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THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

ZOOLOGY:

Si SpstEtnatic Account of

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE, HABITS, INSTINCTS, AND USES

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

ZOOLOGY.

ZOOLOGY:

& SbB*tematfc Account of

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE, HABITS, INSTINCTS, AND USES

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,

AUTHOR OF "PRINCIPLE* OF GENF.RAL AM* COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY," AND
OF ''PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY."

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.

LONDON:
WM. S. ORR AND Co,, PATERNOSTER ROW.

MDCCCXLYIII,

TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

AUGUSTA ADA, COUNTESS OF LOVELACE,

Cfjese

MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,

RY

HER OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR,

PREFACE.

IN the preparation of this Treatise, the Author has kept
steadily in view the objects at which he has aimed in the
preceding volumes, and in the attainment of which he
trusts that he has been in some degree successful ; — namely f
the exposition of the principles of Science in their simplest
form, and the illustration of these by the most useful and
interesting examples. He has so fully explained his views
on the utility of the study of Zoology, and on the mode in
which it may be most advantageously pursued, in the Intro-
duction and First Chapter of the present volume, that
he considers any further remarks on these subjects here
uncalled for.

The general account of the Classes is translated, with some
additions and modifications, from the " Cours Elernentaire
de Zoologie " of M. Milne-Edwards ; a work adopted by
the French Government as the Text-Book of instruction,
in the Colleges connected with the University of Paris ;
and the whole of the beautiful illustrations prepared for
that Treatise, will be found in the present volumes. For
the more detailed accounts of the Orders, Families, &c., —
as well as for the first Two Chapters, the Author is solely
responsible. In the preparation of these portions of the
work . he has availed himself of the best and most recent

VI PREFACE.

sources of information ; and has endeavoured to adopt the
most approved systems of Classification. As scarcely any
two Naturalists agree, however, on this head, the choice
has been frequently a matter of difficulty ; and he cannot
suppose that he has been always equally successful. He has
adopted as his chief guides, the last Edition of the Synopsis
of the British Museum ; and the Pictorial Museum of
Natural History, at present in course of publication : and
to the latter of these works he is also under great obliga-
tion, for numerous details, obtained from sources to which
he might not otherwise have gained access.

A little reflection will show, that any general Zoological
Treatise must necessarily be in great part a Compilation
from the works of other Naturalists ; and the merit of an
Elementary work like the present, must consist rather in
the judgment shown in the selection and arrangement of
the materials, than in the originality of its contents. How
far the Author has succeeded in his present attempt, it will
be for his readers to decide.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

PACK

OBJECTS AND NATURE OF ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE ; PLEASURES AND

ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDVT . . 1

CHAPTER I.

ON ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION ....

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS ... 83

CHAPTER III.

OF THE CLASS MAMMALIA 92

SUB-CLASS I. — VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA.

OEDEB I.— BIMAKA 137

ORDER II.— QUADRDMAN.V . . . . J53

ORDER III. — CHEIROPTERA ..... 181

ORDER IV.— INSECTIVORA . . . . . 194

ORDER V.— CARNIVORA ...... 202

ORDER VI.— CETACEA 237

ORDER VII. — RODENTIA ...... 246

ORDER VIII.— EDENTATA . . . . -.271

ORDER IX.— RUMINANTIA . . 283

ORDER X.— PACBYDERMATA ... 317

Vlll . CONTENTS.

SrB CLASS II.— OVO-VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA.

PAGE

OIIDER XI. — MARSUPIALIA

ORDER XII.— MONOTREMATA . . . 354

RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL ORDERS OF THE CLASS MAMMALIA 360

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE CLASS OF BIRDS . • 361

ORDER I.— RAPTORES . 396

ORDER II. — INSESSORES . . 423

TRIBE _ I.— CONIROSTBES ... .427

TRIBE II. — DENTIBOSTRES . . . . 440

TRIBE III. — FISSIROSTRES ..... 450

TRIBE IV. — TENUIROSTRES . . . . 459

ORDER III. — SCANSORES ...... 467

ORDER IV.— RASORES . . ' . . 473

ORDER V.— CCRSORES ...... 484

ORDER VI.— GRALLATORES ...... 492

ORDER VII.— NATATOKES .... . 506

CHAPTER V.

CLASS OF REPTILES . . . ; . ... 523

ORDER I.— CHELONIA ... . 548

ORDER II.— SAUHIA ....... 553

OBDER III.— OPHIDIA ...... 569

ORDER IV.-BATRACHIA 574

INTRODUCTION.

OBJECTS AND NATURE OF ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE; PLEASURES
AND ADVANTAGES OP THE STUDY.

THE objects of Natural History are perhaps in general less
clearly understood than those of most other sciences, even
among those who pursue it as their professed employment. And
it is partly in consequence of this misconception, that its advan-
tages as a means of intellectual and moral cultivation, and the
pleasures which arise from the pursuit have been, in the opinion
of the Author, very commonly underrated. It is usually sup-
posed to be a Science of names and of intricate classification; but
it will be shown, in the course of this Introduction, that these
are not the objects of the Science, but merely furnish the me-
chanism (so to speak), by which its true ends are to be attained.

In Natural History, as in all departments of Philosophy, the
first step is made by collecting and registering facts, — just as the
Astronomer collects his facts, from observation of the movements
of the heavenly bodies, — or the Chemist, from experiments upon
the properties of the different substances found on the earth.
In these last sciences, it is as requisite, as in Natural History, to
give names to the objects whose movements or properties are
being described ; simply in order that various Astronomers or
Chemists may be enabled to compare their observations, which
they could not readily do, if there were no name or title to
designate them. This may be easily understood, from such a
case as the following. Let the reader suppose himself to be often

2 INTRODUCTION.

in company, in public meetings, and private society, with a gentle-
man of whose name he was ignorant, but who might take so
active a part in the proceedings or conversation, as strongly to
attract his attention. He would himself have no difficulty in
recognising this individual, on one occasion after another ; and
he might form an opinion of his character, from the actions he
witnessed, or the opinions he heard expressed by him. Now a
knowledge of his name would add nothing to his information
respecting such an individual ; unless an acquaintance with his
name led to some further knowledge — as of his family, or of his
proceedings elsewhere, — which might throw additional light on
his character. But suppose the reader to wish to make the cha-
racter of this individual a subject of discussion with a friend, who
might have had the same or other opportunities of observing it ;
he could not do so, without making his friend know to what
individual, among the many into whose society they might have
been thrown together, he was referring. Now he might make
this known to him by describing his countenance, person, dress,
manner, voice, &c. ; but to do this with sufficient certainty would
often require some time and trouble, all of which might be saved
by a knowledge of the name by which he is at once distinguished.
Now the real use of names in Natural History may be easily
understood, from the similar case just given. Every living being,
whether plant or animal, furnishes the Naturalist with a group
or collection of facts, to be examined and compared. He has
first to observe the form and arrangement of the external parts
of each; then its internal structure, which ought to be very
minutely investigated; then its physiological actions, or the
changes which it undergoes in the progress of growth and de-
cline; then the habits connected with these; and lastly, the
alterations which these may undergo, from a difference in mode
of life, or from diseased actions. Now when it is considered that,
in order to make even the foundations of the science complete, all
this knowledge ought to be gained respecting each of the many

INTRODUCTION.

hundred thousand species of Plants and Animals existing on our
globe, it is evident that this labour must be greatly subdivided,
that it may be undertaken with any chance of success. Each
Naturalist chooses a department most conformable to his own
taste, or to his opportunities for pursuing it ; one confining him-
self, for example, to the study of the external forms of some
particular group; another to the examination of its internal
structure ; a third devotes himself to physiological inquiries ; and
a fourth to the observation of the habits and instincts of the
respective beings, in a state of nature. Now it would be quite
possible to pursue any of these inquiries without a knowledge of
the names, which had been imposed upon the objects that fall
under our observation ; and the pleasure derived from such pur-
suits is but little impaired by this ignorance. "What does it
matter, for example, to the Microscopic observer, whether he is
or is not acquainted with the name given to some Animalcule,
whose movements he might be watching with the greatest inte-
rest, by some former observer, who very probably knew much
less of its structure and actions than himself ? But if we wish
to unite or compare our observations with those of others, a
knowledge of names becomes highly desirable, in order to save
the time, trouble, and uncertainty which will otherwise be in-
volved. The Author may mention a recent example of this
kind, from his own experience. He recently observed a very
active movement of the reproductive granules (VEGET. PHYSIOL.
§ 424) in a species of Sea- weed, in which, to the best of his
belief, it had not been previously seen. Now, in order to place
this observation upon record, it might certainly answer to give
such a general description of the plant as would probably serve
to point it out to other observers ; but such a description, not
drawn up by a Botanist who had paid especial attention to the
study of the Algae, would be very probably erroneous or defective,
and might consequently leave it uncertain which species of Sea-
weed was really meant. But by ascertaining the name of this

• 2

4 INTRODUCTION.

specimen to be Ulva Linza, he becomes able to publish his
observation, in a form which at once enables any other observer
to seek for the plant, and to repeat or extend his inquiry.

This is, however, the only utility of names in Natural History,
or in any other science. They serve, like money, as the
medium of exchange. And for those who pursue science for
their amusement only, it cannot be desirable to burden the
memory with a large number of names, which can only now and
then be useful, and which can easily be ascertained when wanted.

Juliet's question— "What's in a name?"— has a more extensive

applicability than she probably dreamt of at the moment she
uttered it ; yet her own reply shows her to have had a clear
notion in her mind, that, in other objects, as well as in her
lover, names and properties have no essential' connexion ; —
u that which we call a rose, by any other name would smell as
sweet."

Let us now examine, in a somewhat similar manner, the
value of Classification, in the scientific pursuit of Natural
History, A very cursory inspection of the forms and structures
of the different tribes of living beings, which are constantly pre-
senting themselves to our notice, may satisfy the observer, that
amongst all there are resemblances and differences; — between
some, the similarity being a prevailing feature, whilst between
others the differences are most obvious. Amidst all the variety,
he perceives on closer examination such a prevailing uniformity,
that he is led to believe that they are all formed on some general
plan or system, analogous to that which is seen to prevail in
other portions of the Creator's works. And just as the Astro-
nomer is enabled to show, that the great principle of mutual
attraction between all the masses of matter in the Universe, not
only governs the regular movements of the heavenly bodies, but
is constantly producing slight modifications or perturbations in
their course (see ASTRONOMY), — so does the Naturalist hope that,
ill the living Kingdoms of Nature, some principle may be dis-

INTRODUCTION. 5

coverable, which not only governs the uniformity that exists in
the structure and actions of all the creatures belonging to them,
but produces those numerous deviations from it, which are at
first sight so perplexing.

To discover this plan, therefore, is the highest object of the
scientific Naturalist ; and all his endeavours should be directed
towards it. There is no fact or class of facts relating to the
structure, actions, or habits of living beings, which can be
useless to him. That which seems, when regarded alone, to be of
trivial importance, is often found, when united with others, or
placed in a different light, to possess an unexpected value. Every
one, therefore, who carefully observes any occurrences that may
fall beneath his notice, and scrupulously records, not his infer-
ences from them, but the facts themselves, may be regarded as
contributing towards the advancement of the science. And
when we consider how little is known, compared with that
which remains to be discovered, it is obvious that there are few
who cannot do something. The man of active and observant
mind, whatever be his regular object of pursuit, may find many
opportunities of rendering important services to Science, by
simply watching that which passes before him, and committing to
writing what he notices. A fund of interesting and valuable
anecdotes regarding our native animals, may thus be collected
by an attentive observer, who is nevertheless ignorant of their
scientific names, their internal structure, or their place in a clas-
sification : and these may be of the greatest service in completing
the histories which have been already ascertained, in regard to
their structure and physiological actions ; and in explaining the
uses of parts, which were previously unknown.

But the inability to go abroad and observe Nature in the field,
need be no obstacle to those, who are inclined to pursue a course
of investigation into her phenomena ; for such persons may
advantageously employ themselves in inquiring into the minute
structure, and vital actions, of even our commonest Plants, and

6 INTRODUCTION.

Animals; which are very far from having been completely
studied ; and to these the Microscope will be found a never-
ending source of amusement and instruction. The most curious
facts we possess in regard to the influence of light on the deve-
lopment of the Vegetable structure, were ascertained by the
observation of one of its commonest and simplest forms (VEGET.
PHYSIOL. §. 95) ; and the progress of discovery is almost daily
revealing to us something new in the structure of animals with
which we imagine ourselves to be well acquainted. A very
limited knowledge of names and classification is required for the
successful pursuit of such inquiries ; although there is doubtless
a great advantage in a previous acquaintance with the general
principles of Natural History, both in preserving the inquirer
from erroneous conclusions, in directing him to new subjects for
observation, and in heightening the pleasure which he derives
from his pursuit. But such a view need not involve details
which are burdensome to the memory ; nor diminish the feeling
of freshness, which we derive so much more strongly from
surveying the wonders of Nature for ourselves, than from
becoming acquainted with them through the writings of others.

Thus, although no one can go far in the scientific pursuit of
Natural History, without some knowledge of names and of clas-
sification, yet this is but little required by those who pursue
certain departments of it for their own pleasure and improvement.
For it cannot be too constantly borne in mind, that in its present
state (which is much less perfect and complete than that of almost
any other science), there is ample room for the labours of all who
devote themselves to it as their regular object of pursuit, and with
the intention of raising it in the scale of the sciences, — much more,
therefore, for the less constant inquiries of those, who seek but
for refreshment and novelty by occasionally turning to the study
of Nature, from the harassing cares of business, or the wearying
monotony of a handicraft occupation, and who are content
with the humbler but not less honourable task of collecting and

INTRODUCTION. 7

supplying the materials with which the skilful builder may erect
his edifice. There cannot be a more beautiful example of that
adaptation which exists between the faculties of the human mind
and the objects of human knowledge, than the variety of modes in
which the study of Natural History may be pursued, and the cor-
responding variety of tastes which we meet with in those who devote
themselves to it. For whilst some busy themselves in simply
collecting the birds, the insects, the zoophytes, or the plants
which they meet with in their neighbourhood, and delight in
ascertaining those characters by which their place in a classifi-
cation may be determined ; others avail themselves of the mate-
rials thus brought together, and (perhaps without ever themselves
going abroad into the fields, or even confined, it may be, to a
narrow apartment in the middle of a crowded city), delight in
examining their internal structure, toilsomely unravelling the
details of their organisation, and scrutinising, with the aid of the
Microscope, their minutest parts ; — others, again, prefer to leave
the birds, the insects, the zoophytes, or the plants, unmolested
in their native haunts, but devote themselves to the observation
of their habits, the examination of their economy, the recording
of their actions ; — whilst the scientific Naturalist, whose talent
lies rather in generalising than in observing, and who is versed in
the principles which have been already ascertained in regard to
the structure, physiology, habits, and classification of the objects
of his study, seeks to combine the observations of others, in such
a manner, as to correct what has been erroneous in his previous
system, to extend it to new and previously unknown forms of
animated being, and to develope those beautiful analogies and
connections, which show the whole to be parts of one vast plan,
the work of one Almighty and Omniscient Creator.

As the labours of all these are necessary to the building-up of
the Science of Natural History, it is well that such diversity of
tastes and of mental faculties should exist ; since all the subjects
receive their due share of attention, which could not be if there

INTRODUCTION.

were a greater uniformity in the constitution of the human mind.
And, for the same reason, neither of the labourers should despise
or undervalue the labours of the rest ; since each department has
its peculiar value, and the pursuit of it cannot be rendered use-
less by any advance in the rest. Thus, the mere collection of
specimens, and the arrangement of them according to their external
characters, is, in fact, laying the foundation for the operations of
the scientific Naturalist. Even in districts which have been
most completely explored, it will be rare for the diligent collector
to find himself unrewarded by the discovery of some species new
to that locality, if not previously altogether unknown. But in
those which have been as yet comparatively little examined, it
cannot be doubted that a rich harvest of discovery awaits every
one who will devote himself to the search for it. We need not
leave our own island for this purpose. To the number of the
larger animals which tenant the land we cannot expect any con-
siderable addition ; but not a year passes without many new
species of insects being discovered ; and there are several parts of
our coasts that are rich in marine tribes, of which very little is
yet known, and which, consequently, hold out the most tempting
prospect to the collector. In all such researches, the locality,
and the other circumstances in which the specimen is found
should be carefully noted ; for the collection then has a double
value, — not only on its own account, but as affording information
on a most interesting and important department of zoology — the
geographical distribution of animals.

As to the importance of the study of the Anatomy and of the
Habits of the ani mals brought together by the collector, it
would seem unnecessary to say anything here. It will be shown
in the course of the present Treatise, that the classification of
Animals must be founded iipon their general structure, not upon
a few external characters ; and that the value of these last in
Zoology is, chiefly that they serve as a ready key or index to the
internal organisation, when the connexion between them has been

INTRODUCTION. 9

once established (§ 55). Hence, the Comparative Anatomist
may be said to prepare the cement by which the materials fur-
nished by the Collector are to be united together. But the
arrangement and combination of the whole is the work of the
Philosophic Zoologist ; whose department requires the exercise
of all the highest faculties of the mind, and whose work cannot
be perfect, unless he has obtained and mastered all the inform-
ation which has been accumulated by the labours of his associates.
Now it is possible to pursue each of these departments to a
certain degree independently of the rest ; and many have done
so with considerable success. But, on the other hand, the
success will be probably greater, in proportion to the amount of
the general knowledge of the whole subject, which is already
possessed ; and the interest of the pursuit, whichever department
of it may be undertaken, is also greatly enhanced.

We have dwelt upon the opportunity which the study of
Natural History offers to almost every one for the promotion of
its purposes as a Science, because it differs from most other
branches of knowledge in these respects, — that the objects it
embraces are almost illimitable in their extent, — that our inform-
ation respecting almost every one of them is still very scanty,—
and that there is, consequently, the most abundant opportunity
for every one to benefit mankind, by assisting in the collection of
materials for the extension of the Science, whilst obtaining
recreation and healthful employment for his own mind. And if
we consider the ultimate objects of Science, it must be acknow-
ledged that no more worthy motive for such pursuits can be set
before the mind, than that which is directly connected with it.
For its purpose is the discovery of those simple laws which are
the highest truths to which Reason (unaided by Revelation) can
conduct us, in regard to the character and dealings of the Creator.
Hence, in the pursuit of Science, if conducted in a right spirit,
we are guided by that simple love of Truth, which is, as
Sir H. Davy has beautifully observed, " in its ultimate and most

10 INTRODUCTION.

perfect development, the love of Infinite Wisdom and unbounded
Power, or the love of God." But it is not every mind which is
conscious of this high and noble aspiration. In many it exists
without the knowledge of its possessors, and needs to be
awakened from its dormant condition. In some it seems almost
or altogether deficient. It cannot be amiss, then, to hold out
some of the more direct advantages which attend the cultivation
of Natural History. These are twofold : — the first bearing upon
Man's corporeal wants ; the second upon his mental and moral
state. A single illustration, having reference to each of these
points, must here suffice.

There are many species of Insects, whose voracity (especially
in the larva state) is so great that, when they are present in
large numbers, they become a source of the most terrible devas-
tation. We have examples of this kind, on a small scale, in our
own country. Thus the caterpillars of the Beetle kind, and especi-
ally of the Cockchafer, would speedily destroy the roots of all our
corn and grasses, were they not themselves eagerly sought after as
food by the Rook and other birds. It is true that, when the
supply of these is exhausted, the Rook will support itself upon
new-sown wheat. But the injury which it thus does to the
farmer is as nothing compared with that from which it saves
him ; and if this tribe of birds were to be extirpated, a famine
would speedily follow. In many parts of this country, however,
popular ignorance has prevailed so far as to cause the destruction
of rookeries, under the idea that the birds devour a large quan-
tity of grain ; but so speedy has been the multiplication of the
real enemies of the agriculturist, when no longer kept within
limits, that the restoration of the birds has been, in every
instance, petitioned for within a few years. The larvae of the
Turnip Fly committed the most serious ravages in some of the
eastern counties of England, a few years since ; and no method
was found so effectual as the turning a large number of Ducks
into the turnip-fields ; for these birds, being the natural enemies

INTRODUCTION. 1 1

of the grubs, stripped the plants of them much more rapidly than
human hands could have done, and were, besides, themselves
rendered very fat and fit for the table. — But the destruction of
vegetation which occasionally results from such causes in this
country, is as nothing to that which frequently takes place in
warmer climates. No insect is so largely concerned in this as
the Locust, of which immense swarms occasionally make their
appearance, traversing a great extent of country, and clearing it
so completely of its vegetation, as to leave scarcely a trace behind,
save the leafless skeletons of the trees and shrubs, whose softer
parts they have destroyed. Numerous attempts have been made
to keep down the multiplication of these insects by rewards
offered for the destruction of their eggs and larvae ; but none of
these have been effectual. The sagacious Naturalist, however,
who duly considers the relations between different tribes of
organised beings, who bears in mind that there is not one species
of plant or animal which is not the destined food of another, and
who calls to his aid the power which the Creator has given to
Man over the animated world — not for its destruction, but for its
protection and regulation — will not have much difficulty in
devising a means far better adapted than those just mentioned,
for the object in view. He will ascertain what species is most
opposed to the one he is desirous of eradicating ; and, by
encouraging its multiplication, he will put a far more complete
check upon the ravages of his enemy, than by any scheme that
may appear more direct in its operation. There is a bird in
India, termed the Grakle, which performs the same office in
regard to the eggs and larvae of the Locusts, that the Rook
and similar birds tfulfil in colder countries. Nevertheless, the
inhabitants, being ignorant of the benefits they derive from
it. have sometimes sought to exterminate it ; and when they
have done this, the same consequences result as when a Rookery
has been destroyed in this country ; — viz., a great multiplication
of the destructive insects formerly kept in check. The following
history affords a curious example of this occurrence :

1 2 INTRODUCTION.

We are informed by Buffon that there was once a danger of
the island of Bourbon being entirely devastated by locusts ; the
eggs of which were introduced with some plants from Madagas-
car. They were rapidly multiplying, and the produce of the
fields was in progress of being destroyed. But the Governor,
who was a man of superior intelligence, learning the great
services which the Grakle performed in India, had a number of
pairs introduced and distributed over the islands. They bred
very fast, were diligent in their labours ; and in a few years the
locusts seemed extirpated. When this took place, the Grakles
began to dig and examine the newly-sown fields ; and the
colonists, concluding that they did so for the purpose of eating
the seeds, (when they were in reality only searching for the eggs
of the locusts), took the alarm, got them proscribed by govern-
ment, and speedily exterminated them. In a few years, how-
ever, they perceived their error ; for the ravages of the locusts
recommenced. Upon this the governor procured a second supply
of birds from India ; and the state took charge of their preser-
vation, Special laws were framed for their protection; and,
lest the people should have a hankering for grakle pie, the
physicians were instructed to proclaim their flesh very unwhole-
some food. But this extraordinary care was injurious. The
birds soon again cleared the island of the locusts, and destroyed
the grubs which injure the coffee plantations. But when this
supply failed them, they proceeded to attack the corn-fields and
orchards ; and even killed the young of pigeons, and other domes-
tic birds. In order to restore the balance, a sort of Malthusian
law was enacted, to prevent their numbers from exceeding
the quantity of their legitimate food ; and,|when thus kept in
check, they continued to do good without any admixture of evil.

Many similar examples might be adduced, to illustrate the
advantages, which a very moderate acquaintance with Natural
History confers upon its possessor, and the injurious results
which proceed from ignorance of its simplest principles. But it
is n very partial view of the obiects of Science, which looks for

INTRODUCTION. 13

its benefits in the improvement of the corporeal, temporal, and
earthly condition of Man, — which regards as its direct advantages
the contributions it makes towards his comfort, his luxury, his
refinement, — and which considers as a mere collateral result, or as
an accident by the way, its influence on his spiritual, immortal,
celestial being. Surely it is here that we are to look for its most
permanent, most direct, most important advantages. The works
of the Creator, when they afford neither sustenance nor physic
for the body, yield both food and medicine for the mind. It is
surely a more worthy occupation, to study the works of Infinite
Wisdom and boundless Power, than to bestow the labour of a
life upon the critical examination of a Greek Drama or a Latin
Satire. And it is surely a more likely means of advantageously
developing the intellectual and moral faculties of the young, to
exercise them upon the objects which are everywhere around
them, and a knowledge of which will be useful to them in almost
every possible scene of their future lives, than to confine them to
subjects which leave many of their powers unemployed, and
numerous sources of the purest pleasure undeveloped. "Strange
indeed," it has been well remarked, " must be the perversion of
that mind, which is made neither wiser nor better, by studying
the works of Him, whose own wisdom is infinite, and all whose
operations tend to good and happiness."

The observing powers are especially cultivated by the study of
Natural History. The organs of the senses are the portals,
through which all our knowledge of the world around us makes
its entry into our minds. In the infant and the young child,
they are set wide open; and we see how rapid is the develop-
ment of the faculties by the information they communicate. Yet,
in ordinary systems of education, this process is almost entirely
checked, during the period when it might be continued with the
greatest advantage ; and the learning of the schools is substituted
for the teachings of the great Book of Nature. It is not enough
that the senses should be used ; — they must be used aright.

14 INTRODUCTION.

To observe well is not so easy a thing as some persons imagine.
Some are too hasty, imagining that they can take in everything
at a glance, and often forming very erroneous or imperfect
notions. Others are too slow, fixing their attention too exclu-
sively on the details, so as to lose sight of the general plan.
Both these faults should be carefully avoided ; and the habit of
guarding against them, once acquired, will be of invaluable
service in future life. There is also a danger in allowing our
observations to be influenced by previously formed ideas; so
that we often think we see what exists only in our own imagina-
tions. This habit cannot be too early checked ; and there is
probably no better mode of preventing its formation, than the
accustoming the young to exercise their organs of sense upon the
numberless objects which the study of Nature brings under their
notice, and to give careful and accurate descriptions of what they
observe. It has been sometimes said that there are more false
facts, than false theories, in science ; and if this is true of any
department, it is of Natural History. It is wonderful how the
most acute and profound reasoners have erred, when they have
trusted too much to their own observations, and too little to the
statements of others, who may have been much more competent
than themselves as observers, though far inferior as reasoners.
This was not unfrequently the case with the great Bacon ; who,
so far from contributing anything to our knowledge of facts in
Natural History, often gave additional force to errors by the
weight of his authority. , Many examples of this will be found
in his treatise entitled " Sylva Sylvarum ;" the following will
here suffice.

The Misseltoe is included by Bacon among the excrescences,
which sometimes grow from trees as a consequence of disease.
" They have an idle tradition" he says, " that there is a bird
called a missel-bird, that feedeth upon a seed, which many times
she cannot digest, and so expelleth it whole ; which, falling upon
the bough of a tree that hath some rift, putteth forth the Missel-

INTRODUCTION. 15

toe. But this is a fable ; for it is not probable that birds should
feed upon what they cannot digest. But allow that, yet it can-
not be, for other reasons ; for, first, it is found but upon certain
trees, and those trees bear no such fruit as may allure that bird
to sit and feed upon them. It may be, that bird feedeth upon
the misseltoe berries, and so is often found there ; which may
have given occasion to the tale. But that which maketh an end
of the question is, that misseltoe hath been found to put forth
under the boughs, and not only above the boughs ; so it cannot
be anything that falleth upon the bough." He then goes on to
argue that this plant, which he considers as a superior kind of
fungus, is produced by "abundance of sap in the bough that
putteth it forth," which, he says, may be certainly set down ; as
also that "this sap must be such as the tree doth excern and
cannot assimilate, for else it would go into a bough; and, besides,
it seemeth more fat and unctuous than the ordinary sap of the
tree ; both by the berry, which is clammy ; and by that it con-
tinueth green winter and summer, which the tree doth not." The
vegetable Physiologist, however, is now well assured, that the
Misseltoe is a distinct and independent plant, springing, like
others, from seed, and drawing its nourishment from the juices of
the tree on which it has germinated (VEGET. PHYSIOL. § 319) ;
and a little careful observation of the habits of the Missel-Thrush
and other birds would have shown to the great philosopher,
that they really perform the office which is commonly attributed
to them — that of diffusing the plant, by dropping its seeds in
situations where they may fall into the chinks and hollows of
trees, — but which he denied on very insufficient grounds.

There are two other tendencies which exist, more or less, in
almost every mind ; and which must be especially guarded
against by those who desire to render that study of Nature
alike beneficial to their own minds, whilst promoting the im-
provement of science. These are, the love of the marvellous ;
and the inclination to rest satisfied with superficial resemblances.

16 INTRODUCTION.

An amusing illustration of the effects of these may be drawn
from a large volume, entitled " Gerarde's Herbal," first pub-
lished near the end of the 16th century, but looked up to by
many of a generation, not long since passed, as their chief
botanical authority. " Having travelled," he says at the con-
clusion of his volume, u from the grasses growing in the bottom
of the fenny waters, the woods, and mountains, even unto
Lebanus itself — and also the sea and bowels of the same — we
are arrived at the end of our history ; thinking it not impertinent
to the conclusion of the same to end with one of the marvels of
this land, we may say of the world — the history whereof, to set
forth according to the worthiness and variety thereof, would not
only require a large and peculiar volume, but also a deeper
search into the bowels of Nature than my intended purpose will
suffer me to wade into, my sufficiency also considered. There
are found in the north parts of Scotland, and the islands
adjacent, called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certain
shells of a white colour, tending to russet, wherein are contained
little living creatures; which shells, in time of maturity, do
open, and out of them grow those little living things, which,
falling into the water, do become fowls, which we call Barnacles,
in the north of England Brant-geese, and in Lancashire Tree-
geese ; and the other that do fall upon the land, perish and come
to nothing. Thus much by the writings of others, and also
from the mouths of people of those parts, which may very well
accord with truth."

" But what our eyes have seen and our hands have touched"
continues %the Author, doubtless with full sincerity, " we shall
declare. There is a small island in Lancashire called the Pile of
Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised
ships, some whereof have been cast thither by shipwreck, and
also the trunks and bodies, with the branches of old and rotten
trees, cast up there likewise, whereon is found a certain spume
or froth, that in time breedeth unto certain shells, in shape like

INTRODUCTION. 17

those of a mussel, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour ;
wherein is contained a thing in form like a lace of silk finely
woven as it were together, of a whitish colour, one end whereof
is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oysters
and mussels are ; the other end is made fast unto the belly of a
rude mass or lump, which in time cometh to the shape and form
of a bird ; when it is perfectly formed, the shell gapeth open,
and the first thing that appeareth is the foresaid lace or string ;
next come the legs of the bird hanging out, and as it groweth
greater, it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all
come forth, and hangeth only by the bill. In short space it
cometh to full maturity, and falleth into the sea, where it
gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl, bigger than a Mallard,
and lesser than a Goose, having black legs and a bill or beak, and
feathers black and white, spotted in such manner as our Magpie,
called in some places a Pie Annet, which the people of Lancashire
call by no other name than a Tree Goose ; which place aforesaid,
and all those parts adjacent, do so much abound therewith, that
one of the best may be bought for threepence. For She truth
hereof, if any doubt, may it please them to repair unto me, and I
shall satisfy them by the testimony of credible witnesses"

It is scarcely conceivable how any one could have been so led
away by the love of the marvellous, as to rest upon the most
superficial resemblance, in proof of the extraordinary supposition,
that from a Barnacle is produced a Bird ; especially when the
Author tells us that so far he is satisfied by his own observation,
of " what his eyes have seen and his hands have touched." The
other part of his story, setting forth that these Barnacles grow
upon trees, which he learned " from the writings of others, and
also from the mouths of people of those parts," is by no means
so discordant with truth, as they certainly do grow on trees,
though not produced by them. Those who have seen the
Mangrove trees (BOTANY, § 598) surrounding the lagoons in the
islands of the tropical ocean, their pendent branches loaded with

18 INTRODUCTION.

shell-fish of various kinds, may easily excuse a popular error of
this nature ; but for the Scientific Naturalist of the present day
to give credence to it, would be unpardonable.

The study of Natural History, then, has an obvious tendency,
not only to encourage the habit of correct and unprejudiced
observation in its votaries, but to call into exercise the discri-
minating powers, which shall teach them to attach their due
value to the statements of others. Upon the advantage of such
a kind of mental cultivation, it is unnecessary here to dwell. It
is useful in every situation, in every relation of life. It enables
us to suspend our judgment, when we are not satisfied of the
stability of the grounds upon which we are to decide ; and leads
us to draw the line between suspicious incredulity on the one
hand, and too ready assent to improbable and unconfirmed state-
ments on the other. In the cultivation of this habit, the study
of Natural History has an obvious advantage over that of the
more exact Sciences. We have not yet the same guidance
afforded by general laws, as that which they possess, and which
enables the physical philosopher to decide at once on the truth
of statements submitted to him. Tell a man acquainted with
the simple laws of Matter, that a perpetual motion had been
invented, depending upon strictly mechanical principles; and he
will not believe it, because he knows it to be a physical impos-
sibility. In Natural History we are to a certain extent equally
safe in forming a positive decision. The differences between the
skeleton of Man, and that of an Elephant or Lizard, are now
sufficiently well known, to prevent our giving credence to the
marvellous accounts of such prodigies, as a Man 25 feet long ;
these cease to astonish us (except as regards the ignorance that
propagated them), now that we are acquainted with their true
explanation. Nor are we in danger of allowing ourselves to be
led away by an English writer of much learning, who, so late as
the middle of the 17th century, attributed the origin of fossil
shells and fishes to " a plastic virtue latent in the earth." But

INTRODUCTION. 19

when we place side by side the apparently contradictory state-
ments of credible observers at the present time (take, for instance,
those of Audubon and "Waterton on the powers of scent pos-
sessed by the Vulture), we are compelled to suspend our judg-
ment, until we have examined into the possible fallacies of each,
and sought for more unexceptionable testimony from other
sources. Now it is the very necessity of this process, which is
seldom needed in other sciences, that renders the study of Natural
History peculiarly advantageous as a means of intellectual
culture and discipline. " If a man," says Bacon, " begin with
certainties, he shall end in doubts ; but if he be content to begin
with doubts, he shall end in certainties."

But Natural History employs higher faculties of the mind,
than those simply connected with the observation of facts. There
is no Science which, with so extensive a basis of observed phe-
nomena, has its materials so little connected by general laws.
The slow progress of this is partly due to the prevalent miscon-
ception of their nature, and of the mode in which they are to
be attained. It has been already pointed out, that Classi-
fication, which is so often considered as the highest object of
Natural History, is but a means towards the pursuit of more
elevated inquiries, — a means which is employed in all Sciences,
but which takes a more prominent station in Natural History,
in consequence of the difficulties attending it, and the diversity
of the objects which come within its scope. But even though
not the highest object of Natural History, it exercises mental
faculties of a superior order. The mere collection of specimens,
and the arrangement of them under their respective divisions, is
a useful exercise to the growing mind; teaching, as it does, the
habits of patient discrimination and careful comparison. But
this may be carried too far. It is not uncommon to meet with
persons, in whom the amor hdbendi (love of possessing), engrosses
every other feeling, to which the pursuit of science ought to give
rise. These are, indeed, mere collectors; estimating their

c2

20 INTRODUCTION.

acquirements more by the number of species they possess, than
by their knowledge of those general principles, which constitute
the Science of Natural History. It is quite possible for one
of these pseudo-naturalists to attain a correct acquaintance with
the external characters of every individual composing an exten-
sive group ; and even to contribute towards improving their
classification. But he would not thereby have more claim to
the character of a man of Science, nor would he have more
exercised the higher faculties of his mind, than one who should
learn the forms, colours, and specific gravities of all the sub-
stances with which Chemistry brings us acquainted, without
making himself acquainted with the laws of chemical com-
bination.

It is in the search after those general principles, which regu-
late the structure and actions of the animated as well as the
inanimate creation, that the noblest powers of the human intellect
are exercised ; and exercised, too, in their most legitimate sphere.
" Wherefore," it may be asked, "has the Creator given to Man
faculties so far exalted above those of the brute creation ? Where-
fore has He formed him with a mind capable of seeing into the
depths of space — of grasping ages in one mighty thought — of
seeing with the eye. of reason into things not obvious to mortal
sense — of discovering and in some measure comprehending, his
own sublime and ever-acting laws ?" Was it merely to compen-
sate for the partial inferiority of his bodily constitution, — was it
only to give him the power of subduing the lion without his
strength, of providing himself with subsistence from the antelope
without his fleetness, of parrying the venomous attacks of the
serpent without his cunning, of resisting the inclemency of the
elements, without those natural defences with which almost every
other animal is provided ? Surely not. We should be much
nearer the truth in considering, that the Creator has provided
Man with a corporeal structure inferior in many respects to
that of brutes, and has left him with instinctive powers far less

INTRODUCTION. 21

developed than theirs, for the very purpose of arousing the latent
energies of his mind. The greater the difficulties presented by
circumstances to the supply of his wants, the more are his intel-
lectual faculties called into exercise for their gratification. And
when once excited to action, who shall set the limit to their
development? The mind requires occupation as much as the
body requires food. And as we select those substances for the
nutriment of the corporeal structure, which are best adapted to
support its strength and to complete its growth, so should we
prefer those materials for the development and invigoration of
the mental powers, which are by their nature and tendency
most fit to expand and elevate them. If there be no assignable
limit to the powers of the human mind, it is obvious that they
should be employed on objects equally extensive. Nothing can
be more prejudicial to its healthy action, than to confine it to
some exclusive and monotonous occupation ; and nothing, on the
other hand, can be more favourable to the development of its
higher faculties and nobler aspirations, than to turn it. if only
for the brief periods of relaxation which the necessary labours
and cares of the world may leave unoccupied, to the contempla-
tion of the works of the Great Author of the Universe. It is
here alone that its powers can find their full scope; for here
alone can it be felt, that however great the amount of knowledge
attained, it is as nothing compared with that which is yet to be
unfolded by Infinite Wisdom ; and that, however great the
triumphs of human skill, they are as nothing to the wonders of
Almighty Power. All other departments of knowledge have
their limit ; and much of what is brought together by the labours
of a protracted life, dies with the scholar by whose toil it has
been collected. But in the study of Natural Science, no step
once gained is ever lost ; for it serves to plant the succeeding
footsteps, by which other minds may rise into yet nearer com-
munion with the Creator, and gain a wider survey of his works.
But as all his attributes are Infinite, not even Eternity can be
sufficient to unfold them to the beings He has created.

22 INTRODUCTION.

The effects which the pursuit of Natural History should pro-
duce upon the moral faculties, are not less valuable than those
which have been adverted to in regard to the intellectual powers.
And these may be recognised at the very outset of the study, if
it be commenced in a right spirit. Well has the great Bacon
remarked upon the " felicity wherewith God hath blessed a
humility of mind, such as rather laboureth to spell, and so by
degrees to read, in the volumes of his creation, than to solicit and
urge." " It is no less true," he elsewhere says, " in this human
kingdom of knowledge, than in God's kingdom of heaven, that
no man shall enter into it, * except he become first as a little
child.1 r And this humility of spirit is encouraged, rather than
repressed, by the subsequent progress of the inquirer ; since his
prospect becomes wider, every step that he takes ; and his feel-
ing of his own insignificance, in comparison with the vastness of
Creation, should be continually increasing. No frame of mind
can be more advantageous than this, for the reception of those
other influences which the study of Nature is calculated to exert.
The Naturalist who has cherished it, and who possesses also that
openness to conviction which is its almost necessary result, can
scarcely fail to perceive that Infinite Love is displayed in the
works of the Creator, as well as boundless Wisdom and Almighty
Power. In everything which he can trace to its causes — in
which he can detect the mode of their operation — of which he
can discover the design, he sees the evidence of the same attri-
butes ; and hard indeed must be the heart, and proud the spirit,
and blind the understanding, that does not pass from the known

O" *

to the unknown ; and, trusting where it cannot trace, feel an
assured conviction, that the same Almighty Power, the same
boundless Wisdom, and the same Infinite Love, are as fully
exercised in those instances in which they are to him least evident,
as in those where they are most clearly manifested.

And thus is laid a good foundation for the reception of those
truths, regarding the peculiar concern of the Creator in the welfare
of his human offspring, which Revelation discloses to us. The

INTRODUCTION. 23

mind that has been led by the philosophic study of Nature
(which is nothing else than the application of that reason with
which man has been endowed, to the discerning contemplation
of those glorious works with which he is surrounded), to recog-
nise in it a Power which can never fail, a Wisdom which can no-
wise err, and a Goodness which cannot be unkind, — and which,
by continually dwelling on such thoughts, has interwoven them
(as it were) with itself, and made them a part of its own consti-
tution,— is well prepared to view the Great Creator of all in that
peculiarly parental character, in which He has been so frequently
and touchingly represented to us by His inspired messengers ;
and to submit without a murmur to the severest inflictions of His
Almighty hand, as the discipline of a Father who alone knoweth
what is good for his children, and who loveth even while he
chasteneth. In the events of life, as in the phenomena of Nature,
he will be prepared to trust where he cannot trace ; and, by the
contemplation of those mercies by which every afflictive dispen-
sation is tempered, to rise to the assured conviction, — a conviction
pervading the heart, as well as satisfactory to the understanding,
— that the stroke itself is not only designed by Wisdom, and
given by Power, but is aimed and directed by Love. And,
when this conviction has been attained, it finds itself reflected by
every object around ; and, in the contemplation of the visible
works of Creation, a degree of realisation is given to it, which
can scarcely be attained in any other way, by those who have
not passed through a long course of religious experience. It
should operate, too, not merely in severe trials or seasons of the
deepest gloom, but in lightening the daily cares, and giving
cheerfulness to the daily scenes of life ; and if such be the fruits
of the study, on the recommendation of which we have dwelt
so long, it is indeed one not to be neglected.

CHAPTER I.

ON ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.

1. THE principles of a Natural arrangement of Plants or
Animals having been elsewhere fully explained (BOTANY,
Chap. I.), it will not be necessary to do more in this place than
recapitulate them, with some additional illustrations of a Zoo-
logical character.

2. The object of all Classification has been shown to be, —
to bring together those beings which most resemble each other,
and to separate those that differ. In this manner we greatly
shorten the labour which would be otherwise required from the
Naturalist ; since, instead of spending his time and attention in
the study of all the characters which each specimen presents, he
is at once able, by knowing its general position in the Animal
scale, to see (as it were) into its interior, and a single character
often becomes the key to a great number, Thus, for instance,
if we meet with an animal covered with feathers, we know that it
must belong to the class of Birds ; because no other animal than
a Bird is endowed with this covering. And when we know it
to be a Bird, we can at once attribute to it all those characters
by which the members of this group are distinguished. Thus,
we feel a certainty that it has a bony skeleton covered with
flesh ; that of this skeleton, a jointed back-bone forms the essen-
tial part ; that this back-bone contains a spinal marrow, swelling
at its upper end into a brain, which is inclosed within a bony
casing or skull ; that it is oviparous, or propagates by eggs ;
that it breathes air by means of lungs ; that its heart has four
cavities ; that the blood is red, and its circulation rapid, and ar-
ranged on the same plan with that of Man ; that the temperature

26 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

of the body is always high during life ; that the mouth is desti-
tute of teeth, but that its jaws are furnished with a horny
bill ; that the body is supported on the ground upon two legs
only ; and that, if its wings are sufficiently developed, the animal
can raise itself into the air by their movement. All these facts,
and many more, are included in the general idea of the structure
of the Bird which the Zoologist possesses ; but only a few of
them are included in the common idea. For a person ignorant
of Zoology thinks of little but the external characters ; and
attaches little else to the name of Bird, than the idea of an
animal covered with feathers, possessing one pair of wings and
one pair of legs, and having a horny bill. Or, if he thought of
the internal structure at all, the distinction upon which his mind
would naturally fix, would be the gizzard, or strong muscular
stomach possessed by most of the birds used as food ; but this
would not be a proper zoological character of the class, because it
is confined to a certain part of it only, and is, moreover, possessed
by animals of other tribes.

3. Thus we see how much our labour is simplified, by
the union into one group, of all the animals which agree in the
most important or essential characters ; since, by the knowledge
of these characters, we are at once put in possession of a great
amount of important information respecting every one of the ani-
mals included in the group. Thus, among the many thousand
species which belong to the class of Birds, there is not a single
one that does not agree in all the characters just named ; and,
if we should find a new species, — which no Naturalist had ever
met with, no Anatomist had ever examined, — we might antici-
pate with certainty (so far, at least, as we have a right to feel
certain of anything of this kind), that its internal structure would
correspond with the description already given. For not only do
the animals included in the class of Birds agree amongst them-
selves in all these characters ; but they also differ from all others
in having them thus combined. Thus, if we compare Birds with
Insects, to which, in their mode of life and possession of the
powers of flight, they bear the greatest external resemblance ; we
shall find the points of agreement really much fewer than the

PRINCIPLES OP CLASSIFICATION. '27

points of difference. For the resemblance does not extend much
beyond the presence of wings, the breathing of air, the repro-
duction by eggs, and the covering of the wings and body (in
some Insects) with a kind of down. The points of difference
are much more striking. For the body of an Insect has no
internal skeleton, but is included within a jointed envelope, of
greater or less firmness ; the nervous centres, instead of being
united into one continuous mass — the brain and spinal marrow,
are scattered through the body in distinct ganglia; the air which
enters the body, instead of being confined to certain bags or
chambers, is carried through the whole, by means of a widely-
distributed system of air-tubes ; instead of a heart, there is a long
tube, situated in the back, and divided into chambers that cor-
respond with the segments or divisions of the body ; the blood is
white, and its circulation slow and feeble ; the temperature of
the body is usually not much above that of the air around it ; the
body is supported, when on the ground, upon six legs ; and
the eyes are compound in their structure, each of the dark hemi-
spherical protuberances on the head being, in fact, an assemblage
or cluster of distinct eyes. All these are characters, of which the
union is peculiar to the Insect, distinguishing it from other
classes ; and we see how very little real conformity there can be
between Insects and Birds ; since the points of difference are so
much greater than those of agreement.

4. The fact is, that these two classes belong to different pri-
mary subdivisions of the Animal kingdom ; — the Birds to the
group of YERTEBRATA, which is especially distinguished by the
possession of an internal skeleton, protecting the nervous centres,
and clothed by the muscles which communicate motion to it ; —
whilst the Insects form part of the group of ARTICULATA, in
which the skeleton is external, having the muscles that move it
attached to its interior, and not giving more protection to the
nervous centres than it does to the rest of the body. But the
class of Birds may be regarded as holding the same position in
the Yertebrated series, which that of Insects does in the Arti-
culated. They are adapted for the same mode of life; and
notwithstanding the different plans on which their bodies are

28 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

constructed, there is a remarkable correspondence between several
parts of their respective fabrics. Hence, they are termed analo-
gous groups ; and may be said to represent one another in the
series to which they respectively belong. Thus, Birds may be
termed the Insects of the Vertebrated series ; and Insects may
be regarded as the Birds of the Articulated. We shall have
several occasions for noticing similar analogies, in the course of
this Treatise.

5. But we shall next inquire, how the characters which have
been mentioned as distinguishing the class of Birds, serve to sepa-
rate it from others, which have more in common with it. The
classes of Reptiles and Mammals * all agree with Birds in a
larger number of characters, — and these, too, of the highest
importance, — than do Insects ; notwithstanding that the differ-
ence in external form, and in habit of life, may be much greater.
For they are all Yertebrated animals, possessing a jointed internal
skeleton, which envelopes and protects the nervous centres, a
distinct brain and spinal marrow, four members or extremities,
five senses, red blood, simple eyes, &c., &c. With Mammalia
and Reptiles, Birds further agree, in breathing air by means of
lungs ; whilst they agree with Reptiles and Fishes in being
oviparous. With Mammals, again, they agree in having a heart
with four cavities, and a complete double circulation (which is so
arranged, as to expose all the blood to the air in the lungs, before
it is again transmitted to the system) • and also in constantly
maintaining a high temperature. But they differ from Mammals
in being oviparous instead of viviparous ; that is, in depositing
eggs, instead of producing their young alive, and nourishing them
afterwards by suckling ; and in having their bodies covered with
feathers, instead of with hair or scales. They differ, too, in the
mode of life for which they are adapted ; the Mammals (as a
class) being destined to live on the ground, whilst the Birds
inhabit the air : but there are exceptions in both instances, some

* This modification of the scientific term Mammalia, having been sanctioned
by high authority, will be used in this work ; when it is requisite to speak of the
class in connection with others, which are ordinarily and most conveniently
designated by English names.

PRINCIPLES OP CLASSIFICATION. 29

Mammals (as the Bats) being able to fly like Birds, whilst some
Birds are confined to the ground, like Mammals.

6. From Reptiles, again, Birds differ in possessing a heart
with four cavities and a complete double circulation ; the heart
of Reptiles being furnished with only three cavities, and the
circulation being so arranged, that only a part of the blood sent
to the system has been exposed to the influence of air in the lungs :
and whilst the temperature of the bodies of Birds is kept up to
a certain high standard, that of the Reptiles varies with that of
the surrounding air, and is usually but little above it. There is
the same difference, too, in their mode of life, between Birds and
Reptiles, as between Birds and Mammals ; with this addition, —
that Birds are the most active and energetic in their movements,
of all the vertebrated classes ; whilst Reptiles are the most inert
and sluggish. Between Birds and Fishes, the differences are
still greater ; for though they agree in being oviparous, they are
adapted for an opposite mode of respiration, the latter breathing
by water, whilst the former breathe by air ; the circulation of
Fishes, too, is much simpler in its plan, the heart having but two
cavities ; and the construction of their skeleton is such, as to
adapt these animals to rapid movement through a dense element,
water, in which they float without effort, instead of enabling
them to raise and sustain themselves in the comparatively unre-
sisting air.

7. It appears, then, that a close affinity exists, between Birds
and Mammals on the one hand, and Birds and Reptiles on the
other. And we shall hereafter see, that this affinity is rendered
still more close, by the existence of certain species, in which the
characters of the respective classes to which they belong, are so
shaded off (as it were), and so blended with those of the neigh-
bouring classes, that we pass without any very abrupt break,
from one to the other.

8. But it is not only in marking out these principal groups,
and in enabling us at once to know their points of general agree-
ment, as well as their most important differences, that classifica-
tion is useful. For the principal groups, or classes, are subdivided
into others, termed orders; every one of which contains an

30 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

assemblage of species, that possesses certain points of agreement,
less striking than those which characterise the class, but enough
to distinguish each group from others having the same general
structure. Thus among Birds, we have the Birds of Prey, the
Perching Birds, the Climbing Birds, the Running Birds, the
Scratching Birds, the "Wading Birds, and the Aquatic Birds ;
each of these orders being known by some peculiar form of
the bill and legs, which distinguishes it from the rest, and which
is common (though often with great modifications) to all the
Birds contained in it. — With the peculiar forms of the bill and
legs, which especially distinguish the order, and which show its
adaptation to some particular kind of life, we have certain other
characters combined. Thus the Rasores, or Scratching Birds,
which feed upon grains or seeds, live for the most part upon the
ground, whence their food is obtained ; their bodies are heavy
and their wings short, so that they cannot rise in the air without
difficulty ; and they are all furnished with a gizzard, or stout
muscular stomach for grinding down their food. On the other
hand, among the Birds of Prey, which obtain their food by
pursuing other birds in the air, we find the body and wings
adapted to active flight ; and the stomach destitute of thick
muscular walls, as the nature of the food introduced into it
renders it much less difficult of digestion, than that on which the
Fowl tribe is supported.

