantage of
the use of alcohol is that the material may be kept indefinitely and
used when wanted, whereas it is difficult to get the fresh-water
clams during the winter, or during the time of high water in fall
and spring.

Preparation for Aquarium Study. — Get ready early so the water
will have time to settle and become clear. Place some clams in
natural position beforehand so the pupils can see them. This
does not preclude the experiments of dropping the clams into the
water to learn how the clams right themselves after losing their
hold. If possible, have a live clam in sand in a jar for each two
or four pupils, so it will not take so much time for them to learn
about the locomotion, the opening and shutting of the shell, the
siphons, and the water currents. If only one aquarium is used,
the first pupils who experiment on the clam may make it close so
no one can learn anything for some time. Encourage the pupils
in having aquariums at home, where they will have more leisure
to watch the life processes. Select clean sand for the aquariums.
Sand that has been well washed will settle much sooner. Place
some of the clams close to the side of the jar or aquarium so the
foot can be seen. Be careful not to move the jar when watching
the water currents, or the clam may close and suspend operations.

26 Teacher’s Manual.

Also avoid jarring the table or floor. Do not introduce too much
ink or mud when testing the currents, or the water will become
turbid.

How to open Clams.— The method of opening by means of hot
water is described in the directions to the student. It is of special
advantage in using the thick-shelled clams that are very hard to
open with a knife. The disadvantage of hot water is that it is
likely to kill the clam, which is objectionable when the action of
the heart or the muscles are to be studied. For opening clams
use a medium-sized thin blade. An old, nearly worn-out pocket
knife serves well, or an old table knife with the blade ground down
to the size of a blade of a medium-sized pocket knife. A two-
inch blade is long enough. It does better if rather dull, and is
much safer if it should happen to slip. In the first place locate
the adductor muscles by reference to cuts. Or, if there is plenty
of material, learn by rough experience. The adductor muscles
extend transversely from valve to valve near the anterior and pos-
terior ends. These are to be cut close to the left valve. Hold the
clam in the left hand with the left valve up, the anterior end away
from you and the ventral edge against the palm. Hold the knife
well back in the right hand, so that the forefinger is under the
blade and the thumb resting on top of the blade, the edge
being toward the back of the hand. Insert the blade near the
posterior and dorsal margin back of the place where you think the
posterior adductor muscle lies. Press the handle of the knife
down, so as to keep the blade all the time very close to the left
valve. Cut anteriorly and dorsally with a see-saw movement.
After the point of the knife enters between the valves, the thumb
should rest on the border of the valve to steady the knife. When
the muscle has been severed, rotate the clam 180 degrees, taking
care to keep the left valve up; the hinge should now rest against
the palm, with the anterior end toward you. ‘This time hold the
edge of the blade toward you. Insert the blade at the anterior
end and cut toward the umbo, following the precaution to depress
the handle, otherwise you will not cut close to the shell, but will

Fresh-water Clams. 2

mutilate parts that should be studied intact. Now the clam is
ready for dissection, as directed for the student. The teacher will
do well to practice on this until he can open clams without spoil-
ing them. Pupils can be taught to do this, but it will be at the
expense of time and specimens ; for ordinary school work it will
hardly repay. For those preparing to teach this should be care-
fully learned.

Supervision of Dissection.—1. See that the student removes
the 4f¢ valve, and not the right. It is very desirable that the work
be uniform. 2. Show the adductor muscles early in the work.
Or, if it is found necessary to stop the work before reaching No.
20, whether on account of the limit of laboratory period or other-
wise, have the pupils do what is directed in the first sentence of
No. 20. If two pupils work together, as is often desirable, let one
take the complete shell the first day. The next day let the other
one do the dissecting and take the shell. 3. Do not let pupils
waste time watching to see the foot or mantle draw up if those
organs are already shortened to their full extent. 4. The teacher
should show the ciliary action and the young clams or eggs, from
the gills. 5. It is hard for the student to get a clear idea of the
siphons, as the separation of the mantle lobes in the opened clam
cause the siphons to disappear mysteriously. The teacher must
resort to all the means devisable to make this clear. 6. Insist
that during dissection the clam be kept under water. 7. Especial
care must be taken not to injure the heart; the pericardium must
be first cut along the dorsal border. 8. Have the janitor roast
the shells. See to it beforehand that he has a large piece of sheet
iron. This may be obtained from some scrap pile. After roast-
ing, the less the shells are handled the better, as they are very
easily crushed or broken.

Salt-water Clams.— While fresh-water clams are better, salt-
water clams or oysters serve very well. These can be obtained
in almost any town inland. If the teacher does not order direct
from the nearest large city, he can order them at almost any meat
market or fish market.

28 Teacher’s Manual.

SNAILS.

Collecting Snails. — The European edible snails can be bought
in some of the eastern markets. They are of good size and con-
venient for study. They may be kept alive in a cool, dry place.
They become active when subjected to warmth and moisture, as
when kept on damp sand. They may be killed by putting them
into water that has been boiled to drive out the air and then
cooled. Put the snails into such water in tightly capped jars.
After twenty-four hours transfer them to five per cent formalin.

FISHES.

Buying Fishes.— For dissecting purposes suitable fishes can
usually be obtained in the markets, if not in the small towns, cer-
tainly in the larger cities. In sending an order for such material
it should be plainly stated that the fishes are wanted for study,
otherwise they may be sent dressed as for the ordinary trade.

Collecting Fishes. — But pupils will learn almost nothing of the
habits of fishes so long as only market fishes are studied. The
teacher should take his class, or as many of them as possible, to
the creeks or ponds, if any are accessible, and have as many of
the students as can see the seine drawn, and watch the results of
each haul. Of course most of the material thus hauled in will
be thrown back, as it does not pay to try to take home a large
amount. A number of “minnow pails” should be provided.
There ought to be at least three pairs of rubber boots (unless this
work is done in such warm weather that one can stay a long time
in the water without any danger). Besides the two men hauling
the seine a third should follow with the minnow pails. Into them
whatever material is to be saved should be promptly placed. The
selection should be quickly done so that the seine may be soon
carried back over the water to dump the fishes that are not to be
kept; if care is not taken to do this, many minnows and other
fishes will be needlessly killed, and also the banks littered with
decaying material. It is well to have one pair of wading pants,

Fishes. 29

and the man who wears these can go farther into the stream than
one with ordinary wading boots. The ‘“‘thigh”’ boots (z.e. those cut
off squarely at the top) fit better and stay on more securely than
the “hip” boots (which are oblique at the top and fit more loosely).
Another advantage of the thigh boots is that, since they usually fit
rather snugly around the thigh, if one steps into a hole and gets
out quickly, he will probably not get much wet ; whereas, with the
wide, funnel-like top of the hip boots, a momentary dip will scoop
up a lot of water which of course runs dcwn to soak the whole leg
and foot.