9. In like manner, Orders are subdivided into Families, upon
characters of still less importance, — such as minute differences in
the form of the feet and bill, or in the arrangement of the wing-
feathers ; but these differences are always connected with some-
thing in the internal structure, and in the habits of the tribe,
that shows it to be really distinct from others, which it may
strongly resemble in general appearance. Families, again, are
divided into Genera ; each of which includes a number of Species,
whose points of difference are very slight, whilst their points of
agreement include all the characters which are of any importance.
Thus we find that each Genus commonly includes a number of
Species, differing from each other (it may be) in little else than
size and colour, and agreeing in every other respect ; thus of the

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 31

genus Linaria or Linnet, there are in this country alone, five
species, the green linnet or greenfinch, the brown linnet, the
mountain linnet or twite, the smaller redpoll, and the mealy
redpoll, — the habits, food, and general conformation of all being
very nearly the same, — whilst there are differences between them
sufficiently constant to prevent their ever being confounded. But
the genus Linaria is united with many other genera, which are
chiefly distinguished from it by some slight variations in the
form of the bill, into the family of FringillidcB or Finches ; which
includes the well-known Goldfinch, Hawfinch, Bullfinch, Gros-
beak, Sparrow, Chafimch, Brambling, and many other birds, all
having a stout conical bill, slightly bent down near its point.
This family, — with others in which the shape of the bill, and
the general formation of the body, are more or less unlike what
is seen in it, — constitutes the section Conirostres (or conical-billed
birds) of the order Insessores, or Perchers.

10. Thus it is seen that, as we pass up from species to genera,
from genera to families, from families to orders, and from orders
to classes, the characters of agreement become fewer and fewer ;
whilst those of difference manifest themselves more and more
strongly. And when we arrive at classes, we may generally say
that the points of difference are stronger than those of agreement ;
so that, if two animals belong to distinct classes, they may be
considered more unlike than they are like ; whilst, if they belong
to the same class, they may be regarded as more like than they
are unlike.

1 1 . One other example may be introduced, to show the utility
of even a very moderate knowledge of the principles of classifi-
cation, in enabling us to retain and apply a large amount of
information ; which, if we had to derive it from the study of
each individual animal, could scarcely be embraced by a single
mind. The Common Dog is a species of the genus Cam's,
belonging to the family Canida, of the order Carnivora, of the
class Mammalia, of the sub-kingdom Vertebrata. The informa-
tion conveyed to us by these last terms has already been noticed.
From the simple name vertebrated animal, we learn that it has an
internal skeleton, with a jointed backbone and skull, containing

3'2 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

the spinal marrow and brain, the centres of the nervous sys-
tem ; and that it has five senses, four extremities, red blood,
&c. &c. Whilst the knowledge that it is one of the class Mam-
malia further implies, that it is a warm-blooded animal, breathing
air, possessing a heart with four cavities, a complete double
circulation, producing its young alive, nourishing them after-
wards by suckling, and having the body more or less completely
covered with hair. By being able to refer it to the order Car-
nivora, we know that it is a beast of prey (in its natural state),
adapted by the formation of its teeth and digestive apparatus to
feed upon animal flesh, and by the structure of its extremities to
pursue and attack the animals which serve as its prey. As one
of the family Canidae, we know that it agrees with the Wolves,
Foxes, Jackals, and Hyaenas, as well as with the Cats, in being
digitigrade, that is, in walking upon the ends of the toes, instead
of upon the sole of the foot, as does the Bear : but it agrees with
the former animals, and differs from the Cats, in not being so
much adapted to pursue and attack living prey, as to feed upon
the flesh of animals already killed ; — the teeth not being formed
so exclusively for cutting and tearing, as are those of the Feline
or Cat tribe ; and the claws not being either so long and sharp
as theirs, or capable of being pushed forth and withdrawn, as in
the Cats. The dog differs from the Fox and Hyaena, in certain
peculiarities in the form of his teeth ; but his relationship to the
Wolf is so close, that many naturalists have regarded them as
having sprung from the same stock. Hence while the Dog be-
longs to a genus distinct from the Hyaena and Fox, it is included
with the Wolf and Jackal in the same generic character ; and it
may be, that it does not even constitute a species distinct from
the Wolf.

12. There is frequently great difficulty, in Zoology as well
as in Botany, in distinguishing species from varieties. Any two
races of animals are considered to be of distinct species, which
are marked by characters of difference that are constantly
exhibited ; so that neither shows any tendency to lose its own
peculiarity, or to acquire that of the other. Thus, notwith-
standing the variety of forms exhibited by the several races

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

33

of Dog, we never see any which present so strong a resemblance
to a Fox, as to be at all in danger of being mistaken for that
animal ; and they may always be distinguished by this obvious
character, — that the pupil of the eye of the Dog is always round,
whilst that of the Fox is oval when contracted (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 533). "When such constant distinctions are found to exist, the
Zoologist has a right to assume that they always have existed ;
and consequently that the original parents, or the stocks whence
the races originated, were also distinct.

13. But whilst some characters are constant in each race,
others may undergo great variation ; so that, within the limits
of one species, we may have a large number of varieties or breeds,
marked by differences much greater than those which, in other
ire held sufficient to distinguish species. This is especially

FIG. 1. — THB HIGHLAND GREYHOUND.

the case with our various domesticated animals ; and indeed it is
in great part from the power which their constitutions possess,

34 DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

of adapting themselves to changes in the circumstances of their
residence, mode of life, &c., that their utility to Man arises.
There is none which shows this more strongly than the Dog,
which is the companion of Man in every part of the globe, and
which presents more striking varieties of form than any other
species. Not only do the different races of Dogs vary in the
colour and quantity of their hair, but also in the proportions of
the different parts of their body (which is shown as much in
their skeletons as in the living animals), and even in their instincts,
which in most animals are invariable. How different, for ex-

FIG. 2.— CUBAN MASTIFF.

ample, are the Greyhound and the Mastiff, the Bloodhound and
the Spaniel ! We should scarcely imagine that any period of
time, or external influences, could ever convert one into the other.
Yet the Zoologist has no hesitation in affirming, that they had a
common origin ; since it is found that their distinct forms are
preserved, only so long as they are matched in breeding with
forms of the same kind. For if the different races of Dogs are
allowed to breed promiscuously together, and escape from the
influence of Man, returning to their original savage mode of life,
the varieties gradually disappear, and the races all blend toge-
ther, after a few generations, into one common type, which

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

35

probably resembles that from which the various breeds at first
originated. This change has taken place in various parts of the

FJG. 3. — THK BLOODHOUND.

world, in the case of Dogs which were introduced from Europe,
and which have since become wild ; but it has been particularly

FIG. 4.— THE SPANIEL.

noticed in Cuba, where the exact period at which the Dog was
first introduced, — that of the invasion by the Spaniards at the

36 DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

end of the fifteenth century, — is known. There is good reason
to believe, that the Dingo or native Dog of Australia (Fig. 5) is
the descendant of a race once domesticated, which has returned to
its wild state ; since there are many considerations which induce
the Zoologist to believe, that it was not a native of New Holland.
Hence there is no difficulty in reconciling the diversities actually
existing among the various races of Dog, with the idea of one
common form, of which they are modifications. When and how
the several breeds first arose, is less easily determined.

14. The question, whether the Wolf and the Dog had a com-
mon origin ? or, rather, whether the Wolf was the original form
of the Dog ? is one of great interest, and affords another valuable
illustration of the topic under discussion. It is maintained by
many Naturalists, and with much probability, that they are the
same ; and chiefly for the reason, that the peculiarities of form
and character, usually regarded as distinguishing the Dog from
the Wolf, show a tendency to disappear in those races, which
have long been accustomed to a savage mode of life. This is
especially the case in the Australian Dingo, which has probably

FIG. 5. — AUSTRALIAN DINGO.

lived in this unreclaimed state longer than any other known race
of wild Dogs ; but it is also true of the Dhole of India, and of
two partially tamed races, which are known in North and South
America. " These races, in different degrees, and in a greater

SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF DOG AND WOLF. 37

degree as they are more wild, exhibit the lank and gaunt form,
the lengthened limbs, the long and slender muzzle, and the great
comparative strength, which characterise the Wolf; and the tail
of the Australian Dog, which may be considered as the most
remote from the state of domestication, assumes the slightly bushy
form of that animal*." All these wild races, too, have more or
less completely lost that common character of domestication —
variety of colour and marking, and have assumed a uniform dull-
brown hue, much resembling that of the common "Wolf. It has
been objected, that the Wolf does not exhibit that character,
which is so remarkable in all the races of the Dog — attachment
to Man. Even the wild breeds of Dogs are easily brought under
subjection, and are made useful to him in various ways ; which
could not be the case, if they had the same savage disposition as
the common Wolf. But it has been shown, that the Wolf is
much more capable of domestication than is commonly supposed,
if taken young from its wild state, and brought up under the
influence of Man ; and that it then displays as much attachment
to its master, and remembrance of kindness shown to it, as any
Dog could do. So that there is no difficulty in understanding
how, by a continuance of this influence through successive gene-
rations, the character of the race may become so permanently
changed, that the traces of former domestication may not .be
altogether lost, even in breeds which have returned to their wild
state for centuries f.

* Bell's British Quadrupeds, p. 197.

f The question as to the identity of species between the Dog and the Wolf can-
not be regarded as yet settled one way or the other. It will probably be determined
by more positive information upon some points, respecting the propagation of the two
races, which have not been satisfactorily ascertained. Thus, if the 'period during
which the female goes with young is the same in the Wolf as in the Dog (63 days),
it will be a powerful argument for the identity of the species ; but, if it is different,
it will almost certainly prove the difference of the species, or, in other words, of the
original stocks ; since this is a character in which there is no variation beyond very
narrow limits. Again, it is well known that the Dog will breed with the Wolf, and
that the offspring will breed again with either of the parent races ; but it will require
to be ascertained, whether the offspring of the Dog and the Wolf will breed with
another hybrid of the same kind. If it does, the identity of the species of its parents
is almost certain ; if it cannot, a powerful argument is afforded for the separation of
the two races as distinct species. — (See VEGET. PHYSIOL. § 454.)

38 DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

15. Now, if we turn to other tribes of animals, we shall find
that races exist, in which the tendency to variation is so slight,
that differences between two animals, far less in degree than
those which exist between the breeds of Dogs, are quite sufficient
to serve as distinctions of species. Thus, among the Feline or
Cat tribe, the resemblance between most of the species is so great,
that, excepting in regard to their size, it is not easy to detect any
differences between their skeletons ; that of the common Cat, for
instance, being almost precisely a miniature representation of that
of the Tiger. Even in species so different in external appearance
as the Lion and Tiger, the form of the skull is so nearly the same,
that there is no constant mark by which they can be distin-
guished. Yet these several species, nearly allied as they seem,
never exhibit any tendency to assume each other's characters, or
to lose their own ; but preserve their respective forms, and even
the markings on the skin, unchanged, from generation to gene-
ration. The only species in which there is any decided tendency
to variation, is the domestic Cat; of which, as is well known, there
are several breeds. But these races differ much less from each
other, than do the different breeds of the Dog ; and the variations
chiefly consist in the length and colour of the hair. But in the
other Felines, even these characters remain so constant, that cer-
tain stripes and patches are repeated, generation after generation,
upon each individual ; and thus afford grounds for regarding as
distinct species, any races between which marked differences
exist, even of so trifling a character. These have not been sub-
jected to the influence of domestication, for the simple reason,
that they do not seem capable of it ; their ferocity not being
subdued by confinement, nor softened by kindness; and their
constitutions not being endowed with the power of adapting
themselves to those variations of temperature, food, habits, &c.
which animals that are brought into subjection to Man must
undergo.

1 6. Upon grounds as trifling (in appearance at least) as these,
the Zoologist feels himself justified in marking out as distinct
species, in other groups of Animals, those which present con-
stant differences, however insignificant, whilst in similar cir-

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 39

cumstances. Thus there are many species of Moths and
Butterflies; which are only known apart by certain spots of
colour upon their wings ; but these, being always found in the
same situation, and of the same hue, are justly regarded as suf-
ficient characters for the distinction of species. But on the
other hand, if there be any difference in the circumstances under
which the two animals are found, it is necessary to ascertain
how far the variation may be due to this cause. Thus, most
Birds undergo a change of plumage according to the season of
the year ; and until these changes are thoroughly known, we
are in danger of considering as distinct species what are really
identical. For if we were to compare one bird in its winter
dress, with another of the same species in its summer plumage,
we should often find the variations sufficiently great to induce
us to regard them as distinct species, if we did not trace their
respective histories. In regard to the birds which constantly
inhabit our own country, this has been accurately done ; but
there are many species that migrate to distant countries, either
to spend the winter in a warmer region, or the summer in a
cooler one ; and in regard to some of these, there is still much
doubt, — certain birds being known in one country by one plum-
age, and again in the other by a different one, — and sufficient
evidence, whether they are of the same or of different races, not
being always obtainable. Even between the northern and
southern parts of one extensive district, — such as India, — there
will be occasionally found such differences in the plumage of
their feathered inhabitants, as would lead to their being regarded
as distinct species, if there were not evidence to the contrary,
derived from the intermediate forms presented by the birds of
the intervening country.

17. Thus it is seen, that the discrimination of species is
often a matter of the greatest difficulty to the Zoologist ; and
the sources of error which have been mentioned, are by no
means the only ones. "We have hitherto noticed only those
variations, which may be produced by the influence of external
conditions, or of a natural tendency to variation, such as is par-
ticularly evident in the domesticated races. But there are most

40

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

striking variations in many animals, not only in the size of the
body, but'in its form and structure, at different periods of life ;
and also, not unfrequently, a great want of resemblance between
the two sexes. In some instances, there is a positive metamor-
phosis or change of form, between the early age of the animal,
and its adult or complete state ; this is the case in the Frog
tribe, in Insects, and in many of the lower classes. No one,
who might be unacquainted with the history of these changes,
would hesitate in regarding the Caterpillar as belonging, not
only to a species, but even to a class, distinct from the Insect ; or
in separating the Tadpole from the Frog; and yet, by due
attention to the history of these animals, we come to know that
one is transformed into another widely different.

18. Now, although Zoologists are tolerably well acquainted
with such changes of this description, as take place among the
higher classes, yet their knowledge is still extremely imperfect
of the metamorphoses of the lower. Thus it has been only
within a few years that proof has been gained, that the Zoea, a
little crustaceous animal, long regarded as forming a genus by
itself, is nothing else than the young of
the common Crab ; and that an animal
very closely resembling it undergoes a
still more extraordinary metamorphosis,
in order to assume its ultimate form of
the Barnacle. But even where no such
well-marked changes occur during the
period of growth, there are often varia-
tions which would be held to distin-
guish species, if we were not aware that
the two forms are really the same, in
different states. Thus, in almost all
Birds, the plumage of the young male is
different from that of the adult ; some-
times resembling that of the adult
female ; but often being different from
that of either parent. Even here, then, we should be in danger
of falling into error, by separating as distinct species what are

FIG. 6. — EARLY FORM OF THE
CRAB.

INFLUENCE OF AGE AND SEX. 41

really the young and adult states of the same, were we not to
study the animal through its whole period of life. The same is
the case, too, in regard to Fishes ; the markings on which un-
dergo a similar variation ; so that it has been only lately ascer-
tained with certainty (the difficulty of observation being here
greater) that the Salmon-Parr is the young of the Salmon, and
not a distinct species, as it was long considered. Among Shells,
similar difficulties exist, — the young being often very different
in form from the adult (as will be shown hereafter), so as only
to be identified with it as the same species, by comparing toge-
ther a number of specimens in different stages of growth. Such
a series is, of course, more difficult to obtain among fossils, than
among shells of existing races ; and it is consequently very often
difficult to speak with certainty, as to whether two fossil shells
are of the same, or of different species. In some groups, on the
other hand, there is such a similarity among the different shells,
and such a gradual passage from one form to another, that it is
very difficult to say, from the shells alone, whether any distinc-
tion of species exists at all. It is to be remembered that the
shells are only the external skeletons, thrown off from the
surface of the animals which form them ; and that it is conse-
quently not at all safe to judge from them alone; since differences
may exist in the animals, where the shells do not manifest any.
19. The difference of sex, too, is often marked by such dif-
ferences in the form and colouring of the body, and even in the
shape of parts which might have been expected to be alike in the
male and female of the same species (the antennae of insects for
example), as may often perplex the Naturalist. Thus, it is well
known, that, among Birds, the male is usually larger and more
vigorous than the female, his plumage gayer, and his song more
powerful and varied ; and where the head has any distinctive
crest of feathers, this is often wanting in the female. Among
Mammals, too, there are several species in which horns are con-
fined to the male-sex ; and in the Lion we have a familiar in-
stance of the difference of aspect between the male and female,
caused by the greater quantity and length of the hair on the
head and neck of the former. Among Insects, again, there are

42 DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

many differences of this kind, in the markings of the surface ; but
others of a still more important character are often met with.
Thus, there are some species, in which the females are destitute
of wings, — as is the case with the common Glow-worm ; and
others, in which her form is quite different from that of the
adult male (although the young of the two sexes correspond), —
of which we have an example in the Cochineal insect. But even
these differences are surpassed by those which are met with in
other classes. Thus among the lower Crustacea, there are seve-
ral species, of which only females have been hitherto discovered;
whence, it is probable, that the males possess an entirely different
form, and have not improbably been described as members of
some other group. In the curious Lerncea (Fig. 7-)* the male is
much smaller than the female, and differs so much in form, that
its true character was long unknown.

20. From these facts we are led to perceive, how much
knowledge is required by the Naturalist, before he determines
upon the arrangement of the different forms of animal-life, which
he has collected, into distinct species, — the first step in classifica-
tion. It is not sufficient that, on comparing together two
animals which bear a strong general resemblance to one another,
he finds some obvious point of difference. He must ascertain
whether this difference invariably manifests itself, in the races ta
which these animals respectively belong ; or whether it is a mere
individual peculiarity. Thus, Men with six fingers and six toes
are occasionally to be met with ; but we should not on this
account rank them as constituting a species distinct from ordi-
nary men, since both the parents and offspring, the brothers and
Bisters, of such persons, are very commonly found to have only
the usual number. Yet, a variation of no greater amount among
many of the lower tribes, — especially Insects, — would be a suffi-
cient distinction, not only between different species, but between
different genera, or even families.* But, even supposing that
such variations do appear constant, it is further necessary to
ascertain, whether they have always been so, or whether they

* Thus the great order, Coleoptera, or Beetles, is divided into suh-orders,
according to the number of joints in the foot.

KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL'S WHOLE HISTORY REQUIRED. 43

have arisen from some unknown cause at a former period ; from
which sprang different breeds or varieties, such as those of our
domesticated animals ; and of which the cessation permits the
race to return to its original form, as takes place to a certain
degree when domesticated animals resume the original habits of
their kind.

21. It will be further necessary, that the Naturalist should
know the changes of form, which the animals he is considering
may undergo, in the progress of their growth and development ;
so as not to separate as distinct species, those which are but dif-
ferent stages of the same. And he ought, further, to be ac-
quainted with the forms of both sexes ; and with the changes in
aspect which they may undergo, from the influence of season,
climate, &c. In fact, the whole history of every species of animal
ought to be known to the Naturalist, before he begins his
arrangement ; and as this is very far from being the case at pre-
sent, it is obvious that there is the widest scope for the labours
of any amount of observers, and that many corrections will have
to be introduced into the arrangements which Naturalists have
formed. In fact, these arrangements must be regarded, in many
instances, as provisional or temporary ; to be confirmed, or set
aside in favour of some other more perfect, by increased know-
ledge.

22. Hence, the greatest encouragement may be offered to
those who are commencing the pursuit of Natural History, on
however limited a scale ; for every one, who observes accurately,
and (still more) who collects and arranges facts with the guid-
ance of sufficient previous knowledge, is rendering a service to
Science. Even those who are entirely ignorant of Zoology may
do much in this way ; but their chances of error are great ; and
they should be careful to record what they actually see, carefully
separating from this the inferences or reasonings which they have
founded upon it. But those who have some previous knowledge
of the Science may do much more ; for they are guided by it how
to observe, and what to observe. The pleasure which is derived
from a country walk, or from a visit to the sea-coast, is thus
enhanced beyond all conception. A very moderate amount of

44 ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OP ZOOLOGY.

acquaintance with Botany and Entomology will direct the
rambler among the fields and lanes, to many objects of great
interest, which the ordinary observer would pass unnoticed ; and
the inspection of the haunts of the marine tribes, will frequently
lead the Naturalist, who may have previously paid them but a
very superficial attention, to spectacles of the rarest and most
unexpected beauty.

23. There are many reasons why it is desirable to gain a
general acquaintance with Zoology, before taking up any single
branch as a regular object of pursuit. In the first place, the
interest which is derived from the cultivation of the science,
is very much increased, by the wideness of the field which is
thus embraced. To the mere Entomologist, the Birds, the Rep-
tiles, the land and fresh- water Shells, which he meets with in the
course of his insect-hunting rambles, are but as inanimate objects,
instead of furnishing him with a number of new subjects of
interest. The mere Ornithologist, in like manner, by confining
himself exclusively to Birds, misses various sources of gratifica-
tion, which a small amount of knowledge of other branches of
Natural History would enable him to derive, from the observa-
tions to which he would be led, during his pursuit of the fea-
thered tribes; and the mere collector of Shells, who thinks of
nothing but the completeness of his cabinet, not only misses the
opportunities of adding to our very limited knowledge of the
structure and habits of the animals which form them, but also
loses a large amount of pleasure, which he might derive from the
observation of the structure and habits of the animals, that he
would meet with in the same haunts. Of the advantage of a
general interest of this kind, to those who pursue Natural His-
tory for the sake of the healthful and agreeable occupation which
it affords to the mind, and the store of interesting information
which it opens to its grasp, we cannot have a better proof than
the pleasure which is derived from the perusal of the simple
record of such observations, in such works as "White's Natural
History of Selborne, Knapp's Journal of a Naturalist, Gosse's
Canadian Naturalist, and Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History.
And to those who make some particular branch of Natural His-

NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 45

tory their professed object of pursuit, it is equally advantageous
to gain a previous knowledge of the general plan of the Animal
Creation ; since the characters of any particular division of it
are thereby much more completely understood, — relations and
analogies of the greatest interest are discerned, which would have
been otherwise overlooked, — and the labour bestowed, whether
on the examination of the structure, or on the systematic
arrangement, of the animals particularly sought for, is rendered
much more successful, by the guidance received from even
a very moderate general acquaintance with Zoology.

24. The principles upon which Classification should be founded
in Zoology, are now generally admitted. It is not, however,
always easy to apply them. All Zoologists aim at constructing
a Natural System ; that is, a system which shall most fully de-
velope the general plan upon which the Creator has formed and
arranged the almost numberless species of animals, which owe
their existence to him. Now, this system must be constructed
in Zoology, as in Botany, by the careful examination of the whole
conformation of each species (BOTANY, § 486) ; and by not resting
satisfied with superficial resemblances as indicating affinity, or
with variations of a really trivial, though perhaps very striking,
kind, as proofs of dissimilarity. Thus, for example, by the un-
informed, the Whale and its allies are commonly associated with
the class of Fishes, to which they bear a very obvious resemblance
in their aquatic habitation, and in their mode of propulsion
through the water ; whilst they are supposed to be distinct from
the Mammalia, with which they really correspond in all the
characters on which the Naturalist lays most stress, because they
live in a different element, and have bodies formed like those of
Fishes.

25. Now, here we are led to perceive the difference between
characters that are essential, and those that are merely adaptive.
The essential characters, by which different classes are separated,
have all reference to the mode in which some or other of the
most important vital functions are performed. Thus, true Fishes
breathe by means of gills, in which the blood is sufficiently acted
on by the air that is contained in the water around them : on

46 NATURAL SYSTEM OP CLASSIFICATION.

the other hand, Whales breathe by means of lungs, which require
to be filled with air from the atmosphere ; so that these animals
are obliged to come occasionally to the surface to breathe. Thus,
the function of respiration is conducted on a plan entirely different
in these two groups. Again, the heart of the Fish has only two
cavities, and the blood does not return to it after passing through
the gills, but is immediately distributed to the body : whilst the
heart of the Whale has four cavities, and the blood returns to it
after passing through the lungs. Hence, the plan of the circula-
tion also is entirely different in the two classes, — being single in
the one, and double in the other. Again, the blood of the Fishes
is cold, and that of the Whales is warm ; another character of
great importance, in regard to the relative activity of the vital
operations in general, in these two classes respectively. Further,
Fishes are oviparous, propagating eggs, from which the young
come forth in due time, with little or no attention on the part of
the parent ; whilst Whales are viviparous, producing their young
alive, and nourishing them afterwards by suckling. There are
also many other points in the formation of the skeleton, the ner-
vous system, the organs of secretion, &c. in which the Whales
differ entirely from Fishes, and correspond with Mammals ; and
these embrace all the essential particulars of their structure and
physiology. — The points of resemblance are only adaptive ; being
such as enable the Mammal to become an inhabitant of an aqua-
tic element. For if we were required to modify a Mammal, in
such a manner that it might lead the life of a Fish, we should
necessarily alter the form of its body, so that it might be enabled
to swim through the water with as little resistance as possible ;
and we should also adapt its instruments of propulsion to the
new medium in which they are to act, and in which the feet of
a terrestrial quadruped would be quite useless to it.

26. Hence, then, in a natural arrangement, Whales are placed
among the Mammals, as agreeing with them in all essential cha-
racters; although their external forms, and their mode of life, are
so different. To place them with Fishes, on account of their
resemblance in external aspect, would be to adopt an artificial
principle of classification ; that is, a principle which leads us to

DIFFICULTIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF NATURAL SYSTEM. 47

associate the different groups of animals, from their correspondence
in some one or two simple and easily-recognised characters — all
the rest being neglected. By following out such a principle, we
should not only class Whales with Fishes, because they inhabit the
water, and have their bodies formed for swimming, but we should
also place the Bats among Birds, because they fly, and should
associate together Reptiles and ordinary Mammals, because they
walk upon four feet. No such classification could be of the least
use ; and, consequently, all artificial systems have been long given
up in the arrangement of the Animal Kingdom, — Zoologists
applying themselves to the completion of a Natural Classification,
in which every animal may be placed among those to which it
bears the greatest general resemblance, and in which its relations
to others may be exhibited.

27. There are great difficulties attending the completion of
such a System, however, arising from various causes. In the
first place, of the whole number of animals at present existing on
the surface of the earth, a large proportion are probably as yet
altogether unknown to us. This proportion is less, however,
in some tribes than in others. Of the larger Mammals or
Reptiles^ for instance, it is not probable that many living species
remain to be discovered ; yet, of the smaller species, it is certain,
that a large number must be residents of countries which have
been as yet but imperfectly explored. This is still more the case in
regard to Birds ; and of the whole number of species of Insects,
which people our globe, we may safely affirm, that but a small
proportion have been yet collected by Entomologists, although
the amount of those at present contained in their cabinets is pro-
bably not far short of 100,000. The reasons are obvious why so
little, comparatively speaking, has yet been done for this depart-
ment of Zoology, notwithstanding the number of persons engaged
in the pursuit of it ; for the small size of the greater number of
the objects it embraces, causes them to escape the notice of ordi-
nary observers ; added to which, there are many species that
only exist in their perfect state during a few days or even hours,
and are consequently very liable to elude the vigilance of the
most diligent Entomologist. Of the animals which inhabit the

48 IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF FOSSILS IN ZOOLOGY.

ocean, or live on its borders, — the various tribes of Fishes, Mol-
lusca, Crustacea, Worms, and Zoophytes, — the proportion which
yet remains to be discovered is doubtless very large. Even on the
coasts that have been most thoroughly explored, new species are
continually being discovered; and these are often very dissimilar in
form to any previously known, presenting both to the Naturalist
and to the Physiologist many points of the greatest interest.

28. But it is not only in the extension of our knowledge of
existing species, that much yet remains to be accomplished, before
the foundation of a Natural Classification can be regarded as
securely laid. No system can be complete, which does not
include those that formerly tenanted the globe, as well as those
that at present inhabit it. A very slight knowledge of Fossil
Zoology is sufficient to convince the Naturalist, that the animals
which peopled this earth in its earlier ages were constructed
upon the same general principles, as those now existing upon its
surface ; so that it is safe to reason as to the portions of their
structure that are not preserved (which is generally the case
with regard to their softer organs), by comparing those which
are with the corresponding parts of animals now living. Fre-
quently it is found that peculiar forms of structure, which are at
present exhibited in but few and comparatively insignificant
tribes, were formerly displayed in races, which must have pos-
sessed, from their number and power, the predominance over all
the rest at that epoch. This is the case, for instance, in regard
to the Saurian (lizard-like) Reptiles, and the enamel and bony-
scaled Fishes. Hence we should not understand the true station
of these as natural groups, from those species alone which at
present exist ; these being only the few and feeble remnants, as
it were, of the numerous and gigantic races which they represent.
Still more frequently does it happen, that gaps or deficiencies
exist in the groups, which are formed by bringing together exist-
ing animals alone ; and that these groups are completed, and are
connected with others apparently far removed from them, by
species which existed in ages long since past, and whose fossil
remains are preserved to us, as if for the very purposes of the
Zoologist. Thus, for example, the order PACHYDEBMATA, in the

RECOGNITION OF FOSSILS. 49

class Mammalia, includes a small number of large animals —
the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Tapir, Hippopotamus, &c. — which
stand completely apart, as it were, from each other, not being
connected by intermediate forms. But these forms are abun-
dantly supplied by the numerous species, of whose former exist-
ence we have ample evidence.

29. The principles on which most of the leading forms have
been constructed, in the higher classes at least, are now so well
understood, that the Zoologist has no difficulty in determining
the general characters, habits, &c., of the animals which long since
tenanted the globe and its waters ; from the comparison of the
structure of their hard parts, with those of the existing species to
which they are most nearly related. And so far may he carry
this reasoning, that, from the extremity of a single bone, he may
re-construct, as it were, in his imagination, the entire animal ;
and may form an accurate judgment of its size, figure, conforma-
tion, and even of its habits. This has been often tested, by the
discovery of perfect skeletons of animals, which had been pre-
viously known only from small fragments, but of which a very
complete account had been given from these by a sagacious
Naturalist. For the development of this important principle,
the Science is indebted above all to the immortal Cuvier, whose
future reputation will be founded much more upon his researches
into the History of Fossil Remains, than upon his Zoological
Classification, which is continually undergoing great modification.
By the late microscopic inquiries of Professor Owen, it has been
shown that the minute structure of the teeth of Yertebrata is
capable of affording characters of the most important nature in
the determination of fossil animals ; often supplying the means
of ascertaining, by the examination of an unformed fragment
of a tooth, not merely the class and order, but even the
family and sometimes the genus, to which the animal belonged.
Some analogous inquiries, respecting the minute structure
of the hard parts of Invertebrata, are at present being carried
on by the Author; and promise to lead to results of much
value.

50 INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE OF EXISTING FORMS.

30. But Fossil Remains are sometimes found, which perplex
the most accomplished Zoologist ; their dissimilarity to all the
forms of Animal structure with which he is familiar, being such
as to leave him very much in the dark, as to the true characters
and positions of the animals, of which they are the sole represen-
tatives. It is probable, however, that the progress of discovery
will bring to light new facts regarding their structure ; either by
affording more complete specimens of the remains themselves, by
which it may be better understood ; or by disclosing to us some
points in the structure or history of existing animals, which shall
unveil the close relationship that they may really bear, although
this is at present obscured by superficial differences (§32).
In this manner, therefore, we may expect that many spaces in
our Classification will be hereafter filled up, which at present
appear to be altogether blank.

31. It is not only, however, from the incompleteness of our
knowledge of the various kinds of Animals, at present or for-
merly existing, that the foundations of a sound Zoological classi-
fication are as yet very imperfect ; for of a large part of those,
with whose external forms the Naturalist is familiar, the internal
structure has been but very imperfectly, or not at all, investi-
gated. Hence, a great part of their arrangement into groups is
founded upon a small number of characters only ; and not at all
upon that general comparison of them, which alone can securely
indicate their real relationship. There is, consequently, a field
for investigation, in this department alone, which may occupy
an almost unlimited number of inquirers for a very long time ;
and any such systematic examination, even of very common
animals, if prosecuted with a sufficient amount of guidance from
previous knowledge, would be attended with the utmost ad-
vantage to science. And it is not only in determining the true
relations or affinities of species or of groups, which are known to
be nearly allied, that this kind of knowledge is available ; for it
often serves to indicate the most unexpected and beautiful analo-
gies, between groups far distant from each other, but occupying
a corresponding place in their respective classes. Thus we shall

KNOWLEDGE OF AFFINITIES DERIVED FROM METAMORPHOSIS. 51

find many points of analogy between the order Carnivora among
Mammals, and that of Raptores among Birds ; each including
those predaceous species, which are especially adapted to capture
and devour the weaker kinds ; and each having its own particu-
lar type or plan of structure adapted to this purpose, in a manner
that strongly reminds us of the other. It is by the existence of
these analogies among distant groups, that the Unity of the Plan
of the Animal Creation is most clearly manifested ; and every
one which we discover affords us a new, and often very striking,
glimpse of this design. The most important of them will be
pointed out in their proper places.

32. Further, the changes of form which many tribes of ani-
mals undergo, and of which we as yet have but a
very imperfect knowledge, are often very im-
portant in classification ; as indicating relations
which we should not have otherwise suspected,
between different groups. Thus, there is a cer-
tain parasitic animal of very strange form, which
attaches itself to Fishes, and is
named Lerncca (Fig. 7) ; the
true position of which in the
animal scale was not known, un-
til it was ascertained that it passes
through a larva, or imperfect
state ( Fig. 8), in which it bears

Fro. S.-LARVA OF

so very close a resemblance to the

r IG* /•"""•"-•'EIN.JEA,

larva (Fig. 9) of the Cyclops

Fio. 9.— LARVA OF THR CYCLOPS.

(Fig. 10)

Fio. 10.— CYCLOPS,

little animal common in pools, and known under
• 2

52 KNOWLEDGE OF AFFINITIES DERIVED FROM METAMORPHOSIS.

the name of Water-flea, — that their real relationship is apparent.
In fact, they may be said to have been originally formed on
the same plan or type ; but to have afterwards departed from it,
— each in a different direction, — so as to become very unlike one
another in their adult forms. A still more striking illustration
may be derived from the metamorphosis of the animals of the
class of Cirrhipods, or Barnacle tribe (Figs. 11 and 12). These
were formerly placed among the Mollusca, on account of their
resemblance to that group, in having their soft bodies enclosed
within shells, in remaining constantly attached to some other
object, whether fixed or floating, and in the absence of any
distinct division of the body into segments. But it was pointed
out by Cuvier, that the arrangement of the arms and of the
nervous centres is such, as to entitle them to a place in the
Articulated, rather than in the Molluscous series, — that is, to

be associated rather with
Insects, Spiders, and Crabs,
than with Oysters, Snails,
and Whelks. More recent-
ly, it has been shown that
they undergo a very curious
metamorphosis, — having in
their early state a form
not very unlike that of the
early state of the common
Crab (Fig. 6), possessing
eyes, and the power of free
movement — but afterwards
becoming fixed to one spot
for the remainder of their lives, losing their eyes, and forming
a shell, which, though composed of several pieces, has nothing
in common with the jointed shell of the Crab or Lobster. Hence
the affinity of the Cirrhipods to the Crustacea, unlikely as it
seemed at first, has been clearly demonstrated by these obser-
vations.

33. Now, we shall suppose that these difficulties had been

Fro. 11. — SHELL OF
THK BARNACLE.

FIG. 12 BODY OF

THE BARNACLE.

MODE OP ARRANGING SPECIES NATURALLY. 53

overcome, and that all the animals forming a particular group
had been collected, and their internal, as well as external
structure carefully examined ; — in what way, it may be asked,
should we attempt to arrange them ? Is it possible to form
such a classification, as that they may be placed one after
another in a single line or series, uninterruptedly connecting
the lowest and the highest forms? An excellent answer to
this question is contained in the following quotation from the
writings* of a distinguished Naturalist, who has done much
for the advance of Zoology ; although (in the opinion of the
Author) he has erred by not following Nature, but by attempt-
ing to apply a system of his own creation, or at least founded
upon a limited and imperfect generalization, to the arrangement
of the Animal series. "Let us suppose," he says, "that an
Entomological student, with a well-filled cabinet of unarranged
insects, having his mind well stored with those simple facts
regarding their structure and economy, which he is to look upon
as solid data, — let us suppose him to commence the arrange-
ment of the objects before him, according to what he thinks
their true affinities, and with a view of verifying or discovering
their natural arrangement. He commences by placing, one after
the other, those species which bear the greatest mutual resem-
blances, and for a time he proceeds satisfactorily, — he finds the
several links in the chain, as it were, fit into each other so har-
moniously, that he begins to think the task much easier than
he at first expected ; and that he will not only be able to prove,
by these very examples before him, the absolute connection of
one given genus to another, but also to demonstrate that the
scale of nature is simple, — that is, passing in a straight line
from the highest to the lowest organised forms. All these ideas,
however (generally resulting from partial reasoning or from
limited information), are soon found to be fallacious. As the
student proceeds, he meets with some insects which disturb the
regularity of his series, and with others which he knows not where

* Swaiusou's Discourse on the Study of Natural History, in Lardner's Cyclo-
paedia, p. 201.

54 MODE OF ARRANGING SPECIES NATURALLY.

to place. He still goes on, however, introducing the former in
the best way he can, among those to which they have an evident
affinity, and placing the latter by themselves, in the hope of
finally discovering their proper place. The further he proceeds,
however, these difficulties are rather increased than diminished.
He remodels his groups, and alters his series; still he cannot
reduce all into harmonious order. What he gains by one modi-
fication of arrangement, he loses in another ; and affinities which
were preserved in his first series, are destroyed, that a place may
be found for other insects, which seem to have equally strong
relations, although in some respects they evidently disturb the
order of progression.

34. " But his difficulties do not terminate here ; for, admit-
ting the possibility of his success in bringing every species into
an appropriate group, the union of these groups among them-
selves opens a new source of embarrassment. It is plain that, in
the order of nature, they must follow one another in some sort ;
for, if there were no progression of development, all animals
would be equally perfect — that is to say, would have the same
complexity of structure. Here, then, lies his difficulty. He
perceives, perhaps, an evident affinity between two groups, by
species which seem to blend them together, and to conduct him,
by an almost insensible gradation, from one to the other. He
therefore concludes this to be the natural series, and he approxi-
mates them accordingly. Presently, however, upon looking more
attentively to his other unsorted groups, he finds not only one,
but several, each of which, in some way or other, shows an
approximation just as close to his first group, as that does which
he had previously made to follow it ; and he is as much at a loss
how to dispose his groups in natural succession, as he was how to
place the species they contain. The same results also attend his
attempts at improving his arrangement of groups ; what is gained
by shifting one so as to follow another, is lost by dissevering it
from that with which it was previously united : until, with all
his assiduity and trials, he finds, that there is still a remnant of
4 unknown things,1 which stand disconnected, as it were, from the

TYPES OP NATURAL GROUPS. 55

series he has formed, and which cannot be made to fall into place
by any contrivance he can devise."

35. The difficulties which are thus detailed as existing in the
classification of Insects, are equally felt in every other depart-
ment of Zoology; and they result from this, — that every natural
group or assemblage of species, united by certain characters com-
mon to all, is connected, not with two groups merely, one above
and the other below it, but with several; and that, of the different
modifications which these characters present, a large part are such
as to form the transitions from one to another. In every natural
assemblage, there is some one which presents the characters that
are common to them, in a more remarkable and complete manner
than the rest — and this is called the type of the group. Thus,
each genus has its typical species; each family its typical genus;
each order its typical family ; and each class its typical order :
the type, in each instance, being that subdivision to which our
minds naturally revert, as best exhibiting the characters that be-
long to the entire group. We may regard the type of each genus
as forming its centre; and the other species as having their places
at a greater or less distance from it, according as they differ from
it more or less in their respective characters. Some there are
which do not depart widely from the type; whilst there are
others which differ from it to such a degree, that we might have
failed to recognise the connection, if it were not completely shown
by intermediate links. These are called aberrant forms. Now,
we will suppose the centres or types of these groups to be
spread out over a surface, so that each should be surrounded by
a number of others most nearly allied to it ; we should then find,
that we might arrange the different species round these centres
respectively, so as to form groups, of which every one shall come
into contact with others, by species that blend, more or less com-
pletely, the characters of both.

36. The following illustration will, it is hoped, make this
matter plain. We will suppose a large territory occupied by a
number of distinct tribes of people, whose respective possessions
are not separated by any very distinct bounds, but of which every

56 ILLUSTRATION OF TYPICAL AND CONNECTING FORMS.

oiie is characterised by possessing a dialect peculiar to itself. \Ve
will further imagine, that the principal residence of each tribe is
in the centre of the district ; and it will, of course, be there, that
we should expect to find the peculiar dialect of the tribe in the
greatest perfection. For those members of the tribe, which live
near the borders of the territory, naturally acquire, from inter-
mixture with the borderers of the several other tribes which sur-
round them, some combination of other dialects, whilst their own
is spoken with less purity ; so that, however easy it might be to
recognise, by their difference of speech, the inhabitants of the
central portions of the respective districts, those that reside near
the line which divides one from another, do not present the dis-
tinctive peculiarity of either, in a sufficient degree to enable us to
determine to which they belong.

37. Further, all these tribes may agree in the possession of a
common language, although they speak different dialects of it ;
and may be united, by this and by other characters, into a nation,
to which a certain territory belongs. Other nations, each in like
manner composed of several tribes, may inhabit the countries on
its borders ; and every one may have its capital city in the centre
of the region it occupies, where the national characters are most
fully displayed, and the language spoken in the greatest perfection.
Now the tribes which live near the boundaries that divide one
nation from another, will have just the same tendency to acquire
each other's national peculiarities, as the individuals, that live near
the borders which separate the tribes (provided there be no ob-
stacle interposed by the nature of the country), have to acquire
each other's minor peculiarities ; so that, in travelling from one
capital to another, we should not find ourselves suddenly trans-
ferred from a people marked by one set of characters, to another
presenting a different series ; but should be able to trace, as we
travel from the capital towards the borders of one kingdom, a
gradual shado wing-off of its characters, so that we may enter the
other without being aware of any decided change, until we
approach the capital in which its national peculiarities are fully
displayed. This is very much the case in regard to the division

ILLUSTRATION OP TYPICAL AND CONNECTING FORMS. 57

between England and Scotland ; the residents on the two sides
of the Border having many of the characteristics of both nations,
so that the English character is not fully displayed in the northern
counties of England, nor the Scotch in the most southern parts of
Scotland. Further, as each nation may be supposed to be sur-
rounded, not by one, but by several others, it will have a tendency
to blend in this manner with them all; so that of its national
peculiarities, some are lost as we pass in one direction, some in
another, thus gradually obliterating the differences which may
exist between itself and the various peoples that surround it. By
this comparison we may represent the manner, in which natural
families, each consisting of several distinct genera, are related to
each other ; and in which they tend to unite, through links of con-
nection, which are formed by the blending of the characters of
two or more in the same tribe.

38. Lastly, we shall suppose all the nations inhabiting one
continent, or quarter of the globe, to have certain points of gene-
ral resemblance to each other, whilst differing in a large number of
characters ; and that those by which other continents are peopled,
also agree among themselves, and differ from the rest in the same
manner. Although, in consequence of the more distinct separa-
tion between the regions they respectively inhabit, there might
not be so much tendency to the blending of the characters of those
different races, which live most near to each other on the borders
of their respective continents, yet some approximation might
be expected ; and this would take place on the same plan, —
the characters of the nations that live on the borders of
any continent, partaking in some degree of those of the people
of other continents on the opposite side of their respective boun-
daries. In this manner we may represent the relationships
that exist between the orders, into which the families are
united, — or between the classes, which are formed by the union
of orders, — or between the sub-kingdoms, or primary subdivi-
sions of the Animal Kingdom, which are formed by a union of
classes.

39. It is probable, that every natural group, if we were in

58 EXAMPLES OP CONNECTION BETWEEN ORDERS.

possession of all the forms which it contains, would present links
of transition such as these, towards the groups which surround it.
But, for the reasons already stated (§27-30), they are frequently
wanting, although they are continually being brought to light by
the rapid extension of Zoological research. A few examples of
this kind may be here adverted to. It has been already stated,
that the different families and genera of the order Pachydermata,
widely as they appear to be separated when we look at the exist-
ing species alone, are in reality connected most closely by fossil
species, which present the most remarkable and interesting com-
binations of characters, that are now found separately in the
forms with which we are familiar. The chief of these will be
pointed out in their proper place. The dif-
ferent orders of Reptiles, although very dis-
tinct as regards their types, — viz. Turtles,
Lizards, Serpents, and Frogs, — are yet most
closely connected together by links of tran-
sition, that pass between the typical forms.
Thus, between the Turtles (Fig. 13), and
the Lizards (Fig. 14), the passage is esta-
blished by species of Turtles, which have a
long neck, tail, and legs, and a small shell,
which only covers a part of the back, (known
TOISE- as Alligator Tortoises,)— and species of
Lizards, that have a very firm covering of large scales or plates

FIG. 14, — CROCODILE.

on the back, which reminds us of the shell of the Turtle.
Again, from the true or typical Lizards, which have four legs,
we pass to the Serpents (Fig. 15), which have none, by means
of such species of Lizards as the one represented in Fig. 16,
which have the body and tail very much prolonged, and the

EXAMPLES OP CONNECTION BETWEEN ORDERS.

59

legs very short, and such Serpents as have the rudiments of legs
existing in the skeleton, but concealed beneath the skin in the
living animal. Of these, the common Blind- worm, or Slow-
worm of this country., is a cha-
racteristic example ; for so
completely does it blend the
characters of the Lizard and
Serpent tribes, that it has been
placed by some Zoologists in
one, and by some in the other.
With the Frog tribe the class
of Serpents is connected by a
very interesting animal — the
C&cilia, or Blind Snake ; which
has the general form of the
snake tribe, but which, in fact,
really belongs to the order
Batrachia, having a skin des-
titute of scales, and being
found to undergo a metamorphosis, having at one period (like
the Frog, &c.) the same form of the circulating and respiratory
organs as the Fish.

PIG. 15— NAIA ASPIC.

PIG. 1C— CHALCIS.

40. But the order Batrachia is not connected with the other
tribes of Reptiles by one link of transition only ; for it contains
animals which may be regarded as representing the Turtles and
Lizards in its own group, — just as the Bats represent Birds, and
the Whales represent Fishes, among the Mammalia. Thus,
there is a species of Frog in South America, whose back is covered

60

EXAMPLES OF CONNECTION BETWEEN CLASSES.

PIG. 17.— WATJSK-NEWT.

FIG. 18. — AGAMA.

with a hard, horny skin, that reminds us of the shell of the
Turtle; and we ha vein
the ponds and ditches
of our own country
more than one species
of the Water-newt,
(Fig. 17), which has
the/ormof the Lizard,
whilst, in its metamorphosis and internal structure, it corresponds
with the Frog. Among the Lizards, again, there is a tribe that

is characterised by its
flattened body and
Frog-like form. One
species of these is seen
in Fig. 18 ; but there
are others, in which
the tail is shorter, and
the body broader, so as still more to resemble that of a Frog.
Thus, we have not only the connecting link of the Lizard-like
Frog, but of the Frog-like Lizard ; the essential characters of one
of the groups being preserved in each case, but displayed under
the form of the other.

41. Of a complete series
of transitional forms be-
tween two classes, moreover,
we have a beautiful instance
in the case of Reptiles and
Fishes. One of these tran-
sitions is established by the
metamorphosis of the Frog
tribe already adverted to (§ 18) ; but the connection is shown
also in certain species, which, even in their adult state, possess
both lungs and gills, and which have the whole of their conforma-
tion intermediate between that of the true Fishes and that of
Reptiles. Of this kind are the Axolotl (Fig. 19), which is undoubt-
edly a Reptile, since the characters of the Reptile predo-

FIG. 19.— AXOLOTI.

EXAMPLES OF CONNECTION BETWEEN CLASSES.

61

ininate over those of the Fish; and the Lepidosiren (Fig. 20),

in which the characters of the
two classes are so completely
blended, that Zoologists have
not yet agreed on which side
it should be placed. Again,
the Lizards and Serpents are
closely connected with Fishes
by two very remarkable ani-
mals, not now existing, the
Ichthyosaurus (Fig. 21), and
the Plesiosaurus (Fig, 22) ;
whose remains abound, in cer-
tain rocks, to such an extent as to show, that they must have been

FIG. 20. — LKPIDOSIREN.

FIG. 21.— ICHTHYOSAURUS.

formerly very numerous. On the other hand, there are certain spe-
cies of Fishes (which were more numerous and abundant at for-

FIG. 22. — PLESIOSAURUS.

mer epochs than at present), in whose conformation there is much
that reminds us of the Lizards ; very distinct rudiments of lungs
being present, and the vertebral column and ribs possessing
many characters, in which they resemble those of that order of
Reptiles. In the Eels, again, we have the form of the Serpent

62 EXAMPLE OF CONNECTION BETWEEN SUB-KINGDOMS.

so exactly repeated, that it is not easy to distinguish the group to
which certain species belong, by a cursory glance at their exterior.
42. Lastly, we may advert to an instance, in which even
two sub-kingdoms are connected, by links of transition so close,
that it is not easy to say where one begins and the other termi-
nates. Among the Mollusca, but occupying the lowest place in
that division, are usually ranged a collection of animals, which
do not possess a shell, but which have their organs enclosed as it
were in a bag or tunic ; from which they derive the name of
Tunicata. None of them have any considerable power of spon-
taneous movement ; and a large proportion of them are fixed
during their whole lives. Many of them are social in their
habits ; that is, a number of them live together, adhering to each
other by their external surfaces. But there are some which not
only adhere together, but which are more closely connected ; —
a number being included in one common envelope ; or being
attached singly to a connecting stem, as shown in Fig. 23.

Now, in these last cases,
they propagate, not only
in the manner of the other
Mollusca, by the deposi-
tion of eggs, but also in
the manner of the Po-
lypes, by gemmation or
budding ; for all the ani-
mals forming one cluster,
or mounted upon one

FIG. 23. — SOCIAL ASCIDUE. , f

stem, proceed from a

single individual, which has thus extended itself in the manner
of a Plant. The simplicity of the structure of these animals is
very great. The tunic has two orifices, b and «, through the
former of which, water is continually drawn in, whilst through
the latter it is as constantly expelled. The liquid enters a large
chamber, which may be regarded as a dilated pharynx or gullet ;
and at the bottom of this lies the entrance to the stomach, e,
from which the intestinal tube, *, passes to the orifice of dis-

EXAMPLE OF CONNECTION BETWEEN SUB-KINGDOMS. 63

charge, a. Now, there are certain species of Polypes (termed
Bryozoa), of which one form is shown in Fig. 24, that have a

c b a

FIG. 24.— PLUMATELLA ; a, NATURAL SIZE ; b, A GROUP ENLARGED ; c, ANAL ORIFFCB.

structure almost identical in all its most obvious characters.
The principal apparent difference is in the presence, in these last,
of two or more arms, which are covered with cilia (ANIM.
PHYSIOL. §117)? by whose vibration the currents are established,
that convey food to the mouth. In the Tunicata, however,
the mechanism is essentially the same ; but the cilia are dis-
posed in the lining of the interior chamber. So far, then, it
would appear that the resemblance is so great, as to permit
these two groups to be associated in one class, the place of which
would be at the head of the Polypes ; and this has actually been
done by M. Milne Edwards, a Naturalist of great eminence,
who has given much attention to both groups. But there are
certain considerations which lead the Author to the belief, that
the Tunicata are still to be ranked among the Mollusca, and the
Bryozoa among the Polypes ; the principal of which are these.

64 PRINCIPLES OP NATURAL ARRANGEMENT.

The Tunicata possess a distinct heart, and system of blood-
vessels, no trace of which can be discovered in the Bryozoa ; and
this is a character of great importance. Moreover, they have a
nervous system, which is arranged upon the type of that of the
Mollusca, though in its most degraded form (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 435) ; whilst that of the Bryozoa, if discoverable, would
almost certainly present the radiated arrangement, as in other
Polypes. Besides, the power of propagation by budding is not
confined to the Polypes ; for it exists also in the lower Articu-
lata (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 729) ; so that it is not surprising to
meet with it in the lowest Mollusca also. Hence we shall pro-
bably be most correct, in regarding the Tunicata as Mollusca,
which exhibit links of transition to the Radiated sub-kingdom,
through their affinity with the Polypes ; whilst the Bryozoa
are Polypes which present strong points of resemblance to the
Mollusca, in the elevation of their plan of structure above that
of others of their class.

43. It can only be, then, by the careful comparison of the dif-
ferent forms of animal structure, that we can select those, which
are entitled to rank as types of groups ; and it is in this that the skill
of the Zoologist is most displayed. Having satisfied himself, how-
ever, which are to be regarded as types — i. e. as presenting their
respective plans of structure with the most completeness, — he
proceeds to range around these such forms as have a close resem-
blance to them ; placing them nearer or more distant, according
to the degree in which the characters of resemblance or of differ-
ence predominate ; and taking care that the intermediate forms
shall be so arranged, as to form links of transition towards the
other types, of whose characters they partake. Whenever this
process shall have been accomplished for the whole Animal
kingdom (as it has been in some degree for certain divisions of
it), we shall be in possession of a Natural System, as com-
plete as the deficiency in our materials permits it to be. At
present, any general classification can afford but an approximation
to it ; and the one which is adopted in the following Treatise,
is not put forward by the Author, as by any means destitute

VARYING IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTERS. 65

of imperfections, but as the one which he regards as most free
from faults and difficulties, of any yet proposed. In almost
every instance, he has adopted the views of some eminent Natu-
ralist, who has paid especial attention to that particular group ;
and the authority whom he has chiefly followed, will be men-
tioned under each head.

44. It is a question of the greatest importance in Classifica-
tion, what characters are to be relied on for distinguishing
species, what for separating genera, what for dividing families,
—and so on. To this question no satisfactory answer can be
given ; not only because similar characters have very different
values in two distant classes ; but also because, even in groups
not remote from each other, they are of very different degrees of
importance. Thus in one genus, there may be a certain cha-
racter, such as colour, which is invariably the same in each
species ; so that they may be distinguished from each other by
it alone. On the other hand, there may be certain variations in
regard to form, which the Zoologist does not regard ; because
he knows that, in the group in question, there is much latitude
in this respect. But in another group, the forms of particular
parts, even though they be of great minuteness, may be so
constant for each species, as to furnish very satisfactory charac-
ters for dividing them ; whilst the colours may be so liable to
variation, that no use whatever can be made of them in classifi-
cation. Some examples of this kind have been already given
(§ 15, 16). Hence, no general rules can be laid down on this
very important subject ; and in each group of whatever rank,
whether it be a class, an order, a family, or a genus, it ought to
be ascertained what characters possess most fixity, and what are
to be put aside as unfit to be relied on.

45. There are four principal types or plans, upon which the
members of the Animal kingdom are constructed ; and these
plans are found to exert a modifying influence over the conform-
ation of all the organs of the body. That which prevails in the
lowest group is the Radiated arrangement ; in which the mouth
is situated in the centre of the body, and the several organs
are disposed around it, so as to give to the whole structure a

66

RADIATED TYPE OF STRUCTURE.

star-shaped or a globular form. This we see in the Star-fish
(Fig. 25), the Echinus or Sea-Urchin, most of the Jelly-fish,

FIG. 25.— STAR-FISH.

and in nearly all the Polypes, when we look at them separately
(Fig. 26). Sometimes this arrangement is perfectly symmetri-
cal ; that is, every division of the body exactly resembles the
others in form and size ; but in other instances we see that the
parts of the structure have a tendency to arrange themselves
equally on the two sides of a central line, so as
to approach that li-lateral symmetry, or equa-
lity of the two halves of the body, which is
characteristic of the Articulata and Yerte-
brata. Those in which the radial or circular
symmetry is perfect, are to be regarded as the
typical Radiata ; whilst those in which it gives
place to the lateral symmetry, are aberrant
forms, that conduct us towards other groups.
The resemblance of the parts of the body, in Radiated animals,

FIG. 26.— SEA ANE-
MONE.

RADIATED TYPE OF STRUCTURE.

67

is not confined to their exterior, but extends to the internal
organs also ; which are so constructed, that each is but a repeti-
tion of the rest. Thus, in every arm of the Star-fish, we have
not only the same number of the little plates of which the
skeleton is composed, and the same arrangement of the small
tubular feet which are put out between these, but we have also
in each a nervous ganglion and trunk, a prolongation of the
stomach, and a set of blood-vessels, — all of which are precisely
similar in the several rays.

46. This repetition of similar parts around a common centre
strongly reminds us of the arrangement of the leaves in a leaf-
bud (VEGET. PHYSIOL. 303)
and of the sepals, petals, &c.
in a flower (VEGET. PHYSIOL.
463). In the Polypes, which
constitute the largest and
most important of the groups
exhibiting this plan of struc-
ture, a number of individuals,
each capable (like a leaf-bud)
of living by itself, are arranged
on one common plant-like
structure (Fig. 27) ; and this
extends itself by budding, in
the manner of a tree or shrub.
It is not only in their exter-
nal aspect, and in their ten-
dency to form compound
structures, that the animals
exhibiting the radial symme-
try bear a resemblance to
Plants; for it shows itself
also in the predominance of
their vegetative over their
animal life, — that is, in the

large proportion which their organs and actions of nutrition bear
to those of sensation and locomotion. The greater part of the

F 2

FIG 27~— SERTULARIA.

68 RADIATED AND ARTICULATED TYPES.

Radiata are fixed to one spot during all but the earliest period
of their lives ; and though the instruments by which they obtain
their food have some power of spontaneous motion, and certain
of their actions appear to indicate sensation, yet it cannot be
doubted by any one who observes their habits, that they possess
these endowments in a very feeble degree. The most active
among them are some of the Medusce, or Jelly-fish tribe, which
exhibit the greatest departure from the general type of the
Radiata, in the bi-lateral symmetry of their bodies; and certain of
the Holothurice, or Sea-Cucumbers (Fig. 28), in which the body

FIG- 28. — HOLOTHURIA

is so prolonged, as to remind us of that of a Leech or Caterpillar;
although the circular arrangement of the organs around the
mouth shows their place to be in the Radiated sub-kingdom.

47. In the sub-kingdom Articulate, there is also a consider-
able repetition of parts ; which, in the lowest of the group, are
almost precisely similar to each other. These parts are disposed,
however, not around a centre, but in a line, — as in the Centi-
pede (Fig. 29) ; and there is a most exact similarity between the
two halves of the body, or, in other words, a most complete
bi-lateral symmetry. There is no internal skeleton ; but the
hard envelope gives the required degree of protection, and also
furnishes points of attachment to the muscles by which the
body is moved. Where there are distinct members or limbs for
aiding the motions of the fabric, we find that they too are covered

ARTICULATED TYPE OF STRUCTURE. 69

with a jointed envelope. Hence the character of this series is
derived from the inclosure of the body and limbs in a jointed
envelope ; and from the perfect resemblance of the two halves to
each other. The repetition of parts is found to exist in great

FIG. 39. — CENTIPEDE.

degree in the internal as well as in the external organs. Thus in
the Centipede, every segment of the body is provided with its
own air-cavity for respiration, and with its own nervous ganglia ;
and the dorsal vessel, which represents the heart in these animals,
is also divided by partitions, into a series of chambers corre-
sponding to the segments. Further, the conformity Between
the two halves of the body is extremely perfect ; for not only
are the exterior of the trunk and limbs perfectly symmetri-
cal, but the equality extends also to the organs of digestion,
circulation, and respiration, which, with very few exceptions,
would be divided into two equal halves, by a line passing down
the middle of the body. Now this perfect symmetry, which
is seen nowhere else than in the Articulata, is evidently connected
with the high development of their powers of locomotion. A
little consideration will show, that it is impossible for an animal
to move with great energy and rapidity, unless the two sides of
its body are equal in power and weight. Every one knows that
a Bird, if one of its wings be clipped, cannot fly straight ; and
that a Man, having a burthen to carry, will accomplish it much
better by dividing it into two portions, and raising one with each
hand, than by attempting to bear it all on one side. We shall
hereafter see that, in rapidity and energy of movement, there
are no animals which, when their size is taken into account, can
be compared with a large number of the Articulata. The sen-
sory organs, too, are highly developed; and in the construction
of the eyes we again meet with the repetition, which is so charac-
teristic of the whole organisation; each of the bodies that project

70 MOLLUSCOUS TYPE OF STRUCTURE.

on the two sides of the head being made up of a vast number
(often many thousands) of minute eyes, every one perfect in
itself (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 573). The possession of these com-
pound eyes is so characteristic of the Articulata, that any animal
in which they were found, might be unhesitatingly referred to
that series.

48. The characters that have been enumerated are very
far from being all, which belong to the Articulated series as a
primary subdivision of the Animal kingdom ; but they are the
most important, as enabling us most readily to distinguish its
members from all others. They will be dwelt upon in more
detail in their proper place. The animals composing the sub-
kingdom Mollusca are strikingly contrasted with them in a great
variety of particulars. In the first place, the body is soft, and
has no regularity of form. It may or may not be covered with
a shell ; but if this exists, it merely serves as a protection to the
body, and gives no assistance to its movements; no muscles
being attached to it, except such as connect the animal with the
shell, or the different pieces of the shell (where there are more
than one) to each other. In fact, the entire muscular system
consists of a few scattered bands and fibres, except in some of the
more active species, which partake of the characters of the Arti-
culata or Vertebrata. But, on the other hand, the organs of
nutrition attain a very high degree of development in this series ;
and the bulk of the body, which is often very considerable, is
given almost by them alone. We do not find in them any ten-
dency to symmetrical arrangement of any kind ; nor to a repe-
tition of parts, such as we have seen in the Badiata and Articu-
lata ; so that no definite form can be assigned as characteristic of
their fabric. An idea of the mode in which their organs are
arranged, in the lowest and simplest species, will be derived from
the examination of the accompanying figure, which represents
the anatomy of the Oyster. It will be seen that there is here an
absence of anything like a head; for the mouth, 5, is buried, as
it were, among the other organs, and cannot be projected from
between the valves ; and there are no other organs of sense, than
the tentacula or enlarged lips, #, that immediately surround it.

MOLLUSCOUS TYPE OF STRUCTURE.

71

This is the case with all the animals inhabiting bivalve shells ;
although some of them have a fleshy tongue-like organ, termed

FIG. 30. — ANATOMY OK THE OYSTER.

v, one of the valves of the shell ; t/, its hinge ; m, one of the lobes of the mantle ;
m', a portion-of the other lobe folded back ; c, muscles of the shell ; br, gills ; ft, mouth ;
t, tentacula, or prolonged lips ; /, liver ; i, intestine ; a, anus ; co, heart.

the foot, by which they can give motion to their bodies. But
among the Mollusks inhabiting univalve shells, and others which

are allied to them
but possess no shell,
we find the mouth
situated on a pro-
jecting part, which
also bears the va-
rious organs of spe-
cial sense, — sight,
smell, hearing, and
taste, — more or
less fully deve-
loped ; and we
find, in sdme, that
the powers of motion are greater, so that they are enabled to

FIG. 31. — LYMNJEUS STAGNALIS.

72 MOLLUSCOUS TYPE OF STRUCTURE.

go from place to place in search of food, instead of waiting for
what is brought to them by the currents, which the action of their
cilia creates in the surrounding water. Now, in these animals
we always find the head possessing a symmetrical arrangement of
its parts, — the eyes, tentacula (or feelers), &c., being arranged in
pairs, on the two sides of the central line, as seen in Fig. 31.
But the remainder of the body, which contains the organs of
nutrition or vegetative life, is very commonly unsymmetrical
externally, being disposed in a spiral which fills the interior of
the shell, and having a complete want of uniformity in the
arrangement of the organs themselves.

49. In the species which are destitute of shell, however, or
which have but a small one that only partially covers the body,
we find the symmetry more complete, and
the powers of motion greater. This is
the case, for example, with the group of
Pteropods^ of which an illustration is given
in Fig. 32. Here we see that the two
sides of the body are exactly alike exter-
nally ; and the correspondence extends in
great degree to the internal organs also.
The movements of these animals through
the water are comparatively active ; and
FIG 32 — HYALJEA they remind us strongly of those of Insects

or Birds, to which they may be considered

as having a decided analogy (§ 4). Still, the general rule
holds good, in regard to them also, that their muscular system is
but little developed ; the several bands and fibres of which it
consists, having no firm points of attachment ; and bearing no
proportion, either in number, or in the variety of their actions,
to those of even the lowest Articulata. This is the case also
with the Cuttle-fish tribe, which presents many characters that
lead us towards the Vertebrated series, and which depart widely
from those of the typical Mollusks, — the essential peculiarity of
whose organisation, is unquestionably the low development of the
organs of animal life, in comparison with those of nutritive or
vegetative life.

MOLLUSCOUS, ARTICULATED, AND VERTEBRATED TYPES. 73

50. Thus we have seen, that there is a kind of antagonism
between the characters of the Molluscous and of the Articulated
series : for the former present the functions of nutrition in almost
exclusive operation, their whole energy being (as it were) con-
centrated upon these, and their powers of sensation and locomo-
tion being exercised almost exclusively for the acquirement of
their supplies of food; whilst in the latter, the functions of animal
life, sensation and spontaneous motion, are seen in the greatest
activity, and the nutritive operations are carried on merely for
the purpose of developing the mechanism in the first instance,
and of subsequently keeping it in repair and supplying its waste.
We observe a corresponding difference in the form of their bodies;
for the symmetrical arrangement, which almost invariably pre-
sents itself in the organs of animal life, is so complete in the
Articulata, as even to prevail in their organs of nutrition ; whilst
an absence of all symmetry shows itself in those Mollusks, whose
bodies ar.e made up almost exclusively of these last parts ; — uni-
formity on the two sides being only visible in those, which have
some capacity for movement ; and merely affecting the head in
those, whose motions do not exhibit more than the sluggishness,
which is characteristic of the series taken as a whole.

51. Now, in the Vertebrated subdivision of the Animal
kingdom, we find the characters of these two groups in some
degree united. For there is in almost every member of it, a
large share of the activity and acuteness of sensation, which is
characteristic of the Articulated classes ; whilst the nutritive
apparatus is rather formed upon the plan of that of the Mollusca,
and attains a still higher degree of development. > In the external
form of the body of the Vertebrata, we have, in almost every
instance (a small group of Fishes constituting the only excep-
tion), a complete bi-lateral symmetry; and this symmetry
extends to the internal parts, so far as the organs of animal life
(the brain and nerves, the muscles concerned in the movement
of the body, and the organs of sense), are concerned ; but we do
not find it so well marked in the organs of nutrition, which are,
for the most part, unsymmetrical. Thus the heart of Man is not
placed on the central line of the body, but on the left side ; the

74 VERTEBRATED TYPE OP STRUCTURE.

liver, chiefly on the right side ; the stomach and pancreas on the
left, — and other parts in the same irregular manner. The
respiratory organs, however, always display more symmetry;
probably, for this reason, — that they are more closely connected
than any other of the organs of nutrition, with the apparatus of
muscular motion, by which their actions are kept up. (ANIMAL
PHYSIOL. Chap. VI.). But it is interesting to observe that, in
Birds — the class of Vertebrata most distinguished for activity of
motion — there is a more complete symmetry than is found among
Mammals, thus affording another exemplification of the general
rule just stated. The peculiarity in the construction of Verte-
brated animals, however, has reference not so much to their
external conformation, as to their possession of an internal
skeleton ; expressly adapted to give support and protection to
the nervous system, which in this class attains its highest degree
of development, and to afford fixed points of attachment to the
muscles. In this respect, therefore, they are readily distinguishable
from the Articulata, whose skeleton is external ; and from the
Mollusca, most of which have no skeleton at all. But as among
the highest of this last group, there are some (of the Cuttle-fish
tribe) which have the rudiments of an internal skeleton — so
there are some among Fishes, in which the internal skeleton
characteristic of the Vertebrated series is so little developed,
that it has been doubted whether these animals deserve to be
ranked in it at all. So that, well marked and decided as the
line would seem to be, which separates the Yertebrata from
Invertebrated animals, we may be obliged to hesitate through
what exact points to draw it.

52. In the preceding sketch of the four great plans, on which
the ever- varying forms of the Animal Kingdom appear to have
been constructed, it has not been attempted to embody all the
characters, by which they are respectively distinguished ; but to
give to the young Naturalist such an idea of each, as may aid him
in that first act of classification, which consists in ascertaining
to which type a new or doubtful animal is to be referred. A
more detailed account of each will be given at the commence-
ment of that division of the work, which treats of the classes it

CHARACTERS DRAWN FROM NERVOUS SYSTEM. 75

includes. But it will be advantageous here to show, how they
may be distinguished by the examination of a single portion
only of their structure ; because we shall be thus led to see, how
single and easily-recognised characters become of great importance
in classification, provided they are found to be constantly associ-
ated with certain general types or plans of structure. A little
consideration will show, that the Nervous System, being more
or less concerned with all the functions of the body, but particu-
larly with those of animal life, will probably exhibit, in the
arrangements of its parts, very distinctive peculiarities in the
four sub-kingdoms ; and this is, in fact, the case.

53. In the Radiated animals the Nervous System, where it
can be traced at all (which is often impossible on account of the
small size of the animal, and the softness of its tissues), is arranged
on the same plan with the other organs ; its centres being disposed
in a circle around the mouth, and being connected by a cord that
forms a complete ring, as shown in Fig. 33. Each of these

FIG. 33.— NERVOUS SYSTEM FIG. 34.— NERVOUS SYSTEM OF AN INSECT.

OF SxAR-Frsf.

centres or ganglia supplies the part of the body, with which
it is immediately connected ; and seems to have precisely the
same functions with the rest. — In the Articulated animals, we
find a series of ganglia arranged along the central line of the
body, and connected by a cord, which is always either evidently
double (as in Fig. 34), or which may be easily separated into
two equal tracts, one belonging to either side. And at the front
extremity of this cord, situated in the head, there is a pair of
ganglia larger than the rest, connected with the organs of special

76

MOLLUSCOUS TYPE OP NERVOUS SYSTEM.

sense, and evidently having a controlling power over the whole
system. — In the Molluscous animal, again, as there is no repeti-
tion in the several parts of the body, so there is no repetition of
ganglia, except on the two sides, when there are corresponding
organs to be supplied. Thus we have usually a single or double
ganglion in the head (where it exists), or in the neighbourhood
of the mouth, connected with the organs of special sense ; another
for the actions of the respiratory apparatus, and another for the
foot. Of these, the arrangement in the lower forms of Mollusca
is represented in Fig. 35, and in the higher, in Fig. 36.
There is a total absence of all regularity in the arrange-
ment of the several ganglia ; for their position varies con-
tinually in the different species according to that of the organs
they supply : thus, in the shell-
less species, the place of the
gills is continually varying ; and
that of the respiratory gan-
glion varies accordingly, being

FIG. 35. — NERVOUS SYSTEM OF PECTBN.

A A, cephalic ganglia ; B, branchial
ganglion ; C, pedal ganglion ; e, oeso-
phagus.

FIG. 36 — KBRVOUS SYSTKM OF

APLYBIA.

A, cephalic ganglion ; B, respi-
ratory ganglion ; C C, ganglia of
the foot and mantle ; D, pharyn-
geal ganglion.

sometimes in the front of the body, and sometimes at its hinder-
part, as in the Aplysia. Hence, if we were to find an animal
having a series of nervous centres or ganglia scattered through
the body — not forming a regular series arranged round the

VERTEBBATED TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM.

77

s,

mouth, as in the Radiata — nor disposed in a long row, as the
Articulata — we should be right in ranking
it as a Mollusk.— The Yertebrata have
their principal nervous centres arranged
in one continuous mass, which is enclosed
within their bony skeleton : this mass
consists of the Brain, which occupies the
skull ; and of the Spinal Cord, which is
contained within the back-bone; and
from it are supplied not only the organs
of locomotion and sensation, but those
concerned in the reception of food, and in
the respiratory actions, which have dis-
tinct ganglia of their own in most Inver-
tebrata.

54. A case in which the place of a
doubtful group, the Barnacle tribe, might
have been decided by the conformation of
its nervdus system, has been already
adverted to (§32) : here the division of
the body into segments is very indistinct,
and its external form has a general resem-
blance to that of the Mollusca ; but the
double nervous cord, studded with ganglia
at intervals, which runs from one extremity
to the other, assigns its place to be among
the Articulata, — a decision which has
been confirmed by the discovery of its
curious metamorphosis.

55. We have hitherto spoken chiefly of the principles, upon
which a Natural System or Classification should be constructed;
a few observations may be added, on the manner in which it may
be advantageously applied. It has been shown that, in first ar-
ranging the different species into groups, and combining these
groups into others, we must be guided by the whole collection
of characters, which each animal presents. But if, whenever
we meet with a form of animal life that is new to us, we were

Fro. 37.— BRAIN AND SPINAL
CORD OF MAN.

78 APPLICATION OF NATURAL SYSTEM.

obliged to examine its whole structure in order to discover its
place in the scale, we should subject ourselves to a vast amount
of labour, which must be a great impediment to the progress of
Zoology. This, however, is by no means the case ; for there are
certain external characters, simple and easily recognised, which
distinguish almost every class of animals from the rest; and which,
consequently, enable us to refer an unknown species to the pri-
mary group to which it belongs, with very little difficulty. Thus,
the Mammals are four-legged animals, whose bodies are more or
less closely covered with hair. There is no other class, in which
these two characters are united. All Reptiles, except Serpents,
are four-legged ; but their skins, instead of being beset with hair,
are either covered with scales, or are altogether naked. And,
again, some Insects and Spiders are hairy ; but they have never
so few as four legs. Hence, if we meet with a four-legged animal,
with hairs even very thinly scattered over its body, we may be
satisfied that it is a Mammal. Again, as there are no animals what-
ever, save Birds, that have their bodies covered with feathers, any
creature on whose surface such a covering exists, must be unques-
tionably placed in that class. Further, in the Articulated Series,
the higher classes may be recognised by the number of legs alone,
— Insects having uniformly six, Spiders eight, and Crustacea not
less than ten. Hence, if we found an animal having six legs, we
should have no hesitation in stating it to belong to the class of
Insects, even though it may be destitute of wings, which we
commonly regard as characteristic of that group ; whilst any
animal with eight legs would be placed among the Spider tribe,
and any animal with ten would be associated with the Crabs and
Lobsters. If the number were greater than ten, it would be
necessary to examine the organs of respiration ; for, if these were
aquatic, the animal would belong to one of the lower groups of
the class Crustacea ; whilst if they were adapted to breathe air,
it would be one of the Myriapoda, or Centipede tribe.

56. The same principle may be followed out in the subdivi-
sions of the classes ; so that, by a reference to the external cha-
racters alone of the animal examined, the Zoologist may be able
to predict all the essential points of its internal structure. Now

APPLICATION OF NATURAL SYSTEM. 79

some of these characters may be termed natural, because they
have an obvious connection with the real or essential differences
that distinguish the two groups ; whilst others are considered as
artificial, because, though extremely convenient to the Zoologist,
they do not of themselves tell him anything respecting those dif-
ferences. Thus, the popular error, formerly adverted to, of con-
founding Whales with Fishes, may be avoided by attending to
either of two very easily- observed characters — the first natural,
the second artificial. In the Whales, and other Mammals that
inhabit the water, the tail is flattened horizontally, and its stroke
is vertical, or up and down ; but in Fishes, the tail is invariably
flattened vertically) and its stroke is horizontal, or from side to
side. This is a natural character, because it is closely connected
with the mode in which one of those functions is performed, the
plan of which is entirely different in the two groups : the Whales,
which breathe air by lungs, require to come frequently to the
surface in order to take it in ; and the direction in which their tail
strikes the water, enables them to rise or fall in it with great faci-
lity : but Fish, which breathe by means of the passage of water
over their gills, do not require such a power, and the movement of
their tail is chiefly destined to urge them rapidly through the
water. Consequently, we could never expect to meet with a
Whale having a tail vertically flattened, nor with a Fish having
a horizontally expanded tail ; and this character, therefore, would
suffice to distinguish the animals of the two groups, without the
aid of any other. But the inspection of a small part of its skin
would of itself suffice to determine, whether a given animal were
one of the Whale tribe, or a true Fish ; for the skin of the Fish
is covered with scales, whilst that of the Whales is destitute of
any such protection, and has only a few hairs scattered over it.
Now, this must be regarded as an artificial character ; since we
cannot discover what essential connection there is, between the
internal conformation of the Fish and its covering of scales, or
between the arrangement of the internal organs of the Whale,
and the scanty covering of hair with which its skin is furnished.
Moreover, although no Fish possess hairs, yet some Mammals
are partially covered with a kind of scales ; which shows that

80 APPLICATION OP NATURAL SYSTEM.

there is no impossibility in the possession of a scaly skin by an
air-breathing, warm-blooded animal; and we could not feel quite
certain that a Whale-like animal might not be hereafter dis-
covered possessing a scaly skin — however improbable such a
thing may be.

57. It should be the aim of the Zoologist, therefore, in the
choice of the characters which he uses, for the most easy dis-
tinction of the animals composing the several natural groups, —
into which, (it cannot be too often repeated), they must be asso-
ciated by their general conformity of structure, — to select those
which are the most natural, as indicating the nature of their in-
ternal structure, in preference to those which are artificial, giving
no information beyond that derived from themselves. Hence, in
classifying the Mammalia, the conformation of the teeth and ex-
tremities afford (in most orders at least) characters of the highest
value ; since these are intimately connected with the structure
of the digestive apparatus, the nature of the food on which the
animal lives, the mode in which it is obtained, and, consequently,
the entire habits of the species. And, in the subdivision of the
class of Birds, the conformation of the bill, wings, and claws,
afford characters of similar value. In the arrangement of Insects,
on the other hand, it is often necessary to adopt artificial charac-
ters for the separation of the several groups; because they are the
only ones which are recognised with sufficient facility, and be-
cause our comparative ignorance of their internal anatomy, as
well as of their economy, prevents us from understanding, as
clearly as in the two classes just mentioned, how far differences
apparently trifling in external conformation are essentially con-
nected with those peculiarities, which really characterise the re-
spective groups. Thus, the enormous order Coleoptera (Beetles)
is subdivided into sections or sub-orders, according to the number
of joints in the tarsus, or foot ; a character which, at first sight,
appears very trivial, but which really does bring together the
families that have the greatest number of points of general agree-
ment, and separates them from others which differ more widely
from them. Hence it is probable, that an increased acquaintance
with the habits and structure of these animals will show us, why

HARMONY BETWEEN DISTINCT CHARACTERS. 81

the presence oifive joints in the tarsus should always accompany
one set of internal characters ; and why four joints should be
found in the tarsus of those Beetles, which agree among them-
selves, and differ from the last, in certain other particulars.
When that is the case, the character will deserve to be regarded
as in itself a natui al one ; as it already must be considered in
some degree, since the classification founded upon it alone has no-
thing of the artificial nature, usually seen in arrangements formed
upon single characters, and displaying itself so prominently in
the Linnaean classification of Plants. (BOTANY, Chap. XIII.)

58. It is from this correspondence between single characters,
and general plans of structure, that the Comparative Anatomist
derives the power, already adverted to, of determining the nature
of a whole animal from a single fragment of its skeleton, or from
one of its teeth. In no animal is the body made up of a number
of disconnected parts, united, as it were at hazard ; for all its
organs have a more or less intimate connection with each other ;
so that there is a kind of harmony amongst them all, and be-
tween every part and the entire structure. Thus,
the simple inspection of the tooth represented
in the accompanying figure, suffices to disclose to
the scientific Naturalist, the following facts re-
garding the animal to which it belonged. In the
first place, there must have been a bony frame-
work, in which this tooth was implanted, and
CARNIVOROUS TOOTH which gave support to the rest of the body ; and,
OF A LION. as ^jg internal framework does not exist in any
other animals than those of the Vertebrated series, we know,
by its possession of this tooth, that the animal in question had
the brain and spinal cord, the complete set of organs of the senses,
the red blood, &c. &c. which belong to that sub-kingdom only.
Further, there are certain characters about the roots of this tooth,
which enable the Anatomist to feel certain, that it must have
been implanted in a deep socket, which is only the case in Rep-
tiles and Mammals ; and he may further determine from them,
that the animal belonged to this last class, and that it must have
therefore possessed the organisation which is peculiar to it. Again,

82 HARMONY BETWEEN DISTINCT CHARACTERS.

by the form of the crown of the tooth, it is easily shown that tin's
tooth was destined to divide animal flesh ; and that it consequently
belonged to a Carnivorous quadruped. To digest this flesh, the
animal must have had a stomach and intestinal canal formed upon
a certain plan ; and in order to obtain its prey, it must have had
appropriate organs of locomotion and of prehension. Its extre-
mities must have terminated in separate fingers, and these must
have been armed with claws. The limbs must have been fur-
nished with very powerful muscles, to enable the animal to give
chase to its prey, or to spring upon it unawares ; and afterwards
to drag it to its den. The head, also, must have been connected
with the spinal column by ligaments and muscles of great power,
attached to elevated projections (spinous processes) of the verte-
brae ; in order that it may have the power of lifting the heavy
bodies, which the animal desires to remove. The lower jaw must
have been connected with the upper, by a hinge admitting but a
scissars-like action, by which the edges of the cutting-teeth were
constantly kept sharp ; and the muzzle must not have been very
protuberant, otherwise the strength of the muscles that raise the
jaw, would be applied at too great a disadvantage (ANIM. PHY-
SIOL. § 189). The cranial cavity must have been comparatively
large, in order that the size of the brain might correspond with
the degree of intellect which the habits of the animal required.
59. By inferences of this kind, and under the guidance of
our knowledge of the forms at present existing, all the leading
peculiarities of an animal may be deduced from any character-
istic portion of it ; for if any part, essential to the action of the
remainder, had been deficient, the animal could not have main-
tained its existence. An animal with the carnivorous propensity
of the Tiger, for example, and the teeth or hoofs of a Horse, could
not remain alive, for want of power to obtain and prepare its
nutriment ; nor would a Horse be better for the long canine teeth
of the Tiger, which would prevent the grinding motion of the
jaws, required for the trituration of his food. The great principle
is, therefore, that every animal is a combination of mutually-
adapted parts, forming an harmonious whole ; and that no one
of these can be altered, without affecting all the rest, more or less
considerably.

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS.

60. THE Vertebrated sub-kingdom, including the classes of
Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, is characterised by the
presence, in all the animals which belong to it, of an internal
skeleton, composed of bone or cartilage, and forming an envelope
to the nervous centres. In the Articulated classes, there is no
vestige of any such structure ; and the only Mollusca (some of
the Cuttle-fish tribe), in which there is the least approach to it,
are sufficiently distinguished by other characters. It is true that,
among many of the Radiata, — such as a few of the Jelly-fish tribe,
and a large proportion of the Polypes, — there is an internal ske-
leton, sometimes composed of a horny or cartilaginous tissue, and
sometimes possessing even a stony hardness ; but this gives equal
support to the whole fabric, and is not arranged in such a manner
as to give the least degree of peculiar protection to the nervous
centres ; so that, although it may be regarded as a kind of sketch,
or shadowing-forth, in this lowest group, of the plan of structure
which is characteristic of the highest, it cannot be said to have
any real correspondence with it.

6 1 . The animals of the Vertebrated series are, of all sentient
beings, those whose faculties are the most varied and the most
perfect. The principle of the division of labour is carried out in
them to its highest degree ; every function to be performed
having its own separate organ, whose operations are limited to it
alone ; consequently, the Vertebrata are, of all animals, those in
which the distinct organs are the most numerous and the most
complicated. We may encounter many, among the lower tribes,
in which the number of parts is as great, or even greater ; but,

G 2

84 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS.

where this is the case, most of these parts are but repetitions of
one another. It is by the variety existing in the form and struc-
ture of their several organs, and in the perfection with which each
is adapted to perform its allotted function, that the Yertebrata
are chiefly characterised. It is manifest that the structure of
such animals must be regarded as more elaborate, than that of be-
ings, in which the number of dissimilar parts is small, and every
one "of them capable of discharging a variety of effices ; and that
their functions must be performed with more energy and complete-
ness, when carried into effect by instruments peculiarly adapted
to each, than when several are the result of the actions of one
organ. Hence we are justified in ranking the Yertebrata as the
highest group in the Animal scale, independently of its being the
one which contains Man. But we are not justified in speaking
of the animals composing it, as more perfectly constructed than
any others ; since, in the eye of the Creator, they must be all
equally perfect. In every one, the adaptation between the ac-
tions of its several parts must be complete; or it could not main-
tain its existence. And it should not be less wonderful to us, to
meet in the Zoophyte with a simple structure, capable of per-
forming all the functions of absorption, assimilation, respiration,
and secretion ; than to contemplate the numerous and elaborately-
constructed organs, by which these several operations are respec-
tively performed in the Yertebrated animal.

62. The development of all the organs in the Yertebrata
seems to be subservient to that of the Nervous System ; — their
object being to give to it the means of the exercise of its powers.
In almost every animal of the group, we find that the brain and
spinal cord bear a much larger proportion to the entire bulk of the
body, than do the nervous centres of any Invertebrated animal;
and in Man, this proportion is greatly increased. It is not only
in the actual bulk of the organs, that we see the importance here
given to the nervous system ; for this is still more shown by the
quantity of blood which is transmitted to them. Thus it is cal-
culated that the brain of Man receives about a fifth or sixth part
of the whole blood in circulation ; although its weight is not more
than a fortieth or fiftieth part of that of the entire body : and

PREDOMINANCE OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

85

of the remaining blood, by far the largest portion is transmitted
to the muscular system, which is the instrument of the nervous
apparatus, in producing the movements of the various parts of
the body. To prepare this blood, and to keep it in a state fit
for the due performance of its func- a

tions, a complex digestive, respiratory,
and secreting apparatus is requisite;
but this vegetative part of the fabric
does not live for itself alone, as it
seems to do in Plants, and (almost to
the same extent) in Zoophytes, and the
inferior Mollusks ; for it is entirely
subservient to the maintenance of the
functions of animal life, by keeping the
nervous and muscular systems (toge-
ther with the bony frame-work, and
other parts connected with the move-
ment of the body) in a state of good
repair.

63. The nervous system of Yerte-
brata cannot, as a whole, be properly
compared with that of Invertebrate

....ol

*P

FIG. 41. BRAINS OF FISHES. A, Cod ; B, Shark.

FIG. 40. — BRAIN AND SPINAL
CORD OF MAN ; a, cere-
brum ; ft, anterior lobe ; c,
middle lobe ; d, posterior
lobe ; e, cerebellum ; f, me-
dulla oblongata ; ff, spinal
cord.

animals, unless we look at its lowest forms. In Man, we find

86 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CEREBRUM. INTELLIGENCE.

that the largest of its masses, — the brain proper, consisting
of the cerebral hemispheres, and the cerebellum, — acquires
such a size and relative importance, as to throw the others into
the shade. It is therefore necessary to select for comparison,
the nervous system of the lowest Fishes ; and here we find a
very remarkable correspondence. For the cerebral hemispheres
(ch, Fig. 41), and cerebellum (c0), are here in a comparatively
undeveloped state ; and of the nervous masses contained in the
head, the optic and olfactive ganglia (ol and op)— which are
analogous to the cephalic ganglia of Insects and Mollusca (Figs.
34 and 36), — are seen to form at least as considerable a part.
The spinal cord of Yertebrata is evidently analogous to the chain
of ganglia in the bodies of the Articulata ; so that between
the lowest type of the nervous system in the former, and its
regular plan in the latter, there is little essential difference.
But as we ascend the Vertebrate series, towards Man, we find
the cerebrum becoming larger and larger ; until it acquires a
size and importance, which for a long time induced the belief
among Physiologists, that it is the essential portion of the
nervous system, — the only centre of nervous power. This has
been fully proved, however, not to be the case ( ANIM. PHYSIOL.,
Chap. X.) ; a very large class of actions, including all those
immediately concerned in the maintenance of life, being still
performed when the cerebral hemispheres had been removed.

64. Upon comparing the relative development of this organ,
in different Vertebrated animals, with the mental faculties whose
possession they respectively manifest, it is difficult to avoid the
conclusion, that the Cerebrum is the instrument of Intelligence ;
whilst the other portions of the nervous centres minister to
Instinctive actions. It has been pointed out (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 72) that the high development of the instincts is the prominent
character of the Articulata ; and that what we regard as the
highest perfection of their structure, tends in this direction. On
the other hand, there is a tendency among the Yertebrata to
the removal of the animal from the dominion of undiscerning
uncontrollable instinct, and to place all its operations under the
dominion of an intelligent Will. We no longer witness in these

STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 87

operations that uniformity, which is so remarkable a character-
istic of those which are under the guidance of pure Instinct
(ANIM. PHYSIOL., Chap. XIV.) There is evidently, among the
higher Vertebrata especially, a power of choice and of determina-
tion, guided by a perception of the nature of the object to be
attained, and of the means to be employed, — constituting the
simplest form of the reasoning faculty. In Man, the reasoning
faculties seem to attain the highest perfection, that is compatible
with their connection with a material fabric ; the instinctive
propensities are placed under their subjection ; and all his acts,
except those immediately required for the maintenance of his
organic functions, are brought under their controul. But among
the lowest of the Yertebrated series, the operations of instinct
seem to be as predominant as in the Invertebrated classes ;
although, as they are inhabitants of the water, we are much less
acquainted with them. — Hence we seem justified in asserting
that the Cerebrum is the instrument of intelligence ; and that the
high development of it is the chief characteristic of the Verte-
brated sub-kingdom.

65. It is more satisfactory, however, to define this group by
the presence or absence of that internal skeleton, which is espe-
cially adapted for the protection of the nervous centres; — namely,
the vertebral column. This essentially consists of a series of
bones, termed vertebras; through a perforation in the centre of
which, the spinal cord passes. When these bones are fitted
together, they form a continuous tube, in which
this important organ is lodged ; and they are con-
nected together, in the living state, by ligaments and
muscles, attached to the bony prominences or pro-
cesses with which they are furnished. In this
manner, the vertebral column possesses considerable
flexibility ; so that it may be bent into a curve,
without injury to the organ which it protects. If it had been
inflexible, the animal could not have propelled itself by any
movements of its body, but must have been entirely dependent
upon its limbs ; and if it had been composed of but a" small
number of bones, the spinal cord would have been liable to

STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

severe injury, from the sudden bends which its bony casing would
have been forced to make.

66. The flexibility of the spinal column varies
much in degree, however, in different species of
Vertebrata. In Fishes it is very great ; the body
being chiefly propelled by the strokes' of its
hinder part and tail from side to side, and the
side fins having but little else to do than to direct
its movement. In Serpents, we find an entire
absence of members or extremities ; and the whole
of the movement of the trunk is effected by itself
alone ; consequently the spine requires great flex-
F,G 43'^VKRTE- ibility- ID these two groups we find an especial pro-
BRAL COLUMN, vision for this object ; for in Serpents, the bodies of
the vertebrae are not flat, but are convex on one side and concave
on the other, so as to form a series of ball-and-socket joints,
admirably adapted to give the greatest flexibility ; and in fishes,
both surfaces of each vertebra are concave, and work upon a
nearly globular bag of fluid, which is interposed between them.
Such an arrangement as this last weakens the spine to a degree,
which would prevent its being ever employed in a land animal ;
in which the weight of the body is thrown upon only four points,
and in which there must be a certain resistance in the connecting
framework : but in Fishes, in which every part of the body is
equally buoyed up by the surrounding element, there is no neces-
sity for such power of resistance ; and flexibility is the great
object to be attained. In some of the lowest Fishes, such as the
Lamprey (Fig. 44), there is no proper vertebral column ; the

FIG. 44.— LAMPREY.

spinal cord being inclosed in a flexible cartilaginous tube, the
division of which into segments is only marked by some cross
wrinkles : and in one species, even this is wanting, the spinal
cord being only surrounded by a membranous envelope. Such

VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 89

animals might be thought to be scarcely entitled to a place in
the Vertebrated series ; but they agree with Vertebrata in other
points of their conformation ; and the disappearance of even this
most distinctive character of the group, in its lowest forms, is
exactly what we should anticipate, on the principles formerly
stated (§ 35).

67. The vertebral column terminates at its upper or anterior
extremity, in the cranium or skull ; which is a large bony struc-
ture, formed of several pieces, closely united together, and
adapted to protect the brain, which it completely incloses, as
well as to afford a secure lodgment for the organs of special
sense, — the eyes, nose, tongue, and ears. These organs, with
very few exceptions (and these principally relating to the eyes),
are all present in every Yertebrated animal ; which is not the
case in regard to the greater portion of the Invertebrata. — At
the opposite end, the vertebral column is usually contracted into
a tail ; which is composed, like the part that gives support to the
trunk, of vertebrae jointed together; but which is not penetrated
by the spinal cord. The tail is developed in various degrees in
different animals ; — least in Man, and in the Apes which approach
nearest to him, although even they have a rudiment of it ; — and
most in Serpents and Fishes, in which the tail is the continuation
of the body. It has to serve a great variety of purposes ; and is
often an organ of the greatest importance in locomotion. — A
curious antagonism may often be observed, between the develop-
ment of the cranium, and that of the tail. When the head is
large, as in Man. the tail is most, commonly short and insignifi-
cant ; and when the tail is very large, the skull is usually small ;
but this does not invariably hold good.

68. With the vertebral column are connected the ribs, which
are rarely absent ; and also the bones of the extremities or
members, which are also occasionally wanting, and which are
developed in very varying degrees in different species. They are
altogether absent in the Serpent tribe, and also in a considerable
group of Fishes. In the Whale tribe, the posterior, extremities
are absent ; and the anterior members, forming the paddles or
flappers, are small in comparison with the bulk of the body.

90 MEMBERS, AND ORGANS OF NUTRITION, IN VERTEBRATA.

The extremities attain their greatest development in Birds and
terrestrial Mammals ; whose motion is almost entirely due to
them. In these cases, the spinal column requires more firmness ;
in order that a sufficient support may be given to the limbs, and
that the muscles that move them may have fixed points from
which to act. Hence the vertebra are often found to be securely
locked together by processes, or projections of bone, which fit
into each other, and render displacement difficult, even when the
ligaments have been removed. This is most the case in Birds,
in which class the whole bony framework of the trunk is so
constructed, as to be very little capable of movement ; the powers
of motion being delegated, as it were, to the limbs, which can
act more advantageously, in proportion to the fixity of the points
from which their muscles act. They stand in remarkable con-
trast, therefore, to the groups of Fishes and Serpents, just now
adverted to ; in which, from the absence or low development of
the extremities, the movements are performed altogether by the
trunk, and the vertebral column is proportionally flexible. — In
no instance is the number of members greater than four.

69. All the Yertebrata are distinguished from Invertebrated
animals, by the possession of red corpuscles (commonly termed
globules) in their blood ; and this gives to their circulating fluid
a marked difference from that of the lower tribes, which is colour-
less or nearly so, containing only the white or colourless corpuscles,
(ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 235). There is, moreover, a separate sys-
tem of vessels for the absorption of nutrient fluid, both from
the alimentary canal, and from the substance of the body itself;
to which we find nothing analogous in the Invertebrata. These
vessels are termed absorbents (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 217) ; and they
empty the fluid, which they have taken up, and which bears a
strong analogy to the blood of the Invertebrated animals, into
the current of the circulating blood. This current is regularly
kept up, in Vertebrata, by the action of a heart, endowed with
considerable muscular power; and the blood'is sent, by its means,
not only to the body in general, but also to the respiratory
organs, in which it is to be exposed to the influence of the air.
These organs are always restricted to some particular portion of

DIVISION OF VERTEBRATA INTO CLASSES.

91

the body, not being in any instance diffused or scattered through-
out the whole, as in Insects and some other tribes. In all but
the lowest group, namely Fishes, and the lowest tribe of Reptiles
during their larva state, the organs of respiration are adapted
to breathe air ; but in those, the aquatic respiration, characteristic
of the Molluscous classes, is still retained. In the classes in
which the respiration is carried on most actively, and in which
the whole mass of the blood is exposed to its influence, before again
circulating through the system, — namely, Mammals and Birds, —
the animal has the power of maintaining an elevated temperature,
independent of that of the surrounding air ; and they are termed
warm-Hooded from this circumstance ; those in which the tem-
perature of the body varies with that of the surrounding air or
water, being cold-blooded. There is further essential distinction
among the different classes of Yertebrata, dependent on the mode
in which the function of reproduction is performed in them ; this
takes place by eggs in the three lowest classes ; but in the highest,
that of Mammals, the young are born alive, and are nourished
afterwards by suckling.

70. It is upon the mode in which the functions of Circula-
tion, Respiration, and Reproduction, are performed, in the different
groups of Vertebrata, that the division of them into classes is
founded; and the following table will show, at a glance, the
principles on which this is accomplished ; besides furnishing some
other characters, which have not been here adverted to, but
which will be hereafter considered in detail, under their respec-
tive heads : —

MAMMALS. BIRDS.

REPTILES.

FISHES.

Reproduction

Viviparous, | Oviparous,

Oviparous,

Oviparous.

Respiration

Aerial,

Aerial,

Aerial,

Aquatic.

Heart

Four cavities,

Four cavities,

Three cavities,

Two cavities.

Circulation 4

Complete

Complete

Incomplete

Complete

I

double,

double,

double,

single.

Temperature

Warm,

Warm,

Cold,

Cold.

Blood-discs

Circular,*

Oval,

Oval,

Oval.

Covering

Hair,

Feathers,

Scales, or none,

Scales.

Members,nfairi-
ed for

Movement on
the ground,

} Flight, {

Movement on
the ground,

>• Swimming.

* Oval in a few exceptions.

CHAPTER III.

OF THE CLASS MAMMALIA.

71. THE class MAMMALIA is composed of Man, and of all the
animals which resemble him in the most important points of their
organisation. It is naturally placed at the head of the Animal
Kingdom, because composed of the beings, whose movements are
the most varied, whose sensations are the most delicate, whose
faculties are the most numerous, and whose intelligence is the
most developed ; and it interests us more than any other, as it
furnishes us with the animals which are most useful, whether
as serving for our nourishment and for labour, or as supplying the
materials of our manufactures.

72. It is in general easy to distinguish a Mammal, at the
first glance, from a Bird, a Reptile, a Fish, or any other animal ;
by the single observation of its external form, and the nature of
its covering : for the Mammalia are the only vertebrated animals
whose bodies are covered with hair; and their general form
usually differs but little from that of the species, which we have
continually before us, and which we naturally take as the types

FIG. 45. — PORPOISE.

of this group. But sometimes they are not recognised by so slight
an examination ; for there are some, whose skin is completely

DEVELOPMENT AND LACTATION OF MAMMALIA. 93

bare, and whose body, instead of resembling that of a Dog, a
Horse, or any ordinary Mammal, presents the form belonging to
Fishes. Such are the Porpoise, the Whale, and other Mammals
of the order Cetacea, which are commonly, but erroneously,
reckoned as Fishes. (§ 25).

73. Development and Lactation. — That which is most dis-
tinctive of the Mammalia, is their mode of development and of
nourishment during the earliest period of life. These animals
are all viviparous ; and whilst in an embryo condition, their life
is not supported by their own store of nutritive matter, as we see
is the case amongst oviparous animals, but they derive their
nourishment direct from the blood of the mother; and, after
birth, the young still live at her expense, as she suckles them for
a longer or shorter time. The milk, destined for this purpose, is
a white and opaque liquid, composed of water, holding in
solution sugar, casein, salt, and a little free lactic acid; and
holding in suspension some globules of butter. Its qualities vary
a little amongst different animals, and may be modified by the
food of which they make use. In general it leaves, by evapora-
tion, from ten to twelve per cent, of solid parts ; but its richness
may vary much according to circumstances. This nutritious
liquid is secreted by particular glands, named mammary; which
exist in both sexes ; but which only serve for the support of the
young, amongst the female. Analogous organs are not to be met
with in any other class of the Animal Kingdom ; and it is from
their existence, amongst all the animals composing the group
whose history we are commencing, that Zoologists have given to
these beings the name of MAMMALIA. The number of the mam-
mary glands is in general nearly in proportion to that of the
young produced at each birth. There are often only two (amongst
the Monkeys, the Elephant, the Goat, and the Horse, for ex-
ample) ; but sometimes, also, their number is much more con-
siderable. Thus, the Cow, the Stag, the Lion, have four ; the
Cat, eight; the Pig and the Rabbit, ten; the Bat, ten or twelve;
and the Agouti, twelve or fourteen. The position of these glands
varies also. Amongst the Monkeys and Bats they are placed
under the thorax, as in Man ; in the greatest number of Carni-

94

DEVELOPMENT AND LACTATION OP MAMMALIA.

vorous animals, they are situated on the abdomen, as well as the
thorax ; and in the Horse, Cow, and Sheep, &c., they are placed
still farther back, near the hip-joint.

74. Sometimes the young are born with their eyes open, and
can immediately run about, and procure their own food ; but a
great number of the Mammalia come into the world with their
eyes shut, and in a state of such weakness that they can scarcely
move. There are even some, that appear as if born prematurely;
for their body is hardly formed, and they could not live if they
did not become grafted, as it were, on the breast of their mother,
where they remain suspended for a considerable time. It is also
to be remarked, amongst the greater part of the animals which
are born in this extreme state of imperfection, that the skin of
the abdomen, in front of the mammary glands, forms a pouch,

FIG. 46. — OPOSSUM.

which contains and protects the young. This peculiarity of
structure characterises the Opossums (Fig. 46), the Kangaroos,

COVERING OF THE MAMMALIA. HAIR. 95

and the other Mammalia of the order Marsupialia ; — animals
which principally inhabit New Holland. The young complete
their development in the interior of this pouch, each suspended
by a teat, which penetrates deeply into its mouth, and from which
the milk is conveyed into the throat, by the contraction of the
muscles of the mammary glands. When arrived at a certain age,
they detach themselves : but they still continue to derive support
from their mother ; and, even for a long period after having left
the pouch, which has until then been their home, they seek it as a
refuge against cold, or the dangers by which they are threatened.