In seining care must be taken to “keep the lead line down”
close to the bottom, otherwise many fishes will escape, especially
when they find they are “cornered”’ as the seine approaches the
bank. It is well also to have one or two extra boys beyond the
ends of the seine, who by splashing may keep the fishes from
escaping around the ends of the seine near the end of the haul.
Many points besides these given may be learned by watching or
asking the fishermen.

Carrying Minnows.— It is better not to try to keep many fishes
in one minnow pail. If there are too many, it is likely that all will
be found dead on reaching home ; whereas half or a third as many
might have been kept in good condition. They should be kept
cool ; if so kept it will not be necessary to change the water often.
Care should be taken about changing the water, as they are likely
to be killed by water of decidedly different temperature or quality.
On reaching home it is best to pour them gently, with the water
from their own stream, into a broad, shallow dish. If one has
no aquarium, a dish pan serves very well.

Aquariums. — Various directions are to be found for making
aquariums. Most home-made aquariums, however, soon begin to
leak, and it is difficult to keep them in good order. It is cheapest,
in the long run, to buy a good aquarium. They can be bought of
the dealers, in sizes for ordinary school use, for from five to ten
dollars. Such an aquarium will last indefinitely, but after a few
years it may need new cement on the inside angles. In this, with

30 Teacher’s Manual.

the fishes, should be placed some subaquatic plants in order to
keep the water supplied with oxygen. If such plants are not
readily found, they may be cheaply gotten from a greenhouse
or from dealers in natural history supplies. ‘Some pieces of ir-
regular rock should be put into the aquarium and built into
grottoes, for the fishes love hiding places. Also put in sand or
gravel ; in general, try to make the fish feel as much “at home”
as possible. ‘The more you succeed in doing this, the more
natural will be their actions. For goldfish and minnows the pre-
pared “fish food” is probably better than anything that you would
be likely to give them. Be careful to give only a little at a time,
or the water may become foul.

FROGS.

Collecting Frogs. — Frogs are best collected at night by going
along the swampy shores or shallow water near shore in lakes,
ponds, and creeks. The collector needs a good lantern and can
usually pick up the frogs without any attempt on their part to
escape. They may be kept in a box or cage in a damp place.
They should have access to fresh water. A large shallow pan or
trough will serve for this. A large tank in cellar or basement with
water supply and drain is desirable for school buildings so that an
abundant supply can be kept for late fall and winter use. They
should be looked after daily and any dead specimens removed.

When capturing frogs in water they often escape by diving.
Frequently they soon reappear, usually along the shore. Some-
times, however, they dive into the mud and there remain for some
time. If a frog dives and fails to appear again, look for him in
the mud, where his trail is indicated by muddy water or freshly
disturbed mud.

Buying Frogs. — While it is best for the teacher, with some
of his pupils, to collect the frogs, for the purpose of learning
their habits, it is in most places more convenient to buy them.
They are on sale for bait in the fishing-tackle department of the
large houses dealing in sporting goods. Many such stores sell

Snakes. 31

them at twenty-five cents a dozen, which is cheaper than col-
lecting them in person, as most teachers are situated. It is well
to order them before cold weather sets in in the fall, as they
cannot always be obtained. Still there are now a number of
men who are in the business of supplying schools and medical
colleges, so frogs can ordinarily be obtained at any season. But
while larger frogs may be obtained of these dealers, they usually
charge a higher price. It is very desirable that the teacher have
a few of these larger frogs for preparing a sample skeleton and
for general demonstration purposes. The teacher should early
prepare a skeleton card and show the pupils how the work should
be done, calling especial attention to any difficulties that they are
likely to meet. If the teacher does not do this work himself, he
will not know what these difficulties are, and he will not know how
much time to allow for the task.

In preparing for the dissection of frogs by the class, put the
required number into a jar, partly full of water; pour a small
quantity of chloroform into the water and tightly cover the jar.

SNAKES.

Collecting Snakes. — In most places it is difficult to get enough
snakes for individual work, even if this were desirable. This fact,
together with the almost universal prejudice against snakes, throws
the burden of this work upon the teacher. He will probably be
obliged to do the dissecting and nearly all the work that involves
the handling of snakes. But in most schools some of the boys
will help in the collecting. They should be taught not to injure
them during capture. First, of course, the collector should be
sure the snake is not poisonous. A light blow, as with a buggy
whip, generally simply stuns without serious injury. If one uses
a stick, it may be pressed down on the snake till the foot can be
placed on the neck, after which the collector can take hold of it by
the neck. A holding stick may be made as follows: take a broom
handle or rake handle ; fasten a long strap at one end, as though to
make a whip ; put a loop (a wide staple) on the opposite side of

32 Teacher’s Manual.

the same end; pass the strap back through the loop; leave a
noose about three inches in diameter. This can be slipped over
the head of the snake, and, by pulling, the snake can be held
firmly and at comfortable distance from collectors who hesitate to
take such specimens directly in hand. For carrying a live snake
a strong bag is convenient ; it should be securely tied, for snakes
can push strongly and may escape from a loosely tied bag. An
ordinary pail is not good, as a good-sized snake will push the
cover off. ‘The same is true of an ordinary tin can. A minnow
pail with a hasp cover is secure, and has the advantage of giving a
little air. While the snake does not need much air, it might be
smothered in a fruit jar tightly capped. If one uses a fruit jar,
the porcelain lining of the lid should be removed and a hole or
two punched in the cover by driving a wire nail through it. For
exhibiting snakes in the schoolroom a shallow box should be
provided with a glass cover. It is well to have a screen window
somewhere, but it does not pay to make a window of the screen,
as one cannot see well through it and pupils will strain their eyes
in the attempt. It is a good thing to have a good box made for
this purpose, with hasp-and-staple fastening, and to keep this pad-
locked. The snake is less likely to escape, either by his own
effort or through the desire of some one to play a practical joke.
A box three or four inches deep will serve for all ordinary snakes.
Several different kinds may be kept together, but if one wishes
to feed them it may be well to separate them.

If in collecting you should be bitten by any of the non-ven-
omous snakes, do not be alarmed. ‘The writer has been bitten
repeatedly, and has occasionally allowed a snake to bite the hand,
but has never experienced the least inconvenience therefrom.