75. Teguments. — The skin, as we have already stated, pre-
sents amongst the Mammalia many remarkable peculiarities. In
a small number of these animals it is bare ; but in the principal
part it is covered with hairs, which serve to protect it, and to
preserve the heat developed within the body. The existence of
these appendages of the skin is so characteristic of this class, that
one of the best Zoologists of the day, M. de Blainville, has pro-
posed to replace the name of Mammalia by that of Pilifers (hair-
bearing); which would contrast with the word Pennifers (feather-
bearing), and Squamifers (scale-bearing), which he would wish
to be adopted to designate Birds and Fishes. The hairs are pro-
duced by small secreting organs in the thickness of the true skin,
or immediately under it. Each hair is formed in a small egg-
shaped bag, with white and resisting walls ; which opens at the
surface by a narrow orifice, and which is called the capsule.
The interior of this cavity is lined by a membrane, some-
times reddish, sometimes differently coloured, which appears to
be a continuation of the outer layer of the skin; and at its lower
part is found a conical papilla or bulb, which receives a nerve and
blood-vessels, and which produces the hair. The substance of
which these appendages are principally composed, is more analo-
gous to horn than any other. In examining them with a micro-
scope we sometimes see very distinctly, that they are formed of
a number of small cones one within the other ; but, in general,
they have the appearance of a simple horny tube, whose interior
seems to be filled with pulpy matter. Amongst the greatest
number of Mammals the hairs are cylindrical, or rather larger at

96

COVERING OF MAMMALIA. HAIR, QUILLS, ETC.

the bottom than at the top ; they are frequently more or less
flattened, and some are completely laminated^ or pressed into
plates, like blades of grass. Sometimes their surface appears to
be perfectly smooth, and at other times it is fluted, or furnished
with little elevations, or else presents a bead-like appearance. In
short, their size, their shape, and their elasticity, vary greatly
among different animals, and even in different parts of the body
of the same individual.

76. The name by which we distinguish the numerous varie-
ties of hair, differs according to the properties of these horny
filaments, and according to the parts on which they grow. Thus
they are termed prickles when they are very large, pointed and
stiff, resembling spines (in the Porcupine and the Hedgehog for
instance) ; and bristles when they are smaller and less resisting,
but still very stiff, except towards their extremity, as the Hog.

LET et DIOLOT

FIG. 47 __ PORCUPINE.

Horse-hair only differs from Bristles, in being a little more
supple, and of smaller size ; in general it is, like them, quite
straight ; sometimes, however, especially when very long, it is

HAIRY COVERINGS OF THE MAMMALIA. 97

slightly curled. Wool is a kind of long hair, very fine, and
twisted in every direction ; and lastly, Down is composed of hairs
of extreme fineness and softness, and is principally found hidden
under a more or less dense covering of common hair.

77. The colour of hair varies much, but is almost always
some modification of white, black, brownish-red, or yellow ; it
appears to depend on the existence of a coloured fatty matter,
which is soluble in boiling alcohol. When this oil is extracted
by the action of the liquid just mentioned, the hair always
becomes of a grayish yellow. In white hair we also find a
white oil, which in red hair is replaced by a reddish oil ; and in
black hair, the existence of an oil, tinged of a blackish-blue by
sulphuret of iron, has been observed. Sometimes the hairs pre-
serve the same colour through their entire length ; sometimes
their hue is deeper at the point than at the base ; and sometimes,
also, they present a series of white and coloured rings. More-
over, their colour varies nearly always in different parts of the
body ; and the general arrangement of these tints is character-
istic of particular species of Mammals. These colours are gene-
rally much deeper on the upper than on the under surface of the
body ; and when they form spots, these are nearly always dis-
posed symmetrically on each side ; — provided, at least, that the
animals have not been domesticated, for then their markings often
present very great irregularity. The colour and marking are
usually the same in both sexes, and in general vary but little
at different ages. In some species, however, the young have
spots, and a variety of shades, which disappear in the adult ;
and it' frequently happens that the colour of the Mammalia
changes with the seasons.

78. The hairs generally fall off at a certain period of the
year, and are replaced by others ; this moulting chiefly takes
place in Spring and Autumn. Sometimes this is effected without
the colour being altered ; at other times it causes very consider-
able changes both in the colour, the quantity, and the nature
of the hair. Thus our common Squirrel (Fig. 48), whose hair
is deep-red in summer, becomes a beautiful blue-grey in winter.
In this latter season, the fur of the Mammalia is generally much

98

FUR AND SCALES COVERING MAMMALIA.

thicker than in summer ; and under the softer hairs we find a
greater or less quantity of down, which forms a part of it. The

influence of temperature is
perceived in the same man-
ner, in the covering of
animals inhabiting different
climates ; for those of cold
countries have a thick fur,
abundantly furnished with
down ; whilst those of
warmer climates have
nothing but a few short,
dry hairs. That which
particularly distinguishes
Furs, is the fineness,
softness, brightness, and
abundance of the hair;
and after what has been
said with regard to the influence of the seasons and climate upon
the covering of the Mammalia, we may anticipate that it is in
the coldest countries, on the mountains, and particularly during
the winter, that the most beautiful fur-skins are found ; and, in
fact, it is from the North, that the greatest part of these are
brought. France, and the neighbouring countries, furnish some
furs ; but it is chiefly in Siberia, and the northern part of Ame-
rica, that the trade in Furs becomes really important.

79. When the bulbs of the hair are set very close, the horny

FIG. 48. — SQUIRREL.

FIG. 49.— PANGOLIN.

filaments which they produce unite themselves (as it were)

SCALY COVERING, AND SKELETON OF MAMMALIA.

99

together, and form solid plates ; it is in this way that the
scales are produced, which cover the body of some very remark-
able Mammalia, known
under the name of Pango-
lins (Fig. 49) ; and the cui-
rass of the Armadillos (Fig.
50). Anatomists agree also
in regarding the nails and
the horns of other Mam-
mals, as having the same
origin.

80. Skeleton. The general form of the body is principally
governed by that of the Skeleton ; sometimes, however, it pre-

FIG. 51.— SKELETON OF THE CAMEL. — vc, cervical vertebrae ; vd, dorsal vertebrae ;
vl, lumbar vertebrae ; vs, sacral vertebrae ; vg, caudal vertebrae ; e, ribs ; o, scapula ;
h, humerus ; cu, bone of fore-arm ; ca, carpus ; me, metacarpus ; ph, phalanges ;
fe, femur ; ro, patella ; ti, tibia ; ta, tarsus ; mt, metatarsus.

sents peculiarities which do not correspond with the arrange-
ment of the internal frame-work ; thus the hump on the back of
the Camel is not supported by bone, and only consists of a mass

H 2

100 SKELETON OF MAMMALIA.

of fatty tissue. — The Skeleton of Mammals always shows in its
conformation a great analogy with that of Man (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 616 — 649). The differences which are remarked amongst the
various animals of this class, depend essentially ; — First, on the
absence of abdominal members in the fish-like Mammalia, such
as the Porpoise, and the Whale, which Zoologists have included
in the order Cetacea ; — Secondly, in the diminution of the
number of fingers, and in the absence of the Clavicle, amongst
the greater number of those species whose members serve only
for walking ; — Thirdly, in variations in the number of Verte-
brae, especially in the dorsal and caudal regions; — Fourthly, in
the inequalities in the relative sizes of the same bones.

81. Conformation of the head. The shape of the bony part
of the head varies much, according as the face is more or less
extended, or the skull developed in a greater degree ; and the
study of these differences in proportion is not without interest ;
for as we have already seen, there exists, in general, a very direct
connection between the degree of intelligence with which an
animal is endowed, and the relative size of that portion of its
skull which contains the brain. The further we remove from
Man, we see the cranium diminish, the jaws and the nasal cavi-
ties become more extended ; the orbits are directed more and
more outwards, and become less and less distinct from the tem-
poral fossae; and finally the occipital foramen, (the aperture which

gives a passage to the

& I O

spinal marrow,) and
the two condyles by
which the head is
connected with the
vertebral column, in-
stead of being placed
towards the middle
of the inferior sur-

FIG. 52. — SKULL OF HORSE ; oc, occipital bone ; t, tern- face of the Cranium
poral ; /, frontal ; n, nasal ; m, superior maxillary ; im,
intermaxillary; mi, inferior maxillary ; o, orbit; t, in- are carried further

and further back, and
end by occupying the posterior aspect of it. So that the jaws,

HORNS OP MAMMALIA.

101

instead of forming a right angle with the vertebral column,
become parallel with the axis of the body. The mode in which
the lower jaw is articulated with the cranium, is characteristic of
the Mammalia ; this bone is directly connected with the skull, by
two projecting condyles ; and the portion of the temporal bone
which receives it, is united with that which forms part of the
walls of the skull ; whilst amongst Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes,
the jaw is suspended by an intermediate bone, interposed
between it and the main portion of the temporal.

82. Some of the Mammalia have a remarkable peculiarity in
the conformation of their head, — the existence of horns of various
lengths. Sometimes these prolongations are only appendages of
the skin, and appear to be formed of hairs united together ; this

is the case with the tusk with
which the nose of the Rhinoceros
is armed. In general, however,
it is otherwise; the axis, or centre
of these appendages being formed
by a prolongation of the frontal
bone. The Mammalia which are
furnished with bony, branching
horns, all belong to the order of the Ruminants ; and exhibit very

considerable differ-
ences in the structure
of these organs. The
bony protuberance
is sometimes covered
by the skin of the
forehead, which does
not differ at this part
from that of the rest
of the body, and
which does not
change ; this is the
case with the Giraffe.
In other cases, the
covered with a hairy

FIG. 53. — RHINOCEROS.

FIG. 54.— STAG.

bony portion of these horns is at first

102 GROWTH OF HORNS.

skin, which wears away ; and after it has remained bare for a
certain time, it falls off and gives place to a new horn, which
is destined to experience the same changes in its turn.
These perishable horns are called antlers ; and they are only
found amongst animals of the Stag tribe. In other instances,
again, the bony axis grows during the whole of life, never falls
off, and is covered with a kind of sheath composed of an elastic
substance, named horn, which is analogous to that of the nails,
and which increases by different layers. The name of hollow
horns is given to these appendages, when thus inclosed in a case

which seems formed of united
hairs ; and we find them amongst
the different kinds of Oxen, Sheep,
Goats, and Antelopes. It is
further to be noticed, that in all
these animals, with the exception
of the Antelope, the bony core
of the horns is hollowed out into
large cells, which communicate
FIG. 55.-HBAD OF A GOAT. ^fa the frontal sinus of the nose,

and thus receive air into their interior.

83. The mode of formation and renewal of the kind of horn
known under the name of antler, is very simple, and is worthy
of notice in this place. At a certain age, there is developed on
each side of the frontal bone, a projection, whose formation may
be compared to that of the tumours known in medicine under the
name of exostoses ; or to that of the callus^ which is deposited
around the extremities of the ordinary bones in cases of fracture,
and which causes the consolidation. These protuberances, whose
tissue is very compact, grow rapidly, and raise up the skin which
covers them. This receives a great quantity of blood from
numerous vessels which run along the surface ; but there is soon
formed, at the base of this bony protuberance, a circle of little
eminences, or tubercles, which, by their growth compress the
vessels and destroy them. Now when this cutaneous envelope
of the horn receives no more blood, it dies, withers away, and
peels off. The horn is then laid bare ; and soon experiences the

GROWTH OF HORNS. PROBOSCIS.

103

fate of all bones deprived of their soft surrounding parts and
remaining exposed to the air ; that which takes place as a result
of injury in the human body, here occurs in consequence of the
natural changes which have been just related. The bone is
affected with the disease termed Necrosis, dies, and finally
detaches itself from the head, and falls off. The animal then
remains unarmed ; but after a short time (generally 24 hours),
a thin pellicle covers the wound created by the fall of the horn,
and a fresh bony prominence soon rises up in the place of the
old one. In general the new horn acquires much greater size
than that which it succeeded. The number of its branches is
also usually much more considerable ; but it does not last longer,
and it passes through the same changes as the first. It is

generally in spring that these curious
phenomena take place ; and the re-
newal of these horns occurs nearly
every year. The male alone usually
has the head adorned in this manner.
One remarkable species, the Rein-
deer, forms, however, an exception
to this rule; the female having
horns as well as the male.

84. A curious anomaly, which is
met with in the conformation of the
head in certain Mammalia, depends
on an excessive development of the
nose, which is prolonged so as to
form a movable and prehensile
trunk. Such is, in fact, the nature
of the organ which gives so peculiar
an appearance to the Elephant, and
to which it owes its great address.
The trunk of these animals is a double tube, which is continuous
above with the cavity of the nose, and which is lined internally
with a fibro-tendinous membrane ; around this are fixed some
thousands of small muscles, variously twisted and arranged, so
as to lengthen it, to shorten it, and to bend it in all directions.

FIG. 56 — TRUNK OF AN ASIATIC
ELEPHANT.

104 TRUNK OF THE ELEPHANT.

At its upper extremity there exists a cartilaginous and elastic
valve, which, except when raised by the voluntary contraction
of its muscles, intercepts the communication between the nasal
cavity and the outside ; and at its free extremity is found an
appendage, shaped like a finger, and equally movable. This
long trunk serves the animal to seize whatever it wishes to
carry to its mouth, to take up the grass and the leaves with
which it supports itself, and to suck up the water, which it
then ejects into its throat : without it, the general confor-
mation of its body would render its continued existence im-
possible ; for in order that an animal may conveniently obtain
its nourishment from the ground, it is requisite, if it is not
provided with special organs of prehension, that the length of its
neck should be proportional to that of its legs ; so that, by its
head, it may be able, without bending them, to touch the ground
with its lips. If it is high on its feet, it must, therefore, have a
long neck ; and this, in its turn, would be incompatible with a
very large, heavy head, the weight of which would become still
more difficult to support, if it were placed at the end of a still
longer neck. Hence we observe, that amongst all the animals
whose legs are long, and whose mouth serves for the prehension
of their food (the Giraffe, for example), the neck is long, and the
head small ; whilst among those whose head is strong and heavy,
or destined to execute very energetic movements, the neck is
more or less short. Now, the Elephant is a very large animal,
whose head is very far removed from the ground, and of a size in
proportion with the enormous defences with which the upper jaw
is armed ; its weight is consequently very considerable, and the
neck which supports it very short. If it were deprived of its
trunk, it would, therefore, be necessary to reconstruct the whole
remainder of its organisation upon a different plan.

85. The Elephants, of which there are only two species at
present existing, — the one belonging to Africa, and the other a
native of India, — are the only Mammalia that are provided with
such an organ of prehension ; but there exists something analogous
to it amongst certain animals of the same class, which are destined
to seek their nourishment from the ground. Thus the Tapirs,

PROBOSCIS. — VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

105

animals nearly allied to the Hog, have their nose much prolonged
in front of the mouth, constituting a little trunk, capable of
lengthening and shortening itself. The Desmans, small insecti-
vorous animals, nearly allied to the Shrews, but formed to swim

FIG. 58. — DESMAN.

FIG. 57.— HEAD OF TAPIR.

with ease, and to live at the bottom of burrows hollowed in the
banks of rivers, also exhibit a similar conformation.

86. The vertebral column in this class presents only slight
modifications ; and everywhere shows the same characteristics as
in Man. We shall only remark, that its length varies much, and
that the number of vertebrae of which it is composed is far from
being uniform. These numerical differences principally depend
on the unequal development of the caudal portion (or tail-end)
of the column. Thus, the coccygeal vertebras sometimes do not
exist at all, (as amongst certain Bats, for example) ; in other in-
stances, we reckon forty, fifty, and even more than sixty of them.
It is also observed, that these coccygeal vertebras are of two kinds;
in the one kind a passage is retained for the spinal marrow, whilst

FIG. 59.— SKKLRTOM OF DUGONG.

the others have none. Their processes are much larger when the
tail is very strong and movable ; but among the greater part of

106

VERTEBRAL COLUMN OF MAMMALIA.

the Mammalia this organ is of little use for locomotion, though
amongst others it becomes a very powerful instrument for it.
Thus, in the Kangaroos, the Jerboas •, &c., the tail, with the hind
feet, forms a kind of tripod, upon which the animal sits, and makes
its spring. Among a great number of the American Monkeys it
is prehensile, and serves these animals as a fifth hand, to suspend
themselves from the branches of trees ; and, lastly, amongst the
Cetacea, it grows to an enormous size, and becomes the principal
instrument for swimming. Under the first caudal vertebra of

these last animals are certain bones
in the shape of a V ; which seem
to represent the ribs ; and which
are of use in increasing the power
of the muscles that bend this part
of the body. The length of the
neck also varies very much. —
Amongst the Giraffes, for ex-
ample, it is very considerable ;
whilst in the "Whales it is ex-
tremely short, and yet the number
of vertebra, which are seven as in
Man, is really the same. We only
know one exception to this rule —
the Lamantin, which has only six.
The Ai, or Three-toed Sloth, con-
stitutes an additional apparent ex-
ception ; the number of its cervi-
The first and second are the lowest ca] vertebrae seeming to be nine; —

true cervical; the third and fourth the ad-
ditional or false cervical, and the lower but the two lowest of these are

ones the dorsal. famished with rudiments of ribs,

as seen at 3,4, in the accompanying figure, and are therefore
really dorsal.

87. The conformation of the thorax varies but little ; the
number of the ribs corresponds with that of the dorsal vertebrae,
and is in general from twelve to fourteen pairs ; sometimes, how-
ever, it increases still more. Thus, in the Horse, there are
eighteen pairs, and in the Indian Elephant twenty pairs. The

Fro. 60. — VERTEBRA OF Ar.

MEMBERS OF MAMMALIA. 107

Sternum is generally narrow and flat ; but amongst the Bats,
where the lower muscles of the wing are required to have great
power, and must find a large surface for their insertion in this
bone, it often presents on the medial line an elevated crest, which
somewhat resembles the keel of the breast-bone in Birds. In
all the animals of this class, the thoracic cavity is separated
from the abdomen, by a complete division formed by the dia-
phragm.

88. Members. The Members are four in number among all
the ordinary Mammalia ; but in the Whale, and other fish-like
Mammalia usually known under the name of Cetacea, there are
only two, the abdominal members being absent. As in Man,
these organs are always composed of a jointed lever, which is
divided into three principal parts; — the arm or the thigh, the
fore-arm or the leg, and the hand or foot; but the mode of con-
formation of these different parts varies a little ; in accordance
with the uses to which they are destined.

89. The frame- work to which the upper or thoracic extre-
mity is attached, is principally composed of a large flat bone,
which is supported on the ribs, and which gives an attachment to
the humerus; this is called the blade-bone, or Scapula (0, Fig. 51 ).
This bone is prolonged in a direction parallel to the vertebral
column, in proportion to the violence of the efforts, which the
animal is destined to make with the member attached to it ; and
by this extension, it affords greater space for the attachment of
the muscles, which draw the arm towards the body. In those
Mammals which employ their upper extremities for prehension,
or as organs of flight, and which require to draw them inwards
forcibly towards the chest, we find that the scapula is kept in its
proper position by means of the clavicle, which is united to it at
one extremity, whilst by the other it bears against the sternum
(Fig. 85) ; but in those species, in which movements of this
kind are but little or not at all required, the clavicle is completely
wanting, or only a rudiment of it is found. This is the case in
all the hoofed Quadrupeds, as well as in many others. In cer-
tain of the very remarkable Mammalia of New Holland, such as
the Ornithorhyncus, on the contrary, the bones of the shoulder

108 CONNECTION OF MEMBERS WITH VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

attain a very high degree of development ; and their arrange-
ment more resembles that which is found in Lizards and Birds,
than that which prevails among ordinary Mammals. A bone in
the form of a Y (d, Fig. 61) is applied on the upper or anterior

extremity of the sternum, s, and
sends its two branches to the two
scapulae, in the same manner as
the furcula or merry-thought of
Birds (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 89 );
two pieces, c0, situated beneath
this fork-like pair of clavicles,
represent the coracoid bone of
Birds and Lizards, which in ordi-
nary Mammals is but a small
projection from the scapula, not
nearly long enough to reach the
sternum ; and finally the scapula
itself, s, instead of terminating in
the cavity, ^, which lodges the

head of the humerus, is prolonged beyond it, and comes to meet the
sternum, s ; — thus having three bony connections, where in
many Mammals there is none at all, and in no others more than
one. The functions of the lower or
hinder members vary less than those
of the upper ; hence the mode in which
they are connected with the trunk
is much more uniform, except amongst
the Cetacea, in which they exist only
in a rudimentary state ; the bones of
the hip are always immovably fixed
to the sacrum, and are united together
at their lower extremities, so as to
form a complete ring more or less deep, PIG 62*lpELVIS

termed the pelvis Or bason. The c, base of the vertebral column ;»,
/• , i • ,. ,,. , . , iliac bone; TO, marsupial bone;

lorm and size of this bony circle vary /, cavity for the head of the femur.

greatly; and it may be remarked that,

when other things are equal, the vertical position — in which the

FIG. 61. STERNAL APPARATUS OF
ORNITHORHYNCUS.

FORM OF THE MEMBERS.

109

trunk is raised upon the abdominal members, is much easier in
proportion as the pelvis is larger. It is further to be mentioned
that, amongst the Opossums and the other Marsupial Mammals,
the muscles of the abdomen, forming the pouch of these animals,
are supported by two bones which arise from the anterior part
of the pelvis, and are known to Anatomists under the name of
Marsupial bones. (Fig. 62.)

90. The arm and the thigh each present, among all the
Mammalia, but one bone, the humerus and the femur. The

FIG 63. — BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE MOLE.

bones of the fore-arm and of the leg are generally the same as in
Man ; but amongst the Bats, there is a distinct bone resembling
a knee-pan, in the elbow-joint, as well as in the posterior mem-
bers. All these bones are generally shorter and larger, in propor-
tion as the animal has occasion to move these limbs with greater
force ; and on the contrary, they are long and thin, when quick-
ness is the essential character of the movement they are destined
to execute. The Mole,
which uses its anterior
members to dig the
ground (Fig. 63), and the
Antelopes (Fig. 64) or
the Musk-deer, which as-
tonish us by the lightness
and extent of their leaps,
will serve as examples of
these two kinds of modi-
fications.

91. When the hand
becomes the organ for locomotion, and not for prehension, the

FIG. 64.— BLISS-BOK ANTELOPE.

110 MEMBERS, AND ORGANS OF SENSATION.

radius can no longer turn upon the ulna ; and is so closely
united to it, that it can no longer be distinguished ; this is also
the case with thejibula, which is joined with the tibia among the
hoofed quadrupeds. The conformation of the hand and foot
vary greatly in this class of animals, according as these mem-
bers are intended to serve for walking, for prehension, for
swimming, or for flying. These curious modifications have been
elsewhere dwelt upon (ANIM. PHYSIOL. Chap. XII.), and con-
sequently it is not necessary for us to describe them here ; we
shall only add, that the number of fingers never exceeds five, and
diminishes in proportion as the four members are devoted more
exclusively to walking.

92. Organs of Sensation. — The degree of flexibility of the
fingers, and the nature of their movements, influence their use,
not only as organs of locomotion and of prehension, but also as
instruments of the sense of feeling. When they cannot take hold
of the objects to feel them, and when the hand cannot mould it-
self, as it were, upon their form, feeling becomes necessarily very
imperfect ; and that which tends to deaden it still more, is when
the nail, instead of leaving the end of the finger in great part
uncovered, completely envelopes it, and takes the form of a hoof.
Now the greater or less perfection of this sense influences, in its
turn, the development of the intellect ; and it may be said with
truth, that in the immense majority of cases, if not in every
instance, the faculties of Mammalia are elevated in proportion
as their members are better formed to seize and to feel.

93. The organs of the other senses, in all the animals of this
class, present nearly the same mode of organisation as in Man.
In those which are remarkable for the delicacy of their smell (as
is the case among the Carnivora more than any others — the Dog,
for example), the nasal bones and the frontal sinuses are increased
very considerably, and the spongy bones, which project within
the olfactory cavity, are much more developed. (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 506). It is easy to perceive the usefulness of these differences,
as they tend to give to the lining membrane, which is the seat of
this sense,. a more extended surface.

94. The Eyes are in general proportionally larger among the

ORGANS OP THE SENSES IN MAMMALIA. Ill

nocturnal Mammalia, than in those which seek their food by day ;
and, among the former, the pupil, when contracting under the
influence of light, instead of preserving its rounded form, usually
becomes a narrow slit. Amongst those which are condemned,
by their subterranean life, to complete darkness, (as the Moles,
for example), the eyes become extremely small, and sometimes
only exist in a rudimentary state ; and in those Mammalia which
live in the water, the crystalline lens is more spherical than
among those that live in the air. This arrangement is necessary,
in order to increase the refractive power of the eye ; which, every
thing else being equal, requires the power of refracting the rays
of light with greater power, in proportion to the density of the
medium in which it is placed. It is remarked, also, that among
many of these animals there is, on the choroid at the bottom of
the eye, a brilliantly-coloured spot, which is called the tapetum ;
but of its use we are ignorant. There are several, also, which
have a third well-developed eye-lid, placed vertically at the in-
ternal angle of the two others. The direction of the eyes varies
much. In Man, they are placed nearly straight forwards ; but,
as we descend in the series of Mammalia, towards those whose
faculties are less developed, we see these organs becoming more
and more lateral in their direction, until, among several, the
sphere of vision is extremely different for each eye, so that the
animal can scarcely see directly before him. This is particularly
the case in such as are most liable to be pursued by others, and
is an obvious adaptation to their timorous habits, giving them
nearly as complete a survey of the country behind as of that in
front of them.

95. The apparatus of Hearing also, presents, amongst the
Mammalia, some modifications which appear to be connected with
the habits of the animals. Among those which live in the water
or beneath the ground, the external ear is generally very small,
or even altogether rudimentary; and, as we descend from Man
to the Herbivorous Mammals, we find this part of the ear more
and more trumpet- shaped, becoming more and more detached
from the head, and also more movable. Among the Nocturnal
Quadrupeds, the membrane of the tympanum generally occupies

112 NERVOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

more space, and is placed more on a level with the outer surface
of the skull.

96. Nervous System. — The nervous system differs among the
various Mammalia, only in the greater or less development of cer-
tain of its parts. In all these animals the nervous mass, con-
tained in the head, is very considerable, both in proportion to the
extent of the body, and relatively to the size of the nerves ; but
all the organs which compose it do not equally agree in this de-
velopment. Thus, the cerebral hemispheres are very large, whilst
the optic tubercles or ganglia are very small, and even nearly
rudimentary ; and we shall hereafter see, that amongst Birds,
Reptiles, and Fishes, it is quite otherwise. The cerebellum is of
considerable size among the greater part of the Mammalia. It
always consists of a central lobe of two hemispheres, which have
their surface marked by transverse furrows ; and of a commissure,
or connecting band, which passes round beneath the spinal mar-
row. Moreover, the development of these parts varies much
among the different Mammalia, not only as to their size, but also
in regard to the channels and convolutions of their surface. For
as we pass from Man to the Apes, from these to the Carnivora,
and from the Carnivora to the Rodentia, and to the Herbivorous
Animals, we generally see the brain become smaller and much
smoother. It is also to be noticed that, amongst the Mammalia
of the order Marsupialia, the brain presents another character of
imperfection, resulting from the absence of the great central com-
missure, or corpus callosum, which, in all the other animals of the
same class, connects together the two cerebral hemispheres. —
(ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 458.)

97. Functions of Nutrition. — The functions of nutrition are
performed among all the Mammalia very nearly as in Man ;
hence the structure of the organs, destined for their exercise,
varies but little in this great class of animals. It is in the diges-
tive apparatus that the most important differences are exhibited.
Nearly all the Mammalia are provided with teeth, destined to
divide their food ; but, as we have elsewhere seen (ANIM. PHY-
SIOL. § 182), the number and form of these organs varies accord-
ing to the habits of the animal. These organs are sometimes re-

RUMINANT STOMACHS. 113

placed by horny plates, which among the "Whales constitute the
whalebone ; and in another instance, again, the muzzle is pro-
longed into a very broad horny beak, flat, and furnished at the
side with transverse plates ; thus showing the greatest resem-
blance to the beak of the Duck, and causing the animal in
which it exists to receive the name of Ornithorhyncus, or Duck-
billed Platypus.

98. The conformation of the stomach varies much in the
class Mammalia ; and from these differences, physiological pecu-
liarities of great importance sometimes result. In general, this
organ is simple, as in Man, and the Monkey ; but sometimes it
is composed of a numerous series of distinct sacs ; and in this
case it generally happens that the food, after having remained
some time in the first cavity of the stomach, returns into the
mouth, — there to undergo a more complete mastication, before
passing into the other portions of the digestive tube. — This
phenomenon is known under the name of rumination. The
number of the stomachs of the animals which ruminate (the Ox
and Sheep, for example) is four. The first, which is the largest

CEsophagus

Intestine

Pylorus. 4th Stom. 2d Stom. 1st Stom.
FIG. 64.— STOMACHS OF THE SHEEP.

of all, is named the paunch. Its internal surface is covered with
papillae, and is lined by a layer of the epidermis (Fig. 65). It
occupies a large part of the abdomen, particularly on the left
side. The second stomach, called the honeycomb^ is small, and

114

RUMINANT STOMACHS.

is found on the right of the oesophagus, and in front of the third ;
of which, at first sight, it seems to be an appendage. The mucous
membrane, which lines its interior, forms a multitude of folds, so
arranged as to constitute polygonal cells, like those of a bee's
comb. The third stomach, which is smaller than the second, is
placed to the right of the paunch, and has received the name of
manyplies, on account of the large longitudinal folds with which
its interior is furnished, and which resemble the leaves of a book.
The fourth stomach, or reed, which is intermediate in size be-
tween the paunch and the manyplies, is found on the right of
this last sac. Its internal surface is irregularly folded ; and is
continually moistened by an acid liquid — the gastric juice. It
is on account of the property which this liquid possesses of curd-
ling milk, that the reed of the calf is preserved as rennet, to be
used in making cheese. The three first stomachs communicate
directly with the oesophagus. This passage opens at first nearly
equally into the paunch and the honeycomb ; and is then conti-
nued as a furrow or demi-canal (Fig. 65.) which runs along the

Intestine. Honeycomb. Paunch.

FIG. 65.-SECT10N OF THK STOMACHS OF THE SHEEP.

upper side of the honeycomb, and terminates in the manyplies,
which, in its turn, communicates with the reed.

99. It is in the paunch, that the food, which is partially
reduced by a first mastication, accumulates ; and it is only after
having been brought back into the mouth, and chewed a second

MECHANISM OF RUMINATION. 115

time, or, in other words, ruminated, that it descends into the
manyplies, and thence into the fourth stomach, which is the
true seat of digestion. It is at first very astonishing to see the
food descending, sometimes into the paunch and sometimes into
the manyplies, according as the deglutition is taking place for
the first time, or as the substances have been already chewed ;
and we might be almost tempted to attribute this phenomenon
to a kind of tact, almost amounting to intelligence, with which
the respective openings might be endowed. But the recent
experiments of M. Flourens show, that it is a necessary conse-
quence of the anatomical arrangement of the parts ; and they give
an explanation of it equally simple and satisfactory. When the
animal swallows, unchewed, the solid substances on which it
generally feeds, these substances, having arrived at the point
where the oesophagus is continued as a furrow or imperfectly-
covered channel, mechanically separate the sides of this demi-
canal (which is usually transformed into a tube by the contrac-
tion of these Avails), and fall into the two first stomachs placed
beneath ; but when the animal swallows any liquid, or food
which has been softened and become semi-fluid, their presence in
this canal does not produce the separation of its sides. This last
portion of the oesophagus consequently preserves the form of a
tube, and conducts the whole food, or the greater part of it, into
the manyplies, where it terminates. It is consequently the
opening or shutting of this portion of the oesophagus, which
determines the entrance of the food into the two first stomachs
or its passage into the third ; and it is the state of the food itself
which decides this, — according as it is sufficiently bulky, or not,
to separate the walls of the oesophagus, which are naturally
pressed together, — or to flow through the channel that is always
open, by which this passage leads towards the manyplies. The
food, after its first deglutition, is only imperfectly divided, and
consists of tolerably large pieces ; whilst after having been again
chewed, they are changed into a soft half-fluid paste ; this cir-
cumstance is consequently sufficient to determine their fall into
the paunch, or their passage into the manyplies. With regard
to the regular regurgitation, by which the food contained in the

i2

116 RUMINATION. — INTESTINAL CANAL.

paunch and honeycomb returns into the mouth, there to be
chewed, it has generally been attributed to the action of the
second stomach itself, which has been supposed to take hold of a
portion of the alimentary mass, to compress it so as to form a
rounded ball or pellet, and then to send it into the oesophagus,
whose progressive contractions from one end to the other com-
plete the operation. But according to the recent experiments of
the physiologist just quoted, it would appear that the paunch
and the honeycomb by their contraction force the alimentary
mass which they contain, between the borders of the furrow of
the oesophagus ; and that this, contracting in its turn, takes up a
portion of it, separates it, and forms it into the ball which is
destined to return along the oesophagus. — The paunch is, as we
have already said, extremely large; but it is not always of the
same size ; and the differences which are observed in it, show
how much the organs of animals may be modified by the circum-
stances in which they are placed. In fact, whilst the animals of
the Ruminant tribe are young, and are living only on milk, the
paunch is smaller than the reed ; and only attains its enormous
size when it has to receive grass, a substance that contains but
little nourishment, and of which the animal is consequently
obliged to eat a considerable quantity.

100. The intestinal canal, as elsewhere stated (ANIM. PHY-
SIOL. § 213), presents very considerable differences in its length
and diameter, according as the food which has to pass through
it has been obtained from the Animal or Vegetable kingdom.
Thus, in many of the Carnivora its length is only about three or
four times that of the body ; whilst amongst the Herbivora it is
usually from ten to twelve times, and sometimes nearly twenty-
eight times, this length (in the sheep, for example). In general,
it terminates by a direct external aperture ; sometimes, however,
it enters a cavity named the cloaca, into which the urinary canals
also open. This arrangement is found in the Ornithorhyncus ;
and is met with again in the class of Birds ; hence it is an addi-
tional point of connection between that curious animal, and the
oviparous vertebrata. The salivary glands, the liver, the pan-
creas, the peritoneum, and the other appendages of the digestive

CIRCULATING APPARATUS OP MAMMALS. 117

canal, nearly always resemble those which have been described
in Man. (ANIM. PHYSIOL.)

101. This is the case also with the Circulating apparatus,
and with the respiratory organs. The heart possesses, in every
instance, four cavities ; known as the two auricles, and the two
ventricles (Fig. 66). The lungs are always divided into an im-

Superior Pulm. Pulmonary

venacava. art. Aorta. artery.

Pulmonary veins. <',.
Right auricle.

Tricuspid valves.

Inferior vena cava.

-•? Pulmonary veins.

Left auricle.

--• Mitral valve.

Left ventricle.

Right ventricle. '"

Partition.

Aorta.
FIG. 66.— IDEAL SECTION OF THE. HUMAN HEART.

mense number of very small cells, and do not allow the air to
pass from their interior into the different parts of the body,
as takes place amongst Birds. It is further to be remarked, that
the blood in this class of animals is always very rich in organ-
ised matter, and that its red particles are nearly always of a
circular form.

102. The Mammalia are, of all animals, those which approach
the nearest to Man, in regard to their intellectual powers. But
in this respect they present the greatest differences amongst them-
selves, which have been elsewhere noticed (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 717) ; and if space would permit us here, it would be easy to
multiply the proofs of this inequality. The study of the habits
of the Mammalia would furnish us also with curious examples
of the various kinds of instincts given by Nature to these beings,
to supply the want of the more elevated faculties ; the most im-

118 MEANS OF SUBJUGATING AMIMALS.

portant of these, however, will be considered in subsequent parts
of this Treatise.

103. The class Mammalia is also, of all the divisions of the
Animal Kingdom, that which interests us the most, on account
of the services which it renders to Man. Indeed, it is to this that
nearly all the domestic animals belong, — the Dog, the Horse,
the Sheep, and the Cow, for example ; and every one is aware
how useful has been their subjection to us. Our dominion over
these beings is become so complete, that the primitive race, living
in a savage state, has in nearly every instance disappeared from
the globe; and, by domestication, we are able to exercise a
considerable influence even upon the physical forms and moral
qualities of those individuals, which spring from the races that
are thus subjugated (§ 13). — But by what power can we thus
subjugate animals, and how, by domestication, can we modify
their forms and qualities ? The instinct of these beings leads
them to fly from all which inspires them with distrust ; it is,
then, not by violence that we could compel a savage animal
to obedience. It would not naturally be disposed to approach us,
who are not of its own kind ; and, at the first feeling of fear
which we might cause it to experience, it would fly from us if it
were free, or would take a dislike to us if it were in captivity.
It is only by inspiring it with confidence, that we can attract it
and render it familiar ; and it is only by kindness that we can
give birth to confidence.

104. To satisfy the natural wants of these animals, is one of
the first means of bringing them into submission. The custom
of receiving their food from our hand, by familiarising them with
us, also attaches them ; and, as the extent of a benefit is always
in proportion with the need which is felt for it, their gratitude is
also much greater and deeper, when the food that we give them
is become necessary to them. Thus hunger is in our hands a
powerful lever, to work upon all animals in captivity ; for at
the same time that it gives birth to affectionate sentiments, it
produces a physical weakening, which, by reacting upon the will,
weakens it in its turn. If, to the influence of hunger, we add
that of choicely-selected food, and especially if we flatter their

MEANS OF SUBJUGATING ANIMALS. 119

taste with food which nature does not furnish to them, we excite
in them a still greater gratitude ; and they show, from an arti-
ficial treatment, new wants, which man alone can satisfy * ; and,
finally, to these means we may unite caresses also, the influence
of which is very great over certain animals. When once, by
habit and kindness, familiarity is established and confidence
obtained, Man may make his authority felt, and may apply
punishment, in order to transform the sentiments, whose mani-
festation he wishes to repress, into that of fear. By the associa-
tion of ideas which result from this practice, the first of these
sentiments is weakened by degrees, and is sometimes even at last
completely destroyed ; but the employment of force ought never
to be without a limit, for excessive punishment often excites to
revolt ; and, at other times, when fear is carried too far, it dis-
turbs the faculties. The prevention of sleep is also a powerful
means of weakening the will of the animal, and of reducing it to
obedience ; for it does not know how to refer the fatigue and
uneasiness which it experiences from it, to that which is really
the cause of it : and in this state the affectionate feelings occa-
sioned by kindness experience less resistance, and take root more
deeply ; whilst, on the other hand, fear acts with more readiness
and force.

105. Thus we see, that it is through those wants, over which
we can exercise some influence, and by repressing the manifesta-
tion of certain feelings by the development of some others,
that we are enabled to reduce animals to subjection. All the
Mammalia are not, however, equally sensible to kindness ; and,
consequently, do not allow themselves to be subdued with the
same readiness, or in so complete a manner. Their passions are
often too violent, for the animal ever to arrive at the mastery of
them, and to become obedient to his master. Their natural
distrust is often so great, and their excitability such, that we
know not how to impose any rule of conduct on them ; and in
other instances, again, the intelligence of these beings appears too

* It is chiefly by means of sugar and other sweetmeats that horses aud deer are
trained to the extraordinary exercises which we sometimes witness in our circuses.

120 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS.

confined for the remembrance of kindness to continue after its
cause has ceased, and for them to associate in their memory the
kindness and the benefactor.

106. By such means, we can reduce to more or less complete
subjection, a considerable number of animals ; but between this
state of individual subjection, and complete and hereditary
docility, there is still a great difference. To obtain this last result,
the animals must be in some degree predisposed to domestica-
tion, by the instinct of sociality , that is, the tendency to associate
either with others of their own species, or with Man. In short,
the feeling which leads them to live alone, and in some cases
to fly from each other, or that which unites them into societies,
and disposes them to be guided by a chief, — the strongest and
most experienced of the number, — exercises the greatest influence
upon their readiness to become domesticated. No solitary Mam-
malia, however easy it may be to tame them, have become com-
pletely domestic ; whilst nearly all the animals, whose race is
subdued to the dominion of Man, live naturally in societies
composed of a greater or smaller number. Sociality is one
condition of domestication : and it is by developing to our benefit,
and by directing towards us by our kindnesses, the feeling which
leads these animals to unite with each other, that Man has been
able to bind their existence to his ; and to exercise over them the
same authority, that the chief of the troop, of which they would
have formed a part, would have possessed, if they had lived in
their natural condition. It has been well shown by M. Fred.
Cuvier, that the disposition to domestication may be considered
as the extreme development of the instinct of sociality ; and
domestication itself as a state, in which the social animals
acknowledge Man as a member, and as the chief of their
number.

107. We can now understand how Man can subjugate to his
dominion entire races of animals. We shall next inquire how
he is able to influence the forms and qualities, which belong
to them from their birth : and to create, as we may say, new
varieties at will. It is a physiological law, known to every one,
that animals have a tendency to resemble their parents, not only

PRODUCTION OF NEW RACES. 121

in their general conformation, but also in whatever peculiarities
may distinguish the latter. In the Human species, for example,
hereditary influences are manifested in a number of forms.
Bodily constitutions, mental faculties, characters, even infir-
mities, are bequeathed from generation to generation ; and in
animals among which fewer external circumstances act upon the
individuals, producing irregularities in this repetition of the same
forms and qualities, the tendency of the young to resemble the
authors of their existence is still more evident. Now all the
individuals of the same species do not possess, to the same degree,
the physical, moral, and intellectual qualities, with which each
of them is endowed ; and by the exercise or the influence of
physical conditions, we can develope a particular faculty, and
consequently increase these differences. It follows, then, that
Man may, within certain limits, modify races at his pleasure ;
for he is able to choose, or even to produce, individual differ-
ences, which are transmissible from one to the other ; and to
regulate the succession of generations, so as to remove from them
all that would tend to separate the race from the type which he
wishes to produce; and he can thus influence the hereditary
qualities of the young, as he had done those of their parents.
It results, therefore, from this, that at each new generation, he
advances a step nearer to the end that he proposed to himself;
for he acts upon individuals already affected by the modifications
that had been impressed upon their parents.

108. A very good example of the degree in which accidental
peculiarities, appearing in a single individual only, may be taken
advantage of by Man, for some purpose useful to him, is of com-
paratively recent occurrence. In the year 1791, one of the ewes
on the farm of Seth Wright, in the state of Massachusets,
produced a male lamb, which, from the singular length of its
body, and the shortness of its legs, received the name of the
otter breed. This peculiar conformation, rendering the animal
unable to leap fences, appeared to the farmers around so desir-
able, that they wished it continued. Wright determined on
breeding from this ram; but the first year only two of its
offspring were marked by the same peculiarities. In succeeding

122 PRODUCTION OP NEW RACES.

years, he obtained greater numbers; and when they became
capable of breeding with one another, a new, and strongly-
marked variety, before unknown to the world, was established.
— This example shows the influence which a scanty population
may have formerly had, in the production of varieties, both in the
human and other species. At the present time the natural
tendency is, for any peculiarity of this kind to be speedily lost,
by the intermixture of the individuals which exhibit it with the
large proportion of those in which it is absent ; — unless this be
prevented, as in the instance just cited, by the interference of
Man. But it may be imagined that, in the earlier ages of the
world, some individuals in which a peculiarity existed, may have
been so far separated from the rest, that frequent union took
place among themselves; so that the character would be rendered
still more marked, instead of disappearing ; and, being propa-
gated for a few generations, would be rendered permanent in
this manner. Thus by the force of circumstances, the same crea-
tion of a new race would be effected, as the breeder of animals
now accomplishes, by the system he adopts.

109. It is easy to adduce many instances, in which pecu-
liarities that have been developed by education, or by the
influence of particular circumstances on the constitution, have
become hereditary. The peculiar habits of the various kinds of
Dogs used in sporting, were doubtless, for the most part,
originally forced upon them (as it were) by education ; but they
now become almost a part of their constitution. Thus it is not
only much easier to teach a young Dog of the Pointer breed to
point game, than it is to teach a dog of any other breed to do the
same ; but a Pointer puppy, when first taken into the field,
will sometimes perform its peculiar duty nearly as well as an
old and experienced dog. The same has been noticed of the
Retriever, a breed of dogs whose duty it is to stay by their
master until the game falls wounded, and then to bring it in ; —
a habit which might have been supposed to be still less likely to
toe transmitted, because more unlike the ordinary habits of the
species. It would seem, however, that habits of this kind,
which have been grafted upon an individual by education, are

ACQUIRED INSTINCTS BECOMING HEREDITARY. 123

not transmitted to the offspring, when they are entirely wanting
in relationship to the natural condition of the animal. Thus, by
a long and laborious training, a Pig has been taught to point
game ; but there is no reason to believe that a breed of Pointer
Pigs could be established.

110. The following examples will show the influence of
climate, and other circumstances affecting the bodily constitution,
in modifying the character of a race. It is well known that the
Spaniards, when they first invaded America, introduced a large
number of blood-hounds ; which had been previously trained to
hunt stags, but were then directed by these savage (though pro-
fessedly civilized) conquerors against their fellow-men. Similar
dogs have been since employed in the West Indian Islands,
and in Florida ; and, by a most disgusting kind of education,
have been taught to distinguish and pursue the black and
coloured races, without showing any animosity towards white
men. Now of the descendants of the original stock, a consider-
able portion have degenerated, under the influence of insufficient
nourishment, admixture with other races, &c. But among some
of these, new instincts have sprung up, conformable to their
altered circumstances, and have become hereditary. Thus, on
the banks of the Magdalena, they are employed in hunting the
white-lipped Pecari, which associate in herds, and require a
peculiar mode of attack. The address of these dogs consists in
restraining their ardour, and attaching themselves to no animal
in particular, but keeping the whole herd in check. Now among
these dogs, some are found, which, the very first time they are
taken into the woods, show themselves to be acquainted with
this mode of attack ; whereas, a dog of another breed starts
forward at once, is surrounded by the Pecari, and, whatever
may be his strength, is destroyed in a moment. — Some English-
men, who were engaged in conducting the operations of the
Real del Monte Company in Mexico, carried out with them some
Greyhounds of the best breed, to hunt the hares which abound
in that country. The great platform which is the scene of the
sport, is at an elevation of about 9000 feet above the level of the
sea ; and the mercury in the barometer stands habitually at the

124 PRODUCTION OF NEW RACES OR BREEDS.

height of about 19 inches. It was found that the Greyhounds
could not support the fatigues of a long chase in this attenuated
atmosphere ; and before they could come up with their prey, they
lay down gasping for breath ; but these same animals have pro-
duced whelps, which have grown up, and which are not in the
least degree incommoded by the want of density in the air, but
run down the hares with as much ease as the fleetest of our races
in this country.

111. By endeavouring, then, to develope from generation to
generation, a particular quality, or physical peculiarity, we may
carry it much further than it would have been possible to do at
first ; and we thus can create artificial races, of which the cha-
racters will only be effaced, when the opposite circumstances to
those which have occasioned these peculiarities, come to destroy
the effect of them. It is in this manner that we accomplish our
end, when a powerful interest gives perseverance to our efforts ;
and thus it is, that in the present day races of Sheep, Oxen, and
Horses have been produced, — characterised by the most remark-
able peculiarities. It has been remarked, for instance, that
Sheep which present certain peculiarities of conformation, are
fattened much more easily than others ; and Bakewell, one of
those who have rendered the greatest services to English Agri-
culture, having taken care to cause the Sheep amongst which
these external characters were seen in a high degree, to breed with
each other, was able to create a race of great value in this
respect. The weight of the four hind quarters of the carcass of
the large Sheep of the Wurtemberg breed, — which was intro-
duced into some of the provinces of France, as being particularly
good for the purposes of the butcher, — was from 52 to 55 per
cent, of the total weight of the animal ; whilst in the English
Sheep of the Dishley or New Leicester breed, this proportion
was raised to 70 or 75 per cent. It is also known to Agricul-
turists, how much the fineness of the wool is increased by similar
care ; and how much, in this respect, our native breeds have been
improved by their mixture with the Merinos of Spain.

112. Again, the different races of Horses, which are of so
high an interest to us, are also a proof of the influence of Man

PRODUCTION OF NEW RACES OR BREEDS. 125

over the animals living under his dominion. The horses which
are reared in our breeding establishments, partly owe their size,
their form, and their qualities, to the race from which they are
descended ; but the circumstances in which they are placed at
an early age, exercise over them, in process of time, an influence
not less great. It is remarked, that in general the colt receives
its size and weight more from its mother than its father ; whilst
in the shape of the head and feet, its courage and swiftness, it
more resembles the latter. Defects, likewise, as well as good
qualities, are transmitted from generation to generation; and,
to maintain a race in its purity, or to improve it, care must be
taken to remove from it all those individuals, which do not
possess the qualities that we desire to obtain. In order to
make a blemish disappear, we cross the individuals of this
defective race, during several generations, with others having
an opposite disposition ; and by perse veringly matching toge-
ther horses which possess particular perfections, we create a
race in which it becomes hereditary and general. It is owing,
in a great degree, to care of this nature, that the Arab horses
owe their well-merited celebrity. The Arabs attach such
importance to the purity of the race of their noble horses, called
kochlani, that their descent is always attested by authentic
pedigrees. They can even go back nearly two thousand years,
in the genealogy of these fine animals ; and there are some
whose lineage can be attested by written documents, during a
period of four centuries. On the other hand, the influence of
crossing a race is equally well shown by the English race-
horses ; for it is by a mixture of the native mares with the
males brought from the East, that we owe the creation of this
race, so remarkable for the delicacy of its shape, and its asto-
nishing fleetness.

113. Again, the greater or less abundance and the quality
of the food, the dryness or humidity of the country, the daily
labour, and even a number of circumstances apparently of
very little importance, exercise a powerful influence upon the
shape, the size, and the qualities of horses. To give a proof of
this, we might show with what rapidity the finest English

126 INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES ON GROWTH.

horses degenerate in certain localities, such as the neighbourhood
of Kopschan, upon the borders of Moravia ; but without going
so far, we shall find still more striking examples of the modify-
ing power of external circumstances. If of two colts sprung
from the same race, in Lorraine, for example, — one is trans-
ported into Flanders and the other into the pastures of Nor-
mandy, instead of preserving the same characters, they will
present, at the age of five years, nearly as much difference as if
they had proceeded from two distinct races. One will become a
light and elegant carriage-horse ; the other an enormous animal,
almost incapable of going a trot, but fitted to draw the heaviest
loads at a slow pace. Where food is abundant, and where by
the foresight of man it never fails at any season, the horses are
generally large and fat ; whilst in countries where it is less
abundant, even during but one season of the year, these ani-
mals only acquire a small or middle size. Physiologists have
proved something similar to this, in studying the laws of the
growth of Man ; and to convince us of the truth of this observa-
tion relatively to horses, it is sufficient to compare those which,
in the same country, belong to the poor labourer or to the rich
landowner. Pasturage in rich and damp meadows, such as are
most suitable to fatten cattle, tends to give to horses a heavy
and clumsy appearance ; to render their skin thick, and their
hair coarse, and to diminish the vivacity of their character.
The food supplied by dry meadows produces no such effect ;
and, when it has been rendered still firmer by the addition of a
considerable proportion of corn grains, it becomes eminently
fitted to preserve, and even to produce, the elegance of form
and the muscular energy, which are characteristic of a noble
race. When a somewhat lower temperature adds its influence
to that of dampness, and of abundant and watery food, the horses
acquire a much heavier form, but become, at the same time,
much less energetic, and more inert. In very cold or very
hot countries, on the contrary, the growth is checked much
sooner ; and even the largest races soon lose their high stature.
Again, the daily attention which is given to some horses, and of
which others are completely destitute, also has its effect upon

SUBDIVISION OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS. 127

the beauty of these animals ; thus the frequent rubbing, the use
of coverings, the precaution of washing and drying the extremi-
ties, and even of surrounding them with bands of flannel, are
circumstances which contribute powerfully to give to the horses
of our own country that neatness, which is remarked in the lower
part of their limbs, and to render their skin and their hair so
soft and fine.

114. Thus, by modifying the circumstances in which an
animal is placed, we impress certain modifications on its struc-
ture ; and by employing for the propagation of the race only
the individuals thus modified, Man gives to the entire race a
particular character, and developes in it qualities which it did
not at first possess. It is probably in this way that he has
obtained the various races of dogs, whose forms are so different,
that at first sight we can hardly believe that they belong to one
and the same species. But this modifying power is always
restrained within certain limits ; and it never effaces the dis-
tinctive marks, which serve as the zoological characters of the
species.

115. Classification of Mammalia. — There exist, as we have
already seen, considerable differences amongst the Mammalia ;
and these modifications serve as a basis for the division of this
class into groups of an inferior rank, named Orders. The greater
part of these groups are so clearly separated from the surrounding
ones, that there can be no doubt regarding their limits ; and all
Zoologists have agreed to admit them as forming such natural
divisions. But in others the principal type is so modified, that
an almost insensible passage is made from the one to the other,
and it becomes very difficult to draw the line of division. A
certain Mammal, for example, has quite as much analogy with
the type which represents the order Quadrumana, as with that
of the Rodentia; and it may with nearly as much reasoq be
placed in the one as in the other of these divisions.

116. It has been elsewhere explained ( ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 750),
that the essential peculiarity which distinguishes the reproduc-
tive process in the Mammalia, is not so much that the egg is
retained within the body of the parent, so that the young is born

128 SUBDIVISION OP MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS.

alive, — for this happens in certain animals belonging to nearly
all the oviparous classes, such as Insects, Fishes, and Reptiles :
but that the young animal is developed by means of nutrition
directly supplied to it by the parent, through a system of blood-
vessels partly belonging to the embryo, and partly to the uterus
or cavity in which it is contained. In oviparous animals, the
development is effected at the expense of the store of nourishment
laid up in the egg itself; but this is very small in the Mammalia,
because, at a very early period of its growth, the embryo begins
to draw its support directly from the parent. From the surface
of the chorion (which is the membrane that covers the egg, re-
sembling that which lines the shell in Birds), a number of little
tufts shoot out, and insinuate themselves amongst the vessels of
the uterus, from which they absorb a nutritious fluid, that ulti-
mately finds its way to the embryo. This is the sole mode in
which the embryo of the non-placental Mammalia is ever con-
nected with the parent : but in the truly viviparous sub-class, a
more direct communication is subsequently effected, by a set of
vessels proceeding from the embryo itself, which forms, by the
minuteness of its subdivisions, a mass of considerable size and so-
lidity, known as the placenta; this is applied against the interior
of the uterus, and draws nourishment from its vessels, much in
the same way that the roots of a tree imbibe moisture from the
soil, or that the lacteal vessels, spread out upon the walls of the
intestine, take up fluid from its cavity. Thus, the non-placental
Mammalia stop short, as it were, at a period of development,
which is very early or incomplete as regards the higher subdivi-
sion of the class.

117. The method of division that we shall here adopt is very
nearly that of Cuvier. It rests principally upon the differences
which the Mammalia exhibit in their mode of development, in
the conformation of their limbs, and in their apparatus of masti-
cation ; parts whose modifications always involve a number of
other differences, in the structure of the various parts of the body,
in their habits, and even in their intelligence. When we take
the whole of these characters into account, we are led first to
divide the class of the Mammalia into two sub-classes, which

PLACENTAL AND NON-PLACENTAL MAMMALIA. 129

may be termed the placental or truly viviparous, and the non-
placental or ovo-viviparous Mammalia. The truly viviparous Mam-
malia are the most numerous ; and are principally distinguished
by the mode of their development. They do not come into the
world until they are provided with all their organs ; and, before
their birth, they derive their support from a net- work of mater-
nal blood-vessels, named the placenta. It is also remarked, that
their brain is more perfect than that of the ovo-viviparous
Mammals ; its two hemispheres being united together by a large
commissure, or band of connecting fibres, termed the corpus cal-
losum (§ 96) ; lastly, the walls of the abdomen are never sup-
ported by bony projections fixed on the edge of the pelvis, such
as we shall see in the second grand division of this class. The
Mammalia, thus organised, differ very much amongst themselves
in the general conformation of their bodies ; some being adapted
to inhabit the air, as the Bats ; others resembling Fishes, as the
Whales ; whilst the ordinary Mammalia are formed to live more
or less completely on the earth.

118. In the non-placental or ovo-viviparous Mammalia, on
the other hand, there are several points of structure which show
that they are to be regarded as an inferior group — intermediate
between the higher group whose characters have just been given,
and the Oviparous Yertebrata. The young are born in an ex-
tremely imperfect state, closely resembling that of the young of
the other Mammalia when they come into the world very pre-
maturely ; and as they do not remain long enough within the
interior of the parent to give time for the formation of the pla-
centa, they are properly distinguished by a term which expresses
its absence. The term ovo-viviparous is not so correct a desig-
nation, in a scientific point of view ; since it applies more pro-
perly to those animals just alluded to (§ 116), in which the ani-
mals are really oviparous, but in which the young are born alive,
by the retention and hatching of the eggs within the body of the
parent : but it serves to express, in a popular manner, that this
division is intermediate between the truly viviparous Mammals,
and the truly oviparous classes of Vertebrata, which is shown to
be the case in many points of their structure. Of these, the two

130 SUBDIVISION OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS.

most remarkable have already been noticed — the deficiency of
the corpus callosum, or band of fibres connecting the two hemi-
spheres of the brain ; — and the termination, at least among
the lowest of them, of the intestinal canal and the 'urinary
ducts, with the uterine passage, in one common receptacle, as in
Birds and Reptiles (§ 100). In accordance with the general
rule^ — that the less the amount of assistance given to the germ
of a vegetable or animal in its early development, the lower is
the grade which it ultimately attains, we find that in many
points of their conformation, as well as in their degree of intelli-
gence, the non-placental Mammalia are much inferior to the truly
viviparous portion of the group. The former are further distin-
guished by the presence of the marsupial bones (§ 90), even
when there is no external pouch.

119. The Placental Mammalia are subdivided into orders
chiefly by the structure of their extremities, and of their teeth ;
with which, as has been already shown, a great part of their
internal conformation is closely connected (§ 58). Thus we
distinguish the Unguiculated Mammals, which have separate
fingers, terminated by distinct nails or claws ; and the Ungu-
lated, in which the fingers are more or less consolidated, and
inclosed at their extremity in a hard hoof. Ungulated animals
are necessarily herbivorous; inasmuch as the conformation of
their feet precludes the possibility of their seizing a living prey ;
and they have flat-crowned grinding teeth for triturating their
food. The summits of these teeth are usually not covered by a
smooth coat of enamel, but present a series of elevations and de-
pressions ; these are occasioned by the peculiar structure of the
teeth, which consist of alternating plates of enamel, ivory or
dentine, and wmentum or bony substance ; and as these three
substances are of different degrees of hardness, their unequal
wear will keep the surfaces constantly rough. — Among the Un-
guiculated Mammals, we find more variety as to the character
of the food. In some it is almost exclusively vegetable, as in
the Rodentia (Rat and Squirrel tribe) ; but here the power of the
separate fingers is the least possible, the bones of the fore arm
and leg being so constructed, that the hand cannot be turned

UNGULATED AND UNGUICULATED MAMMALIA. 131

round by the movement of one of these bones on the other (ANIM.
PHYSIOL. § 639). In this order, the mouth is remarkably adapted
for grinding down hard vegetable substances ; the molar teeth
being furnished with transverse ridges of enamel, and the jaws
having a powerful movement forwards and backwards. In
others, again, there is an almost exclusive adaptation to animal
food; and in these we find the unguiculated structure in the
highest perfection, the claws being sharp and long, and the hand
or fore-foot being capable of being placed in a great variety of
positions, by the rotation of the two bones of the leg. The
grinding teeth are very narrow, and are raised into sharp points
and edges, so as to be adapted for dividing animal flesh ; and
these are firmly set in short strong jaws, which are fitted
together like the blades of a pair of scissars, having no action
but a vertical one. In this group, too, we find the greatest
development of the canine teeth ; which are commonly absent,
or but slightly developed, among herbivorous quadrupeds. These
are the most powerful weapons with which carnivorous animals
are furnished ; serving both for the first attack of their prey,
and for subsequently tearing it in pieces. To this division, also,
belongs the Bat tribe, in which the extremities are provided
with distinct claws, and the teeth adapted (for the most part, at
least) to an animal diet ; and to it we are also to refer a portion
of the Fish-like Mammals, in which the structure of the teeth
and digestive apparatus is closely allied to that of the Carnivora,
as is the case in the ordinary "Whales and their allies ; whilst
another portion, consisting of but a few species, is to be referred
to the herbivorous division, on account of a similar conformity
in general structure.

120. Among the Unguiculated Mammalia, there are some
which have the power of opposing one of the fingers to the rest ;
and this, either on the two anterior extremities alone, or on the
posterior also. This is a character, which is so closely connected
with the general conformation and habits of the animals that
possess it, as to be of the highest importance in classification ;
and accordingly it serves to distinguish the two first orders of
the Unguiculated from all the rest. These orders are : —

K 2

132 ORDERS BIMANA AND QUADRUMANA.

I. BIMANA, or two-handed Mammals ; so termed from the
restriction of the thumbs or opposable fingers to the anterior
extremities only, which are employed for prehension^ whilst the
posterior are employed for locomotion. By this character, and
by his naturally erect position, Man is distinguished from all
other animals ; and consequently this order is composed of the
Human Races only. We shall presently see that, however
various the characters of different races, they are all entitled
to rank as belonging to the same species. The order Bimana is
further distinguished by the number and character of the teeth ;
— there being 4 Incisors or cutting- teeth in each jaw ; Canine
teeth in each jaw, moderately developed ; and (in the adult, in
whom the last molars or wise teeth have been cut,) 5 Molar
teeth, having rounded or tuberculated summits, on each side of
each jaw. It is usual, in order to express briefly the number of
teeth in the jaws of an animal, to use the following method : —
Those of the upper jaw are placed above a horizontal line, and
those of the lower jaw below it ; like the numerator and deno-
minator of a fraction ; thus, ^ would mean that there were 6
teeth of a particular kind in the upper jaw, and 4 in the lower.
The incisors, being all together in the centre, are specified by a
single number ; but the canines and molars, which are found on
either side, are expressed by two numbers, — as thus 4 — 4,
meaning that there are 4 on each side. Hence the dental for-
mula, as it is termed, of Man, is as follows ; incisors J, canines
^, molars JjJ. The value of such a short and simple expression
will hereafter become evident.

II. QUADRUMANA, or four-handed Mammals, embracing the
Monkey tribe ; so termed from the possession of thumbs on all
the four extremities (in part of the group), thus giving to all of
them, in greater or less degree, the peculiar power of prehension
which this conformation imparts. But they are all, likewise,
concerned in locomotion also ; as the distinction between the
anterior and posterior extremities, which is so remarkable in
Man, does not here present itself, or is only seen in a slight
degree. The number of incisors is still £, and of canines \ ;
but that of the molars is ^i, in a certain part of the group.

ORDERS CHEIROPTERA, INSECTIVORA, AND CARNIVORA. 1 33

121. "We may further separate from the other Unguiculated
Mammalia, by very obvious characters, the following order : —

III. CHEIROPTERA, or wing-handed Mammals ; a group
which is identical with the Bat tribe. The peculiar adaptation
of the anterior extremities of these animals for flight, by the
enormous development of the bones of the fingers, and by the
extension of the skin over them, so as to form a widely expanded
wing, distinguishes them from all other Mammals. The teeth
do not here afford so distinctive a character ; being somewhat
irregular in number, and of great variety of forms, — most of the
species being adapted to feed on Insects, but some of them, like
the greater part of the Monkeys, being formed to subsist on
fruits and other soft vegetable substances.

122. The remainder of the Unguiculated Mammals may be
first arranged, according to the presence of all three kinds of
teeth, or the absence of some of them. These which have in-
cisors, canines, and molars, are destined to live on animal food ;
but this may be of two kinds, either the bodies of insects, or
animal flesh. Hence, we have no difficulty in distinguishing the
two following orders : —

IV. INSECTIVORA, or insect-eating Mammals ; a term which
might be applied to many animals in other groups, such as the
Bats, and even some Quadrumana ; but which is peculiarly cha-
racteristic of these — the form of their teeth, and their whole
economy, being adapted to the capture, mastication, and diges-
tion of hard-bodied beetles, locusts, &c. Their teeth are easily
distinguished by the conical elevations they present, which
differ on the one hand from the rounded summits of those of
animals destined to feed on soft animal or vegetable substances
indiscriminately, and from the sharp edges of those of the truly
carnivorous Mammals. Their number is somewhat irregular ;
but there are usually 6 incisors and 2 canines in each jaw.

V. CARNIVORA, or 'flesh-eating Mammals ; which are at once
known from all others, by the possession of six incisor teeth in
each jaw, two long canines, and a variable number of molars, of
which some are provided with cutting edges. They are pre-
eminently leasts of prey ; and their whole conformation is

134 ORDERS CETACEA, RODENTIA, AND EDENTATA.

adapted to their habits. Some of these, as the Seal, pass a
large portion of their time in the water, and have the extremi-
ties formed for swimming ; and these naturally lead us, there-
fore, towards the next order.

VI. CETACEA, orjfisk-like Mammals ; which are distinguished
from all ordinary mammalia by the absence of the posterior
extremities, and by the conversion of the anterior into swim-
ming paws or paddles. Of the animals thus adapted to the
life of Fishes, however, those only are included in this order
which are carnivorous in their habits, and whose alimentary
canal is formed to digest animal food.

123. The unguiculated Mammals which do not possess the
three kinds of teeth, are divisible into two orders, which exhibit
the unguiculated structure in its lowest grade.

VII. RODENTIA, or gnawing animals ; a group very easily
distinguished by the peculiar conformation of the front teeth,
which are two in each jaw, very strong, with sharp cut-
ting edges, and constantly growing at the roots ; thus forming
admirable instruments for gnawing. Of this group, the Squirrel,
Rat, Beaver, &c., are examples. These front teeth are really to
be regarded as the canines ; the incisors being altogether absent,
so as to allow them to come together on the central line. The
number of molars is variable ; but they are all formed with
ridges of enamel, placed more or less transversely to the jaw.

VIII. EDENTATA, or toothless animals ; a term which is not
altogether correct, but which serves to express the character of
a large proportion of the order designated by it. This group is
properly characterised by the entire absence of front teeth in
both jaws ; and in the Ant Eaters, &c., there are no teeth
whatever; whilst the Sloths are possessed of molar teeth,
though of very imperfect formation.

1 24. The ungulated, or hoofed Mammals, are easily subdi-
vided into two orders, by the presence or absence of the rumi-
nating faculty, and of the peculiar conformation which apper-
tains to it (§ 98).

IX. RUMINANTIA, or ruminating animals ; a group which
is composed of the Ox, Sheep, Antelope, Camel, and other well-

ORDERS RUMINANTIA AND PACHYDERM ATA. 135

known animals ; all of which agree in possessing the ruminat-
ing apparatus, as well as in having the hoof cleft (or rather
double) ; and nearly all in the following dental formula : —
incisors -J, canines ^-j, molars, ^, the last being marked on the
surface with crescents, which are formed by ridges of enamel.

X. PACHYDERMATA, or thick-skinned animals ; a group that
includes a great variety of dissimilar forms, which agree rather
in the absence of other characters, than in the possession of any
that are common to all. Thus the Elephant, Horse, and Pig,
would seem to possess very different types of structure, — the
Elephant having the bones of its toes distinct, but included
together in a sort of horny skin, — the Pig having four distinct
toes, with separate hoofs, — and the Horse having all the bones
of the toes consolidated into a single row, which is terminated by
a single hoof. The characters afforded by the teeth are equally
various ; some having incisors, others none ; some having large
canines, others small ones, and others being destitute of them ;
and the number of molars also being subject to great variation.
Yet these very dissimilar forms are connected by intermediate
links, recent and fossil (§ 28) ; and it appears as if we were to
unite with this order those whale-like animals, whose food is of
a vegetable character,— ^-their whole conformation being very
different from that of the true Cetacea, and more closely resem-
bling that of certain aquatic Pachydermata.

125. The foregoing arrangement of the orders of the vivipa-
rous Mammalia is more adapted to distinguish them from each
other, than to represent their relative positions in a natural
series. Thus, the Edentata and Rodentia are unquestionably
lower, in regard to their intelligence and their general conforma-
tion, than the Ruminantia and Pachydermata ; and the Roden-
tia are those, among the truly viviparous Mammals, which
approach the nearest to the non-placental group, in the low
development of their brain ; as well as in several points of their
general structure. It is impossible to represent their mutual
relations by any arrangement of them in a single line ; since
each group has connections, not only with those before and
behind it, but with others at a distance. Nevertheless it is

136 GRADATION OF ORDERS. — MARSUPIALIA.

necessary to follow some order in the more particular description
of them ; and the following is probably the most correct, in
regard especially to the grade which the different groups possess
in the scale. " I. BIMANA. II. QUADRUMANA. III. CHEIRO-
PTERA. IV. INSECTIVORA. V. CARNIVORA. VI. CETACEA.
VII. PACHYDERMATA. VIII. RUMINANTIA. IX. EDENTATA.
X. RODENTIA. Tims from Man we pass to the Quadrumana
by the Apes which most nearly resemble him in bodily struc-
ture. From these we descend to the Lemurs, in which the
teeth show an insectivorous character, and certain species exhi-
bit a tendency to the formation of organs of flight ; by which
characters we are conducted to the Cheiroptera, or Bats. From
the insectivorous forms of these, the transition is not difficult to
the proper Insectivora ; which, again, lead us to the Carnivora;
and these, by their aquatic species, to the Cetacea. From the
Cetacea we naturally pass to the whale-like Pachydermata ;
and then, through the terrestrial tribes of these, to certain
species which conduct us to the Ruminants. The Edentata and
Rodentia are not closely connected, by any existing species, with
either of the two last orders ; but there are certain fossil forms,
which seem to link them to both.

126. The division of non-placental Mammalia contains two
orders only, which are chiefly distinguished by certain peculiarities
affecting the reproductive apparatus.

XI. MARSUPIALIA, or pouched animals ; being those in which
the young are carried during the early part of their lives, in a
marsupium, formed by folds of the skin of the abdomen, which
are supported by peculiar bones. The species included in this
group differ greatly among each other, both in the general form
of their bodies, and in the conformation of their teeth and diges-
tive apparatus. Indeed they bear, in these respects, a striking
resemblance to animals of different orders among the truly vivi-
parous Mammals. Thus, the Opossums have an opposable thumb
on all four extremities ; so that they are truly quadrumanous, or
four-handed. Others, again, bear a close resemblance to the
Carnivora ; and others to the Rodentia ; so that the order Mar-
supialia was really distributed amongst these groups, when the

MARSUPIALIA AND MONOTREMATA. — ORDER BIMANA. 137

principles of classification were not so well established as they
are at present. But it is now almost universally considered,
that the absence of the placenta, connected as it is with the low
development of the brain, and with other evidences of an inferior
grade, is a character of the most essential nature, completely
distinguishing the animals by which it is manifested, from any to
which they may bear a general resemblance in adaptive charac-
ters (§ 25). And this can be hardly otherwise than true ;
since we find that the Marsupialia, taken as a group, have more
points of real agreement with each other, than any of them have
with animals of other orders.

XII. MONOTREMATA, or animals with a single outlet ; a cha-
racter which has been already explained (§ 117). This order is
very limited, containing only two genera ; which were formerly
placed among the Edentata, on account of the absence of teeth in
their jaws. They are altogether most remarkable animals ; and
present several points of the greatest interest both to the Physio-
logist and Zoologist, — as do generally, indeed, those animals
which stand on the borders of two great divisions.

ORDER I.— BIMANA.

127. The name Bimana is the most appropriate that could
be found for an order constituted by the human species only ; for
Man alone is two-handed. " That," says Cuvier, " which con-
stitutes the hand) properly so called, is the faculty of opposing
the thumb to the other fingers, so as to seize the most minute
objects, — a faculty which is carried to its highest degree of per-
fection in Man, in whom the whole anterior extremity is free,
and can be employed in prehension." Some Naturalists refuse
the term hand to the extremities of the Monkey tribe, preferring
to call them graspers; for it is certainly true that, although most
of them possess an opposable thumb, yet they are destitute of the
power of performing many of those actions, which we regard as
most characteristic of the hand. These actions are dependent
upon the size and power of the thumb, which is much more de-

138 THE HAND PECULIAR TO MAN.

veloped in Man, than it is in even the highest Apes. The thumb
of the Human hand may be made to meet, at its point, the ex-
tremities of each finger singly, or of all in combination ; whilst
in those Quadrumana, which most nearly approach Man, the
thumb is so short and weak, and the fingers so long and slender,
that their tips can scarcely be brought in opposition, and can
never be opposed in near contact with each other with any degree
of force. Hence, although admirably adapted for clinging round
bodies of a certain size, such as the small branches of trees, &c.,
the extremities of the Quadrumana can neither seize very minute
objects with that precision, nor support large ones with that
firmness, which are essential to the dexterous performance of a
variety of operations, for which the hand of Man is admirably
adapted. Hence the possession of four hands is not, as might be
supposed, a character which raises the animals that possess it
above ^o-handed Man; since none of these four hands are adapted
to the same variety of actions of prehension, of which his are
capable ; and all of them are in some degree required for support.
In this respect, their character approaches much nearer to that of
the extremities of the lower Mammalia.

128. We ought, then, as Sir Charles Bell remarked, "to
define the hand as belonging exclusively to Man." There is in
him, what we observe in none of the Mammalia that approach
him in other respects, — a complete distinction between the
functions of his two pairs of extremities ; the upper being adapted
for prehension alone, the lower for support only. Thus each
function is performed with a much higher degree of perfection
than it can be, where two such opposite purposes have to be
united. The arm of the Ape has as wide a range of motion as
that of Man, so far as this can be given by the joints ; but it is
only when the animal is in the erect attitude, that its arm can
have free play. Thus the structure of the whole frame must
conform to that of the hand, and must act with reference to it.
But it cannot be said with truth, (as some have maintained,)
that Man owes his superiority to his hand alone ; for without the
directing mind, the hand would be comparatively valueless. His
elevated position is due to his mind and its instruments con-

ERECT ATTITUDE PECULIAR TO MAN. 139

jointly ; for, if destitute of either, the Human race would either
be speedily extinguished altogether, or would be reduced to a
kind of life not above the level of that of the brutes.

129. Man is further distinguished from all other animals by
his erect attitude ; which involves a considerable number of mo-
difications in his general structure. Thus, his head is set upon
the top of the spinal column in such a manner, that its weight
bears directly downwards upon it ; and it is so nearly balanced,
owing to the position of the articulation on which it is supported,
that very little muscular exertion is required to keep it in the
erect position. Now if, with the same form of the head and
neck, Man had been destined to walk upon all-fours, the head
would have been without proper support ; since the neck of Man
is destitute of the powerful muscles and ligaments by which the
large heads of the herbivorous quadrupeds are sustained in this
position, (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 29) : and the face would be directed
towards the ground, instead of commanding the horizon around.
Among those Quadrumana which most nearly approach Man,
we find that the point on which the head is supported is placed
much further back than in him ; and that it bears obliquely on
the spinal column. This corresponds with the semi-erect position
which seems natural to them, — the spinal being inclined forwards,
so that the body is partly supported upon the anterior extremi-
ties; and in this state, the face looks directly forwards. But
these animals occasionally assume the completely- erect, or the
completely horizontal posture ; and they can easily adapt the
position of the head to either of these, its usual angle being inter-
mediate between them.

130. The position of the face immediately beneath the brain,
so that its front is nearly in the same plane with the forehead, —
making the facial angle (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 7] 9) large, — is pecu-
liarly characteristic of Man ; for the brains of the Chimpanzee
and Orang, which approach most nearly to that of Man, are
almost entirely behind, and not above, the face. In the young
Ape, however, there is a much greater resemblance to Man, in
this respect, than there is in the adult. For at the time that the
second set of teeth appears, the muzzle of the Ape undergoes a

140 ERECT ATTITUDE PECULIAR TO MAN.

great increase in length, so that it projects much more beyond
the forehead. The whole cast of the features is altered at the
same time ; so that it approaches more nearly to that of the
Baboons, and other inferior Quadrumana, than would be supposed
from observation of the young animal only. This increased pro-
jection of the muzzle is an evidence of want of perfect adaptation
to the erect posture ; whilst the absence of it in Man shows that
no other position is natural to him. Supposing that, with a head
formed as at present, he were to move on all-fours, so that his
face would be brought into the same plane with the ground, — as
painful an effort would be required to examine with the eyes an
object placed in front of the body, as is now necessary to keep
the eyes fixed on the zenith ; the nose would be unable to per-
ceive any other odours than those which proceed from the earth, or
from the body itself, their aperture being directed backwards ;
and the mouth could not touch the ground to take up food (which
it must have done if the anterior limbs were used for support),
without bringing the forehead and chin also into contact with it.
131. The vertebral column in Man, though not absolutely
straight, has its curves so arranged, that, when the body is in an
erect posture, a vertical line from its summit would fall exactly
on the centre of its base.' It increases considerably in size in the
lumbar region, so as to be altogether somewhat pyramidal in
form ; and it is set upon the sacrum by a very broad base. The
iliac bones are widely expanded, so that the whole pelvis is very
broad ; in this manner the hip-joints are thrown farther apart
from each other, so as to give a firmer basis of support. The
breadth of this is still further increased by the oblique position
of the neck of the -thigh bone. The position of this bone, in
which its head is most secure in its deep socket, is when it is
supporting the body in a vertical position, — that is, when it has
the same direction with the spinal column. In the Chimpanzee
and Orang, on the other hand, the most secure position is when
the spinal column is bent forwards at an angle upon it ; in several
other Mammals, as the Elephant, the spinal column forms a right
angle with the thigh bone ; and in many others, as the Horse,
Ox, &c., the angle is less than a right angle, the thigh-bone

Frontal bone

Parietal bone

Orbit-
Lower Jaw —

Cervical Vertebrae-
Scapula—-

HumeruF

Lumbar Verteb

Carpus

Metacarpus- —

Phalangef ,

— Temporal bone

Clav icle

-Ilium

FIG. 67.— SKELETON OF MAN.

142 ERECT ATTITUDE PECULIAR TO MAN.

being drawn up (as it were) towards it. The formation of the
knee-joint of Man, again, is such, that the whole weight of the
body falls directly upon the head of the tibia, when the joint is
in the firmest position in which it can be placed ; and this is not
the case even with the Apes, that approach nearest to him in
form. The conformation of the foot of Man is, of itself, an in-
disputable evidence that the erect position is natural to him. It
is proportionally larger, broader, and stronger, than the foot of
any other Mammal, save the Kangaroo. The sole of the foot is
concave, a sort of arch being formed by the bones and ligaments
of which it is composed ; and the weight of the body is thrown
upon the summit of this arch, by the mode in which the ankle-
joint is constructed. This is far from being the case with the
semi-erect Apes ; for they have the os calcis, or bone of the heel,
small, straight, and more or less raised from the ground, which
they touch, when standing erect, with the outer side of the foot
only, so that they cannot stand at all firmly on their posterior
limbs only. In animals more remote from Man, the os calcis is
brought still more into the line of the tibia, (Fig. 51) ; and the
foot being more lengthened and narrowed, the extremities of the
toes alone come in contact with the ground. Hence Man is the
only species of Mammal, that can stand upon one leg without
other support ; the Kangaroo, when using one of its hind legs to
kick backwards at its pursuers, keeps itself erect on the other
by means of its powerful tail.

132. The modification of the hind-foot of the Apes, which
renders it unable to support the body firmly in the erect posture,
is exactly that which gives it somewhat of the character of the
hand; and consequently the hand of Man, in which this mo-
dification is still more completely effected, is still less adapted
for the support of the body. The disproportion in length, be-
tween the anterior and posterior extremities, is another indication
of the natural erectness of his posture. His legs are longer,
relatively to the size of his trunk, than those of any other Mam-
mal, except the Kangaroo ; and his arms are shorter in propor-
tion, than are those of the Apes that approach him most closely.
For whilst his hands only reach the middle of the thighs, they

PECULIARITIES OF STRUCTURE OP MAN. 143

hang in the Chimpanzee on a level with the knees, and in the
Orang they descend to the ankles ; hence, when the bodies of
the latter are thrown hut a little forwards, their anterior extre-
mities are ready to support them in this inclined position. Now
it is evident that progression on all-fours would be rendered
excessively inconvenient, in consequence of this disproportion.
Either Man would be obliged to rest on his knees, with his
thighs bent towards the trunk, and his legs and feet entirely
useless ; or he must elevate his trunk on the extremities of his
toes, throwing his head downwards, and making the pelvis much
higher than the shoulders. In either case, the only useful move-
ment would be at the hip ; and the knee and ankle joints would
be of little or no use to him. Many other facts might be brought
together, in addition to these, in support of the conclusion
(which scarcely admits of being reasonably disputed), that the
erect attitude, and biped progression, are natural to Man; and
we must regard as in great degree fabulous all those histories
of supposed wild men, who, it has been said, were found in
woods, dumb, hairy, and crawling upon all-fours. The most
elaborate investigation of the structure of the highest Apes, and
the fullest acquaintance with their habits, concur in proving,
that their movements are not easy or agile, unless they employ
all their limbs for the support of their bodies.

133. Thus, then, although the order Bimana cannot be
separated from the Quadrumana, by any single obvious point of
structure, like that which characterises the Cetacea, Cheiroptera,
Rodentia, or Ruminantia, it is really as far removed by the
minuter, but not less important, modifications which have been
detailed. , A few others will now be noticed. With one excep-
tion (the fossil genus Anoplotherium, which is allied to the
Tapir tribe) Man is distinguished from all other animals, by the
equality in the length of all his teeth, and by their being closely
ranged together in both jaws. Even the Apes have the canine
teeth (especially in adult age) longer than the others ; and an
interval in the line of teeth in each side of the jaw, to receive
the canines of the opposite jaw. The vertical position of the
Human teeth, on which one of the most characteristic features

144 BODILY CHARACTERISTICS OF MAN.

of the Human face, — the prominent chin, — depends, is also quite
peculiar to him ; and is intimately connected both with his erect
attitude, and with the perfection of the hands, by which the
food is divided and conveyed to the mouth. He has no occasion
for that protrusion of the muzzle and lips, which, in animals
that seize their food with the mouth only, is required to prevent
the whole face from coming into contact with it. — The absence
of any weapons of offence, and of any direct means of defence,
are remarkable characteristics of Man, and distinguish him from
other animals. On those, to whom Nature has denied weapons
of attack, she has bestowed the means either of passive defence,
of concealment, or of flight. Yet Man, by his superior reason,
has not only been enabled to resist the attacks of other animals,
but even to bring them under subjection to himself. His intel-
lect can scarcely suggest the mechanism, which his hands cannot
frame ; and he has devised and constructed arms more powerful
than those which any other creature wields, and defences so
secure as to defy the assaults of all but his fellow men. As we
might expect from his far higher intelligence, the brain of Man
far exceeds that of the most elevated Quadrumana in size ; and
at least equally surpasses it in the complexity and high develop-
ment of its internal parts, and in the depth and number of its
convolutions.

134. Man cannot be regarded as distinguished from Mam-
malia, however, either by acuteness of sensibility, or by muscular
power. His swiftness in running, and agility in leaping, are
inferior to that of other animals of his size, — the full-grown
Orang for example. The smallness of his face, compared with
the remainder of the skull, shows that the portion of the ner-
vous system distributed to the organs of sense is proportionally
less developed in him than it is in most other animals ; and we
find that he is surpassed by many among them in the acuteness
of his sensibility to light, sound, &c. ; though he stands alone in
the power of comparing his sensations, and of drawing conclu-
sions from them. Moreover, although none of his senses are
very acute in his natural state, they are all capable (as is also
his swiftness of foot) of being much improved by practice, when

BODILY CHARACTERISTICS OP MAN. 145

circumstances strongly call for their exercise. This power of
adaptation to varieties in external conditions, which makes him
to a great extent independent of them, is manifested in other
features of his structure and economy. He is capable of sus-
taining the lowest, as well as the highest, extremes of atmo-
spheric pressure ; and in this respect he is strikingly contrasted
with the Quadrumana, to all of which a warm climate is a
necessary condition of their existence. Thus the Chimpanzee is
restricted to the hottest parts of Africa, and the Orang Outan
is only found in Borneo and Sumatra; they cannot be kept
alive in temperate climates without the assistance of artificial
heat ; and even when this is afforded, they speedily become
diseased and die. The diet of Man, as indicated alike by the
conformation of his teeth and digestive apparatus, and by his
natural tastes, is properly of a mixed kind ; but he may sup-
port himself in health and strength on animal or vegetable food
exclusively. It is partly to this capability of adaptation, that
we are to attribute the various modifications of his form and
external appearance, which are so remarkable in the various
races that inhabit different parts of the globe. Some of these
will be presently noticed.

135. The slow growth of Man, and the length of time during
which he remains in a state of dependance upon his parents, are
additional characters, by which he is distinguished from other
animals, and which are closely connected with his ultimate
superiority over them. He is unable to seek his own food
during at least the three first years of his life ; and he does
not attain his full stature, until he is more than twenty years of
age. This circumstance influences all the relations of parent
and offspring ; and is closely connected with that association of
the members of the same family, and that continued affection
amongst them, which we have no reason to regard as existing
among any other animals. In proportion to his size, the dura-
tion of the life of Man is greater than that of other Mammalia.
The greatest age of the Horse, for example, which is an animal
of much superior bulk, is between thirty and forty years ; that
of the Orang, which, when full grown, surpasses Man in stature,

146 MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MAN.

is about the same, so far as can be ascertained. The age to
which the life of Man is ordinarily prolonged under favourable
circumstances, may be stated as about seventy-five years ,• but
it frequently surpasses a hundred, — and this among individuals
of all nations.

136. It cannot be doubted, however, that the mental endow-
ments of Man, and the habits of life which result from them,
distinguish him much more completely from the lower animals,
than do the peculiarities of his bodily structure and actions. In
the highest among brutes, the mere instinctive propensities are the
frequent springs of action (ANIM. PHYSIOL. Chap, xiv.) ; and
though the intelligence and will may operate to a certain extent,
the character never rises beyond that of the child. In fact, the
correspondence between the mental faculties of the Chimpanzee,
and those of the Human infant of between two and three years old,
is very close. In adult Man, however, the instinctive propen-
sities only manifest themselves strongly, when the intellect is
undeveloped ; and nearly all his actions are performed tinder the
immediate guidance of his intelligent will. From the intelligence
of Man results his power of improvement ; and this, acting from
generation to generation, is the cause of the comforts now enjoyed
by civilized races, and of the means which they possess of still
further civilization. In the mode in which these are attained,
we observe a remarkable difference between the character of
Man, and that of the lower animals. The arts of which they
are capable, are limited and peculiar to each species ; and there
seems to be no general power of adapting these to any great
variety of purposes, or of profiting by the experience of others.
Where a particular adaptation of means to ends, of actions to
circumstances, is made by an individual (as is frequently the case
where some amount of intelligence or rationality exists), the
rest do not seem to profit by it (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 695) ; so that
there is no proof of any species or race, among the lower animals,
ever making an advance towards an improvement or alteration
in its condition. It has been already pointed out (§ 110), that
modifications in structure and instincts may be induced by cir-
cumstances in some of the most improvable species ; but, in

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MAN. 147

order that these may be hereditarily transmitted, they must not
be foreign to their natural character. This may be accomplished
in a still higher degree, in regard to Man. Under the influence
of Education, corporeal and mental, continued through successive
generations, the capabilities of his whole nature, and especially
those of his brain, are called out ; so that the general character
of the race is greatly improved. On the other hand, under the
influence of a degraded condition, there is an equally certain
falling-back ; and the longer this operates, the more difficulty
will there be in again elevating the race. Hence, to bring up
the New Holland Savage, or the African Bushman, to the level
of the European, would probably require centuries of civilization.

137. One of the most important aids to the use and develop-
ment of the Human mind, is the power of producing articulate
sounds, or language ; of which, as far as we know, Man is the
only animal in possession. There is no doubt, that in many
other species, certain powers of communication exist ; but these
are probably very limited, and of a kind very different from a
verbal language, — more resembling, in fact, the language of signs.
How little this can convey, in comparison with verbal language,
we can only realize when we attempt to hold converse with a
foreigner whose tongue we do not understand, or with one of
those unfortunate persons, in whom there is deficiency of the
powers of hearing and speech. In fact, such language can only
apply to things ; and cannot express those general and abstract
ideas, which form a large part of our own current of thought.
For example, we could not convey by signs the qualities of hard-
ness or softness, smoothness or roughness, without referring to
some object which exhibits them. And all we know of the
mental habits of the lower animals leads to the belief, that in
such general ideas they are completely deficient. Above all, it
would seem that the mind of Man is distinguished from theirs
by the faculty of conceiving of a Superior Being, enjoying a
purely spiritual existence, Omnipotent, Omniscient, and Omni-
present (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 721, 722).

138. It is well known that there is a considerable variety of
races of men ; differing from each other, not only in language,

L2

148 UNITY OP THE SPECIES OF MAN.

habits, degree of civilization, &c. ; but in the conformation of
their bodies, the colours of the surface, the degree in which it is
covered with hair, &c. And it comes to be a question of great
scientific interest, as well as one that considerably affects the
mode in which we view and treat the races that differ from our
own, — whether they are all of one species, that is, whether they
may have all descended from a common stock, — or whether they
are to be regarded as distinct species, having had an originally
distinct parentage. It has been a favourite idea with some
pf those, who wished to excuse the horrors of slavery or the
extirpation of savage tribes, that races thus treated might be
considered as inferior species, and as legitimately placed under
our dominion ; but this doctrine, which has had its origin in the
desire to justify as expedient what could not be defended as
morally right, finds no support from scientific inquiries con-
ducted in an enlarged spirit. For although it would be easy to
select from amongst different races, such as the European, the
Guinea-coast Negro, the Kafir, the Tartar, the Malay, the New-
Holland, and the American Indian, a set of forms, which, when
placed side by side, should present very strongly-marked distinc-
tions,— yet it would be found that, among all these races,
examples would occasionally present themselves, in which these
distinctions would be much less obvious. Thus, among the
inhabitants of our own country, we may not unfrequently meet
•with individuals of pure European descent, who have the reced-
ing forehead, the woolly hair, the thick lips, and the projecting
muzzle of the Negro ; and who want little else than a dark colour
in the skin, to have all the chief peculiarities of that race. On
the other hand, among some of the Negro races, examples are
not unfrequently to be seen, in which the general form of the
head and body is that of the European ; the chief difference
being in colour. That colour alone cannot be at all relied upon
as a distinction, is proved by the fact, that a large number of
pigment-cells exists in the skin of all the races of Man ; and that
the nature of their secretion, and the consequent hue of the skin,
depends greatly upon the degree in which the surface is exposed
to light and heat (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 492). Moreover, amongst

UNITY OF THE SPECIES OF MAN. 149

the various races that unquestionably belong to a common stock,
we find varieties of colour almost as great as those which exist
between the so-called distinct species. Thus, the Moors of
Northern Africa, the Hindoos of India, the fair-haired Saxons,
and the sun-burnt inhabitants of Southern Europe, may be all
referred with certainty to a common parentage ; the differences
between them being for the most part only " skin-deep," and the
relationship between them being shown by affinities in language,
customs, &c., as well as by general conformity in the structure
of their bodies. The same may be said of the various races
inhabiting Africa ; which, with the exception of those of Moorish
origin, undoubtedly belong to one family ; yet they differ most
widely from each other in colour, and in many points of general
conformation. Some of them, as the Kafirs, and some nations
in the interior of that vast continent, appear to be elevated
above the ordinary Negro type ; and present much resemblance
to the European stock : whilst others, as the Negroes of the
Guinea Coast, with whom we are most familiar, are evidently
degraded from it. In fact, there is fully as much difference
between these, as there is between those of the Negro and Euro-
pean races, which most nearly resemble each other.

139. Such considerations alone would induce us to hesitate
much, before giving the character of distinct species to these
various races ; more especially, as we find that the differences
they present are such as exist among the breeds of domestic
animals, which we have every reason to refer to a common origin
(§ 13 and 107). There is not so much difference, for example,
between the European and the Negro, as there is between the
Mastiff and the Greyhound. And, as before remarked, the
conformation of the human body is such, that it easily adapts
itself to variations in its external conditions, and must therefore
change in accordance with them ; so that we should be justified
in expecting at least as much difference among the races of Men,
whose circumstances in regard to climate, food, nature of the
country, &c., are of an opposite character, as among the breeds
of domesticated animals. All argument from analogy, therefore,
is in favour of this view ; and there are some additional grounds

150 UNITY OF THE SPECIES OF MAN.

for the belief in the common origin of the human family, which
seem to give it the rank of a scientific fact. — Thus there is a
complete agreement amongst all races of Man, however different
they may be in aspect and habits, as to the manner in which
the most important functions of the body are performed, the
periods at which they take place, the average duration of life,
&c. ; or, at least, whatever variations may present them-
selves in these respects between different races, they are not
greater than those which are found among individuals of the
same race, under different circumstances in regard to climate,
food, &c. If the test which has been laid down for the distinc-
tion of species (§ 14, note) be really valid, its application to this
question removes all doubt ; for it is well known, that not only
does a mixture of different races produce offspring, but the indi-
viduals of the mixed race thus originated are fertile with each
other, so that the mixed race is continued, — which is not the
case with hybrid races, that originate in a crossing of different
species. Moreover, the mixed race is generally equal in personal
qualifications, and sometimes even superior, to either of the
parent stocks ; and, instead of having a tendency to degenerate
and die out, its fertility is usually greater, so that it rapidly
increases. It is probable that, in many parts of the world, —
such as South America and Hindostan, the races that have been
produced by the intermixture of Europeans with the natives of
those countries, will ultimately attain the predominance. Now,
even if it should ever occur in Animals, as it sometimes does in
Plants (VEGET. PHYSIOL. § 454), that a hybrid race, produced
between distinct species, should be able to keep itself up for a
few generations, it would be safe to affirm that it would ulti-
mately cease to exist, — either being lost altogether, or merging
into one of the parent races, by intermixture with it. — Conse-
quently it is evident, from this test, that we are justified in
regarding the different races of Man, not as distinct species, but
as varieties, which have arisen in course of time, and under the
influence of peculiar circumstances, in the same manner as the
breeds of the domesticated races (§ 107 — 114).

140. The same conclusion has been arrived at from a com-

VARIETIES OP HUMAN RACE. 151

parison of the mental characters of the several races ; for it has
been shown that, however various the degree in which they have
been respectively developed, the same elements exist in all;
and that individuals of even the most degraded races have
exhibited, under the influence of education, the same exalted
powers and elevated tendencies, which many of those in whom
they are most fully developed, are accustomed to regard as
peculiar to themselves.

141. Notwithstanding that we have determined to refer all the
existing races of Men to one common origin, yet it would appear
that the chief varieties of form must have presented themselves
at a very early period. Thus, the hieroglyphic records of Egypt
afford testimony, of an older date than that to which any written
language carries us back, as to the existence of black and red
races at those periods ; and the traditions and remains of the
Chinese and American nations, seem to carry back their exist-
ence as distinct stocks, to an epoch almost equally remote.
Although almost every nation has its distinctive peculiarities at
the present time, yet it is easy to see that there is a comparatively
small number of prevailing types of form, to which they may be
referred, — as the different forms of the domesticated animals are
referred to certain breeds. Some have thought that these might
be reduced to three ; and have supposed that they derived their
origin from the three sons of Noah, respectively. The more usual
division has been into Jive ; the Caucasian, Mongolian, African
or Negro, Malay, and American. From a most profound and
extensive comparison, however, of their physical characters,
languages, and customs, Dr. Prichard sees reason to arrange
them under seven classes. These are: — 1. Those nations (com-
monly termed Caucasian) which, in the form of their skulls and
other physical characters resemble Europeans ; this division in-
cludes all the European nations, with the exception of the Lap-
landers and Finnish races, inhabiting the north-eastern portion ;
and also comprehends several nations in the north of Africa, and
in the west and south of Asia : of this race, the Greeks seem to
afford the most perfect model. — 2. Those nations (commonly
termed Mongolian) which bear a resemblance in the figure of

15*2 VARIETIES OF HUMAN RACE,

their skulls, and in their general conformation, to the Kalmucks,
Mongoles, and Chinese ; these occupy the north and east of
Asia ; and the Laplanders and Finnish races of Europe, and the
Esquimaux of America, seem to belong to the same class. — 3. The
third class includes the native American races (excluding the
Esquimaux), which bear a very strong resemblance to one
another, both in physical and moral characters, notwithstanding
the immense extent of country over which they are distributed.
Here, as in the nations of the first division, we find great differ-
ence in regard to colour ; the temperate regions being inhabited
by white races of a florid complexion ; whilst the tropical portions
of that vast continent are tenanted by tribes of very dark or
even black hue. — 4. To the fourth class belong only the Hot-
tentot and Bushman races, which inhabit the south of Africa,
and differ so strongly from the other nations of that continent,
as to require being placed together in a distinct group. — 5. The
Negro races, including the inhabitants of the African continent,
between the parts occupied by the Moorish and other nations of
the first class in the north, and those belonging to the Hottentots
and Bushmen. — 6. ThePapuas, or woolly-haired races, which are
diffused through New Guinea and the islands of the Malayan
Archipelago. — 7« The Alfourou and Australian races, which
exhibit the characters of the human species in its most degraded
form. These are found in New Holland, and in the interior of
some of the larger islands of the Malayan Archipelago.

142. In regard to the evidence which Geology affords, as to
the distribution of Man over the globe at former periods of its
existence, it is sufficient to observe that it affords a most striking
confirmation to the Scriptural statement on the subject ; for no
fossil remains of Man have ever been found, except in deposits
which we have good reason for affirming to be of very recent date,
or to be still going on ; and wherever the remains of other
animals are associated with his, they belong to species at present
existing. Thus, Geology and Ztfology, so far from being opposed
to Revelation, confirm it in these very important particulars ; —
1. That Man has not been a perpetual inhabitant of this globe,
but that his introduction into it took place not many thousand

ORDER QUADRUMANA, 153

years since, probably at the same time with the creation of a
large number of other animals ; and that no very great change
has since been made in its surface. — 2. That, notwithstanding
the diversities among the races now existing, they may have all
originated, and probably did originate, from one common stock.

ORDER II.— QUADRUMANA.

143. The characters upon which this order is founded have
been already explained (§ 120) ; and the points in which it
chiefly differs from the preceding, have been adverted to under
the last head. It remains to notice some other general charac-
ters, however ; and to point out how these become modified in
the different subdivisions of the order. — In the first place, as
already remarked, the Quadrumana are not the only animals
possessing opposable thumbs on the feet as well as the hands
(§ J26) ; nor do we find this character to be universally presented
by them. In one large division of the order, indeed, we find
that the thumbs are possessed by only one pair of the members ;
but this is the hinder pair, which is thus converted into hands ;
whilst the front pair of extremities, not being possessed of
thumbs, lose the distinctive character of hands. It would be a
more correct designation of the whole group, therefore, to term
it Pedimana, or foot-handed^ — implying that the posterior ex-
tremity is converted into a hand, which is a constant character of
the order, — rather than Quadrumana, or four-handed, which does
not correctly apply to a large portion of it. — We must connect
with this description, in order to distinguish these animals from
other four-handed Mammals, the characters derived from their
teeth ; for in them alone do we find all the three kinds present.
Yet even this is not an invariable character; for there are
certain aberrant forms, which have a dentition that leads us
towards the Rodentia, and in which only two kinds of teeth are
present. But these so closely resemble the Quadrumana in
their general characters, that there can be little doubt of their
real affinity to them.

154 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF QUADRUMANA.

144. There are very marked differences among the different
tribes of this order, as to the degree in which they approach
Man in their general conformation ; some of them bearing a
strong resemblance to him in structure, aspect, and gait ; whilst
others are but little removed from the type of the ordinary
Mammals. The difference between the young and adult form
is very considerable, especially as regards the shape of the head ;
this is seen in a very striking manner in the Orang Outan ; of
which the young specimen has been placed at the head of the
order, being supposed to form the nearest approach to Man ;
whilst the old one, supposed to be altogether a different animal,
has been degraded below the level of the Baboons, on account of
the great diminution in its facial angle.

145. There are also considerable differences among them, as
to food and habits. As a general rule, they may be said to be
omnivorous, — that is, disposed to eat anything, or to subsist on
a mixed diet. The Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons, search after
and devour the eggs of birds, locusts, and even small lizards, with
great diligence and appetite ; and in confinement they devour
animal flesh with great delight. But their natural tastes lead
them to mingle their animal prey with fruits or other succu-
lent vegetable substances ; and if they are kept from these
when in confinement, they become unhealthy. — In regard to
their habits of life, too, there is great variety. Some of them
live solitarily, or in pairs ; others, and these the larger propor-
tion, in societies. Some go in search of their food by day ; but
the greater proportion are nocturnal in their activity. For the
most part, they inhabit trees ; but some species live on the
ground; and others among rocky and almost inaccessible
heights.

146. The order seems to be most properly subdivided into
three families, which present well-marked differences in struc-
ture, and which are also most curiously limited in their geogra-
phical distribution. The first is that of SIMIAD^E, which includes
the Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons, of the Old World ; these
have the same number of teeth as Man, and for the most part
have thumbs on both pairs of extremities. The second is that of

ORDER QUADRUMANA; — FAMILY SIMIAD^E. 155

CEBID^E, or Monkeys of the New World, in which there is a par-
tial or complete absence of the thumb upon the hands, and in most
of which there is an additional molar tooth in either side of each
jaw, as also a long tail, which serves as an additional organ of
prehension. The third is that of LEMURID^E, a group of animals
confined to the island of Madagascar and the adjacent parts of
the world, in which both pairs of extremities are provided with
thumbs, but in which the teeth are less regular, both in their
form and number, and which approach the lower Mammals in
various points of their structure.