Dissection of a Snake. — For dissection get a large specimen ;
a live one is better, for the dead specimens are often mutilated.
In a freshly killed snake the beating of the heart may be seen, and
the persistent vitality of the nerves and muscles serve well to illus-
trate reflex action of the spinal cord. The snake may be killed
by chloroform or by the following method: lay the snake’s

Turtles. 33

head on a board, and with a knife cut entirely through the spinal
column, just back of the head, or the spinal cord may be severed
with forceps. Do not cut off the head. Take a piece of stiff wire
as long as the snake (piano wire or spring brass wire) that is very
straight ; insert this through the opening at the back of the neck
into the cranium, and stir it about to destroy the brain. This de-
stroys all capability of sensation and of voluntary motion. Now
run the wire down the cavity of the spinal column. In doing this
it is necessary to have help. Let an assistant hold the tail end of
the snake and straighten the body out in advance of the end
of the wire. ‘This destroys the spinal cord and prevents the reflex
action of the muscles of the body, and makes it more easy to dissect.
The wire should extend as far as the anus.

By preserving the skins of all the snakes collected enough may
be accumulated to serve for tracing in Jordan’s Manual of the
Vertebrates. It is desirable that they be kept in dust-proof
drawers or cases, and away from strong light, so they will not fade.
The preservation of these skins is especially desirable where the
institution does not have an ample supply of alcohol. And there
is a decided advantage in the clean, dry specimens over alcoholic
material for the average school student.

TURTLES.

Collecting Turtles. — Occasionally a turtle may be picked up;
but since getting them in this way is uncertain, it is better, if
several are wanted, to buy them of the fishermen. Sometimes
they may be caught in seines in creeks. Young soft-shelled turtles
are not infrequently captured in this way. ‘Turtles should be kept
in a moist, cool place. A large box or tank in a basement does
very well. They will not need feeding during the winter.

How to kill Turtles. — They may be chloroformed by putting
them in a tight box with a sponge holding chloroform. Still, this
is a slow process, and the following method is recommended.
Draw out the turtle’s head, using pinchers if necessary. With a
pipette or syringe inject a teaspoonful of chloroform into the

34 Teacher’s Manual.

lungs through the glottis. ‘The head may be chopped off; but it
takes a turtle a long time to find out that he is dead, hence chlo-
roforming is a better method.

BIRDS.

Kinds. — One of the best of birds for indoor or outdoor study
is the English sparrow. It is abundant nearly everywhere, and
can be readily obtained. Sparrows may be caught in a “figure
four” trap, or by shutting them in at night after they have gone to
roost in sheds and cupolas. They may also beshot. For this, use
number nine shot. If one wishes to shoot them in a town, per-
mission should be obtained from the proper authorities. In the
country they are more likely to be found along hedges or near
barns. In any case great care must be taken, and it will not do
to trust small boys alone to do such shooting. ‘The teacher will
do well to enlist the aid of the boys of his class, but he would
better go with them to aid and supervise. In the Central states
crow-blackbirds usually gather in large flocks in the fall, prepara-
tory to migrating southward. At this time they may be obtained
in numbers sufficient for very large classes. It is desirable to have
at least one for every member of the class to prepare askin. In
Illinois, for instance, it is legal to kill crow-blackbirds. At any
rate, a teacher can procure a naturalist’s license, permitting him to
get birds for scientific purposes. But it ought not to be necessary
to destroy many such valuable birds as robins, larks, etc. The
crow-blackbirds, English sparrows, crows, jays, and a few others
that are objectionable will supply most of what are needed in any
considerable number. If possible each pupil might prepare a
skin of a perching bird, a climber (woodpecker), wader (any
snipe), bird of prey (hawk or owl), and a swimmer (duck). Any
one who is preparing to teach will do well to have prepared sev-
eral of these different types of birds. It is better to have some of
them mounted with the wings outspread, or with some special
arrangement of the parts to show the uses of the bill, feet, wings,
or tail.

Birds. 35

Collecting Birds. — For shooting blackbirds, if a large number is
needed, several careful men should go to the roosting place about
half an hour before sunset. Stationing themselves at various
adjoining groves, they may get many birds as the flock passes from
one grove to another. Number eight shot is about right for black-
birds. There should be several careful boys to pick up the birds
as fast as they are shot. ‘They should smooth out the feathers and
lay the birds carefully in broad shallow baskets so they may not
become soiled. A good way to kill a wounded bird is to pinch it
strongly back of the wings. As soon as the birds are brought
home, they should be carefully laid out in a cool place over night.
They do best when laid on a shelf only one layer deep. The
feathers should be smoothed again. They should be used, if pos-
sible, the next day. If kept on ice it will be found that they spoil
very quickly after they are taken out in ordinary weather.

Carrying Birds.—In collecting in the fields and woods the
most convenient way to carry birds is in a fish basket. Get the
large-sized baskets. These baskets will hold a large number of
birds and carry very comfortably. As soon as shot it is best to
insert a wad of cotton into the mouth to prevent moisture from
escaping and soiling the feathers. If there are conspicuous shot
holes, these should be plugged also. Each bird should be kept in
a paper cone. Newspaper serves very well for this. Take an
ample supply when you go out collecting. Make a neat cone,
bending over the tip so it will not unroll. Smooth the feathers
and drop the bird in head first. See to it that the bill points to
the tip of the cone and is not turned back. Now fold the open
end of the cone neatly over the tail. Thus wrapped the birds will
stand pretty close packing, but on a warm day it is well not to
crowd them together too closely. In laying them away over night
see that they are put where cats or other prowlers cannot get
them. ‘Teach each student how to make a cone and how to put
a bird in it. If pupils are shown early in the term how to do this
work, then all the birds that are brought to the class may be pre-
served. Any school may soon have a very good collection by

36 Teacher’s Manual.

getting each pupil to contribute one bird. It is a good thing to
have some large bird mounted with the wings outspread for illus-
trative purposes. For dissection, of course, birds that have been
shot are not good. For this live pigeons are desirable. Kill
them by chloroform in any tight box. Other birds can be used,
but it is usually difficult to get them in sufficient numbers. Spar-
rows might be used, but they are rather small.

Collecting Eggs. — The collecting of birds’ eggs by boys should
be discouraged. They cannot, or usually do not, discriminate, and
may do much harm. Such collections should be made under the
supervision of experienced persons, who know enough to take no
more than one egg, or at least but one at a time, from the nests
of birds that lay only a few eggs. By doing this a collection may
be formed without doing damage. The nest may be taken after
it is abandoned, and with an egg selected here and there a full
clutch may be shown, without having “ robbed ”’ a single nest, and
without diminishing the number of young hatched. The rivalry
of boys to get the most eggs, and the greatest number of kinds,
leads to very bad results. Lead the boys to use the camera on
adults, nest, eggs, and young. With care, much of this sort of
work may be done without seriously disturbing the birds.