147. The popular division of the family SIMIADJE into Apes,
Monkeys, and Baboons, is more scientifically correct than such
arrangements usually are. The Apes are distinguished by
having neither tails nor cheek-pouches ; and by the partial or
entire absence of the callosities, — or hard spaces, destitute of
hair, — which are found on the buttocks of the other two groups.
They inhabit the woods, and walk principally on their hinder
extremities ; steadying and directing their motions with their
long arms, which they use also to swing themselves from branch
to branch. The Monkeys have cheek-pouches, callosities, and
long tails. They, too, live among the woods ; but they usually
walk on all-fours, using their long tails chiefly for the purpose
of guiding and balancing themselves, during their rapid and
agile movements. The Baboons also have cheek-pouches and
callosities, by which they are distinguished from the Apes ;
whilst they are known from the Monkeys by the shortness of
their tails, which never possess any muscular power, and can-
not give any efficient assistance in the movements of the animals.
The Baboons live, for the most part, among rocks and moun-
tains, being seldom or never found in the forests ; and they walk
on all-fours. These three tribes further differ in their mental
characters. The Apes possess great intelligence, patience, cour-
age, and docility ; and, when taken young, may be made to
receive a considerable degree of education. Their actions are
grave, circumspect, and deliberate ; they are seldom moved to
violent passion, though occasionally peevish and fretful when
teazed or thwarted ; and they easily give their confidence to

156

FAMILY SIMIAD^. CHIMPANZEE.

those who treat them kindly, and seem to study to comprehend
the directions given to them. On the other hand, the Monkeys
are characterized by cunning, petulance, caprice, and mischievous
curiosity ; their actions are far more rapid than those of most of
the Apes, and are destitute of that gravity which marks the lat-
ter; and they are far from being as intelligent and educable, and
display much less attachment to individuals. The Baboons are
much less amiable than either, and exhibit a sullen ferocity,
together with a comparative absence of intelligence, which pre-
vents them from receiving any large measure of education, or
from being even properly reduced to subjection.

148. The Apes are principally confined to the Peninsula of
Malacca, and the great islands of the Indian Ocean. One species,
the Chimpanzee, inhabits Western Africa ; and this is the one
which presents the nearest approach to Man, of the entire group.

The conformation of the lower extre-
mities enables it to walk erect with
considerable firmness; and in the
same proportion it is rendered unfit
for climbing. All the accounts we
possess (and they are still very
imperfect) represent this animal, in
its natural state, as living on the
ground, rather than in trees ; and
it is described as building a hut for
its residence, and using a club for
attack and defence, — in this and
many other respects, more parti-
cularly when its habits are observed
in captivity, exhibiting a degree of
intelligence which is manifested by
no other Ape. It feeds upon fruits
and nuts, and lives in small socie-
ties. No full-grown specimen has
ever been brought alive to this

country ; and it is only within the last few years, that even the
dead body of an adult has been scientifically examined. The

'Fio. 68. — CHIMPANZEE.

FAMILY SIMIAD.E. ORANG OUTAN. 157

height of a well- developed individual seems to be above four
feet ; but the young specimens that have been exhibited in this
country have not much exceeded half that stature. — The
Orangs, of which two, perhaps three, species exist, are natives
of Borneo and Sumatra. They exceed the Chimpanzee in height,
and are said even to surpass the ordinary stature of Man ; but
they depart much more widely from his general conformation,
being evidently adapted for arboreal rather than terrestrial
habits, — that is, for living amongst trees, rather than for resi-
ding on the ground. When we look at the position of the legs,
we observe that, instead of being in the same straight line as
the thighs, they are bowed outwards at the knees, so that the
soles are turned inwards and opposed to one another. This
accounts for the great difficulty which the Orang Outan has
been observed to experience, in preserving the upright posture,
or walking upon the surface of the earth ; as well as for the
amazing facility, with which it has been observed to climb
trees, and make its way through forests. In these last actions,
it is greatly assisted by the anterior members, the great length
of which enables them to bear a part in the support of the body,
when it is but slightly thrown forwards. The Orangs which
have been captured when young, and put under the training of
Man, show great docility, gentleness, and intellectual capacity ;
but in no instance have their lives been prolonged through their
second dentition, at which period a great change seems to take
place in their characters. They then display great unsociability
and gloominess of temper ; but when irritated, manifest a degree
of activity and force, together with even some ferocity of temper,
which would scarcely have been expected from them. They are
said to form a sort of rude huts among the trees in which they
reside, by intertwining their branches ; and in these they spend
most of their time, seldom moving abroad, except when urged
by the calls of appetite. They feed entirely on fruits, and are
never known to eat flesh or even eggs, in their natural state ;
but in confinement, they may be readily taught to relish animal
food. They seem to lead a solitary life; never more than two or
three being found in each other's neighbourhood.

158 FAMILY SIMIAD.E. GIBBONS.

149. The Gibbons (forming the genus Hylobates) differ from
the preceding Apes, chiefly in the slenderness of their form, and
in the great length of their arms, which reach nearly to the
ankle-joints when the animal is standing erect ; hence they are
commonly known as long-armed Apes. The hands and feet are
still more adapted for climbing than are those of the Orang ; and
the feet, which are very long, have their soles turned so much
inwards, as to afford no firm support in the erect posture. They
are distributed through Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Malacca, and
Siam ; where they tenant the forest branches, among which they
display the most astonishing activity. They sweep from branch
to branch with arrow-like velocity ; their mode is to suspend
themselves by their long arms, and by an energetic muscular
movement to launch themselves onwards, aiming at distant
branches, which they seize with the most wonderful precision ;
and often, without any pause, and almost without any percep-
tible effort, they swing themselves forwards in a similar manner
to another equally distant branch. The most remarkable known
species, in this respect, is the Hylobates agilis, or Agile Gibbon,
better known by its native appellation of Ungka-puti ; a living
specimen of which was recently exhibited in this country. This
animal was about three feet in height ; but the space between
the points of the fingers, when the arms were extended, was not
less than six feet, — or as much as that of a tall Man. When
allowed to move freely in a large room, it would clear, without
any effort, distances of 18 or 20 feet ; bounding round and
round, with no other support, than that which it derived from
the projections at which it caught, as it were momentarily,
in passing. The ease with which this feat was accom-
plished, renders the statement of those who have observed
it in its native haunts quite credible, — that it can thus clear
a space of forty feet at one swing. This animal is further
remarkable for a very curious song, or call-note, which is
uttered ever and anon during its most active movements,
but especially in the morning. It is timid and gentle in
its character, and easily becomes attached; but it does not
associate much with others of its own species. The Hylobates

FAMILY SIMIAD.E. GIBBONS ; MONKEYS.

159

syndactylus, * or Siamang (Fig. 69), is another species of
Gibbon, of greater size, and more robust proportions, also inha-
biting Sumatra. It is remarkable for possessing a pouch, or
sac, in its throat, which is connected with the larynx, and seems
to have some influence on the voice ; this is described as a hollow
barking sound. The Siamang is a bold and powerful animal ;

but is easily domesticated, and is
then gentle in its manners, forming
strong attachments. In their na-
tive haunts they associate together
in troops, under the direction of a
leader ; and they utter their cries
simultaneously in the morning and
evening, making a most discor-
dant noise. Their movements
are not nearly so active as those of
the species just named ; but their
vigilance is great, and their hear-
ing seems remarkably acute; so
that they are enabled to make a
timely retreat from danger. The
specific name of this animal is
derived from the adhesion of the
first and second fingers, as far as
the last joint which bears the nail.

— Several other species of Gibbon, of which less is known,
inhabit the same portion of the globe.

150. The Monkeys are distinguished, as already stated, by
possessing cheek-pouches, callosities on the buttocks, and long
tails ; and all these peculiarities of structure are intimately con-
nected with their habits. The cheek-pouches enable them to
stow away and carry off large quantities of nuts and fruits for
future consumption; and these stores they usually obtain by
periodical excursions from the forests in which they reside, to
the more open and fertile spaces, and especially to cultivated

FIG. 69. — SJAMANO.

* Meaning " united -fingered."

160 FAMILY SIMIAD^. MONKEYS.

tracts, if such should be in their neighbourhood. The callosities
enable them to take their repose in a sitting posture, and thus
render them more independent of a convenient place of rest than
are most of the Apes. We find some approach to them, how-
ever, in the Gibbons ; whose habits more resemble those of the
Monkeys, than do those of the higher Apes. And the tail serves
to them very much the same purpose as the pole to the rope-
dancer, acting as a balance to ensure their equilibrium, when
their hands are otherwise occupied, and guiding them like a rud-
der in their leaps through the air. In accordance with the prin-
ciples so often alluded to, we do not find that the characters which
distinguish the group of Monkeys are possessed by all the mem-
bers of it. Thus, in the genus Semnopithecus, we find the cheek-
pouches almost completely absent ; but this deficiency is compen-
sated by a very remarkable development of the stomach, which
has'several distinct pouches, or sacs, branching off as it were from
its principal cavity (Fig. 70). The thumb, too, is very short

FIG. 70 — THE STOMACH OF SKMNOPITHKCUS.

and imperfect in these animals ; and in the genus Colobus it is
entirely absent.

151. The first genus of Monkeys, that of Semnopithecus,
bears many points of resemblance to the Gibbons, besides the
absence of cheek-pouches in the one, and the presence of rudi-

INDIAN MONKEYS. — ENTELLUS.

161

mentary callosities in the other ; and through these two genera,
the tribes of Apes and Monkeys may be regarded as pretty
closely connected. They are readily distinguished, however, by
the long, slender, but powerfully muscular tail, of which the Sem-
nopithecus is possessed. The animals included in this genus are
commonly termed " Slow Monkeys," from their gravity of
habit, and the absence of the restlessness usually seen in the tribe.
But their slowness is rather that of disposition than of action ;
for, when roused, they show themselves capable of the most sur-
prising exertions, and astonish the spectator by the rapidity, va-
riety, and precision of their movements. The species represented
in the accompanying figure is very abundant in some parts of

Fro. 71.— ENTELLUS, on HOONUMAN.

India, and receives divine honours from the natives, by whom it
is termed Hoonuman. " Splendid and costly temples are dedi-
cated to these animals; hospitals are built for their reception
when sick or wounded ; large fortunes are bequeathed for their
support ; and the laws of the land, which compound for the mur-
der of a man by a trifling fine, affix the punishment of death to

162 FAMILY SIMIAD^E. INDIAN AND AFRICAN MONKEYS.

the slaughter of a Monkey. Thus cherished and protected, the
Entellus abounds over almost every part of India, enters the
houses and gardens of the natives at will, and plunders them of
fruit and eatables without molestation. The visit is even consi-
dered an honour ; and the Indian peasant would consider it an
act of the greatest sacrilege to disturb or drive them away."
They generally take up their residence in the groves which the
natives plant round their villages ; and the celebrated banyan-
tree, named Cubbeer-bur, which forms a grove in itself (YEGET.
PHYSIOL. § 152), is the residence of a numerous colony of them.
They are often allowed to occupy the roofs of the houses ; and
may be not unfrequently seen perched with much gravity at the
open verandas, observing the passing crowd. To this genus, also,
belong the Kahau, or Proboscis Monkey (Semnopithecus larvatus),
a native of Borneo and Cochin- China, which is remarkable for
the extraordinary development of its nose ; and the Douc, or
Cochin-China Monkey (S. nemeus), which is distinguished by
the singular variety and brilliancy of its colours, — giving it an
appearance as if it were clothed with a suit of garments of dif-
ferent materials. There are other species of Semnopithecus,
which also inhabit India and the Malay Archipelago ; and it is
curious to notice, that all the Monkeys of these regions should
be of a kind that most nearly resembles the Apes, which are all
but exclusively confined to it.

152. The continent of Africa, however, may be regarded as
the head-quarters of the Monkey tribe ; for no other portion of
the earth swarms with these animals to such a degree as its
western coasts, — their number being due, not only to the multi-
plication of individuals, but to the great variety of species which
are spread over the face of the country. Between twenty and
thirty different kinds are known to inhabit the west coast alone ;
and it is probable that, if we Were equally acquainted with the
interior and eastern coast, we should be able to reckon up at least
a hundred. It is believed that each of the different species is re-
stricted to a small extent of country ; and it is said that they
live in large troops, each of which has its own domain, violently

AFRICAN MONKEYS. 1G3

resisting any intrusion upon it. The African Monkeys are mostly
of small size ; and are remarkable for the agreeable variety and
intermixture of their colours, and for their playful, lively dispo-
sitions. They are classed under two genera, Colobus and Cerco-
pithecus. Of the genus Colobus little is at present known, no
specimens having been brought alive to Europe ; and, of several
of its species, only mutilated skins having been examined. The
reason of this is partly that the skins are much valued by the
negroes on account of their long, soft, silky hair ; and that the
hunters will not be at the trouble of skinning and preparing the
head and limbs, so long as the fur of the body is the only part of
value to them. It is certain, however, that numerous species
exist, which may be all readily distinguished from those of the
Cercopithecus by this simple and apparently trifling character, —
that the hairs of the former are of the same colour throughout,
although different hairs have different hues, — whilst the hairs of
the latter are marked by rings of various shades. Thus a very
small piece of the skin will enable us to separate the two genera ;
but the character which essentially distinguishes them, is the
absence of the thumb from the hands of the Colobus, and its
presence in the Cercopithecus. It has been stated that in the
Semnopithecus, this organ is but slightly developed ; still, how-
ever, it can be opposed to the fingers. In some species of the
Colobus a rudiment of it is perceptible ; but this never rises
above the skin, and is totally destitute of motion : and in what
may be regarded as the typical species, it is entirely absent.
This deficiency is in some degree compensated by the great length
of the other fingers. Nothing is known of the habits of the
Colobi, and but little of their internal structure ; there is reason
to believe, however, that their stomachs, if not so complex in
form as those of the Semnopithecus, are larger than those of
ordinary Monkeys ; notwithstanding that they possess fully-
developed cheek-pouches.

153. To the genus Cercopithecus belong nearly all the Monkeys
of the Old World, with which we are most familiar ; and it may
probably be regarded as the typical genus of the tribe, — possess-
ing, as it does, in a pre-eminent degree, all the characters which

M2

164 FAMILY SIMIAD^E. — MONKEYS AND BABOONS.

distinguish it. These Monkeys have cheek-pouches, callosities,
well-developed thumbs on their hands, and long tails ; and they
are further known by the annulated or ringed character of their
fur, which gives them a speckled appearance. They are slender
in their structure, and light and agile in their movements ; and
their characters display vivacity, impetuosity, and restlessness,
with occasional caprice and petulance. They are a pre-eminently
sylvan race, never abandoning the forests, and living chiefly
upon wild fruits and the seeds and buds of trees, with an occa-
sional intermixture of insects and birds1 eggs. The true Cerco-
pitheci are confined to Africa ; but there are a few species of
Monkeys in Asia (commonly included among the Macaques)^
which approach the Baboons in their general characters, but
which are probably to be united with this genus, as they agree
in its essential characters, except in having a shorter tail;
and by these we should make a natural transition to the next
tribe.

154. The Baboons are distinguished from the other Quadru-
mana, not only by the peculiar distinctive characters which have
been already mentioned (§ 147) ; but also by certain obvious,
though less easily defined, characters. The body is much more
massive, and the strength is increased in even greater proportion.
The projection of the muzzle, at the ends of which the nostrils
are situated, gives to the face much more of the aspect of the
Carnivora; and they move much more exclusively upon all-
fours, than do any of the other SIMIADJS. Their temper is
gloomy and sullen ; and they exhibit a considerable degree of
ferocity when they are attacked, together with a large amount
of malice and revengeful feeling when they are offended. These
characters, however, are not exhibited in an equal degree by the
two genera of which the tribe consists, — Papio and Cynocephalus;
for in the animals belonging to the former group, they are
softened down, as it were, so that the line of separation between
them and the Monkeys is by no means distinct ; whilst in those
of the latter, they are manifested in their highest degree. It is
an interesting circumstance, that these two genera should be
restricted to different quarters of the globe, — the Papios being

BABOONS.

165

almost exclusively Asiatic, and the Cynocephali exclusively
African. They are not, for the most part, inhabitants of the
forests, but rather of mountainous or rocky districts ; and their
food consists at least as much of animal, as of vegetable sub-
stances.

155. The genus Papio is spread over India and the Indian
Archipelago; and is distinguished from those species ofCercopitheci,
which have a similar geographical distribution, by the comparative
shortness of the tail. There is a difference in this respect amongst
its several species ; some of them having tails several inches long,
whilst in others this organ is a mere rudiment. But even where
it is longest, it is not muscular ; and it hangs down vertically as
in ordinary Mammals, instead of being extended horizontally as it
is in the Monkeys, who use it as an instrument of progression.
In their young state, they are docile and active, possessing
the playfulness of the Monkeys, with more intelligence ; but as

FIG. 72. — WANDEROO.

they advance in age, they exhibit more of the sullen ferocity of
the true Baboon character, completely losing their docility, if not
their intelligence, and becoming alike insensible to blows or
caresses. As an example of this genus we may notice the Papio
silenus, or Wanderoo, which is a native of Malabar and Ceylon,

166 FAMILY SIMIADuE. — BABOONS.

and is remarkable for its look of wisdom and importance, and
for the gravity of its demeanour. The peculiarity of its aspect
is chiefly due to a kind of mane of greyish-dun hair, which
surrounds the face and neck, and bears some resemblance to a
judge's wig. — Although most abundant in Asia, the genus
Papio extends also along Northern Africa ; and one species, the
Papio inuus, or Magot, is commonly known as the Barbary Ape.
This is remarkable as being the only Quadrumanous animal,
which is at present a regular inhabitant of Europe. A large
number tenant the Rock of Gibraltar ; where they seem to thrive
as well as on the opposite side of the strait. This species was
well known to the ancients, by whom many fables are related
respecting it ; and it has been the " showman's ape " from time
immemorial. To the appellation Ape it would seem to be entitled
by the complete absence of the tail ; but the presence of callosities
and cheek-pouches, independently of its general conformation,
prove its real position to be among the Baboons. When young,
it may be educated in some degree ; but as it advances towards
maturity, it becomes morose, sullen, and mischievous in confine-
ment. In its native haunts, however, it is represented as social,
active, and courageous ; and is particularly distinguished by its
attachment to its young.

156. The genus Cynocephalus (dog-headed) receives its name
from the strong resemblance which the face, and especially the
muzzle, bear to that of the dog. The Baboons of this group are
of large stature and prodigious force, never voluntarily assuming
the erect attitude, and dwelling amongst craggy rocks and preci-
pices, which they climb with great agility. Their diet partly
consists of bulbous roots, berries, and grain ; and partly of eggs,
insects, and scorpions, — which last they devour with great dex-
terity, nipping off the sting with an action so rapid, as to prevent
their being wounded by it. They are morose and daring in their
temper ; and their physical power renders them very formidable
opponents. They congregate in troops, and are bold and skilful
in their predatory excursions, maintaining their ground even
against large parties of men. The accompanying figure represents
the Cynocephalus hamadryas, or Grey Baboon, which is a native

GREY BABOON. — MANDRILL.

167

of the Eastern coast of Africa, being found also along the opposite
shores of Arabia. It is the only species of this genus which

FIG. 73 — GREY BABOON.

extends beyond the African continent ; and grows to the size of
a large pointer ; measuring upwards of four feet in height when
standing erect, and two feet and a half when in a sitting posture.
The head, neck, and front of the body are covered with long
shaggy hair ; whilst that on the hips, thighs, and legs, is short ;
and, when contrasted with the former, has the appearance of
having been clipped, so that the whole animal somewhat resem-
bles a shaved French poodle. — The largest and most ferocious of
all the Baboons is the C. maimon, or Mandrill; the ordinary
height of which, when standing erect, is nearly the same as that
of a man ; and the head of which presents a strange mixture of
colours, as if it were painted for show. The body is thick and
extremely robust, the limbs short and powerful, — the head is
large and almost deprived of forehead, the eyebrows remarkably
prominent, the eyes small and deeply sunk in the head, the
cheek-bones swollen to an enormous size, and forming projections
of the size of a man's fist on each side of the nose, which are

168

FAMILY SIMIAD.E. BABOONS.

marked with numerous prominent ribs of light blue, scarlet, and
deep purple ; — the hair is a light olive-brown above, and a
silvery grey beneath ; but of a deep orange colour beneath the
chin, where it forms a small pointed beard; and directed
upwards above the forehead and temples, so as to meet in a
point on the crown, so as to give to the head a triangular
appearance ; — the ears, palms, and soles are violet-black : — and
the callosities are of a bright scarlet. In its native wilds, the
Mandrill associates in large troops, which are more than a match
for the fiercest beast of prey ; and they often make excursions
into villages and cultivated fields, which they plunder with
impunity. Their voice is deep and guttural, consisting of hoarse
abrupt tones, which indicate fury and malice ; and in captivity
they are very furious and violent, killing any animals that come
within their reach, when their passions are excited, and being
more than a match for the strongest unarmed man. This for-
midable animal is a native of the Western Coast of Africa ; as is
also another species, the Drill ', which is rather smaller in stature
than the Mandrill, and less fero-
cious. The face is black ; but the
beard is orange-coloured. The ac-
companying delineation of the head
shows the marked approach in its
form to that of the Carnivorous
Mammals.

157. In concluding this account
of the SIMIAD^E, we may stop to
notice some peculiarities in the
geographical distribution of the
family, which are of much interest
to the philosophic naturalist. It is
evident that the south-east of Asia
may be regarded as the head-
quarters of the Ape tribe ; since we find but one species, the
Chimpanzee, beyond its limits. Neither the Monkeys nor the
Baboons which inhabit that region present the full development
of their respective characters; for the Semnopitheci want the

FIG. 74.— HEAD OF THE DRILL.

FAMILY CEBLDJE. — AMERICAN MONKEYS. 169

cheek-pouches and thumbs of the typical Monkeys ; whilst the
Macaques are equally far from possessing the stoutness of build
and the muscular energy, which characterise the true Baboons.
— On the other hand, in Africa, where we find but a single
species of Ape, the Monkeys and Baboons are most abundant,
and their characters most fully displayed. The only African
genus that is deficient in the peculiarities of its tribe, is that of
Colobus, which seems to represent in Africa the Semnopithecus
of Asia ; and this bears a very small proportion, in the number
of its species, to the typical Monkeys and Baboons. — Lastly, it
is curious to observe that, whilst all the African Simiadse, save
the Chimpanzee, possess cheek-pouches, these do not exist in
any of the Asiatic species, except a few Cercopitheci, and the
Macaques.

158. FAMILY CEBID^:. This family includes all the American
Monkeys ; which differ from those of the Old World in several
particulars, besides those already stated (§ 146). The thumb of
the fore-hands is never opposable to the fingers, and is very
frequently wanting. The callosities and cheek-pouches are
altogether absent. The tail is usually of considerable length,
never wanting, and often prehensile (that is, capable of laying
hold of branches &c.,) especially in the species that are destitute
of thumbs. In all but the Marmozets, there is a third bicuspid
molar on each side ; making the molars in all ^, instead of
Eg ; and bringing the total number of teeth to 36, instead of 32,
— as in Man and the SimiadaB. A very obvious and simple cha-
racter, which is constant in each group, but the connection of
which with their general organisation seems by no means evi-
dent, serves to distinguish the Cebidae from the SimiadaB ; — the
apertures of the nostrils in the former are directed laterally, or
outwards ; whilst in the latter they are directed downwards or
forwards, according to the position of the head. — The Cebidse
are exclusively confined to the warmer regions of the New
World ; so that, although the species are numerous, their extent
of territory is far more limited than that occupied by the Old
World Monkeys. They inhabit the northern portion of South
America, from the Caribbean Sea, to about the twenty-fifth

170

FAMILY CEBIDJE. SPIDER MONKEYS.

degree of south latitude ; and are especially numerous in those
vast forests which occupy the plains between the rivers Oronoko
and Amazons, and which are so little interrupted, save by the
intervening streams, that the Monkeys might almost pass along
the tops of the trees, for several hundred miles together, with-
out touching the earth. Of these forests, they are the chief
inhabitants ; all of them being arboreal in their mode of life, —
that is, residing exclusively in trees.

159. Of the genera which this family contains, we shall
notice the principal. The Ateles, or four-fingered Monkeys
(§ 143), are distinguished by the great length, slenderness, and
flexibility of their limbs, and by the prehensile power of their

FIG. 75.— SPIDER MONKEYS.

tails. From the former qualities, they have received the appel-
lation of Spider Monkeys. Their movements on the ground
are much wanting in firmness, even when they are resting on all
the four extremities ; giving them the aspect of crawlers, rather

SPIDER MONKEYS. — HOWLERS. 171

than of walkers. They tread on the inner edge of the fore-paws,
and on the outer edge of the hind-paws; and endeavour to
assist themselves by attaching the tail to any object as they pro-
ceed. They often assume the erect attitude, however ; and then
use the tail as a means of balancing themselves. The proper
place for these monkeys, however, is among the branches of the
forest ; their movements are there rapid, easy, and unconstrained ;
and they swing from branch to branch, by means of their spider-
like limbs and their prehensile tails, with the greatest agility.
The tail is not only an instrument of prehension, but an organ
of touch ; the end of it is destitute of hair, and furnished with a
sensitive skin ; and it is capable of seizing small objects with great
address. These animals are said to introduce the extremity of
the tail, as a feeler, into the fissures and hollows of trees, for the
purpose of hooking out eggs or other substances. In the great
length of their arms, these Monkeys evidently represent the
Gibbons ; and they correspond with them also in temper, — being
timid, gentle, and contemplative, with more intelligence than
most other Monkeys, and displaying agility only when roused. —
The Myceti, or Howling Monkeys, are distinguished from the
last, by their greater robustness, and by the diminished length
of their limbs ; by the presence of a thumb, which is, however,
not opposable ; and by the dilatation of the os hyoides (ANIM.
PHYSIOL. § 684) into a hollow drum, which communicates witli
the larynx, and gives great additional resonance to the voice.
The bowlings uttered by the troops of these Monkeys are de-
scribed by travellers as astounding. They are usually sent forth
early in the morning, at sunset, and during the darkness at
night ; but they are also heard when the overclouded sky
threatens an approaching storm. In their dispositions the
Howlers are melancholy and morose ; their movements are
tardy and inert, and, when on the ground, they never attempt to
walk on the hinder limbs alone. They feed principally upon
fruits and leaves. — In the genus Cebus, comprehending the
Monkeys known as Sapajous, Sajous, and Capucins, the tail is
covered with fur to its extremity ; so that, although it is still
prehensile, it is not so delicate an organ of touch as in the pre-

172 FAMILY CEBID^J. SAJOUS AND SAKIS.

ceding genera. The thumb is present on all the extremities.
These Monkeys are for the most part of small size, and are very

FIG. 76.— WHITE-THROATED SAJOU.

lively and docile in their tempers, as well as active in their
movements; but they are somewhat capricious in their dis-
positions. In their native forests, they live in troops ;
feeding on fruits, grain, eggs, and insects, in obtaining
which they displav great address. They have been termed
"Weepers, from the plaintive, piping noise which many of them
utter.

1 60. In the other genera of Cebidse, the tail is but very
little, or not at all, prehensile, although it is frequently of con-
siderable size. This is the case with the genus Pithecia, which
includes the Sakis, or Fox-tailed Monkeys ; these animals live in
small troops of ten or twelve individuals, usually residing in the
outskirts of forests, bordering rivers; and, like the Howlers,
utter loud cries before sunrise and after sunset. They display
a morose and savage temper ; menacing the offender with their

SQUIRREL MONKEYS; MARMOZETS. 173

teeth, upon very slight provocation. In their dentition, they
somewhat approach the Lemurs. — The genus Callithrix compre-
hends the Sagoins, or Squirrel Monkeys ; a group of little animals
which are extremely light, active, and graceful in their move-
ments, as well as elegant in their forms; and presenting no
inconsiderable resemblance to the Squirrel in their general aspect,

FIG. 77- — SQUIRREL MONKEY.

though differing from it most completely in the shape of the
head. Though the tail is completely destitute of prehensile
power, it is used as a protection against cold ; to which these
animals are acutely sensitive. Their food seems to consist more
of insects, eggs, and small birds, than of fruits ; and although
habitually gentle and timid, they become animated even to
ferocity at the sight of living prey. The day is their period of
activity ; and they pass the night in repose. — Nearly allied to
this genus is an interesting animal, best known as the Douroucouli,
which seems to represent the Lemur tribe in America ; its habits
are completely nocturnal, and its movements are almost cat-like.
The Marmozets, or Oustitis, belonging to the genus Hapale^ are
distinguished from the rest of the Americ^a Monkeys by the
absence of the additional molar, and by the sharpness and
crookedness of their nails. The thumb is not opposable, being

174 FAMILY CEBHXE. MARMOZETS.

placed in the same line with the other fingers ; and that of the
hind feet is very short. The tail is large, and thickly covered

FIG. 78. — OUSTITI.

with hair ; but it is not prehensile ; and its principal purpose
seems to be the regulation of the movements, and the prolonga-
tion of the leaps, as in the Squirrel, — though it is probably of use
also in keeping the animals warm when asleep, in which state
they coil themselves up into a ball. They are very nimble and
agile in their movements, and extremely cautious in their habits,
retreating at the slightest alarm ; though they will defend them-
selves with great spirit when actually attacked. When in con-
finement, they still exhibit a degree of wildness and distrust,
which it is difnWt to overcome completely; and they do not
show the same marks of attachment to those who treat them
with kindness, as most other Monkeys display. Their intelli-
gence does not seem high ; and their brain is almost destitute of
convolutions ; but they show much instinctive sagacity in their
search for food, especially insects, which they devour with
eagerness. In their manner of holding their food, they strongly
remind us of the Squirrel ; for they do not grasp it with the
fingers, but press it between the two fore-paws. In many
species, the tail is marked by transverse bars, giving it a very
elegant appearance ; and several are also distinguished by tufts
of hairs, projecting from the sides of the head.

161. The last family of Quadrumana, that of the LEMUR-

FAMILY LEMURIDJE.

175

, or Lemur tribe, presents a combination of characters,
which, although no single one may be very striking in itself,
evidently points out the animals it contains, as forming the link
between the typical Quadrumana, and the lower classes of Mam-
mals. They agree with the Simiadse in having opposable thumbs
on both pairs of extremities, but differ from them in dentition.
The number and form of the teeth vary in the different genera.
Not unfrequently the incisors appear to be 6 below, instead of
4 ; but this is owing to the peculiar form and position of the
lower canines and first molars, — the former seeming like addi-
tional incisors, and the latter taking their place as canines. In
the true Lemurs, the formula is as follows : — incisors ^, canines
££, molars ^. The contour of the body is very peculiar. The
general form is slender and elongated ; the head pointed, and
somewhat fox-like ; the nostrils terminating at the end of a

FIG. 79, — HAND AND FOOT OF LEMUR.

sharp, naked, and somewhat prominent muzzle ; the eyes large,
as in nocturnal animals ; and a long curved claw on the first
(sometimes the first two) fingers 6f the hind feet. This last
character serves to distinguish them from all other Quadrumana.
The tail varies in length ; being sometimes large, and sometimes

176 FAMILY LEMURHXE. LEMURS.

nearly absent; it is never prehensile. The form of the skull
would of itself indicate the inferior grade of these animals. The
size of the cranial cavity is greatly diminished, in proportion to
that of the face ; no trace of a forehead remains ; and the head
is placed (as it were) at the end of the neck, as in the lower
Mammals, instead of being seated upon it, as in Man and the
Quadrumana. The orbits are not completely walled in, but
open behind into the temporal fossae, — the sunk space on either
side of the skull, which lodges the temporal muscle (ANIM.
PHYSIOL. § 621, 624) : this is a character of marked degradation.
The tubercles of the molar teeth are no longer rounded ; but are
raised into points, which lock into each other, as in the Insec-
tivora. Their canines are sharp ; and their tongue is rough, as
in the Cat tribe. It is evident that they are much more adapted
for an animal diet, than are the typical Quadrumana ; and they
show great address in seizing this, as well as courage in defending
themselves when attacked. In consequence of the length of
their hind legs, which (contrary to the general rule among the
Monkeys) greatly exceeds that of the anterior extremities, they
are for the most part agile leapers ; but the greater number of
them are active only during the night, spending the whole day in
sleep, and always secluding themselves as completely as possible
from light, which seems painful to them.

162. Nearly all these characters are most completely mani-
fested in the tru'^ Lemurs, which are the types of the family.
These animals are exclusively confined to the island of Madagas-
car, where they replace the Simiadae ; none of these being found
there. They are gentle and harmless animals : but will defend
themselves with great resolution when attacked, and inflict severe
wounds with their sharp canines. In their natural haunts they
associate in troops ; and send forth a hoarse dissonant roar,
which fills the woods after sunset. They have little of the pry-
ing, mischievous, petulant disposition of Monkeys ; but seem also
destitute of their intelligence. Their fur is usually very fine
and silky ; and the tail long and bushy. Nearly allied to the
Lemurs, but differing from them in not possessing a tail, and in
having the tubercles of the molar teeth more pointed, are the

LORIS, OR SLOW LEMURS. 177

Loris, or Slow Lemurs ; which are natives of India and the
adjacent islands. They are remarkable for the slowness and

Fie. 80.— WmTK-FRONTBD LEMUR.

caution of their movements, and for the tenacity of their grasp,
which is due to their power of keeping up muscular contraction
for a long time. They are completely inactive during the day ;
but at night they prowl stealthily among the branches in search
of food. Having detected their prey, which consists chiefly of
insects and small birds, they approach it with the greatest wari-
ness ; and, when they are within reach of it, they pounce upon
it with* the utmost certainty. They devour eggs greedily, and
seem also partial to fruit. When irritated during their period
of repose, their motions are very languid ; and they utter a

178

FAMILY LEMURID.E. POTTO, TARSIUS.

FIG. 81. — HAND OF POTTO.

plaintive drawling cry, which somewhat resembles that of the
American Sloths. — Several other genera of Lemurine animals
are found in Africa and the Indian Archipelago : of these we
may mention the Perodictlcus or Potto, which is distinguished

by the absence of the first-
finger of the hands (Fig. 81) ;
the Tarsius, or Malmag, in
which we find the bones of the
tarsus very much elongated,
and the hind-legs resting only
upon the points of the toes,
as shown in Fig. 82 ; and
the Otolicnus or Galago, which,
with the same peculiarity,
combines the large mem-
branous ears of the Bats,
which double down when the
animal is at rest. All these are nocturnal in their habits, and
feed partly upon fruits, partly upon insects, and small mammals,
birds, or reptiles. The teeth of the
Tarsiers present several peculiarities,
which are interesting as showing the
tendency to irregularity in this re-
spect, in the aberrant forms of this
family; of which tendency, a very
striking example will be presently
noticed. The upper canines are very
small; and the middle incisors are
of great length and resemble canines ;
the lower incisors are only two in
number, and have more of the ordi-
nary form and direction.

163. To the family of Lemurs we
are probably to refer a very remark- Fio.sa.-FooT OF THE MALMAG.
able animal, the Galeopithecus, or Flying Lemur, sometimes
termed the Colugo ; a native of the Molluccas, Philippines, and
other islands of the Indian Archipelago. Its chief peculiarity

ABERRANT LEMURID^E. GALEOPITHECUS. 179

consists in the extension of its skin between the anterior and
posterior limbs on each side, and also between the two posterior
limbs, including the tail ; so as to form
a parachute of considerable extent,
which, though it does not enable the
animal to fly, gives it support in the
air, sufficient to enable it to take long
sweeping leaps from tree to tree with
the utmost facility (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 668). The extraordinary combina-
tion of characters exhibited by this
animal, has caused great doubt to be
entertained by Naturalists, as to its
proper place in the scale. By Cuvier
it was placed at the end of the series
of Bats ; and by Geoffrey among the
-GALKOPITHKCUS. Carnivora. The situation assigned to it
by Linnaeus, however, — who regarded it as connecting the Lemurs
and the Bats, — is probably the true one. The general aspect of
the head is Lemurine, the extremities are all furnished with five
fingers, of which the first (or thumb) is separated from the rest,
but does not antagonise with them, being short, whilst the
remaining four are nearly equal, and are all armed with large,
deep, hooked, sharp-edged, retractile claws, — resembling those
of the Cat tribe. The incisors are four in each jaw ; but the
upper ones do not meet in front, a wide interval being left
between the two pairs : the canines are absent in the upper jaw,
but present in the lower ; the molars are six on either side in
each jaw, and are raised up into pointed tubercles. During the
day, these animals remain in the depths of the forests, suspended
like Bats from the branches, with the head downwards, and
clinging by their hind claws. At night they rouse themselves ;
and are active in traversing the trees in every direction ; sweep-
ing from one to another with great address in search of their
food, which consists, like that of the Lemurs in general, of fruits,
insects, eggs, birds, &c. — As we find a similar parachute-like
expansion existing in other groups of Mammalia, it is evident

N2

180

ABERRANT LEMURID^. — CHEIROMYS.

that we are to regard its presence as an adaptive character only ;
and that we are to be guided, in determining the place of this
species, by its essential characters (§ 25), which, as regards the
conformation of its teeth and extremities, are those of the Lemurs,
more than of any other group.

164. As the Galeopithecus leads us towards the Bats, so does
another curious modification of the Lemur type conduct us
towards the Rodentia; in which order it has been placed by
Cuvier and other eminent Zoologists. This is the Cheiromys, or
Aye- Aye, a native of Madagascar ; an animal, which is very rare
even in its native country, and of which only one specimen has
been brought to Europe. In its general conformation it is strictly

Lemurine, though having much of
the aspect of a Squirrel. The bones
of the fore-arm are movable on one
another, which is not the case with
those of the Rodentia ; and the ex-
tremities have five fingers, of which
the first is separated from the rest,
and shorter, so as clearly to repre-
sent the thumb, although it is not
opposable; the first toe is armed
with a straight-pointed claw, as in
the Lemurs. Its habits, too, are
those of the Lemurs ; during the
day it conceals itself in some hollow,
and passes its time in sleep ; but at
night it issues forth in search of its
food, which consists of buds and
fruit, with insects and larvae, like that of the Lemurs in general.
It was remarked upon two specimens kept in captivity, that
they never set up their long bushy tail in the manner of a
Squirrel; but always kept it trailing at length. — It is in the
conformation of the teeth, that the chief relationship to the
Rodentia is shown. Each jaw contains only two front teeth,
which are very large and strong, flattened at the sides, and very
deep from back to front; their roots extend backwards along

FJG. 84.— AYE-AYK.

CHEIROMYS. ORDER CHEIROPTERA. 181

almost the whole length of the jaw ; whilst their points are sharp,
and resemble the end of a ploughshare. Between these and the
molars, there is a wide interval, as in the Rodents ; the molars,
however, are not formed in the manner of theirs, with transverse
ridges of enamel, but are simple in their structure. It is doubtful
whether the front teeth are to be regarded as incisors or canines;
it is not improbable that they really represent the latter, since in
several of the Lemuridaa we find the real incisors very small,
whilst the canines project forwards, and almost take their place.
The bony portion is completely surrounded by enamel ; which
is not the case in the Rodentia, in whose cutting- teeth the
enamel occupies the front edge only : and it is believed that the
teeth do not continue to grow from permanent pulps, as in that
order (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 177)- — One of the points in which the
Aye- Aye strongly resembles the Rodentia, is the position of the
mammary glands ; which are situated near the groin, and not
on the chest, as in the Quadrumana generally. But in the
Tarsiers (§ 162), two pairs of mammae are present, — one on the
chest, the other in the groin ;* so that the Aye- Aye does not
depart so widely, in this respect, from the general type of the
Lemurs, as would be at first supposed.

ORDER III.— CHEIROPTERA.

1 65. The animals of this Order, all of them commonly known
as Bats, are distinguished from all other Mammalia by the power
of flight; that is. they are able not only to sustain themselves in
the air, but also to move through it in any direction they may
desire (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 668, 669). This power they derive
from the peculiar conformation of the anterior member, the bones
of which are very much prolonged, especially those of the fingers;
and constitute a framework (like that of an umbrella), over
which is spread a thin membrane, continued from the skin of the
body, but not clothed with hair. The organs thus formed are

* The same conformation sometimes presents itself in the Human female.

] 82 ORDER CHEIROPTERA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

true wings ; being capable of motion in such a manner, as to
strike the air, and thus to raise or propel the body by the resist-
ance which it affords to their extended surface. In their function,
therefore, they are completely analogous to the wings of Birds ;
which class may be considered as represented by the Bat tribe
among the Mammalia. And in their structure they only differ
in this respect, — that the expanded surface, which is given in
Bats by the extension of the skin itself over a complex bony
framework, is afforded in Birds by the feathery appendages,
which are supported upon a framework of much simpler con-
struction.— On looking at the skeleton of the Bat, we observe,
in the first place, that the humerus or arm-bone (k, Fig. 85,) is
long and large in proportion to the body ; but that the lengthen-
ing is still more remarkable in the bones of the fore- arm, CM, r.

,

FIG. 85. — SKELETON OF BAT.

cl, clavicle; ft, humerus; CM, ulna; c, radius; ca, carpus; po, thumb; me, metacar-
pus ; ph, phalanges ; o, scapula ; /, femur ; ti, tibia.

The bones of the carpus, or wrist, ca, do not show any consider-
able increase ; but the most extraordinary extension is seen in
the metacarpal bones of the four fingers, which spread out widely
from each other when the wing is extended, but are capable of
being closed together, like the stretchers of an umbrella. Upon
these are situated the phalangeal or true finger-bones, ph ; the

ORDER CHEIROPTERA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 183

number of which varies in different genera ; being only one in
the first finger, but four in the second, in the specimen here
figured. These taper to a point, and are not terminated by
claws or nails. The thumb, however, does not partake of this
extension in length, nor does it assist in the support of the wing-
membrane ; but it is short and free, and is terminated by a
hooked claw. The clavicle, cl, and scapula, 0, to which are
attached the muscles that move this member, are of great
strength ; and the sternum, or breast-bone, has a keel-like projec-
tion, similar to that which exists in Birds (ANIM. PHYSIOL.
§ 89) for the attachment of the powerful muscles by which the
wing is drawn down. The hinder limbs do not present any-
thing peculiar in their structure ; they serve to assist in keeping
the wing-membrane extended (as does also the tail, where it
exists) ; and the toes are five, armed with sharp claws, by which
the animal can suspend itself, when at rest in its retreat.

166. The whole powers of the animal seem concentrated
upon its organs of flight ; and when it is neither asleep nor
torpid, this kind of movement is evidently its natural condition.
It can only move along a solid surface, by folding its wings, and

using the hooked thumbs to lay
hold of any inequality, and to
draw itself forwards. Hence
its motions are awkward and
shuffling ; and on a polished
surface, like that of a table, it
is greatly embarrassed. But
in the hollows of trees, the
crevices of masonry, and the

FIG. 86.— BAT WALKWG. > J '

chinks or fissures of a rock, it

can climb and crawl about with great facility. The air, how-
ever, is its home ; and through this it moves with vast rapidity,
and with great apparent ease, wheeling in every direction in
search of its insect prey, and performing the most abrupt evolu-
tions to secure it. In these movements it is very much assisted
by the tail, which serves as a rudder ; and we shall find that
this organ is most developed in the Bats which pursue insects on

184 ORDER CHEIROPTERA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

the wing, whilst it is small or entirely wanting in those which
live on fruits. In their mode of flight, Bats bear a very strong
resemblance to Swallows, which like them pursue insects on the
wing ; but whilst the latter seek their food during the day, the
former come forth only at twilight ; and thus the Bats exercise the
same purpose in the economy of Nature, in restraining the multipli-
cation of the crepuscular (twilight-flying) and nocturnal insects,
as the Swallows do in regard to the diurnal. During the day, the
Bats sleep in their recesses, suspended by their hind-feet, their
heads consequently hanging downwards (Fig. 92) ; and they
assume the same position during the whole winter, which is
passed by them (in our climate at least) in a state of torpidity.

167. The senses of hearing and smell are developed in Bats
to an extraordinary degree ; as we might judge by the size of
the organs, especially in the insectivorous species. In the long-
eared Bat of this country (Fig. 91), the external ear is nearly as
long as the body ; and there is frequently an inner fold, which
seems like a smaller ear within the principal one. The nose,
again, frequently presents an extraordinary development, being
furnished with curious leaf-like appendages, formed by a prolon-
gation of the skin, which is folded and doubled in various direc-
tions, so as frequently to present a most grotesque appearance.
The membrane of the wing, too, is endowed with a very high
degree of sensibility, so as to receive impressions from the resist-
ance of the air, which guide the animal in its flight through the
darkest recesses, preventing it from striking against obstacles,
even in a complete labyrinth (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 495). The
eyes are usually small, and can be of little use to those which
pass nearly their whole time in obscure caverns, or in the dark
chambers of old buildings. — On the other hand, the frugivorous
species, which sail over gardens, plantations, or forests, in search
of their food, are guided chiefly by their sight ; their eyes are
accordingly rather large than otherwise, whilst the ears and nose
have no extraordinary development.

168. The insectivorous , or insect-eating, Bats constitute by
far the largest division of the Order ; they are recognised, not
only by the characters already noticed, but by the conformation

ORDER CHEIROPTERA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 185

of their teeth and digestive system, which is in accordance with
their particular kind of food. Their molars are beset with
pointed tubercles, adapted to crush the hard envelopes of Insects;
and their canines are not unfrequently of large size, as shown

in the accompanying
figure of the Head of
Vampyrus spectrum.
The intestinal canal is
short, and is evidently
adapted to the diges-
tion of animal food ;
in the Great Bat of
our own country it is
only twice the length
of the body ; whilst in
the true Yampyres of
South America, which
chiefly live on the
blood of other animals,
it proceeds from the
mouth to its opposite
termination nearly in
a straight line. The
Bats of this division
are arranged under
four families : — (I.)
RHINOLOPHID.K, in

FIG. 87.— HEAD AND SKULL OF VAMPYRUS SPECTRUM. ,. , ,, i «• •

which the nose-leaf is

of complicated structure, and formed of membranous folds ; the
first or fore-finger has but one joint ; and the wings are large
and broad. (II.) PHYLLOSTOMID^, which have but a simple
and fleshy appendage to the nose, and a fore-finger of two joints.
(III.) VESPERTILIONID.E, which are altogether destitute of nose-
leaf, but have broad and large wings, and a prolonged tail, but
with only a single joint in the fore-finger. (IV.) NOCTILIONID^,
which are also destitute of nose-leaf, but have long narrow
wings, and a short thick tail, with two joints in the fore-finger.

186 FAMILY RHINOLOPHIDJS. — HORSE-SHOE BATS.

— These families are all distributed in large numbers over a con-
siderable part of the globe, extending almost to the coldest
regions; but it is in tropical regions that the Bats are most
abundant, and attain the largest dimensions. No fewer than
fifteen species are known to inhabit this country ; of these, all
but two belong to the family Vespertilionidae.

169. The family RHINOLOPHID.&, distinguished from the
other insectivorous Bats, by the extraordinary development of
the nasal appendage, contains a large number of species, most of
which are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere, especially the
islands of the Indian Archipelago. Two species are known in
England, under the name of the Greater and Lesser Horse-shoe
Bats ; which designation they have received from the peculiar
form of the front of the nose-leaf. These animals are not
common ; for they inhabit only the darkest and least accessible
caverns, subterranean quarries, and other like situations, scarcely
ever coming forth into daylight. Hence their habits are but

little known. Most of this
family are remarkable for
the great development of
their integuments ; in the
Megaderms of Africa and
the Indian Archipelago,
there is not only an enor-
mous nose-leaf, but a very
large pair of ears; the
wings too, being of great
size ; whilst in the Nyc-
terins of the same coun-
tries, the skin is loosely
attached to the body,
and may be distended by
air blown beneath it, so
as to make the animal
look like a little balloon,

FIG. 88. — HEAD OF MEGADERMA FRONS- ., . . , «,i T j

furnished with head, wings,
and feet. This is done by the animal itself, through an aper-

FAMILY PHYLLOSTOMID.E. — VAMPYRES. 187

ture at the bottom of the cheek-pouch on each side ; these
apertures are furnished with a circular muscle, which prevents
the return of the air except at the will of the animal; and
large valves for the same purpose exist in the head and back.
The use of this singular provision is not known, unless it be for
diminishing the specific gravity of the body, by increasing its
bulk ; which seems to be at least one of the purposes answered
by the air-cells of Birds.

170. The Bats of the second family, PHYLLOSTOMID^E, are
for the most part inhabitants of South America ; where they
may be regarded as representing the preceding. Although the
greater number of them are insectivorous, there are several species
which seem destined to subsist on the blood of other animals ;
possessing a peculiar arrangement of the front teeth for making
the incision ; and a conformation of the tongue, which specially
adapts it for suction. This is the case with the genus Desmodus,
which includes the True Vampyres. The upper jaw is furnished

with two large upper incisors
in the centre, and two lancet-
shaped canines, separated from
them by an interval ; all these
teeth are extremely sharp-
pointed. In the lower jaw
there are four smaller incisors,
with a space in the centre into
which the upper ones pass
when the jaw closes; the

FIG. 89 — TEETH OF DESMODUS. . •

canines also are smaller than

those of the upper jaw. By these teeth, a deep triple puncture
will obviously be made. The molars are imperfectly developed ;
and seem unfit for mastication ; and the intestine is shorter than
in any known animal of its size. One of these bats was taken
by Mr. Darwin, during his travels in South America, in the act
of sucking blood from the neck of a horse ; and he states that
the injury which horses sustain from their attacks, is due, not so
much to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the bite
produces, and which is aggravated by the pressure of the saddle,

188 VAMPYRES. FAMILY VESPERTILIONID.E.

if this be put on too soon. The species to which the name of
Vampyre is commonly attached (Fig. 87), is about the size of a
Magpie, its wings measuring two or three feet across, when ex-
panded ; it seems to have similar blood-thirsty propensities to
those just described ; but from the structure of its teeth it may
be imagined to be less exclusive in its tastes than the preceding.
Many marvellous stories have been told of the performances of
these animals ; but they contain much fiction mingled with some
truth. There is no well-authenticated instance of any animal
larger than a fowl ever having died from the effect of their bite ;
although their attacks are so frequent that, according to the tes-
timony of some travellers, the horses and mules turned out to
graze at the end of a day's journey, are often brought in by the
guides in the morning with their shoulders and haunches covered
with blood ; nor is it an uncommon thing for the Vampyres to
enter the habitations of the natives, and fasten on the legs of
some incautious sleeper, who has not secured his feet within the
coverlid. But " nobody fears these animals, or gives himself
an^ trouble about them." The story of the Vampyre fanning
its victim with its large wings, to keep him cool, and render his
sleep more profound, is probably a fiction of the imagination. —
Other species of this family inhabit the Eastern Hemisphere, and
are insectivorous or partly frugivorous (fruit-eating) in their habits.
171. To the third Family, YESPERTILIONID^E, most of the
Bats of temperate climates belong ; and the number of species
of these is very numerous, no less than thirteen being natives of
Britain. Of these one of the largest is the Vespertilio noctula,
the Noctule, or Great Bat, which measures fifteen inches across the
wings; this is gregarious in its habits, associating in considerable
numbers ; and seeks its retreat sometimes in the hollow of trees,
at others under the roofs and eaves of houses. The Vespertilio
murinus, or Mouse-coloured Bat, exceeds the preceding by about
an inch in the expanse of its wings ; it is very common in many
parts of the Continent, living in ancient buildings, the towers of
churches, &c., but not resorting to the woods ; and is the one
usually implied by continental writers as the Bat, or Common
Bat ; in Britain, however, it is very rare. Although gregarious

FIG. 90 — COMMON BAT.

FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDvE. PIPISTRELLE. 189

in its habits, it is very quarrelsome, and will fight desperately
with its fellows. — The Vespertilio pipistrellus, the Flitter-Mouse
of some country people, is ordinarily known in Britain as the

CommonBat; being,
with the Long-eared
Bat, the most abun-
dant of the tribe.
This species has a
shorter period of
torpidity than any
other, coming forth
from its winter quar-
ters as early as the
middle of March,
and not permanently
retiring until the
winter has decidedly
set in. Its food consists especially of gnats and other dipter-
ous (two-winged insects) and as long as these are to be
found, the Bat seems to remain in activity, — coming forth, as
the season advances, during the daytime rather than at night,
since then only is the temperature sufficiently elevated to call
forth its insect prey. The Pipistrelle frequents the haunts of
Man more than any other species ; its usual retreat being under
the roofs of houses, and in the nooks or crevices of buildings of
every description, — as, for instance, in the cracks of old door-
frames, or behind the leaden rain-pipes. In its flight, which is
quick and flitting, it particularly frequents the neighbourhood of
rivers, flying about the trees which grow on the banks, or over
the surface of water, in search of gnats and other small insects.
It will readily feed, however, on meat ; being easily supported
on this diet in confinement ; and even sometimes finding its way
into larders, and making a hearty meal upon the joint it finds
there. — The Plecotus auritus, or Long-eared Bat, is remarkable,
as already mentioned, for the extraordinary development of
its external ears ; these are beautifully transparent, and are often
thrown, by the will of the animal, into the most elegant curves.

190

FAMILY VESPERTILIONID.E. LONG-EARED BAT.

It is very easily tamed, and is soon brought to show a con-
siderable degree of familiarity with those who feed and caress it,

FIG. 91 — LONG-EARED BAT.

so as to take a fly from the hand, or even from between the lips.

It is very playful in confine-
ment, when placed with others
of its own species, its gambols
being very amusing ; and it is
very cleanly in its habits.
The ears are usually folded
under the arm during sleep
and hybernation; and its ap-
pearance is so remarkably
altered by this action, that it
would be scarcely supposed
to be the same animal, by
a person who had not wit-
nessed the change. It has an
acute and shrill, but not a
loud cry ; but when disturbed,
the sound becomes more pierc-

FIG. 92 — LONG-EARED BAT IN REPOSE. . T , . -i ,1

ing. Its retreat is nearly the

same as that of the Common Bat ; and in some parts of the
country it is the more abundant of the two.

FAMILY NOCTILIONID^E. NOCTULES. 191

172. The Bats of the fourth family, NOCTILIONIDJE, are
almost exclusively confined to tropical countries, where a large

Fio.93.— NOCTJLJO.

number of species exist,— some in the Eastern, and others in
the Western hemisphere. Little is known, however, of their

FiG. 94.— DYSOPUS CHEIROPUS.

habits. The Noctilios, or Noctuks^ of South America, are, com-

192 FAMILIES NOCTILIONID^E AND PTEROPID^E.

monly known as Bull-dog Bats, on account of their short thick
muzzle, which is cleft, in some species, by a furrow similar to that
in the lip of a Hare. The tail projects beyond the membrane
that connects the hind-legs ; and the claws of the hind-feet are
large and strong. The length of the body is about four or five
inches ; and the spread of the wings at least a foot and a half.
In an East Indian genus, Dysopus, or Cheiromeles (Fig. 94), the
wings of which measure nearly two feet across, the hinder thumb
is placed at a distance from the rest of the toes, and is capable
of being opposed to them, — a character which obviously connects
this group with the Quadrumana. The tail is here short ; and
there is an almost entire absence of the membrane connecting the
hind-legs.

173. The Bats of the frugivorous section have molar teeth
with rounded eminences, for bruising and grinding their food ;
and the complex structure of their stomach, with the length of
the intestinal canal (which in the Pteropus is seven times that of
the body), also indicate that they are destined to subsist, in part
at least, upon a vegetable diet. Like many of the Monkeys,
however, they are probably in a degree omnivorous ; feeding
chiefly upon fruits, but pursuing small birds or large soft-bodied
insects (such as moths), which may be obtained without much
difficulty. This tribe contains but one family, the PTEROPID^E ;
which is characterised by the entire absence of the nose -leaf, the
simplicity of the ears, the shortness of the tail, and the absence
(partial or entire) of the membrane stretching between the
thighs. The Bats of this family are widely diffused throughout
the tropical regions of the Old "World ; and many of them
exceed in size any others of the order. One of the most remark-
able species is the Pteropus Javanicus, or Roussette of Java, a
Bat with a fox-like head, the expanse of whose wings is no
less than five feet. It is very abundant in the lower parts of
the island, and lives in troops, which do not appear to visit
the more elevated districts. Numerous individuals, says Dr.
Horsfield, select a large tree for their resort ; and suspending
themselves by the claws of their hind-limbs to the naked
branches, often in companies of several hundreds, afford to a

FAMILY PTEROPIDJB. ROUSSETTE.

193

FIG. 95.— HKAD OF PTEROPUS.

stranger a very singular aspect, — being readily mistaken for a
part of the tree, or for a fruit of uncommon size suspended from

its branches. In ge-
neral these animals
preserve a perfect si-
lence during the day ;
but if they are dis-
turbed, or a contention
arises among them,
they emit sharp pierc-
ing shrieks: and their
awkward attempts to
extricate themselves,
when oppressed by the
light of the sun, ex-
hibit a ludicrous spec-
tacle. In consequence
of the sharpness of

their claws, their attachment is so strong, that they cannot
readily leave their hold without the assistance of the expanded
membrane ; and if suddenly killed during the day, they con-
tinue suspended after death. Hence, if it be desired to obtain
them in the day-time, it is necessary to cause them to take wing
by alarming them. Soon after sunset they successively quit
their hold, and pursue their nocturnal flight in quest of food.
They direct their course by an unerring instinct to the forests,
villages, and plantations, attacking fruit of every kind, and
doing a vast amount of mischief. In order to protect valuable
fruits from their ravages, the natives are obliged to inclose them
in nets or baskets. There are few situations in the lower parts
of Java where this night-wanderer is not constantly observed ;
as soon as the light of the sun has retired, one animal is seen to
follow the other at a small but irregular distance ; and this suc-
cession continues uninterrupted, till darkness obstructs the view.
The flight of this Bat (termed by the natives, the Kalong)
is slow and steady, pursued in a straight line, and capable of
long continuance. — The Harpyia Pallasii of Timour, is a sin-

194

HARPYIA.— ORDER INSECTIVORA.

gular looking Bat, having nostrils projecting in a kind of cylin-
der, and a claw on the fore-finger. — The flesh of many of the

Fm. 96. — HARPYIA PALLASII.

frugivorous Bats is eaten as a dainty by the inhabitants of the
countries in which they are found ; having a flavour which has
been compared to that of the hare and partridge. It is possible
that some of larger species, which may have been known to the
ancients, gave rise to the fabulous account of the Harpy.

ORDER IV.—INSECTIVORA.

174. Although, as we have already seen, a large proportion

of the Bat tribe, as well as many
of the lower Quadrumana, are
adapted to derive their chief sup-
port from Insects, and have their
teeth and their general conforma-
tion arranged accordingly, yet it
is in this order that we find
FIG. 97— TBETH OF INSECTIVOROUS these characters developed to
their fullest extent. Though
the animals which it contains differ very greatly in other respects,

ORDER INSECTIVORA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 195

yet they all agree in having the teeth raised into conical and
pointed tubercles, for the purpose of crushing the hard envelopes
of their insect prey. They agree also, in being for the most part
nocturnal animals ; and, with some exceptions, in living under-
ground, or at least in exhibiting a tendency to such a mode of
life ; and all those which inhabit cold countries pass the winter
in a state of torpidity. They are timid little creatures; and
although constantly at work around us, and in a manner most
important to our welfare, their habits are so unobtrusive as to
escape our observation. They are especially appointed to check
the overwhelming increase of the worm and insect tribe, and
especially of those species which live beneath the soil ; the
ravages of which, if not thus kept within bounds, would be
speedily destructive to man and beast, by preventing the growth
of those vegetables on which they depend for food. Their general
conformation varies according to their mode of life ; but they
agree in the possession of clavicles, and in the application of the
sole of the foot to the ground ; and their limbs are generally
short. — The order may be divided into four families ; which
are characterized by their habits, as well as by their external
form and internal structure. 1. The TALPID.E, or Mole tribe,
which are pre-eminently subterranean, and are distinguished by
their extraordinary habit of forming long complicated burrows
underground, in which they are born, and in which they pass
their whole lives, — feeding, hybernating, breeding, and dying,
in these subterranean retreats. 2. The SORICID^;, or Shrew
tribe, which are a sort of carnivorous mice ; these, although
they do not actually burrow, retreat during the winter, and for
their ordinary repose, into holes ; they feed, however, on the
surface and in the water, — several of them being purely aquatic,
diving with facility after aquatic insects, and remaining a long
time under water without inconvenience. 3. The ERINACEAD^,
or Hedgehog tribe, contains animals which do not burrow or
descend into deep excavations ; but which conceal themselves
during hybernation beneath a covering of leaves, or in some
superficial hollow ; and which live upon food that they find
either upon or near the surface. These are further characterised

o 2

196 FAMILY TALPID^E; — MOLE.

by having the body covered with spines, instead of with hair ;
and by being for the most part capable of rolling the body
into a ball, so as to present nothing but spines on every side,
to their enemies. 4. The TUPAID^E, or Eanxrings^ which
live n trees, and climb them with the agility of a Monkey
or a Squirrel; these are evidently allied to the insectivorous
Quadrumana.

175. Of the TALPID^E we may take the common Talpa, or
Mole, of this country for an example. The general form and

aspect of this ani-
mal are wellknown,
and the remarkable
conformation of its
anteriorextremities,
by which it is ena-
bled to dig its
extensive subter-
ranean excavations,

FIG. 98. — COMMON MOLB. 7

has been already

noticed (§ 90). It here only remains, therefore, to describe certain
other peculiarities, in its structure and habits, which are of great
interest. The head is much prolonged, especially the muzzle,
which projects far beyond the jaws, and is very flexible, serving
to seize and convey food to the mouth ; it is furnished with a
little bone at its extremity, which renders it a very efficient
borer. The portion of the bones of the face appropriated to the
organ of smell is very large ; and that sense appears to be very
acute. On the other hand, there is scarcely any hollow for the
reception of the eyes ; which organs are but little developed, and
do not receive a true optic nerve. There is good reason to be-
lieve, however, that the common Mole possesses some degree of
sight ; although the Mole of Italy and Greece, which is a dif-
ferent species, is completely blind. The apparatus of hearing
is very highly developed ; so that, although there is no external
ear, the sense is probably very acute. Thus the deficiency of
sight, — which could very seldom be of use to an animal that
rarely shows itself above the surface of the ground, — is compen-

FAMILY TALPID^S ; MOLF. 197

sated by the high development of the senses of smell and hearing,
which are much more adapted to communicate information to it
in its subterranean abode. The body of the Mole is nearly
cylindrical in form, and is thus evidently adapted to move readily
through its tunnels ; it is covered with a very soft thick fur,
the hairs of which are inserted vertically in the skin, and lie
smoothly in every direction, so as not to offer more resistance to
the backward than to the forward movement of the animal.
The form of the anterior limbs, and the powerful muscles with
which they are furnished, enable the animal not merely to dig
through the soil, cutting through the roots, &c., which may tra-
verse it ; but also to throw backwards with great energy the
earth which has been removed at each stroke. The hind limbs
are small, and the feet feeble, in comparison with the anterior ;
but they serve to enable the animal to run through its galleries
with great rapidity. The food of the Mole consists chiefly of
earth-worms and the larvae of insects ; in search of which
it makes a large part of its extensive subterranean excava-
tions. But it is not confined to these ; for during the sum-
mer months it not unfrequently leaves its runs under the turf,
and wanders during the night upon the surface (occasionally
also during the day), in quest of prey, such as birds, mice, frogs,
lizards, snails, &c. ; and during these nocturnal excursions, it not
unfrequently falls a prey to the Owl. It is an extremely vora-
cious animal, taking a large quantity of food at a time, and so
soon requiring more, that a short fast proves fatal. Its hunger
amounts to rage ; and under the influence of this passion, it
fastens on its prey with intense eagerness. It is fierce and com-
bative in its disposition ; and will attack and devour its fellows,
if confined with them, without a due supply of food. The verjr
remarkable excavations made by the Mole, which are formed
upon a regular plan, and have several distinct purposes, will be
described in that portion of the Treatise, which will be parti-
cularly appropriated to the Habits and Instincts of Animals.

176. There are a few other animals, in different quarters of
the globe, which correspond with the Moles in general structure
and habits, but which differ from them in some important features.

198 FAMILY SORECID^E. — SHREWS.

Among the most curious are the Chrysochloris* or Cape Mole,
which is distinguished by the splendid colours of its fur, and is
the only known Quadruped, which exhibits anything like the
metallic lustre that adorns numerous birds, fishes, and insects :
— and the Condylura, a Mole-like animal of North America,
which has the termination of the nostrils surrounded by mov-
able cartilaginous points, that radiate like a star when expanded.
The use of this curious apparatus is unknown.

177. Of the family SORECIOE, the common Sorex. or Shrew,
of this country may be taken as the type. This is a small ani-
mal, covered with a velvetty fur, and having much of the general

form and aspect of the mouse ; in-
deed it is commonly known by the
name of Shrew-mouse, and believed
to be nearly allied to that little ani-
mal. The Shrews may be easily
distinguished, however, by their long
taper movable snout ; their eyes,

FIG 99.-SHREW. too> are verv minute> and alm°st

hidden in the surrounding hairs ;

and their ears are small and close. The body exhales a
musky odour, which renders them distasteful to cats, though
these will readily destroy them ; but it does not seem to be
disliked by weasels, hawks, and owls, which destroy these
little nocturnal Insectivora in great numbers. They
are common in hedge-rows, thickets, gardens, &c. ; and make
long superficial burrows, or runs, in banks, and among the
roots of trees or brushwood ; the female makes a sort of nest
of soft herbage, with an aperture at the side. They feed upon
worms, insects, &c. ; after which they grub with their pointed
snout, turning up the loose soil, or making their way through
the close herbage ; and they show much of the voraciousness and
pugnacity of the Mole. Besides the common Shrew, two other
species, the Water Shrew, and the Oared Shrew, inhabit this
country ; the habits of both are aquatic, as their names import,
— their burrows being formed in the banks of streams, and their
food consisting of aquatic insects and larvae, in pursuit of which

SHREWS. FAMILY ERINACEADJE, OR HEDGEHOGS. 199

they dive with great facility. The feet and tail are so formed
as to strike the water with force ; the fur has the power of re-
pelling water (or rather, it has a strong adhesion for air, which
prevents water from ever coming into complete contact with it,
MECHAN. PHILOS. § 34), so that it is never wetted ; and the
orifices of the ears can be closed, so as to prevent the entrance
of water. The Desmans, or Musk-rats (Fig. 58), of which one
species inhabits Russia, and another the Pyrenees, agree with the
Water Shrews in their general habits, but differ in their denti-
tion. They are much larger animals, the head and body mea-
suring ten inches, and the tail seven ; and they feed on leeches
and small fishes, whilst they become in their turn the prey of the
larger, to which they communicate their musky odour. Other
Shrew-like animals are found in different parts of the globe ; and
one of these, the Canadian Shrew-mole, appears to be, in its
general conformation and habits, a complete connecting link be-
tween the two families now described.

178. Of the family ERINACEAD.E we have also a character-
istic example, in the common Hedgehog ^ mUrchin, of this country;
an animal which is not uncommon in woods, copses, hedgerows,
&c., where it remains rolled up in its retreat during the day,
coming forth on the approach of twilight, and continuing on the
alert until morning. The power of doubling up the body, so as
to conceal the head and feet, and to present nothing but a ball,
thickly covered with spiny points, is more or less possessed by all
the animals of this family ; but it is nowhere so striking as in the
common Hedgehog, which possesses a peculiar muscle for the
purpose. The action of this muscle is not only to roll up the
body, but to set up and fix the spines, in such a manner that
they shall radiate from the ball. " Deprived by its structure,"
says Mr. Bell (British Mammalia, p. 76)> " of all means of
attacking its enemies, of defending itself by force, or of seeking
safety in flight, this harmless animal is yet endowed with a
safeguard more secure and effectual than the teeth and claws of
the Wild Cat, or the fleetness of the Hare. Its close covering
of sharp spines, — which are hard without brittleness, sufficiently
elastic to bear great violence without breaking, and fixed with

200 FAMILY ERINACEAD^E ; — HEDGEHOGS.

astonishing firmness in the tough, leathery skin, — forms not only
a solid shield to protect it from the effect of blows or falls, but
a shirt of prickly mail sufficiently sharp and annoying to deter
all but a few thorough-bred Dogs, or a half-starved Fox, from
venturing to attack it. Immediately that it is touched, or that
it sees any danger approaching, it rolls itself up into a compact
round ball, and presents this impenetrable panoply, beset by
innumerable spines standing out in every direction ; and the
more it is irritated or alarmed, the more firmly it contracts, and
the more strongly and stiffly the spines are set. The strength
and elasticity of this covering is such, that I have repeatedly
seen a domesticated Hedgehog in my own possession run towards
the precipitous walls of an area, and, without hesitation, without
a moment's pause of preparation, throw itself off, — contracting
at the same time into a ball, in which condition it reached the
ground from a height of 12 or 14 feet ; after a few moments it
would unfold itself and run off unhurt." The food of the Hedge-
hog in its natural state consists of insects, slugs, frogs, toads,
mice, and even snakes, which last it destroys with great
dexterity; it also devours eggs, young nestlings, and various
kinds of vegetable matter, for some of which it will bore with
its long snout. Its fondness for insects occasions it to be kept in
many houses in London, for the purpose of ridding the kitchens
of the innumerable hosts of cockroaches, by which they are
infested. It is easily rendered familiar, but does not manifest
any peculiar degree of intelligence. The hybernation of the
Hedgehog is very complete ; the whole winter being passed by
it in a state of complete torpidity. It makes its retreat in banks,
under the hollow roots of trees, in holes, or other sheltered and
convenient places, constructing a sort of nest or bed of grasses,
dried leaves, and moss, with which it covers itself very closely.
—The Tenrecs of Madagascar and the Mauritius closely resemble
the Hedgehog in their general characters; but differ in their
dentition, as also in the feebleness of their spines, and in the less
complete power of rolling themselves into a ball. Their habits
seem to resemble those of the common Hedgehog ; but they are
active only when the temperature is extremely high. They

FAMILY TUPAIDJE. ANALOGIES TO RODENTIA. 201

exhale a strong musky odour. The Gymnurus of Sumatra
appears to approach the Tenrecs and Hedgehogs in its dentition,
as well as in its spiny covering ; but it has the long scaly tail,
and pointed muzzle, of the Shrews.

179. The last family, that of TUPAIDJE, at present contains
only one genus, the Tupaia, or Banxring ; a remarkable animal,
of which only three species are known to exist, and these are
inhabitants of Sumatra and Java. They differ so decidedly in
conformation and habits from the other Insectivora, as not to be
capable of being placed in any of the preceding families ; and
they must, therefore, constitute a group by themselves. Instead
of being strictly terrestrial in their habits, like the other Insect-
ivora, they lead the life of Squirrels ; and have all the spright-
liness and activity, together with much of the general appearance,
of those animals. They are covered with soft and glistening
hair, and have a long, bushy tail ; so that, if it were not for their
long, pointed snout, they could not be easily distinguished at a
distance from Squirrels. Their habits are diurnal ; and they
feed on fruits and Insects.

180. We can scarcely take even a cursory view, like the
present, of the different forms contained in the order Insectivora,
without perceiving that it offers many striking analogies to the
Rodentia, — far distant as that order undoubtedly is. The analogy
between the Shrews and the Mice, the Water Shrews and the
Water Rats or Yoles, the Hedgehogs and the Porcupines, and
the Banxrings and the Squirrels, is very obvious ; and it may
not be altogether so far-fetched a comparison as it appears at first
sight, to compare the Mole and the Beaver, — both being distin-
guished above all the rest of their respective orders for their
instinctive propensities, — these propensities being directed towards
the construction of their habitations, — and the whole conforma-
tion of each being modified in accordance with its particular
object ; the dwelling of the Mole being excavated beneath the
surface of the ground, and that of the Beaver being erected above
it. Altogether it may be affirmed that the Insectivora hold a
rank in the Carnivorous division of the Mammalia, analogous to
that which the Rodentia take in the Herbivorous. Both would

202 ORDER CARNIVORA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

seem to rank lower than any of the groups to which they bear
the nearest relationship, in regard to their intelligence ; and, in
the economy of both, hybernation is a leading feature.

ORDER V.— CARNIVORA.

181. This group includes all the unguiculated Mammalia,
which show, in the structure of their teeth and digestive appa-
ratus, and in their general conformation, an adaptation to a diet
consisting of animal flesh. We have seen that, in many tribes
which have already come under our notice, there is a power of
subsisting in part, or even entirely, upon food of this kind ;
such is the case, for instance, with Man, and several of the
Monkey tribe. But all these animals are also capable of digesting,
and of subsisting on, food of a vegetable nature also; and where
the diet is exclusively animal, as in a large proportion of the
Bats, and in the Insectivora, it consists of Insects, Worms, &c.,
and not of the flesh of larger animals, on which the true Car-
nivora, in a state of nature, depend entirely (with few excep-
tions), for their support. The members of this order are readily
distinguished from all others, by the character of their teeth ;
which are formed for seizing, cutting, and tearing animal flesh.
In the greater number of them, the size of the canine teeth is the
most obvious mark of distinction ; these are large, strong, and

pointed, and project somewhat
forwards, so as to present them-
selves rather in front of the line
of the other teeth. Between the
canines of the two sides, are six
incisor teeth in each jaw ; these
are of moderate size, but are pro-
vided with sharp cutting edges.
The molar teeth, situated behind
FIO. 100.— TEKTH OF CARNIVOROUS the canines, are usually from four

ANIMAL. . , ,

to seven in number ; they are of
three different kinds; — those which immediately follow the canines

ORDER CARNIVORA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 203

(occupying the same position with the bicuspid teeth of Man,
ANIM. PHYSIOL., Fig. 92), being more or less pointed, and
termed false molars;— the next being especially adapted for
dividing animal flesh, by the form of its summit, which is raised
into a cutting edge, and termed carnivorous teeth ; — and the last,
or hindmost, having summits more or less rounded or tuberculated.

182. The proportion which these different classes of molar
teeth bear to each other in degree and development, accords with
the relative carnivorous propensity of the different families.
Thus, in the Cat tribe, which in a state of nature is exclusively
carnivorous, the tuberculated molars are entirely wanting in the
lower jaw, and are very small in the upper ; whilst the carni-
vorous molars are of very large size, and the false molars
partake of their form. On the other hand, in the Bears, which
are adapted to derive a great part of their subsistence from
vegetable food, there are three large tuberculated molars on each
side of each jaw ; and the size and sharpness of the carnivorous
tooth are not nearly as remarkable as in the preceding group.
And in the Dog tribe, which is intermediate in this respect
between the two extremes, there are two tuberculous grinders
behind each carnivorous tooth ; and this tooth is itself partly
tuberculated, — that is, a portion of its sharp cutting edge is
superseded by a rounded summit. We find the alimentary
canal formed in accordance with the character of the teeth ; for,
the nature of the food being such that it is easily reduced to a
fluid form by the process of digestion, and the whole of the
nutritious matter being easily removed from it, a long, compli-
cated intestinal tube would have been superfluous ; and instead
of its length being thirty times that of the body (as in many
herbivorous animals), it is no more than three times as long as
the body in the Cat tribe, though of greater length in the less
carnivorous species. The stomach, too, is very simple in its form,
and is of small size in comparison to the bulk of the animal ; for
the facility with which the food is digested, allows it to pass
rapidly through that organ, instead of its being long delayed
there, as it is in the capacious paunch of the Ruminantia.

183. The whole conformation of these animals is evidently

204 ORDER CARNIVORA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

adapted to the same purposes. We do not find such differences
in the structure of the anterior and posterior limbs, as we have-
seen in Man, the Bats, and the Mole ; all of them are equally
adapted for supporting the body on the ground, and for enabling
it to execute rapid and energetic movements upon the surface of
the earth, as in running, leaping, &c. The only exceptions to
this principle are among the aquatic species, such as the Otter
and Seal, in which we find an adaptation, more or less complete,
for residence in the water ; and the comparatively sluggish
Bears, a large part of whose life is passed among trees. The
muscular energy of the Carnivora is very great ; their respiration
and circulation very active ; and the demand for food, therefore,
(on the principles elsewhere stated, ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 140), is
very constant. The rapid movement which they require for
pursuing a living prey is provided for in the structure of their
limbs, which are usually long, and moved by powerful muscles.
As these limbs have but little variety of movement (their action
in running and leaping being simply backwards and forwards),
a clavicle is but little required ; and this bone is usually very
small, not uniting the shoulder to the breast-bone, and is some-
times almost entirely deficient. In the Bears, however, whose
fore-limbs must be kept more apart, for the purpose of climbing,
and must be provided with strong muscles to draw them
together, we find a more complete clavicle than in most others
of the order. The two bones of the fore-arm still remain distinct,
and are capable of being in some degree rotated, one on the other,
as in Man.

184. In regard to the arrangement of the bones of the hands
and feet, we find a marked variation in different species. In the
most active, and especially in those which have the greatest
powers of leaping, these bones are so connected with those above,
as to form nearly a continuous line with them ; and the animal
rests upon the points only of the toes. But in others, the hands
and feet are so united with the limbs above, that the animal
bears upon its palms and soles, thus acquiring a firmer footing,
but losing in activity. The animals which have the former con-
formation are said to be digitigrade ; those possessing the latter

ORDER CARN1VORA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

205

to be plantigrade. The Cats are an example of the first ; the
Bears of the second. The conformation of the extremities in the
Seals offers a third variety ; for their bones are flattened and
shortened, but spread out from one another, so as to give support
to the fin- like expansion of the skin, that envelopes and connects
them nearly to their extremities. In all instances the phalan-

geal bones are terminated by
claws, which are both strong
and sharp, and are usually
curved. This is especially
the case in the Cat tribe;
in which there is also a very
remarkable provision for en-
abling the animal to project
them only when they are
required, keeping them drawn
in at other times. The last
phalangeal bone, to which
the claw is attached, has a
rotatory movement upon the
preceding one; this move-
ment is effected in one direc-
tion by a powerful muscle,
which draws the bone down-
wards and causes the claw to project ; whilst there is a ligament
composed of elastic fibrous tissue ( ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 29), which
draws the bone in the other direction, and retracts the claw
within a kind of sheath. When the animal is walking, running,
or leaping, the claws are thus drawn in, without any exertion on
the part of the animal, by the simple elasticity of the ligament ;
and they are thus secured, either from receiving injury by wear
against the ground, or from impeding the movements of the
animal by becoming entangled in the inequalities of its surface,
or in the vegetation that covers it. In this state of the claws
the animal bears upon a number of soft cushions, one beneath
each toe ; which enable it to steal with noiseless steps upon its
prey, and thus, by surprising them, to vanquish animals whose

FIG. 101. — LEG AND CLAW OF LION.

206 DIVISION OP CARNIVORA INTO FAMILIES,

size would make their resistance formidable, or whose swiftness
would give them a good chance of escape from direct pursuit.
But when they have made their spring, the claws are caused to
project, by the action of the muscle just mentioned ; and they
are then used to seize and tear their prey, for which purposes
their strength, sharpness, and curved form render them very
efficient. The movement here described may be readily observed
by every one, in the foot of the Domestic Cat.

1 85. The division of this order into families is chiefly based upon
the conformation of the teeth and extremities, which here afford
very constant and distinct characters, and are closely connected with
the general structure and habits of the animals. 1 . FELID^, or
Cat tribe ; this is evidently the typical family of the order, being
the one in which the carnivorous propensity is most strongly
manifested, and in which the instruments of destruction are most
completely adapted for its exercise. The family is characterised by
the short powerful jaws, the digitigrade extremities, the retractile
claws, and the peculiar adaptation of the teeth for cutting. The
dentition is as follows ; incisors •§-, canines ^J, false molars j£|,
carnivorous molars ^, tuberculated molars ~. The canines are
of great siae and strength ; the molars have sharp edges, the car-
nivorous tooth is very large and sharp, the tuberculated molar
behind it very small in the upper jaw, and not at all developed
in the lower. 2. MUSTELID.E, or Weasel tribe ; these are dis-
tinguished by their long narrow bodies, and by their propensity
to suck blood, rather than to devour flesh ; they are mostly
semi-plantigrade, a portion of the sole touching the ground, espe-
cially in the hind feet ; and their dentition is as follows ; incisors
^, canines |^, false molars ^, carnivorous tooth ^, tubercular
molar (small) £J. Thus we see that they approach the Felidae
in their dentition, as they do in their sanguinary habits. 3. The
CANID^E, or Dog tribe ; the animals of this family are digitigrade,
like the Cats, but their claws are not retractile ; their carnivor-
ous propensity is not so strong ; the jaws are more elongated ;
and the dentition is as follows ; incisors f , canines i±|, false
molars ^, carnivorous molars ~, tuberculated molars |^.

DIVISION OP CABNIVORA INTO FAMILIES. FELID^. 207

4. VIVERRID^E, or Civet tribe ; this family is closely connected
with all the preceding, and also with the Ursidas ; and it does not
possess any well-marked distinguishing characters ; nevertheless
we shall see that the animals it contains bear a strong general
resemblance to each other. The body is somewhat elongated; the
claws partly retractile ; the feet, in some digitigrade, in some
semi-plantigrade ; their habits are nocturnal ; and many (espe-
cially the types of the family) are remarkable for their strong
musky odour. The dentition is variable ; in the true Civets it
is as follows ; incisors -|, canines ^7, false molars gEf , carnivorous
tooth J^J, tuberculated molars ||. 5. URSID^E, or Bear tribe ;
the animals of this family are characterised by their robust
figure, heavy gait, and plantigrade walk ; as well as by the
adaptation of their teeth to a partly vegetable diet. The incis-
ors are f-, and the canines J^T, aa usual (the latter, however,
being small) ; the molars are usually ^, the three hindmost of
which are tuberculated, the carnivorous tooth of small size and
not possessing its characteristic form, and the false molars very
small, often dropping out at an early age. 6. PHOCID.E, or
Seed tribe ; these are at once distinguished by the adaptation of
their form to residence in the water, the body being elongated
and tapering from the chest to the tail, the hinder limbs being
directed backwards, so as to terminate the body, and the extre-
mities being converted into paddles. The dentition is variable
in the different genera, but it differs completely from that of the
other Carnivora ; the teeth are especially formed for laying hold
of the slippery prey on which these animals feed, and for divi-
ding the body of the fish they devour into large portions.

186. The FELID.E are all essentially carnivorous ; in no in-
stance touching vegetable food, except under the influence of
domestication, and even then only in small quantity. They will
not, unless pressed by hunger, devour any flesh which they have
not themselves killed ; and altogether reject that which is un-
dergoing decomposition. They are, consequently, of all Mam-
malia, the most destructive in their propensities ; and their
bodily powers are in admirable accordance with their instincts.
Their frame is vigorous, but agile, — the limbs short, — the joints

208 FAMILY FELIDJE, OR CAT TRIBE.

well-knit, but supple, — and every motion is easy, free, and
graceful. There is no superfluous flesh ; but the whole seems
composed of bone, nerve, muscle, and sinew. They are sur-
passed in fleetness by many of the animals on which they prey,
— these being provided with longer limbs ; but none of these
approach them in the power of leaping and bounding. Their
footfall is rendered noiseless, by the pads with which the under
surface is provided. Their senses are for the most part very
acute. Their sight is adapted for vision by night as well as by
day ; the sense of hearing is exquisite ; that of smell also is
in great perfection, though in this particular they are surpassed
by the Canidse ; and the long whiskers are most acute organs of
touch, which must be of the greatest value when the animal is
stealing upon its prey at night, through a thicket or jungle.
The tongue is furnished with rough horny papillas, directed back-
wards ; these serve a very important purpose in enabling the
animal to scrape off the minute particles of flesh adherent to the
bones of its prey. In the moderate degree in which this pecu-
liar conformation exists in the tongue of the common Cat, it is
familiar to every one ; in the Lion and Tiger, however, the
roughness is so great, tha^ one stroke of the tongue would lick
off the skin from a man's hand. As already stated (§ 15), the
different species of this family for the most part bear a very close
resemblance to one another, in general conformation, though
differing widely in size ; and it is chiefly by their variation in
this last respect, that their habits are guided. Thus the Lion,
and Tiger, the largest of the Felines, are confined to the ground ;
the Leopard, Panther, and various species of Tiger-Cats some-
times spring upon their prey from the branches of trees, some-
times from the ground ; whilst the Wild Cats are almost
exclusively arboreal, seeking their food amongst trees, and com-
paratively seldom frequenting the ground. Most of the Felidas
may be tamed, if early brought under the influence of Man ;
and they show considerable intelligence when domesticated.
They are for the most part liable, how ever, to occasional out-
breaks of ferocity, which show that their natural instincts are

FAMILY FELID^E ; LION. 209

repressed rather than subdued ; and too much confidence, there-
fore, should not be placed in them.

187. Some species of this family are found in every quarter
of the globe except Australia, where they are replaced by carni-
vorous Marsupials ; it is of tropical climates alone, however, that
the largest are inhabitants. The Lion is at present restricted to
the interior wilds of Africa, to some of the districts of Arabia
and Persia, to the country bordering the Euphrates, and to some
parts of India. It is more disposed to exhibit varieties, than
most other species of the family, except the Domestic Cat. Thus
the Barbary breed, the Senegal breed, the Cape breed, the Ben-
gal breed, and the Persian or Arabian breeds, all present slight
differences from each other, in the development of the mane, and
the colour of the fur ; and a nearly maneless breed has lately
been described as occurring in Guzerat; yet they all unques-
tionably belong to the same species. The Lion, too, is more
easily domesticated than the Tiger ; and shows a degree of gene-
rosity and nobleness of temper, which more approaches that of
the Dog. The common appellation, — " king of the forest" — is
misapplied to the Lion ; for he frequents, not forests, but burning
desert plains, and wide karroos covered only with shrubby vege-
tation, or interspersed with tracts of low brushwood. During
the day he usually slumbers in his retreat ; and as night sets in,
he rouses from his lair and begins his prowl. The 'nocturnal
tempests of rain and lightning, which in Southern Africa are
of common occurrence, seem to be peculiarly congenial to him,
and excite him to increased activity. His voice then mingles
with the roar of the thunder, and adds to the confusion and
terror of the beasts on which he preys, and upon which he now
advances with less caution and with a bolder step. In general,
however, he waits in ambush, or creeps insidiously towards his
victim ; and then springs on it with a tremendous bound, and
terrific roar. Various extraordinary stories are related, of the
degree in which the eye of Man, steadily fixed upon a Lion, can
keep him at bay ; yet this is no proof of want of courage ; on
the contrary, the Lion, when attacked, displays the utmost
daring resolution. His strength is such, as to enable him to carry

210 FAMILY FELID^E; — TIGER, LEOPARD, AND PANTHER.

off a large heifer or antelope, as easily as a cat carries off a rat.
The muscles which raise the jaw are of enormous size ; and those
which support the head, as well as the ligamentum nuchce which
runs along the spinous processes of the vertebrae to the occiput
(ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 29), are very highly developed.

188. The Tiger must be regarded as the typical species of
the family ; presenting, as it does, all the peculiarities of the
group, most strongly marked. It is exclusively confined to the
south-east of Asia, and to the larger islands of the Asiatic
Archipelago ; where its ravages are often terrific. It is equal
in size to the Lion, but of a more elongated form, and is pre-
eminently graceful in its movements ; the head, also, is shorter
and more rounded. Its body and tail are marked by bands of a
dark colour ; and these are much more constant (although the
particular shade varies) than the mane and other peculiarities of
the Lion. The presence of dark bands or patches on a tawny
ground, may be regarded as very characteristic of the Felidae in
general ; and this is another point in which there is a deficiency

FIG. 101.— PANTHBR.

in the Lion.— The Leopard and. Panther, between which it is not
easy -to distinguish, are more widely spread through the tropical

LEOPARD, PANTHER, AND CHEETAH.

211

portions of the Old World ; being natives of Africa, India, and
the Indian islands, as Ceylon, Sumatra, &c. They are very
graceful and active animals ; possessing bodies of great flexibility;
and being able to bound, swim, climb trees, or crawl like a snake
upon the ground, with nearly equal facility. They generally
take refuge in trees when pursued ; and occasionally spring upon
their prey from its branches. The Monkeys and other small
arboreal animals, as well as the terrestrial quadrupeds, fall a
prey to them. — Several other species of Felines inhabit the East;
but of these we shall only mention the Cheetah or Hunting
Leopard (Felis jubata) ; which departs, in many particulars, from

FIG. 102 — HUNTING LEOPARD.

the general characters of the family. The foot, instead of being
rounded, is long and narrow ; its claws are but slightly retractile ;
and the body and limbs are longer and narrower than in the
Leopard, with which it corresponds in size. This animal is a
native of Africa and India ; and in the latter country it has been
long employed in hunting Deer, Antelopes, &c. In captivity,

p 2

212 FAMILY FKLIDjK ; — PUMA, JAGUAR.

it is familiar, gentle, and playful ; and becomes greatly attached
to those who feed or notice it. When carried out to the field, it
is blinded ; and the hood is taken off when a Deer or Antelope
separates itself from the herd. The Cheetah then crouches until
it approaches its prey, and then bounds on it by a few vigorous
springs. When once it has tasted the blood of its victim, its
original nature breaks out, and it can with difficulty be drawn
away by its keeper.

189. These animals are represented in America by the Purna,
Jaguar, and other species. The Puma has been commonly
termed the American lion, on account of its uniformity of colour,
which is a silvery-fawn ; in its young state it is marked with
blackish-brown streaks, but these disappear with the advance
of age. Though the largest of the American Felines, it by no
means equals the Lion in size and strength. It is extensively
diffused through North and South America ; but it is more scarce
than formerly, and its range is more contracted ; and as civilisa-
tion advances, it will be still further reduced. The Puma is
very destructive to the native animals and cattle in its vicinity,

.P~";

Fro. 103.— JAGUAR.

but it seldom attacks man. The Jaguar may be regarded as the
Panther of America ; but it is even more powerful, and almost
rivals the Tiger of the Indian jungles. It swims and climbs

FAMILY FELID^E ; OCELOT, WILD CAT. 213

with equal ease ; and preys not only on the larger domestic
quadrupeds, and on the wild mammals, but also on birds, fish,
and tortoises, and on the eggs of the turtle. It will not attack
Man, however, unless hard pressed. — Several Tiger-Cats inhabit
South America ; of which the Ocelot is among the most beau-
tiful. It is often exhibited in menageries, and is good-tempered
and playful if kindly used. It inhabits the deep forests, living
chiefly in trees, and preying upon small quadrupeds or birds, for
which it lies in wait, concealed under the foliage.

190. The Wild Cat is the only species of this family that can

FIG. 104.— WILD CAT.

be properly said to belong to our own country, — the Domestic
Cat having been probably introduced at a very remote
period. In earlier times, when woods and forests covered many
parts of the kingdom which are now reclaimed and devoted to
agriculture, the Wild Cat was much more generally distributed ;
but it is now confined to Scotland, some of the woods in the
North of England, the woody mountains of Wales, and some
parts of Ireland. Their favourite places of resort are the most
inaccessible mountainous woods ; where they retreat not only to
hollow trees, or the depth of thickets, but to concealed fissures
of rocks, in which they seek their safety and repose, and bring
forth and rear their young. Hares, leverets, rabbits and birds

214 FAMILY FELIDjE; DOMESTIC CAT, LYNX.

are its chief prey. The Wild Cat is found throughout all those
countries of Europe, in which extensive forests exist ; especially
in Germany, and in the wooded portions of Russia, Hungary,
and Northern Asia. It was at one time supposed, that the
Domestic Cat is a descendant of this wild species; but the
points of difference between them are such, as to render this idea
very improbable ; especially as the specimens, not unfrequently
to be met with, of Domestic Cats which have gone back to their
original wild life in the woods, do not exhibit any tendency to re-
turn to this form. There is a species of Wild Cat in Egypt, which
corresponds with the race that seems to have been domesticated
by the ancient Egyptians ; of this race, specimens are still pre-
served in the mummy state. To this species, our own Domestic
Cat has been referred by some naturalists ; whilst others think
that the origin of the race has yet to be discovered.*

191. The Lynxes differ slightly from the other Felines, in
having the ears tufted with pencils of hairs, in the shortness of

FIG. 105.— COMMON LYNX.

the tail, and in the greater elevation of the body at the haunches.
They are less courageous, as well as less domesticable, than the
other Felines; and show a sullen and suspicious disposition.
There are several species ; of which some inhabit Europe, others
Asia and Africa, and others America. They live upon small

* See Bell's British Quadrupeds, p. 185.

FAMILY MUSTELID.E; — POLE-CAT, STOAT, ETC. 215

quadrupeds and birds, pursuing the latter to the tops of trees ;
some of them also resort to the water, to feed on fishes ; and it is
said that they have less indisposition to carrion than the other
members of the family, and will follow the Lion and other large
beasts of prey, for the purpose of feeding on what they leave.

192. The animals of the family MUSTELID.E are smaller, for
the most part, than those of the preceding group, and conse-
quently less formidable, as far as Man is concerned ; but they
are equally sanguinary in their propensities and habits, and are
equally destructive to the races on which they are appointed to
prey, — the smaller mammals, with birds, reptiles and fishes.
From the shortness of the legs, the elongation, slenderness, and
flexibility of their bodies, and their gliding movements, they
have been not unaptly called Vermiform (worm-like) Carnivora.
They are silent, cautious, and creeping ; and attack their prey
with unflinching resolution. Having seized their victim, they
never let go their hold. They generally aim at the neck below
the ear, where they pierce the large blood-vessels with their
teeth ; or they fix upon the back of the head, and drive their
teeth through the skull. Few quadrupeds surpass them in
agility and address ; they bound and spring with vigour, and
climb trees with astonishing dexterity, traversing the branches
with a rapid gliding motion. Their habits are nocturnal ; and
they pass the greatest part of the day in their retreats, which
are the hollows of decayed trees, burrows, holes in walls, and
similar places. "With the approach of night, they rouse from their
slumbers, and, greedy for blood, begin their prowl. A Pole-cat
in the neighbourhood of a farm-yard, is a direful pest ; and will
destroy in one night a whole brood of poultry, for the sake of the
blood and the brains. Most of these animals have a strong disa-
greeable odour ; which is extremely offensive in some species.
Several of the most costly and beautiful furs are obtained from
this family ; among them those of the Sable and Ermine. — The
Pole-cat, Stoat, Ferret, Marten, and Weasel, are British repre-
sentatives of this family : they strongly resemble each other in
structure and habits ; and all present the characters which have
been just detailed. The Stoat is of the same species with the

216 FAMILY MUSTELIDJE ; MARTEN, GLUTTON, SKUNK.

Ermine ; the latter being the Stoat in its winter dress. In our
own climate this change is not complete ; but in more northern

FIG. 106. — MARTEN.

regions, the whole body becomes white, except the tip of the
tail, which remains black. The Pine-Marten of North America,
the Sable of Northern Asia, and the Zorilla of Southern Africa,
are also typical species, nearly allied to these.

193. This family includes, however, several other animals,
which connect it with neighbouring groups, and manifest its pecu-
liarities in a less striking degree. Among these are the Gluttons of
the northern regions of the Old and New World ; which (though
by some placed among the Ursidse) are evidently intermediate
between the Polecat and the Badger, agreeing with the former
in their dentition, and having somewhat more of the general
figure and aspect of the latter. They are slow and comparatively
deficient in agility ; but they are very persevering and deter-
mined, as well as cunning. They often proceed at a steady pace
for miles, hunting out weak or dying animals, and stealing
unawares upon hares, marmots, birds, &c. They are said to
surprise the larger animals, such as the Reindeer and the Elk, as
they lie asleep ; and to tear the neck and throat in the same
manner as the Weasel. The Glutton fights very resolutely;
and its great strength renders it more than a match for a single
Dog of its own size. The Skunk, another intermediate genus,
is remarkable for the intolerable odour of the secretion from its

FAMILY MUSTELID^E ; — SKUNK, RATEL, BADGER.

217

glandular pouches ; which neither man nor dog can endure. This
fluid it has the power of ejecting upon its pursuers, when hard
pressed ; and it serves as a most complete means of defence, a
single drop being enough to produce nausea, and a sense of suffo-
cation. Of this genus, four or five species are known ; which
are all American. In the preceding animals, the walk is slightly
plantigrade ; and it is still more so in the Ratel, of which one
species inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, whilst another is a
native of India. This a thick-set clumsy animal, nearly resem-
bling the Badger in aspect, as well as in dentition. The Cape
Ratel is celebrated for the destruction it makes among the nests
of the wild-bee, to the honey of which it is very partial ; and in
the discovery of these nests it is said to be guided by the actions
and voice of a bird, called the Honey-guide. The Badger^

FIG. 107-— COMMON BADGER.

which is almost completely plantigrade in its walk, presents a
strong resemblance to some of the Ursidse in its general
aspect ; but is separated from that family by an important
distinction. All the Bears and their allies, have at least
two tuberculated molars ; whilst the Badger has but one.
This, however, is of very large size in the upper jaw, and is
adapted for the mastication of vegetable aliment. Its food

218 FAMILY MUSTELINE; — BADGER. OTTER.

consists of roots, earth-nuts, fruits, and eggs, as well as of small
mammals ; and it is said also to attack the nests of the wild-bee,
plundering the store of honey, and also devouring the larvee,
without dread of the stings of the enraged insects, which cannot
penetrate its tough skin. Its favourite haunts are obscure and
gloomy ; it retires to the deepest recesses of woods, or to thick
coppices on the side of hills ; and there, with its long and power-
ful claws, it digs for itself a deep and well-formed domicile,
consisting of several chambers, the inner one of which is of a cir-
cular form, and is comfortably lined with grass and hay. Here the
animal spends the day in repose, moving out only at night in
search of food. The Badger possesses great muscular power,
especially in the jaws ; and the firmness of the grasp which it
can take with its teeth is increased by a peculiar conformation
of the joint, — the condyle, or articulating head of the lower jaw
being received deeply into the glenoid cavity, (ANIM. PHYSIOL.,
§ 623), which bends over it before and behind, so as to retain it
in its place, even when all the muscles and ligaments have been
removed. It may be easily tamed, if taken young ; and shows
great attachment to Man. The common species is still found in
some parts of England and Scotland,. and in almost every other
country in Europe, though it is nowhere very abundant ; it also
extends over Middle Asia, and is said to be very common in
China, where it is used as food. There is a distinct species in
India, and another in North America ; but their habits seem to
bear a close resemblance to those of the one best known.

1 94. A still more aberrant form of the Weasel tribe, is the
Otter ', an aquatic animal, which conducts us, in its general con-
formation and habits, towards the Seals. Many of the true
Weasels resort occasionally to the water in quest of food ; and in
those species, the form of the body approaches that of the Otter.
In their dentition, the Otters differ but little from the Polecats,
Martens, and Skunks ; the false molars being ~, the carnivor-
ous teeth j~, and the tuberculated molars ~. The body is
elongated and flattened in its form ; the limbs short and stout ;
the toes (five on each foot) are webbed and spreading ; the soles
are naked. The tail is long, stout and muscular at its base,

FAMILY MUSTELID^E; — OTTER. 219

tapering towards the extremity, and somewhat flattened horizon-
tally. The fur is close, short, and fine ; consisting of a thick
woolly undercoat, and an upper layer of smooth glossy hairs.
The head is broad and flat ; the ears are very small and close to
the skull ; and the eyes are provided with a nictitating membrane
(or third half-transparent eyelid, like that of Birds) as a defence
to their surface. All these characters plainly indicate the adapt-
ation of the animal to an aquatic residence ; and an acquaint-
ance with its habits shows their purpose. On land, the move^-
ments of the Otter are by no means free or rapid ; but it makes
to the water when attacked, and there it swims with the greatest
facility. Its motions in the water are remarkably graceful ; it
swims at every depth with great rapidity, every now and then
coming up to the surface to take breath, and then diving like a
shot, following its prey through every turn with the greatest per-
severance, until its exhausted victim can no longer escape the
jaws of its rapacious foe. Its food naturally consists entirely of
the Fish which it thus captures ; and in pursuit of them it will
even descend along rivers to the sea : but when fish are scarce,
it will assume the habits of the Stoats and Weasels, resorting far
inland to the neighbourhood of the farm-yard, and attacking
lambs, sucking-pigs, and poultry. The Otter does not excavate
a burrow for itself, as some have affirmed ; but avails itself of
any convenient hollow for its residence, — such as those beneath
the overhanging roots of trees which grow on the banks of
rivers. It is capable of being domesticated, when taken young ;
and may be used to catch fish for its master. Bishop Heber
mentions that the Indian fishermen keep the Asiatic species for
this purpose, and that they find them of great use in fishing ;
and justly remarks that " the simple Hindoo here shows a better
taste and judgment, than half the Otter-hunting and Badger-
baiting gentry of England." There is a species of Otter, found on
the North-west coast of America, and on the opposite coast of
Asia, which frequents the sea-shore almost exclusively, and bears
a still stronger resemblance to the Seals, than does the common
species. Its tail is shorter ; and its hind-feet, which form very
broad and powerful paddles, are directed far back. The teeth

220 FAMILY CANID^E; — WOLF.

are evidently formed for bruising hard substances ; and the ani-
mal probably lives upon Mollusks and Crustacea, as well as upon
Fish.

195. The family CANIDJE, or Dog tribe, will not detain us
long ; since the number of distinct forms which it contains
(according to the classification here adopted) is small ; and
several of the most interesting questions relating to them have
been already discussed. If the idea put forwards in the
Introductory Chapter (§ 14), — that the Dog and Wolf are of
the same species, — should prove correct, we shall be of course
led to regard the Wolf as the type of the family. This animal,
as is well known, is no longer an inhabitant of our own country ;
having been completely extirpated from England many centuries
ago, and more recently from Scotland and Ireland. The last
record of their existence in England in any formidable numbers,
was in the year 1281 ; but it is stated, that in 1577» they were very
destructive to the flocks in Scotland; and in Ireland they were ex-
terminated only at the beginning of the last century. The Wolf
is still spread, however, through almost every part of the Conti-
nent of Europe, and Northern Asia ; especially in mountain and
forest districts, and where the population is scanty. It is ex-
tremely destructive to domesticated animals in the districts where
it abounds ; as is shown by the following official report made to
the Russian Government, of the slaughter committed by the
Wolves of the district of Livonia, — a tract about 250 miles long
by 150 broad,— in the year!822. Horses, 1841 ; cattle, 1807 ;
calves, 733 ; sheep, 15,182 ; lambs, 726 ; goats, 2545; kids,
183 ; swine, 4190 ; young pigs, 312 ; dogs, 703 ; geese, 673 ;
fowls, 1243. It seldom attacks Man, however, except when
pressed by hunger, and when associated with others of its kind.
The general aspect of the Wolf is well known. Its frame is
robust but gaunt, its gait skulking and irresolute, its physiog-
nomy has a wild and sinister expression, and its character is
marked by mingled ferocity, cunning, and cowardice. It is
habitually cautious and suspicious, so that it is not easy to
take it in traps ; and when pursued it rushes along with great
velocity ; but when brought to bay, it defends itself with the

FAMILY CANID^J; WOLF, DOG, JACKAL, FOX. 221

greatest determination. Its strength is very great, especially in
the muscles of the head, neck, and shoulders ; and its bite very
severe. Its capability of being domesticated has been already
noticed. Several distinct species of Wolves are found in different
parts of the globe, especially in America ; they vary somewhat
in size and power, and in the degree of predominance of the cun-
ning or of the ferocity of their characters ; but their general
habits are much the same as those of the common Wolf.