Preparation of Exhibition Bird Skins. — The teacher should
prepare, or have prepared, one large bird as follows: After skin-
ning and filling the body as directed in making a bird skin, instead
of folding the wings, extend them to their full extent and mount
the bird on a board long enough to include the whole spread.
Instead of using a board wide enough to include the length of the
bird, use a second board slightly longer than the bird, and nail
this across the long board at right angles in the center. It will
have the form of a cross. The long board should be wide enough
to include the length of the secondaries. Such a preparation,
especially of such a large bird as a turkey buzzard, or large hawk,
will serve to show, to a good-sized class, the primaries, secondaries,
and other features that the teacher may wish to demonstrate.
Tack down the wings at various points. The head and bill may be

Mammals. 37

extended straight or turned to one side according to what is to be
shown.

Collection of Birds’ Feet and Wings. — Pupils should be en-
couraged to make collections of birds’ feet to show the different
uses, such as perching, swimming, wading, etc. ‘These may be
tacked to light, thin, smooth boards. A series of bills is also
instructive. The teacher should also prepare a set of extended
wings for class use in studying the effect of the arrangement
of the feathers. Take wings of fresh birds and stretch them to
nearly their full extent. Tack them in this position to boards;
shingles serve very well, but it is better to use light dressed stuff,
as they keep freer from dust and look better when the specimens
are kept from year to year. After the wings have become dry,
remove them from the board. ‘They are now ready for use as
directed in the study of the wing.

Elementary Classification of Birds. — For children, or beginners
of any age, probably there is no more serviceable system of classi-
fication than the old one which groups them according to their
place of living and mode of locomotion. According to this plan
we have the Perching birds, as illustrated by the robin; the
Climbing birds, as the woodpecker; the Waders, as the snipe;
the Swimmers, as the duck; the Birds of Prey, as the hawk; the
Fowls ; and the Doves. We might first put them in three primary
groups, the Water birds, the Land birds, and the Air (or Tree
birds). Of course these classifications are not so exact as those
of the ornithologists, but they are easier and in many respects
more satisfactory with children.

MAMMALS.

Collecting Mammals. — Probably rabbits are the best mammals
for class-room work. Children see them in the market and in the
kitchen, and become accustomed to the idea of having them cut
up ; consequently they are not shocked as they might be at sight
of the dissection of a cat. Rabbits may be caught in box traps,
with the common “ figure 4”’ door trip. Specimens in the market

38 Teacher’s M anual.

have usually been killed by shooting and are not usually in good
condition for dissecting, at least not for the dissection of the
internal organs. If the nervous or muscular systems are to be
studied, they serve very well. Ground squirrels may sometimes
be obtained in sufficient numbers to supply a class. ‘This is
especially true in the central states, where the striped ground
squirrel, or spermophile, is abundant in the fields. Boys often
‘drown them out,” and save them alive. They should be kept in
a very secure cage till they are to be killed, as they are likely to
gnaw out of a wooden box. Enough for a large class may be
killed at once by putting them in a tight box, or large jar and
dropping in a small sponge holding a tablespoonful or two of
chloroform. ‘They may be dissected on a board as directed else-
where. Rats can sometimes be obtained in numbers, caught in
traps ; but they are rather objectionable on account of their odor.
If the teacher cannot get enough specimens for individual work
by the students, he may get one for each four, or even larger
group, in which case the students most inclined to this sort of
work may do the dissecting and the others by watching may get a
fair idea of the structure. Or, if but one or a few specimens are
all that can be had, the teacher should do the dissecting and show
the results to the class. In this sort of work it is better not to try
to show too much at one time. Another specimen, later, may be
used to show other features. The writer has found the following
plan convenient in such demonstrations. Having the specimen on
a table, the teacher takes his place at one end, and has the students
pass on each side, and the structures to be exhibited are explained
to a group of from six to ten, according to the nature of the
points to be shown, the light, size of the class, time of the labora-
tory period, etc. To save time and avoid confusion have a regular
order of passing to and from the demonstration table.

Injection of the Arteries.— The arteries and veins, unless dis-
tended with blood, are so nearly of the same color as the surround-
ing tissues that it is difficult to distinguish them. Hence it is very
desirable to fill them with some colored substance.

Mammals. 39

The following starch preparation, recommended by Wilder and
Gage in their admirable work, Anatomical Technology, has been
found very satisfactory : —

STARCH INJECTION MAss.

Dry starch (“ Laundry” is good) .. . teins MOOS. C
Water, or a 24 per cent aqueous solution of sie hydrate 100 c.c.
PPMMPEMIICEPEETIE). = ee ee lw | REL
wemmmenee (aa ouvyen below) 2) 2 25 ec

“ After thoroughly mixing the mass, it should be filtered through
one or two thicknesses of moistened paper cambric. ‘To prevent
the starch from settling, the cloth should be tilted from side to
side, or the mass may be stirred during the filtration. If the mass
is not freshly prepared for every injection, the stock mass should
be filtered occasionally, to remove hair or any other object that
might clog the cannula.

‘Since almost any animal injected may afford some organ worth
preserving, it seems better to employ permanent colors in tingeing
the mass. Among these which are available, the following, proba-
bly, are preferable: vermilion, red lead, ultramarine, Berlin blue,
chrome orange, yellow, or green.

PREPARATION OF THE COLOR.

ter. fi. LA AAT Ned OE. GaP eGiele
Glycerine .. sige oe abel: wer ue eek e aesh ewes eoOr es &:
Alcohol (95 per ey aD. eee eee Se eee TS ee

“'To avoid lumps, which would clog the cannula or small blood
tubes, the color should be thoroughly ground in a mortar. It
should be stored in a well-stoppered bottle, and is prepared for
use by simply shaking. If permanent preparations are not to be
made, the mass may be stained by aniline of the desired color.”

Excellent results have been obtained by the use of carmine in
coloring the mass for injecting the arteries, and Berlin blue or
Prussian blue for the veins.

_ Kill a cat or rabbit with ether or chloroform, by putting the
animal into a tight box or jar with a sponge containing a tea-

40 Teacher’s Manual.

spoonful of the anesthetic. When the animal is dead, open the
thorax by cutting across the posterior ends of the breastbone, and
through the costal cartilages on each side, being careful not to cut
the mammary artery which runs along the inside of the breastbone
on each side. ‘The mammary artery should be tied just under
the anterior end of the breastbone. Now cut away the breast-
bone. ‘The breastbone may be simply turned forward, and in this
case it will not be necessary to tie the arteries.

Find the aorta, and clear away any tissues that may obscure its
base. Pass a ligature under the aorta here, but do not tie until
the cannula is inserted. Cut a small slit in the apex of the left
ventricle. Have in readiness several cannulas (or nozzles of a
brass syringe) of different sizes,
made by drawing out glass tubing.
Each cannula should have a dis-
tinct neck, so that it may be tied
in firmly. Insert the cannula
through the ventricle into the base
of the aorta. Now tie the cannula
firmly by the surgeon’s knot, made by crossing the two ends of the
thread twice instead of once, as in the ordinary knot; draw firm
with a slight sawing motion, but do not tie again. (See Fig. 1.)

For injecting, use a good brass syringe, if it can be had; a
white-metal syringe serves fairly well.

Demonstration of the Action of the Heart.— Get the heart
and lungs entire. Dissect out the aorta as before. Clear the pul-
monary artery, and cut off both branches close to the lungs. Care-
fully trim away the pericardium, and clean the precaval and
postcaval veins. Turn the heart back, and find one of the larger
pulmonary veins ; cut a hole in it near the lung, and slip a glass
tube into it toward the heart. This tube should have a groove,
made by drawing it out in the flame. Another, and perhaps
easier, way to keep the glass tube from slipping out, is to slip over
the end of the tube a piece of rubber tube an inch or two long;
but it should not project beyond the end of the glass tube. If

FIG. 1. —Surgeon’s Knot.

Mammals. 41

this fits snugly, it will not slip on the glass tube, and the blood
tubes will hold firmly when tied over the rubber. It is much better
to tie the tube into the pulmonary vein before the vein is cut off;
otherwise there will be difficulty on account of the shortness of the
pulmonary vein. ‘Tie the tube firmly in, and ligature the other
pulmonary veins without stopping to trace them. Tie all connec-
tions with the heart now remaining, and cut beyond the ligatures.
Get a retort stand and two large glass funnels, or have made a
more convenient piece of apparatus (as shown in Fig. 19 of the
author’s Physiology, Experimental and Descriptive), consisting
of a sheet-iron pan eighteen inches square and two inches
deep, with a fixed bail handle twenty inches high, made of iron
rod of the size of a retort stand rod. Attach retort rings and
clamps to the rod, as shown in the figure. This whole apparatus,
with the heart attached according to the directions given, can
easily be carried, and any overflow of liquids will be caught by the
pan. Place the funnels in the rings. Lay the heart, now wholly
severed from the lungs, on its ventral surface. Connect one funnel,
by rubber and glass tubing, with the left auricle by the tube already
in the pulmonary vein; connect the other funnel with the right
auricle, through the precaval vein; ligature the postcaval vein.
Lay the heart in a basin, and pour water into the funnels; hold
the heart with the two hands, and compress it, repeatedly adding
water. In this way the clotted blood usually present in the right
ventricle may be washed out. If this remain, it may interfere with
later experiment. Connect the aorta with the funnel which leads
to the right auricle by means of a glass tube which bends over the
edge of the funnel, thus holding itself in place by the hook, or
held above by a clamp or ring, and emptying into this funnel any
liquid which escapes from the tube. In like manner have a bent
glass tube, from the pulmonary artery, held by a clamp above the
funnel leading to the left auricle.

Let the heart soak in water, inside and out, over night before
showing it to the class. This will loosen the clots, and make the
valves more flexible.

42 Teacher’s Manual.

Pour water into one of the funnels, and compress the heart to
imitate its natural contraction ; observe where the liquid next ap-
pears ; add more water, and follow it around to its starting point.
A little ink may be poured into one of the funnels, and traced
around, as the heart is worked, to its starting point.

That there is no direct connection between the two halves of the
heart may be shown by letting the liquid from each artery empty
into the funnel connected with the auricle of the same side of the
heart. Different-colored liquids may be used in the two funnels.

In order to illustrate more fully how the heart is composed of
two pumps fastened together, and each pumping its own stream,
but worked by the same power, try the following : —

Take the two funnels supported as in the preceding experiment ;
connect each funnel with the supply tube of a common bulb syr-
inge ; connect the delivery tubes with the bent tubes used with
the heart.

1. Let each bent tube empty into the funnel from which it gets
its supply. There are now two distinct circuits.

2. Now cross the delivery tubes so that each discharges into the
funnel from which the other gets its supply. Now, on working the
bulbs, we have a circuit like a figure 8, really one circuit, but
the two streams cross each other.

3. Again, place the two bulbs side by side, and work the two
with one hand.

4. Wrap acloth around the two bulbs, so that what is contained
in the cloth cannot be seen. We have now a structure like the
heart. We know that it consists of two pumps wrapped together
and working together; that is, by the same stroke, but with two
wholly independent currents.

PROTOZOA.

Collecting Protozoa.— Amcebe are likely to be found in the
ooze at the bottom of ponds or still waters. Scrape up some of
the ooze, being careful to get little, if any, of the underlying mud.
Gather leaves and grasses that have fallen into the water. If these

Coelenterata. 43

have a slimy coating they are likely to supply you with a variety
of protozoans. Get a number of jars of such material, half full of
water. Keep the material from different sources separate. The
contents of the jars or bottles may be emptied into small open jars,
and kept in the laboratory. ‘They should not be placed in direct
sunlight. Protozoans may often be found in vases where plants
have been kept, and often develop in water in which hay or apple
peelings have been placed. Cut off little pieces of living aquatic ©
plants and mount in water. Many of the protozoans, as well as
larger animals, like the shelter afforded by plants.

SPONGES.

Collecting Sponges. — The study of sponges is so difficult that
it is not likely to be profitable for most classes. Still, if sponges
occur in your vicinity, you ought to find them and at least show
them as entire objects. Look for fresh-water sponges in lakes,
ponds, and quiet water in streams. They vary in color from green
to yellowish or brownish. Of course you will look for an attached
mass, of rather diffuse form, but having a general “ spongy ” appear-
ance. If the sponge is attached to rock, carefully scrape it off; if
fastened to wood, chip away enough of the wood to get the speci-
men entire. It may be kept in water for a short time, but is best
preserved in alcohol. The marine sponges that the ordinary col-
lector is likely to find are usually light-colored ; some are compact,
but many are tubular or often composed of branching tubes.

CCELENTERATA.

Collecting Hydras.— Hydras are widely distributed in fresh
water, and can be found in most places in the United States. It
is not easy to see them in the water in lakes, ponds, and quiet
waters, where they may abound. They are usually attached
to the under surfaces of leaves, or to stems where they are not
readily seen from above. ‘Then, too, almost any way of getting at

44 Teacher’s Manual.

them will disturb the water so much that the hydras will probably
be contracted when the observer gets close enough to see them.
The best way is to gather a quantity of fresh water-plants, espe-
cially plants that grow mostly submerged. ‘This material, with a
good supply of the water from which it is taken, should be carried
home and kept in small jars. The advantage of small jars is that
you can more easily see through them. Set these jars away, out
of the sunshine. After a time the hydras will expand again.
Look through the jar toward a good light. Look for a slender,
threadlike body about a half an inch long,.with a circle of radiat-
ing arms at the free end. These arms may be half an inch in
length. Hydras may be colorless, or white in appearance, or they
may be light brown or even green. ‘There are said to be three
species, distinguished by these colors. In the central states the
colorless form is the common one, and you should look for a
whitish-appearing object. When you find one, watch it to see if
it moves; if it progresses; if it eats; if it grows; if it produces
other hydras, etc. When you wish to examine one under the
microscope, cut off a bit of the leaf or stem to which it is attached.
If it is attached to the inside of the jar, carefully scrape it Off,
suck it up with a medicine dropper, and transfer to a slide or toa
watch-glass in a little water and examine, first under a low power
of the microscope, later with a higher power.

Collecting Hydroids.— Those on the seashore can usually find
an abundance of hydroids, the best time for this, as for almost all
marine collection, being at low tide. On seaweeds, on the piles
under wharves, on rocks and timbers, are to be found a variety of
the hydroids; to the beginner it may be best to say “look for
mosslike growths.” These may be pale, almost white, dull brown,
greenish, or pink. ‘They should be kept in salt-water aquariums,
and may be preserved in alcohol for later study. It is difficult to
preserve them in an expanded state, and the collector should learn
how to do this at some of the marine laboratories, such as Woods
Hole, Mass., or Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.

The smaller jellyfishes, known as medusas, are obtained by the

Echinoderms. 45

hand net or tow net. ‘The best time for this collecting is at sunset
and during the early evening when the sea is calm, for then the
medusas swim at the surface. ‘The net, after towing awhile, should.
be taken up and turned inside out and rinsed in a pail of sea-
water. This water may then be poured into a number of small
glass jars; large beakers serve very well as they are thin, clear, and
light in weight. Hold the jar up toward the light. When a form
is found that you wish to examine under the microscope, dip it up
by means of a glass tube thus: place the tip of a finger over one
end of the tube, and lower the other end to a point just above
the specimen. Now lift the finger till the water is sucked up into
the tube ; replace the finger on the end of the tube, lift the speci-
men out, and transfer to slide or watch glass. Most of these forms
will be dead before morning if left in a pail of sea water. In
handling, the larger jellyfishes avoid contact with the back of the
hand or any delicate portion of the skin, or you may learn too
well why they are often called “sea nettles.”

Sea anemones may be scraped from their attachment. Coral
polyps should also be collected, with the hard secretion, or coral,
made by the polyps. To preserve any of these forms in an ex-
panded condition is very difficult for a beginner, and the teacher
should learn this under supervision at one of the several excellent
marine laboratories, elsewhere mentioned. Such material, in con-
dition for study, may be obtained from these laboratories, or col-
lectors usually connected with them, of which a list is given
on p. 52.

ECHINODERMS.

Collecting Echinoderms. — The echinoderms are well suited for
practical work, especially for students living near the coast. Star-
fishes and sea urchins may be preserved in alcohol, putting them
first in fifty per cent alcohol, and later in seventy-five per cent or
stronger. It is well to cut a slit in one ray of each starfish so the
alcohol may penetrate; otherwise these and many other forms
with tough skins may actually spoil inside before the alcohol reaches
them. Then when dissection is attempted the internal organs are

46 Teacher’s Manual.

in such bad condition that no good results can be obtained.
Puncture the oral membrane of the sea urchins before placing in
alcohol. Take the same precaution with sea cucumbers.

In preparing dried starfishes, first kill them by placing them in
fresh water (or “sweet water” as the sailor would say). They
may then be dried in hot sunshine. It is rather safer to kill them
in alcohol, and then dry them in the sun. Each student should
have an alcoholic and a dried specimen. It is a good plan, es-
pecially where dissection is not undertaken, to give each student
a dried specimen to keep; also if possible a test of a sea urchin
and a cake urchin, sand star, etc. ‘These he should keep in his
individual collection. If he becomes a teacher, he will make good
use of these specimens. Even if he does not, they will be a source
of interest and instruction, not only to him, but to the members
of his family where he is sure to exhibit them. The echinoderms
are exclusively marine, and to people who have never visited
the coast, any such specimen is suggestive of the “ wonders of the
deep.” The school ought to do something toward educating the
community through the students. But in most cases, it will be better
for the inland teacher to pass over these forms rather lightly, since
he is not likely to have an abundance of material, without con-
siderable expense. Each teacher should dwell most on the forms
in the immediate vicinity. Thus, while he may exhibit a few
specimens that come from a distance, and at least teach the
students to recognize their external form, the home fauna should
receive the most attention.

FLATWORMS.

Platyhelminthes or Flatworms.— The writer does not recom-
mend that beginning classes attempt the practical study of this
group. Planarian worms may be found under sticks and stones
in many ponds. Specimens of the tapeworm can usually be
_ obtained from the nearest physician. But in the limited time at
the disposal of most classes it will undoubtedly be better to put
the time on other forms.

Molluscoida and Polyzoa. 47

ROUND WORMS.

The Nemathelminthes, or Round Worms. — These, too, are rather
beyond the ordinary student, so far as practical work is concerned.
Specimens of parasitic round worms, including pin worms and
Trichine, can be obtained of physicians or of dealers in micro-
scopic mounts.

ROTIFERS.

The Trochelminthes, or Rotifers.— ‘The rotifers, or wheel ani-
malcules, are found in the same situations as many of the proto-
zoans, and they may be collected, kept, and examined in about
the same way.

MOLLUSCOIDA AND POLYZOA.

The Molluscoida.— The brachiopods, or lamp shells, have the
appearance of bivalve mollusks; hence the name of the group.
They are obtained by dredging off the coast, and are not adapted
to practicai work by elementary students. Of the Polyzoa, many
marine forms resemble the hydroids, but examination shows that
the Polyzoa are much more highly developed than hydroids, hav-
ing a distinct digestive tube. From their tufted appearance they
have been called Bryozoa, or moss-like animals. ‘There are several
kinds of fresh-water polyzoans. One form, not uncommon in the
lakes and streams of the Central States, consists of a spherical
gelatinous mass attached to submerged stumps ‘or branches. ‘The
clusters of minute animals are on the surface. The mass is some-
times as large as a child’s head ; the fishermen call them sponges.
When they become waterworn, there remains a mass of clear,
tough, jelly-like substance that has puzzled many a naturalist.
Occasionally the mass forms around green plant growths, such as
Alge, thus making more difficult the solution of the mystery.
This form is Pectnatella magnifica.

LIST. OF REFERENCE BOOKS FOR STUDENTS.

GENERAL.

Riverside Natural History (6 vols.), Kingsley; Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.

Cambridge Natural History (incomplete), Harmer & Shipley; The Mac-
millan Co.

Commercial Products of the Sea, Simmonds.

Manual of the Vertebrates, Jordan; A. C. McClurg & Co.

The Crayfish, Huxley; D. Appleton & Co.

The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Earthworms,
Darwin; Appleton.

BIOLOGIES.

General Biology, Sedgwick and Wilson; Henry Holt & Co.
Animal Biology, Morgan; Longmans, Green, & Co.
Elementary Biology, Parker; Macmillan.

SCHOOL ZOOLOGIES.

Packard (Holt); Thomson (Appleton); Parker and Haswell’s Manual
(Macmillan); Kingsley (Holt); Jordan and MHeath (Appleton) ;
Needham (American Book Co.); Davenport (Macmillan); Harvey
(American Book Co.); Kellogg (Holt); French (Longmans); Morse
(American Book Co.); Dodge’s General Zodlogy (American Book Co.) ;
Holder (Appleton); Burnet (American Book Co.); Merrill’s Studies in
Zodlogy (American Book Co.).

INSECTS.

A Manual for the Study of Insects, Comstock; Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca,
N. Y. A Guide to the Study of Insects, Packard; Holt. The Insect
Book, Howard; Nature Biographies, Weed; Doubleday, Page & Co.
Romance of the Insect World, Badenoch; Macmillan. Elementary
Studies in Insect Life, Hunter; Crane & Co. The Transformations
of Insects, Duncan. The Structure and Habits of Spiders, Emerton;
S. E. Cassino. Butterflies of the Eastern United States, French; J. B.

48

Reference Books for Students. 49

Lippincott Co. The Butterfly Book, Holland. On the Origin and
Metamorphosis of Insects, Lubbock; Appleton. Ants, Bees, and
Wasps, Lubbock; Appleton. The Life of a Butterfly, Scudder; Holt.
Butterflies — Structure, Changes, and Life-histories, Scudder; Holt.
Injurious Insects and Insecticides, Semper. Life-histories of American
Insects, Weed. Insect Life, Comstock; Appleton. Entomology for
Beginners, Packard; Holt. MHalf-hours with Insects, Packard; Lauriat.
Economic Entomology, Smith; Lippincott. American Spiders and their
Spinning Work, McCook; Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. Moths and Butter-
flies, Dickerson; Ginn & Co. Moths and Butterflies, Ballard; Putnam.
Frail Children of the Air, Scudder; Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.

BIRDS.

Key to the Birds of North America, Coues; Estes. A Manual of North
American Birds, Ridgway; Lippincott. Land Birds; Water Birds, Cory;
Field Columbian Museum. Birds of the United States, Apgar. Hand-
book of Birds of Eastern N. A.,Chapman; Putnam. Among the Water-
fowl, Job; Doubleday, Page, & Co. Bird Life, Chapman; Appleton.
How to Name the Birds, Parkhurst; Scribner. Citizen Bird, Wright;
Macmillan. Birdland Echoes, Abbott. Birds, Bees, and Sharp Eyes,
Burroughs. Curiosities of Bird Life, Dixon. Bird Neighbors; How to
Attract the Birds; Birds that Hunt and are Hunted, Blanchan; Double-
day, Page, & Co. Birds of Field and Village, Merriam. Bird Ways; In
Nesting Time; Upon the Tree Tops; Little Brothers of the Air; A Bird-
lover in the West, Miller; Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. The Birds’ Calendar,
Parkhurst; Scribner. Bird-craft, Wright; Macmillan. Story of the
Birds, Baskett; Appleton. Home Life of Wild Birds (photographs),
Herrick; Putnams. Every Bird, Howe. Bird-dom, Keyser; D. Lothrop
& Co. News from the Birds, Keyser; Appleton. In Bird Land, Keyser;
A. C. McClurg & Co. Some Common Birds, Silloway; The Editor Pub.

_Co., Cincinnati. Birds in the Bush, Torrey; Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.
Our Own Birds, Baily; Lippincott. The English Sparrow, Barrows; The
Common Crow, Barrows and Schwarz; The Hawks and Owls of the
United States, Fisher; the last three are published by the United States
Department of Agriculture.

MAMMALS.

Squirrels and other Fur-bearers, Burroughs. Four-footed Americans, Wright.
Wild Beasts, Porter. Mammals, Living and Extinct, Flower and Lydek-
ker; A. & C. Black.

50 Teacher’s Manual. |

SMITHSONIAN PAMPHLETS.

The following pamphlets of the Smithsonian Institution are printed by the
government, as parts of the Bulletin of the United States National
Museum : —

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects, Riley; Instructions for Col-
lecting Mollusks, and Other Useful Hints for the Conchologist, Dall;
Directions for Collecting Reptiles and Batrachians, Stejneger; Directions
for Collecting Birds, Ridgway; Directions for Collecting, Preparing, and
Preserving Birds’ Eggs and Nests, Bendire; Directions for Preparing
Study Specimens of Small Mammals, Miller; Notes on the Preparation
of Rough Skeletons, Lucas. The Oyster Industry, Ingersoll; Govern-
ment Printing Office, Tenth Census of the United States.

BOOKS ON GENERAL OUTDOOR OBSERVATION.

A Naturalist’s Rambles about Home, Abbott; Appleton.

Each student should read at least part of this book in order to see how much
can be learned by observation around his home.

Seaside Studies in Natural History, Agassiz. Wake-Robin, Burroughs;
Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. Locusts and Wild Honey, Burroughs.
Animals’ Ways and Claims, Carrington. Ways of Wood Folk, Long.
Animals at Work and Play, Cornish. Wild Animals I have known,
Seton. Outdoor Studies, Needham. Zodlogical Sketches, Oswald.
Life on the Seashore, Emerton. In Brook and Bayou, Bayliss; Appleton.
Life and Her Children, Buckley; Appleton. The Foot-Path Way,
Torrey. Curious Homes and Their Tenants, Beard; Appleton. Eye
Spy, Gibson. Walden, Thoreau.

ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION, AND DEVELOPMENT.

Animal Life, Jordan and Kellogg; Appleton’s.

There ought to be several copies of this book in the library and each student
should read at least part of it. ;

Animal Life and Intelligence, Morgan; Ginn & Co. Habit and Instinct,
Morgan. On the Senses, Instinct, and Intelligence of Animals, with
special reference to Insects, Lubbock; Appleton. The colors of
Animals, Poulton; Appleton. Animal Life, as affected by the Natural
Conditions of Existence, Semper; Appleton. Animal Mechanism,

Reference Books for Students. st

Marey ; Appleton. Geographical Distribution of Animals, Wallace;
Harper. -Zoégeography, Beddard. The Development Theory, Bergen.
The Origin of Species, Darwin. The Variation of Plants and Animals
under Domestication, Darwin. The Study of Animal Life, Thompson.
The Play of Animals, Groos. Distribution of Animals, Heilprin. Com-
parative Physiology and Morphology of Animals, Le Conte ; Appleton.

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND HUNTING.

aioe of the Beagle, Darwin; Campfires of a Naturalist, Edwards; Apple-
ton. Around the Campfire, Roberts. Wild Life at Home; how to
study and photograph it, Kearton. The Wilderness Hunter, Roosevelt;
Putnam. Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Roosevelt; Putnam. Books
of the Boone and Crockett Club (3 vols. ), Roosevelt and Grinnell; Forest
and Stream Pub. Co. Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Baker. The Big
Game of North America, Shields. Book of the Black Bass, Henshall;
Food and Game Fishes, Jordan and Evermann; Doubleday, Page, & Co,
The Deer Family, Roosevelt; Macmilian. The Still Hunter, Van Dyke.
American Animals, Stone and Cram. Nature and the Camera, Dugmore.
American Duck Shooting, Grinnell; Forest and Stream Pub. Co.

BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER.

Text-book of Zodlogy (2 vols.), Parker & Haswell; Macmillan. Handbook of
Invertebrate Zodlogy, Brooks; Bradlee Whidden. Practical Zodlogy,
Marshall and Hurst ; Smith, Elder, & Co. Practical Biology, Dodge ;
Harper. Anatomical Technology, Wilder and Gage; A. S. Barnes. The
Cat, Reighard and Jennings. Zoédtomy, Parker ; Macmillan. Practical
Biology, Huxley and Martin; Macmillan. Atlas of Biology, Howes ;
Macmillan. Guides for Science Teaching, Hyatt; D. C. Heath & Co.
Taxidermy and Zodlogical Coilecting, Hornaday. Nature Study and
Life, Hodge. (Every teacher should read this book.) Nature Study and
the Child, Scott. Nature Study, Jackman; Holt. Nature Study in
Elementary Schools, Wilson; Macmillan. Mental Evolution in Ani-
mals, Romanes; Appleton. Animal Intelligence, Romanes; Appleton.
Teacher’s Manual of Bird Life, Chapman. Manipulation of the Micro-
scope, Bausch ; Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y. Insecta,
Hyatt ; D. C. Heath & Co. Studies of Animal Life, Walter, Whitney,
and Lucas; D.C. Heath & Co. Invertebrate Zodlogy, Pratt; Ginn &
Co. Invertebrate Zodlogy, Bumpus; Holt. A Text-book of Zodlogy,
Mudge ; Longmans.

52 Teacher’s Manual.

MAGAZINES.

Science ; American Naturalist; Forest and Stream; Recreation; Popular
Science Monthly ; Outing ; School Science ; American Monthly Micro-
scopical Journal; Journal of Applied Microscopy, Bausch & Lomb
Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y.

DEALERS IN ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

A. A. Sphung, North Judson, Ind. (frogs, crayfishes, clams, etc.). B. F.
McCurdy, 313 East 65th Place, Chicago (frogs, crayfishes, etc.). A. Booth
& Co., 2 La Salle Ave., Chicago (salt-water clams, oysters, lobsters, and fish
of all kinds). C. E. Blake, 1486 East 69th St., Chicago. G. K. Cherrie,
Brooklyn Institute Museum, East Parkway and Washington Avenue,
Brooklyn, N.Y. (marine material). C. J. Maynard, 447 Crafts St., West
Newton, Mass. F. G. Hillman, New Bedford, Mass. Aquarium Supply
Co., Delair, N.J. F. W. Wamsley, Academy Natural Science, Phila-
delphia. Marine Biological Laboratory, Wood’s Holl, Mass. H. H.
& C.S. Brimley, Raleigh, N.C. Ludwig Kumlein, Milton, Wis., taxid-
ermist (birds and mammals). Frye and Ruthven, Morningside College,
Sioux City, Ia. W. C. Kaempfer, taxidermist, 88 State St., Chicago.
“The Fair,’ Chicago (frogs). .

DEALERS IN MICROSCOPES.

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y. Eimer & Amend, New York.
James W. Queen & Co., Philadelphia. Williams, Brown, & Earle, Phila-
delphia. The Franklin Educational Company, Boston, Mass. Spencer
Lens Company, Buffalo, N.Y. William Krafft, New York.

DEALERS IN DISSECTING INSTRUMENTS.
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y. Sharp & Smith, Chicago.

DEALERS IN ENTOMOLOGICAL SUPPLIES.

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y. Queen & Co., Philadelphia.
John Akhurst, Brooklyn, N.Y. M. Abbott Frazar, Boston, Mass. En-
tomological Society of Ontario, London, Ont. Charles C. Reedy, San
Francisco, Cal.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

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SCIENCE. 15

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16 SCIENCE.

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SCIENCE, 17

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W.CROsSMAN. Cloth. 131 pages. Introduction price, 60 cents.

ps his study of animal life the pupil needs a guide that shall lead

him wisely, without telling too much, and which shall stimulate
him to see and to think without bewildering him with questions that
he cannot answer. In this little book such an attempt is made. The
directions have been modified again and again during ten years’ use
by classes in zodlogy, until they have reached a thoroughly workable
form. :

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| ce =a Algebra, Sin iaontiniy, schools. et os -
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SE Se aa ee ere.

L IBRARY al NUIT

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