196. Of the Dog, it is unnecessary (after what has been
already said) to give any Zoological description ; an account of
its varieties or breeds would not fall within the province of this
work ; and instances of its sagacity and reasoning power will be
more properly given in the last division of this Treatise. We
shall therefore pass on to notice briefly some other species of this
family. — The Jackal is somewhat intermediate in its character
between the Wolf and the Fox ; resembling the former in its
habits, and the latter in its appearance. It associates in troops,
which lie concealed in holes during the day, and which come
forth at night with dismal shrieks, attacking any animals they
are capable of overcoming. It feeds greedily also upon carrion
and offal of every description ; and is thus of service in removing
what has been left by other beasts of prey. The Common
Jackal has a range from the North of Africa, through Syria,
Persia, and the greater part of India; and other species are
found in the middle and South of Africa, where they may be
considered as replacing the Wolf. — The Fox is chiefly charac-
terised by its sharp muzzle and long bushy tail ; as well as by
the cunning of its character, which has passed into a proverb.
The common species is an inhabitant of most parts of Europe,
as well as of Britain ; and extends also into Northern Asia.
Its senses are extremely acute, so as alike to inform it of the
neighbourhood of its prey, and to warn it of the approach of
danger. It usually remains concealed during the day, in a bur-
row which it has either made for itself, or usurped ; and ventures
abroad chiefly at night, with stealthy movements, in search of
food. Though slightly made, the Fox has great muscular vigour,
and bites with much severity. Even when taken at a very

222

FAMILY CANIDJ3; — COMMON AND ARCTIC FOX.

early age, it is never properly domesticated ; and adults, when
placed in confinement, show great ferocity and soon die. It is

Fro. 108.— COMMON Fox.

to its power of endurance and its great speed, as well as to the
cunning which dictates various expedients for escape, that the
chase of this animal owes its exciting character ; and were it
not for the artificial preservation of the race, for the purpose of
the sportsman, it would long since have been extirpated from this

rti<W&»

FIG: 109— ARCTIC Fox.

country. Among the most common of its expedients for escape,
is feigning death ; which is done by several other animals

FAMILY CANIDJE J FOX, LYCAON. 223

also. Numerous other species of Fox exist in the Old and
New Worlds ; of these, however, we shall only stop to notice
the Arctic Fox, which is confined to the high northern latitudes.
The hair of this animal, in summer, is of a dusky ash or leaden
hue ; but in winter it assumes a pure white. The fur also
becomes fuller and thicker, and even deeply covers the soles of
the feet. — The Lycaon pictus, or Cape Hunting-dog, is the last
species of this family, to which we shall advert. It forms a
complete transition to the next family, from its strong resem-

FIG. 110. — LYCAON PICTUS.

blance to the Hyaena, not only in general aspect, but also in pos-
sessing but four toes on its fore and hind-feet. It agrees with
the Canidae, however, in its dentition and habits ; and may be
regarded as just such an aberrant form of that family, as we
might expect to find making a transition to the next. It is a
wild, fleet, and savage animal, hunting in packs by day as well
as by night ; and advancing by stealth on prey, which it will
not venture to attack openly.

197. Of the family VIVERRHXE, we shall first notice one of
the typical genera, the Viverra or Civet ; which is characterised
by the possession of a double pouch, that secretes a fatty sub-
stance of a strong musky odour, used as a perfume ; by the half-
retractile power of the claws ; and by the pupil of the eye being
circular during the day, instead of being contracted into a vertical

224 FAMILY VIVERRIDJE ; CIVET, GENET, ICHNEUMON.

line as in the Cat tribe. The general aspect of this animal is
shown in the accompanying figure ; it is wild and savage in

its character, preying upon birds, reptiles, and small mammals,
which it takes by surprise ; it exhibits great energy and bodily
activity ; and, though the young are easily tamed, adults can
never be reconciled to captivity. The best known species is
peculiar to North Africa, and is especially common in Abyssinia ;
but others are found in different parts of the warmer regions of
the Old World. The Genets, of which one species inhabits the
South of Europe, present many points of resemblance to the
Feline tribe, in manners, as well as in anatomical characters and
general aspect ; their claws are completely retractile. And the
connection of the two families is still more closely established by
certain other species, which have been classed with the Cats.
On the other hand, the Ichneumon of Egypt, — in the form of its
long agile body, its short limbs, semi-plantigrade feet, small
glowing eyes, pointed nose, — as well as in its bold, active, san-
guinary, unrelenting disposition, — and in the habits which result
from this, — bears a very close resemblance to the Weasel tribe.
It glides towards its prey with a snake-like movement, and then
darts suddenly upon it. It feeds upon birds, and small reptiles,
and mammals ; also upon eggs : and it is particularly serviceable

FAMILY VIVERRIDvE J — ICHNEUMON, HYAENA. 225

in restraining the multiplication of the Crocodile, by devouring
its eggs, and also the young Crocodiles when newly-hatched.
The Ichneumon is easily domesticated, and seems to form an at-
tachment to its place of residence ; it is not unfrequently kept
tame in the countries, of which it is a native, for the purpose of
clearing the houses of mice, rats, &c.

198. Certain other less-known genera seem to connect the
Viverrine family, with the Raccoons and other aberrant forms of
the Ursidce ; but we must pass these by, to notice the remark-
able section of it, which presents a very near approach towards
the Canidce, — that of the Hycena and its allies. The molar
teeth of this animal are as follows ; false molars U carnivorous
teeth ~, tuberculated molars ~. Notwithstanding the difference
in their dentition, however, they are closely related in many
points to the Civets, and are connected with them by a remark-
able genus to be presently noticed. The skull of the Hyaena is
short, and remarkable for its solidity; the muzzle also is short; and
the temporal muscles, which raise the lower jaw, together with
those of the neck, are enormously developed. The vertebrse of
the neck, in adult animals, are often found to be united together ;
as if for the purpose of resisting the most violent strains. The
general form of the body is very peculiar. The neck, chest, and
shoulders are extremely powerful ; but the hind-quarters are low,
and the hind legs seem comparatively feeble, giving a kind of

awkward shuffle to the pace.
The toes are four on each foot ;
and are furnished with blunt,
stout, unretractile claws. Be-
neath the tail is a deep pouch,
analogous to that of the Civets,
but not secreting a similar odorous
substance. The Hyaenas are es-
sentially carrion-feeders ; and are

FIG. 112.— SPOTTED HV^NA: • *

destined to fill up an important

station in the economy of nature. They cleanse the earth of the
decaying carcasses of the larger beasts, whose remains, if not
speedily removed, would infect the atmosphere with pestilential

226 FAMILY VIVERRID^E ; — HYAENA, PROTELES

effluvia. They devour, too, the remains left by other beasts of
prey ; being specially enabled to do so by the enormous strength
of their jaws, and by the peculiar conformation of their teeth,
which are adapted rather for crushing hard substances, than for
dividing animal flesh ; and these, by their combined power,
enable them to crunch even the largest bones, so as to extract
from them the nutritious matter they contain. The Hyaenas will
seize upon living animals also ; but seldom attack Man openly,
except in self-defence. Their haunts by day are dens and caves,
gloomy rocks, and the ruins of towns and sepulchral monuments
of antiquity. As darkness sets in, these fierce beasts emerge
from their lair, and prowl in search of their prey, with menacing
teeth and glaring eyes. Notwithstanding the ferocity of its dis-
position, the Hyaana is easily tameable when young ; and shows
much of the attachment to its master, which is characteristic of
the Dog. The Hyaena is confined to Africa and Asia ; the
striped species is a native of northern and central Asia, and of
northern Africa ; the spotted species, and another that bears
more resemblance to the striped, are found in Southern Africa,
and are great pests to the colonists.— -The ProteUs or Aard-Wolf

Fie. 1J3 — PHOTKLES LALANDI.

(earth-wolf) of the Cape of Good Hope, is evidently the con-
necting link between the Hyaenas and the Civets ; resembling
the former in its general contour and manners, though of infe-

FAMILY URSID^E ; BEARS. 227

rior size and strength ; and having more of the lengthened head
and pointed muzzle of the latter. There are five toes on the
hind-feet, but only four on the fore-feet. The dentition presents
a remarkable anomaly ; there are but three small false molars
above, and one small tuberculous molar; and but three false
molars below, — no vestige of the carnivorous tooth presenting
itself. The canines, however, are of considerable size. This
animal is very destructive to the young lambs ; and is said to
attack the massive fatty protuberance on the tails of the African
sheep.

199. The animals of the family URSIDJE are, of all the Car-
nivora, those which are most omnivorous in their diet, — some of
them living almost entirely upon vegetable food, — and nearly
all being capable of supporting themselves upon it. Most of
them are expert climbers ; they conceal themselves in caves, in
holes of the earth, and in hollow trees ; and in such retreats they
usually pass the winter in a state bordering on torpidity, and
there the female brings forth her young. The characters of the
family are most strongly marked in the animals of the genus
Ursus or Bear ; which are distinguished by their ponderous
bulk, massive limbs, and heavy gait. They are completely plan-
tigrade in their walk, and can rear themselves without difficulty
on their hind-legs. They have large claws, which are adapted
for digging, and which are powerful weapons of attack and de-
fence ; these are not retractile. Bears are for the most part un-
social animals, frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns,
and the depths of the forests. They are expert climbers, ascend-
ing trees and rocks with great dexterity. The food of the dif-
ferent species varies in some degree ; being almost exclusively
vegetable in some species, such as the American Black Bear, which
will not touch animal flesh, if vegetable aliment can be obtained ;
whilst it is almost as exclusively animal in others, such as the
Polar Bear. Even the most carnivorous of them, however, will
seldom attack Man, unless provoked to do so by aggression, or
strongly incited by hunger ; but when attacked, they become
very formidable opponents, displaying greater activity and address
than might be expected from their heavy clumsy figures.

228 FAMILY URSIDJ5 ; — BEARS.

Various species of Bear are diffused through Europe, Asia, and
America ; but Africa is almost (although not entirely, as has
been supposed,) destitute of them. The Brown Bear is the
species best known ; it inhabits the mountainous parts of Europe,
from the Arctic circle to the Alps and Pyrenees, and also the
north of Asia and Siberia ; it was formerly a tenant of the hills
and forests of our own island, whence it was exported to Rome,
to be a partaker in the cruel fights exhibited in the Circus. It
has been long, however, exterminated from Britain; the year
1057 being the date of the latest mention of it in Scotland, where,
like the Wolf, it seems to have lingered after being driven from
England. The Black Bear is very widely diffused through

FIG. 114.— AMERICAN BLACK BEAR.

North America, from the Arctic Sea, to its southern extremity ;
and its skin was at one time a considerable article of com-
merce. One of the largest known species, is the Grisly Bear
of North America, which is everywhere dreaded for its strength
and ferocity, and which even attacks and vanquishes the huge
Bison. And the Polar Bear, whose residence is amidst the snow
and ice of the arctic regions, seems to attain a yet larger size, —
the length of one killed in Captain Lyon's expedition being stated
at eight feet and a half, and its weight at 1600 Ibs. This for-
midable animal feeds chiefly upon Seals ; in pursuit of which it

FAMILY URSINE ; BEAR, RACCOON, COATI. 229

will not only traverse vast fields of ice, but will also swim for
considerable distances through the sea. It will devour the re-
mains of Fishes, Cetacea, and other marine animals ; and has
been even seen to dive after and capture living Fish. In sum-
mer, the Polar Bear devours mountain-berries ; and does not
reject even sea- weeds and marsh-plants. Of the devotion of the
female Polar Bear to her young, and of her courage in their
defence, many instances are well known.

200. We have now to notice certain aberrant genera of this
family ; in which the characters of the group are less prominently
displayed. The Raccoon differs from the Bears in its dentition ;
having only 6 instead of 7 molars in the lower jaw ; and the car-
nivorous tooth being formed like the posterior molars, and ill
suited to cutting flesh. In size, it equals a common Fox ; it has
a stout body with moderate limbs, and a semi-plantigrade walk ;
the toes are five on each foot, and armed with sharp claws ;
the muzzle is sharp, the nose tapering beyond the lips, and
flexible ; the tail is somewhat bushy. The Raccoon is nocturnal
in its habits, sleeping by day in its hole, and prowling at night in
search of food. It frequents the margins of swamps and rivers,
and the sea-shore ; and preys upon small animals, birds, eggs,
insects, and shell-fish, with the addition of roots and sweet suc-
culent vegetables. Its dexterity in opening Oysters has been
particularly noticed. Its gait on the ground consists of a series
of bounds, reminding us of the Lemurs, but without their
grace or agility ; it climbs trees readily, in the same manner as
the Bear. When taken young, this animal is easily tamed, and
its habits are gentle and playful ; but it is at the same time
capricious and easily offended, and seldom forgives its enemy. —
The Coati is distinguished by the elongation of its snout, to
which its scientific name Nasua refers ; to this character an
approach was pointed out in the Raccoon. The snout is a sort of
short flexible proboscis, at the extremity of which the nostrils
open ; the animal turns it about in various directions when in
search of food, and uses it to root up the earth in quest of worms
and insects. In its general characters and habits, it strongly
resembles the Raccoon ; and like it is confined to the New World.

230

COATI, PANDA. FAMILY PHOCID^E.

Fro. 115. — AILURUS OR PANDA.

It lives more among trees, however, than upon the ground ; and
preys especially upon birds, the nests also of which it rifles

for the eggs and
unfledged young.
It is more active
than the Raccoon
in confinement,
not spending so
much of the day
in sleep ; its snout
seems to be in
perpetual motion,
when the animal

is examining the objects around it, — These genera are repre-
sented in the Old World by the Ailurus or Panda (Fig. 115),
which is an inhabitant of the Himalayan ridge ; it is evidently
adapted to a cold climate by its thick covering of fur, which
consists of a woolly undercoat, with long soft hair overlying it.

201. The animals of the family PHOCID^E, or Seal tribe, are,
of all four-limbed Mammalia, those which display the most
complete adaptation to residence in the water. We have seen
an approach to this in the Otters, especially in the marine species
(§ 194) ; but it is carried much further in the Seals. The body
is elongated and conical, tapering from the chest to the tail, —
the pelvis being so narrow as not to interrupt the gradual

FIG. 116 — SEAL.

decrease. The spine is provided with strong muscles, which
bend it with considerable force ; and this movement is of great

FAMILY PHOCID^E; — SEALS.

231

assistance in the propulsion of the body. The limbs are con-
verted into oars or paddles. The anterior pair have the arm
and fore-arm so short, that little more than the paw advances
from the body ; in this the bones of the fingers are separate, but
they are inclosed in a skin common to all of them, which extends
to their tips, so that they are externally marked only by the
claws which terminate them. The hinder limbs are directed
backwards, so as almost to seem like a continuation of the body ;
the thigh and leg are very short, and the foot is formed on the
same plan as the fore-paw, — the toes being in contact, however,
and the web folded, when it is not in use as a paddle, but being
spread out into a broad surface when the animal is swimming
through the water. Between these paddles is the short and
compressed tail. On land, or on masses of ice, the movements
of the Seal are awkward, its under-side resting on the ground,
and its body being forced onward by the action of the fore-limbs
only, whilst the hinder ones are dragged after it. But it swims
with great rapidity and ease ; and, by a peculiar arrangement
of its blood-vessels, analogous to that which exists in the Whale-
tribe, (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 265), it can remain under water for
a considerable time. The head is of a rounded form, and is
furnished with long stiff whiskers ; the nostrils are provided
with a valve, which can be closed at will, so as to keep out

the water; a similar
valve exists in the
orifices of the ears ;
and the clothing of
the body consists of
stiff glossy hairs, very
closely set against
the skin. The form
of the teeth varies
considerably in the
different genera of
this family; but in
all they are adapted rather to hold the slippery prey on which
these animals feed, than to cut or to crush what offers much

FIG. 117. — TEETH OF STERRINCK.

232 FAMILY PHOCID^E ; — SEALS.

resistance. Of this prehensile character, the accompanying
figure affords a good illustration. The incisors are either |- or \ ;
the canines are always present, and are large and strong ; the
molars are usually from 20 to 24 in number, that is, either 5 or
6 on either side of each jaw.

202. A considerable number of species of Seal exist ; all of
them inhabiting either the temperate or the frigid regions of the
globe. At least four are known to visit the shores of Britain.
The Common Seal (Fig. 116) is from four to five feet long ;
its physiognomy is mild and expressive, like that of a Dog ; it
is readily domesticated, and shows great intelligence and attach-
ment to Man. The Grey Seal, on the other hand, which some-
times attains the length of twelve feet, is much less intelligent,
and cannot be tamed ; it shows considerable resolution, and even
ferocity, when attacked. The Greenland, or Harp Seal, is
remarkable for the changes of colour which it undergoes in the
course of its advance towards maturity ; the markings of the
body are so distinct in different years, that the precise age of the
animal may be known by them. The immature species has
been regarded (as in many other instances, § 18), as distinct
from the adult, by those who were not acquainted with its
history. The Elephant Seal of the South Seas is the largest
known species ; its length being from 20 to 30 feet ; and its
girth at the largest part of the body being from 1 5 to 18 feet.
A full-grown male will yield 70 gallons of oil. This seal lives
in troops, which migrate towards the tropic in winter, and

return southwards in summer.
It is much sought after, on
account of the large quantity of
oil which it yields ; and also
for the skin, which is extensively
used in harness, on account of
its strength and thickness. It
is a very inert animal, not being
easily alarmed, and making

FIG. 118.— TEETH OK ELEPHANT-SBAL. ,.,,, , - , , , T,

little defence when attacked. Its
food appears to consist in part of sea- weeds and cuttle-fish ; the

URSAL; FUR SEAL. 233

remains of both having been taken in its stomach. The name of
Elephant Seal is given to it, in part from the large size of its
tusk-like canines; and in part from the prolongation of its
snout into a kind of proboscis. — Several species of Seal are
known under the names of Sea-Lion, Sea-Bear, &c. One of
these, the Ursal, an inhabitant of the shores of the North Pacific
Ocean, is represented in the accompanying figure. It is said to
be one of the most pugnacious and ferocious of the whole tribe.
There is a remarkable disproportion in the number of the sexes
in this species ; each family consisting of but one male with a
crowd of females. If one family encroaches on the station of
another, a general fight is the consequence; and Man, if he
approach within their range, is by no means safe from their
attacks. The Fur Seal, which is nearly allied to this, is an
inhabitant of the Southern Pacific ; it was formerly very abun-
dant in certain localities, so that for a period of fifty years, not
less than J ,200,000 skins were annually obtained from a single

FIG. 119.— THE UBSAL.

island ; but its numbers have been much thinned by this exces-
sive destruction.

203. A very aberrant form of this family is presented by the

234 FAMILY PHOCID^E ; WALRUS.

genus Trichecus, of which only one species is known, the Walrus,
Morse, or Sea-Cow. In general form, as well as in habits, the
"Walrus resembles the larger species of Seal ; but it differs from
them entirely in dentition. Its chief peculiarity consists in the
enormous development of the canine teeth of the upper jaw,
which are from 18 to 24 inches in length, stout and solid ; with
large roots, of which the sockets project considerably, giving a
swollen aspect to the face, which is increased by the thickness of
the lips. These tusks are instruments of defence and of progres-
sion ; and are also very serviceable to the animal in obtaining its
food. It uses them with great effect in defending itself from
the attacks of the Polar Bear, which may be regarded as its
chief adversary ; it assists itself with them, in climbing up float-
ing icebergs and the sides of rocks ; and it employs them to
tear up the long wreaths of sea- weed, which constitute a great
part of its food. In the lower jaw there are no incisors or
canines; and the jaw itself is narrow in front, so as to fit in
between the large canines of the upper. The Walrus is pursued
for the sake of its oil and skin ; its flesh also is very palatable.
It inhabits the polar regions of both hemispheres ; but it is much
less abundant than formerly.

204. The animals of this family are of the greatest use to
the natives of the countries near which they abound ; the fol-
lowing account of the various purposes, to which the Seal is
applied by the Greenlanders, is given by Crantz, a Danish
traveller. " Its flesh supplies them with their most palatable
and substantial food ; the fat furnishes them with oil for lamp-
light, chamber and kitchen fire ; and whoever sees their habita-
tions presently finds that, even if they had superfluity of wood,
it would not be of use, — they can use nothing but oil in them.
They also mollify their dry food, mostly fish, with oil ; and
finally they barter it for all kinds of necessaries with the factors.
They can sew better with fibres of the seals' sinews than
with thread or silk ; of the skins of the entrails they make
window-curtains for their tents, and shirts ; part of the bladder
they use as a float to their harpoons ; and they make oil-flasks
of the stomach. Neither is the blood wasted ; but is boiled up

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CARNIVORA. 235

with other ingredients and eaten as soup. Of the skin of the
seal they stand in the greatest need ; because they must cover
with seal-skins both the large and small boats, in which they
travel and seek their provisions. They must also cut out of them
their thongs and straps, and cover their tents with them, without
which they could not subsist in summer. No man, therefore, can
pass for a right Greenlander, who cannot catch seals. This is
the ultimate end they aspire at, in all their device and labour from
their childhood, up."

205. There are some points of much interest, in the Geogra-
phical distribution of the Carnivora at present inhabiting the
globe; as well as in the Geological distribution of the fossil
remains, which indicate the races that existed in its several
quarters, at former epochs. "We cannot but be struck, when we
consider the distribution of the typical family, — the FELHXE, —
with their almost entire restriction to the tropical regions, and to
the countries bordering on them ; and with their consequent
absence from Europe, and from the northern parts of Asia and
America, — the comparatively small and feeble Wild Cat being
the only representative of the Lions, Tigers, Panthers, Jaguars,
&c., of the tropics. — The same may be said of the family
VIVERRID^ ; of which the Genet is the only European repre-
sentative, whilst the tropical regions contain not only the Civets
and Ichneumons, with many allied species, but the savage and
formidable Hyaena and Proteles. On the other hand, the
CANID^ and the MUSTELID^E are more abundant in temperate
climates ; and the PHOCID^J in the colder regions ; whilst the
URSID^E seem to have been everywhere distributed, though they
are now being gradually expelled from Europe and North
America by the increasing human population.

206. Now there is abundant evidence, — derived from the
fossil remains which occur in the newer tertiary strata (those
that lie above the chalk), in gravel beds, and in caves, — that the
larger Feline and Viverrine animals were formerly distributed

236 GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CARNIVORA.

much more extensively; — that Lions and Tigers, of greater bulk
than any at present existing, formerly roamed over the plains,
and inhabited the jungles of Europe, and even of our own country ;
and that gigantic Hyaenas and enormous Bears dwelt in the
caves, which occur so frequently in our limestone rocks, dragging
thither the carcasses of the animals they had slaughtered, and
prowling about at night, with glaring eyes, and savage howls, in
search of prey.* In many of these caves are now found vast
heaps of bones of the animals thus destroyed, which must have
accumulated during many years ; together with the bones of the
rapacious beasts which had their dwelling there ; and it is a
remarkable proof that these caves really were the dens of Hyaenas,
and that the collections of bones found in them were not merely
washed into their entrances by some great convulsion which
swept these races from this part of our globe, — that many of the
bones of the Oxen, Antelopes, Deer, &c., which accompany
them, bear the distinct marks of the Hyaena's teeth ; and that the
fossilised excrements of these last animals (which, like those of
other Carnivora, are nearly white, consisting of little else than
bone-earth,) have been clearly recognised. The existence of
these gigantic Carnivora in what are now the temperate regions
of the globe, seems clearly to indicate that the climate of these
parts must have been formerly much warmer than at present ; a
conclusion which is confirmed by many other circumstances. (See
Treatise on GEOLOGY). It is further interesting to remark, that
as, at the present time, we only find the larger Carnivora
existing in countries inhabited by large species of Herbivorous
quadrupeds, on which they may prey, so, in former epochs, we
never find the one set of races present without the other ; — the
Herbivorous to supply the Carnivora with food, — the Carnivora
to restrain the otherwise excessive multiplication of the Herbivora,
and to remove their decomposing remains from the surface of
the earth.

* In a fissure recently laid open on Durdham Down, near Bristol, are found,
besides numerous other remains, teeth of Hyasnas, as much surpassing in size those
of the largest Tiger now existing, as these last exceed those of the largest Hyaena.

237

ORDER VI.— CETACEA.

207. This order, in regard to the number of species included
in it, ranks nearly the lowest "among the orders of Mammalia ;
but in regard to the bulk of the individuals which it contains, it
far surpasses every other tribe of animals at present existing,
being only rivalled by some of the gigantic Lizards of former
epochs. No terrestrial quadruped, not even the Elephant and
Hippopotamus, can be compared to the Whale ; and even the
smallest species, the Dolphins and Porpoises, much surpass the
average size of land animals. As already mentioned (§ 24),
the form of the animals of the Whale tribe bears so strong a
resemblance to that of Fishes, that most of the ancient Zoologists,
and even some modern ones, placed them in the same class ; and
they are still spoken of as " fish" in common parlance, notwith-
standing that a knowledge of their internal structure has shown
that they are, in every essential respect, Mammals.

208. The modifications in the form of the body, which have
been pointed out as adapting the Seals for aquatic progression,
are here carried still further. The body is still more lengthened,

FIG. 120 TACL-FIN OF WHALE.

the tapering of its hinder portion still more gradual, and the
anterior extremities still more exclusively adapted for propulsion

238

ORDER CETACEA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

in water. But there is a marked difference in the arrangement
of the posterior instruments of propulsion ; for the pelvis and
hinder extremities are here entirely wanting (or, at least, only
rudiments of them can he discovered), and the tail is expanded
horizontally, so as to present a large surface for striking the
water. In some of the larger species, the breadth of this tail -fin
is 20 feet, and its surface not less than 100 square feet. The
force with which it strikes the water is enormous, the muscles by
which it is moved being of prodigious size. The greatest rapidity
of motion is produced, when its strokes are alternately upwards
and downwards; but the more ordinary progression of the
animals is accomplished by an oblique movement of the tail
downwards and laterally, first to one side and then to the other ;
much in the same manner as a boat is propelled by sculling. The
vertical motion of the tail is most employed, when the animal
desires to come to the surface to breathe. — The paddles or
swimming paws are comparatively short ; but, as the enormous

development of the
head in the true
Whales causes them to
be situated near the
centre of gravity of
the whole mass, they
act with considerable
power. They contain
the same bones as the
anterior extremities of
other Mammals ; but
they are more consoli-
dated together than in
any of the orders we have yet considered ; and there is but little
motion except at the shoulder-joint. They are completely
enveloped in a thick skin ; which prevents any trace of these
bones from being seen externally.

209. The character of the skin in these animals is very pecu-
liar. In other animals in which there is a tendency to the
accumulation of oily matter, it is disposed as a layer of adipose

FIG. 121 — SWIMMING-PAW OF WHALK.

ORDER CETACEA; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 239

tissue (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 44) beneath the skin ; but in the
Cetacea it is deposited in the substance of the skin itself, which
is of enormous thickness, consisting of elastic fibres interlacing
in every direction, in the interstices of which the oil is contained.
This substance is commonly known as blubber. The arrangement
which has been described appears to serve two purposes; it
serves to keep in the heat of the body, which would otherwise
be too rapidly carried off by the conducting power of the water
in which it floats ; and it enables these animals to sustain the
enormous pressure, to which they are subjected, when they sink
deep below the surface, — a pressure sometimes amounting to a
ton upon every square inch. The thickness of this layer of
blubber is never less than several inches, and it is sometimes
between one and two feet ; its weight not unfrequently amounts
to thirty tons ; but being lighter than water, it buoys up the
enormous body which it incloses, instead of weighing it down. —
The remarkable conformation of the circulating apparatus, by
which the necessity for frequent respiration is dispensed with, has
been elsewhere described (AwiM. PHYSIOL., § 265). — The act of
respiration is facilitated by the position of the nostrils, which are
situated nearly at the highest point of the head ; so that the
animal can breathe as soon as the head comes to the surface of
the water. The Whales have the power of forcing out water
through these passages, by means of a peculiar apparatus with
which they are provided. This consists of two pouches or reser-
voirs, situated beneath the nostrils, and communicating with the
back of the mouth by the usual nasal passage, which is furnished
with a valve. When the animal wishes to eject water contained
in its mouth, it moves its tongue and jaws as if about to swallow
it ; but, by closing the pharynx, it compels the water to ascend
through the nasal passage, whose valve it forces open, and to
distend the reservoirs. There it may be retained, until the
animal desires to spout ; and this is effected by a forcible com-
pression of the pouches, which compels the water to escape by the
nostrils or blow-holes, its return to the mouth being prevented
by the valve just mentioned. The aperture of the nostrils is
guarded by a conical valve or stopper ; composed of numerous

240 ORDER CETACEA; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

fibres so closely interwoven and compressed, that it is difficult to
cut it with a knife ; and so perfectly adapted to the opening, that
not even the enormous pressure just now stated can disturb or
injure it, or force a drop of water between its sides, and the tube
•which it closes. Of the sense of smell, the Whale can possess
but little. The aperture of the ear is closed by a similar
valve. It appears that, when under water, the Whale can hear
the smallest sounds, such as the slightest splash of an oar ; but
that to sounds in the air above, even the report of a cannon, it is
insensible.

210. The Cetacea are all carnivorous ; but the nature of
their food varies considerably. In some it consists of Fishes ;
others seem peculiarly to prefer the Cuttle-fish ; others feed upon
the smaller species of their own order ; whilst the Whale, the
largest of all, is supported chiefly by minute Mollusks and
MedusaB. — The teeth vary extremely in the different genera ; and
cannot be alone trusted to, as characters for subdividing the order
into families. Excluding the MANATIDJE, — which, though Whale-
like animals, belong to the herbivorous series, and differ from the
true Cetacea in many important particulars, — we may naturally
divide the order into three families. — 1 . DELPHINID.E, or Dol-
phin tribe, characterised by the moderate size of the head ; and
usually by the presence of teeth in both jaws. — 2. CATODONTIDJE,
the Cachalots or Spermaceti-Whales, characterised by the very
large size of the head, which constitutes one-third, or even nearly
one-half, of the entire length ; and also by the presence of teeth
in the lower jaw. — 3. BAL^NIDJE, the Whalebone- Whales, also
distinguished by the enormous size of the head, but altogether
destitute of teeth.

211. The family DELPHINID^ includes, with the Dolphin
and Porpoise, many animals which are ordinarly called Whales.
A large proportion of these are occasional visitants of our own
coasts, especially towards the north of Scotland, and off the
Orkney and Shetland islands. The teeth are usually numerous ;
simple in their structure, and conical in form. — The common
Porpoise is an active and voracious animal, feeding especially
upon fish, and following in the wake of the shoals of Herring and

FAMILY DELPHINID.E. PORPOISE, DOLPHIN, GRAMPUS. 241

other species which periodically visit our coasts. It frequents,
often in large troops, the bays and inlets of our coasts, and espe-

FIG. 122. — PORPOISE.

cially the mouths of rivers ; and occasionally advances to a con-
siderable distance up the stream. It is very common in the
estuary of the Thames. Its length is from four to eight feet.
The Dolphin chiefly differs from the Porpoise in having the
muzzle prolonged into a kind of slender beak. It is a peculiarly
agile animal ; and often follows ships in numerous herds, execut-
ing the most amusing gambols, apparently for no other purpose
than mere pastime. The flesh of the Dolphin and Porpoise was.
formerly used as food ; but it is rank and oily, and is now seldom
or never eaten. The length of the common Dolphin is from six
to eight or even ten feet. — The Grampus is another animal of
this family, nearly allied to the Porpoise, and chiefly distinguished
from it by its high dorsal fin. It is very powerful and vora-
cious ; and preys not only upon Fishes, but upon the smaller
Cetacea. The stories of its attacking the Whale, however, are
probably without foundation. The Grampus is less disposed to
associate with others of its kind, than are most of the Del-
phinidae ; but it is sometimes seen in shoals of six or eight.
The Author has known one to keep company with a ship for
several days ; swimming round and round it, when it was going
through the water at the rate of eight or ten miles an hour, with
the greatest ease. — Another allied species is the Round-headed
Porpoise, or Caaing Whale, which is remarkable for its tendency
to associate in large numbers, and for its strong instinct of
attachment. It not unfrequently appears on the shores of the
Orkney, Shetland, and Feroe islands, and also of Iceland, in
herds of from two or three hundred to a thousand in number ;

242 FAMILY DELPHINIDJE; — CAAING WHALE, NARWHAL, ETC.

the fishermen of the neighbourhood endeavour to close in upon
them from without, and drive them towards the beach ; and no
sooner is one individual driven on shore, than the rest of the herd
rush with a blind impetuosity towards the spot, and throw
themselves forwards with such violence, that they are stranded
on the beach, and become an easy prey to their pursuers. There
is reason to believe, that the cries of distress uttered by the first
victims attract the others to their rescue; and that their de-
struction is thus due to their strong attachment to each other.
It is thought by others, however, that they are led towards the
shore by their tendency to follow their leaders with a blind con-
fidence. The common name of this species, " Caaing," is under-
stood to mean " driving" in Zetland. — The Beluga, or White
Whale, an allied genus, is remarkable for the clear white hue of
its skin, which is slightly tinged with yellowish or rose colour.
It rarely visits our own coasts ; but is often seen in the northern
regions, sporting, feeding, and migrating, in herds of moderate
numbers. Its teeth are fewer in number than are those of most
other Delphinidas ; and of the few which it possesses, the greater
number fall out before it attains an advanced age.

212. There are some aberrant genera of this family, in which
the number of teeth is small ; or in which they are even entirely
absent from one of the jaws. This is the case with the Hype-
roodon, or Bottle-head Whale, in which there are only two teeth,
and these situated in the lower jaw. It is a large animal, usually
more than twenty feet long ; it rarely visits our coasts and
little is known of it.* A much more remarkable animal is the
Monodon, or Narwhal, commonly known as the Sea Unicorn ;
which derives its name from its obvious peculiarity, — the presence
(in the Male) of a single tooth of great length, projecting from
the front of the upper jaw. The usual length of this extraor-
dinary appendage is about six feet ; but it sometimes reaches
nine or even ten feet. It is quite straight,. and tapers gradually
from its base to its point ; but it has a spiral twist from left to
right. It would be a strange anomaly if such a weapon were

.* A specimen was taken a few years since in the Severn, whose length was
twenty-two feet ; its skeleton is now in the Museum of the Bristol Institution.

FAMILY DELPHINIDJE; — NARWHAL, INIA. 243

really single ; but the fact is, that the rudiments of two teeth
are always present, and this not in the male only, but in the
female. Sometimes the tooth on the right side is developed ;
sometimes that on the left ; the corresponding tooth remaining
small, or even permanently concealed. But instances are occa-
sionally met with, in which both teeth have been developed to a
considerable extent, — even in the female. The use of the tooth
seems to be merely that of an organ of defence ; it cannot assist
the animal in obtaining its food ; for this consists merely of
mollusks and other soft animals. Its body much resembles that of
the Beluga in form, and agrees with it in being without a dorsal
fin. It is an active powerful creature, swimming with almost
incredible swiftness ; it inhabits the northern seas, rarely
coming so far south as even the Orkney Islands. When attacked,
it shows great ferocity ; and has been known to drive its horn,
or rather tusk, deep into the thick oak timbers of a ship.
Besides these, may be mentioned the Inia ; a remarkable fresh-
water genus of Delphinidae, of which only one species is known,
recently discovered in the remote tributaries of the Amazons,
and the elevated lakes of Peru, some thousands of miles from the
sea. It has the external form of the Dolphin, with some coarse
bristly hairs on the snout ; the lips are deeply cleft ; and the
nostrils are placed far back, above the paddles. A female speci-
men measured seven feet in length ; and the males are stated to
be double that size.

213. Of the family CATODONTID^S, only two species are
known ; the common Cachalot, or Spermaceti Whale ; and the
high-finned Cachalot. The former is the one which is the object
of pursuit, on account of the oil and spermaceti which it yields ;
the latter is comparatively rare. The head of the Spermaceti
Whale nearly equals the rest of the body in length, and surpasses
it in bulk. This enormous size, however, is not due to the great
development of the brain ; but to the presence of a very large
receptacle for the spermaceti, which lies in a hollow on the upper
part of the cranium. This receptacle consists of a dense bag,
divided into confpartments ; and the substance which it contains
is in a semi-fluid state, consisting of spermaceti united with oil.

R2

244 FAMILY CATODONTIDE ; SPERMACETI WHALE.

The oil is separated by draining and squeezing ; and the sper-
maceti is purified by melting it in water. A similar oleaginous
substance exists in cavities placed along the back, and in other
parts of the body. The Spermaceti Whale is also furnished with
a layer of blubber, which yields a thinner and purer oil than
that of the Common Whale ; but its amount is less. Another
substance of some value is yielded by this animal, — namely,
ambergris. This is a rather hard brittle matter of a gray colour,
having a peculiar odour, for which it is much esteemed by
some persons as an agreeable perfume ; it is formed by a
secretion within the intestines, and seems to be a product of
diseased action, occasioned by the accumulation of indigestible
substances. The Cachalot sometimes reaches the length of seventy
feet. It is a very powerful animal, and swims with considerable
rapidity ; and from the violence of its fury when attacked, it is
one of the most dangerous of the monsters of the deep, with
which the daring sailor is called upon to combat. Not only are
the strong whaling boats occasionally dashed to pieces by a
single blow of the tail, but even a ship of large size has had its
bottom stove in by a blow inflicted by the head of an infuriated
male Cachalot. The Spermaceti Whale is found in all seas ; but
is most abundant in those near the southern pole. It associates
in small parties, which usually consist of half-grown males, or of
females attended by their young, and guarded by one or two very
large males. When solitary Cachalots are observed, they inva-
riably prove to be aged males. The food of these gigantic
animals consists of fishes, cuttle-fish, &c.

214. The family BAL^ENID^E, or Whalebone Whales,* contains
two genera, each including but one species; these are the Balcena,
or Greenland Whale^ and the Balcenoptera, or Rorqual. The
former is the one best known ; the latter is distinguished from
it by the slenderer form of the head, and by the presence of a
dorsal fin. In both there is an absence of teeth (although the
rudiments of them may be detected in each jaw), and the palate
is furnished with an apparatus for straining out the small
mollusks, minute fishes, and medusae, on which these huge
animals are supported. This consists of a series of plates of

FAMILY BALJENIDJE; — GREENLAND WHALE.

245

baleen, or whalebone, which are suspended from the roof of the
mouth ; the base of each plate is imbedded in the substance of

FIG. 123. — GREENLAND WHALE.

the gum, or membrane that covers the palate ; whilst its edge

forms a sort of loose
fringe, composed of
matted fibres. The fila-
ments of the fringe fill
up the cavity of the
mouth, sufficiently to
form a most complete
sieve. When the im-
mense mouth of the
Whale is opened, a great
number of the small
marine animals with

which the Arctic seas are often crowded, are engulphed in its vast
cavity ; and the water being got rid of by the process of spouting,
already described, all that floated in it is retained within the
mouth upon the fringes of baleen. In this manner the gigantic
fabric of this animal derives its nutriment ; though its swallow is
not large enough to admit even small fish. The Whale usually
rises to the surface to breathe, about every seven or eight minutes;
but it can remain under water for half an hour, or even longer.
When struck with the harpoon, it descends rapidly to a great

FIG. 124.— WHALEBONE AND SKULL OF WHALE.

246 GREENLAND WHALE. — ORDER RODENTIA.

depth, — sometimes nearly 1000 fathoms ; and it has been
known to strike itself so violently against the hard bed of the
ocean, as even to fracture its jaws. This Whale usually lives in
pairs, but sometimes the abundance of food in a particular spot
draws a number together. The female shows the most devoted
attachment to her young ; always coming to its assistance when
it is attacked, even to her own certain destruction. The length
of the Greenland Whale is from 60 to 70, or even 80 feet ; that
of the Rorqual (of which a skeleton was exhibited not long since
in the principal towns of this country) often exceeds 100 feet.
The latter is not often chased ; as the quantity of blubber it
yields is small, and the whalebone of inferior quality.

ORDER VII.— RODENTIA.

215. We now proceed to the Herbivorous series of the higher
division of the Class Mammalia ; and we shall have to notice in
it a series of forms very different from those which have hitherto
engaged our attention. The order RODENTIA, which next presents
itself to onr consideration, occupies, in many respects, an inter-
mediate place between the purely carnivorous and the purely
herbivorous Mammalia, so as to form the connecting link between
them. We have seen that in the first (with the exception of the
Cetacea, which are aberrant forms of the Carnivorous series, and
a few other aberrant genera), three kinds of teeth are always
found ; the bones of the fore-arm are separate, so that the hand,
or fore-foot, has the power of rotation ; and that the fingers are
distinct, and terminated by separate nails or claws. In the
Ruminant quadrupeds, which may be considered as the types of
the second group, there is a complete want of canine teeth ; the
bones of the fore-arm are consolidated together, so that the fore-
foot loses all power of rotation ; and the bones of the toes are
also partly united, and their extremities inclosed in a hoof, which
totally destroys the power of prehension, and blunts the sensibi-
lity of the organ, so that it becomes merely an instrument of
support and motion. Now in the order RODENTIA, or Gnawers,

ORDER RODENTIA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 247

we observe an interesting gradation between these two divisions
of the class. Although the animals comprising it are chiefly
adapted to a vegetable diet, their feet are endowed with a greater
variety of function, than are those of the Ruminant quadrupeds.
They are still, like those of the Carnivora, unguiculated, or fur-
nished with claws ; their toes remain separate, as do also, for the
most part, the bones of the fore-arm ; and in many species the
clavicles or collar-bones are present, which serve to keep apart
the shoulders, and thus to give to the upper extremities a greater
freedom of motion.

216. The chief peculiarity of this order is seen in the remark-
able conformation of the teeth. All the animals which it includes
may be at once recognised by the presence of two large cutting
teeth, which project from the front of each jaw. These teeth
have been usually regarded as inci-
sors ; but they are really canines,
the direction of which has been
changed by the absence of the inci-
sors ; this is proved by the fact that,
in the Hare, and a few others of the
order, small true incisors may be
seen behind the two large gnawing

Fro. 125.-SKULL OF RODENT ANIMAI-. ^^ g^ approacll to this struc.

ture may be seen in the Lemur tribe, especially in the Aye-aye,
which was placed by Cuvier among the Rodentia (§ 164).
The conformation of the gnawing teeth is beautifully adapted to
the purpose they have to fulfil. In order to make their way
through tough vegetable substances, a sharp edge is required for
them ; and they must at the same time possess great strength
and firmness. For this purpose, the tooth is principally com-
posed of very tough ivory, with a plate of hard enamel in front
only (See ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 177-180). By the friction
of the teeth against each other, their substance is continually
being worn down ; but the hard enamel of course wears most
slowly, and is always left as a sharp projecting edge. These
teeth differ also from any which exist in the Mammalia previously
described, in the circumstance that their growth is continually

248 ORDER RODENTIA; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

going on, instead of stopping at an early period of life. Each
tooth passes far backwards into the jaw, and is quite hollow at its
lower extremity, which is filled with pulp ; from the surface of
this, new ivory is continually formed, and thus the tooth is con-
stantly being pushed up, at about the same rate as it is worn
away at the top, so that its edge is kept up to its proper level.
If, however, in consequence of the fracture of the opposite tooth,
or from any displacement of the jaw (which sometimes results
from accident), the usual wear of the summit of the tooth does
not take place, its length continues to increase, often to the
great inconvenience of the animal. In fact, cases have been
known in which death was the result ; the unchecked growth of
the tooth having caused its point to advance in a curve upwards
and backwards, until it penetrated the skull and entered the
brain. — The molar teetb, which are separated from the canines
by a wide interval, are composed of alternate plates of enamel
and ivory ; the former of which will, from their slower wear,
always remain standing up in ridges, so as to give a rasp-like
surface to these teeth. The ridges are always transverse, or in
a direction from side to side of the head ; and as the lower jaw
is endowed, by the peculiar form of its joint, with considerable
power of moving backwards and forwards, these teeth obviously
become very powerful instruments for the reduction of hard
vegetable substances. In the frugivorous (fruit-eating) species
of the order, however, such as the Squirrel, the surface of the
molar teeth is raised into rounded tubercles, as in the frugivorous
animals ; whilst in those which have any carnivorous tendency,
such as the Rat, they are raised into sharp points, so as to bear
some resemblance to those of the purely Carnivorous quadrupeds.
— The digestive apparatus in this order is evidently adapted,
by the length and complexity of the alimentary canal, to the
reduction and preparation of vegetable food; and this is the
prevailing habit of all the animals which it includes. Their
function obviously is, to make the hard portions of plants, which
are rejected by other animals, available as nourishment ; but
there are some which are so omnivorous in their propensities, as
to devour with voracity almost anything that falls in their way.

ORDER RODEJSTIA; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 249

Of this some extraordinary instances will be given, when the
Rat family is described.

217. The animals composing this order are mostly of small
size, — the Capylara (§ 234), which is the largest, not equalling a
pig in bulk : but they are very numerous, and are widely
diffused over the globe. They are most abundant, and present
themselves in the greatest variety, in South America; whilst
they are the rarest in New Holland, which contains but six
known species of this order, its place being occupied in that
region by the rodent forms of the Marsupialia. The Rodentia
exhibit considerable variety of disposition ; some being very
docile and gentle, whilst others are savage and untameable : but
the former is certainly the general character of the group. Some
of them are remarkable for the high development of their
instinctive powers, but none of them exhibit any considerable de-
gree of sagacity (ANIM. PHYSIOL., Chap. XTY.) : and their brain,
in the nearly entire absence of convolutions, and in other charac-
ters, more resembles that of Birds than that of the higher
Mammalia. It has been justly remarked, that they are more
easily tamed than educated ; their intelligence not being sufficient
to enable them to learn. These animals usually multiply very
fast : they produce large litters several times a year ; and the
young speedily arrive at maturity, requiring, for the most part,
but little care on the part of their parents during the period of
infancy. This is one example, therefore, of the general prin-
ciple, the applications of which have been elsewhere dwelt
upon, that, the higher the development which is ultimately to be
attained by a Plant or Animal, the longer is the period of prepa-
ration for it, and the greater is the assistance which it needs
during its early state. With the exception of some remark-
able aberrant forms, there is a considerable similarity throughout
the whole group. Nearly all of them agree in the large size of
the posterior extremities, as compared with the anterior; and
this is sometimes almost as considerable as in the Kangaroos. Most
of them have the habit of sitting upon their haunches, and of
using their anterior members for the prehension of food, &c. ; —
not, however, as in higher animals, by grasping it in either

250 ORDER RODENTIA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

hand, but by holding it between the two paws, as seen in
Fig. 48.

218. The principles upon which the division of this order into
families should be founded, have not yet been satisfactorily
established. It is convenient, however, to distribute them in the
first instance into two sections ; of which the first, possessing
clavicles, includes the Squirrels, Mice, and Beavers ; whilst to
the second, in which the clavicles are nearly or completely
absent, belong the Porcupines, Hares, and Guinea-pigs. The
three principal families constituting the first section, may be
distinguished by the form of the tail, and the number of the
molar teeth. In the SCIURIDJE, or Squirrel tribe, the tail is
large and bushy ; and the molar teeth are four on each side, with
a fifth in the upper jaw, which soon drops out. The MURID^E,
or Mouse and Rat tribe, have a round scaly tail, and only three
molars on each side. The family CASTORID^E, which includes
none but the Beavers^ is at once distinguished by the peculiar
flattening of the tail, which is covered with scales ; there are four
molars on each side. Between the two last families may be
placed the group of ARVICOLJE, or Voles, which include many
species that are commonly termed Rats and Mice ; but these are
distinguished by a peculiarity in their teeth, that indicates a
greater affinity to the Beavers, with which they are classed by
some Naturalists. — It is remarkable that the Rodents of this
series should be much more extensively diffused over the globe,
than those of the families hereafter to be described. There is no
part in which some kinds of Mice and Rats are not to be found ;
and Squirrels are as widely diffused, with the exception of New
Holland. The order is most abundant in temperate regions, — the
reverse of which is the case, in regard to Mammals of large size.

219. The family SCIURIDJE, or Squirrel tribe, contains a large
number of species, many of which bear a strong resemblance to
each other. Some of them, like the common Squirrel of this
country, (Fig. 48,) have a very extensive range, and are liable
to undergo great alterations in colour. The form of this little
animal is sufficiently well known, to render a particular descrip-
tion of it unnecessary. Living entirely upon vegetable food, —

ORDER SCIURID^E; — SQUIRREL, PTEROMYS. 251

especially buds and young shoots in the spring and summer, and
nuts, acorns, &c. in the autumn and winter, — it spends nearly
its whole time amongst trees, leaping from branch to branch with
great agility, and seldom descending to the ground, except
for the purpose of passing to another tree. They are usually
found in pairs, which pairs are believed to associate for life ; and
they construct little spherical nests, near the tops of the highest
trees, by weaving twigs together, leaving an opening at the top.
In such places, they and their young are out of the reach of all
quadruped foes; but they occasionally become the prey of
ravenous birds, when these roam on the wing over the forests
they inhabit. Some species of Squirrel associate in large
numbers; and others so far resemble the next family, as to form
their nests by burrowing amongst the roots of trees. — As already
mentioned, the business of the tail is the peculiar characteristic
of the Squirrel tribe ; and this is of great assistance to them in
leaping ; for not only does the tail serve to guide them, but even
to give them a degree of support, its hairs spreading out sideways,
when the animal is in motion, into a sort of feathery expansion.

FIG. 126.— FLYING SQUIRREL.

In the Pferomys, or Flying Squirrel, this sustaining power is
much increased, by an extension of the skin of the flank between
the fore and hind legs ; and this, with the tail, forms a kind of
parachute, on which the agile little animals are sustained in
their long leaps from bough to bough, the first impulse being
given by their powerful hind-legs. But, as elsewhere explained,

252 FAMILY SCIUBID^E ; FLYING SQUIRREL, MARMOT.

(ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 668,) this movement cannot be rightly
designated as flight, since the animal is not able to propel itself in
the air, nor even to sustain itself at the same height. — In some
of the Squirrels, the tail is rounder and less bushy than in the
common one of this country; these, consequently, have less
power of taking sustained leaps through the air ; and they live
more upon the ground.

220. The Marmot and the Dormouse seem to occupy an
intermediate position between this family and the next. The
Marmot has been commonly associated with the Rats ; but in its
dentition it more nearly resembles the Squirrels. The body is

FIG. 127-— ARCTOMYS, OB MARMOT.

heavier, however, than it usually is in that family, and the limbs
are shorter ; the tail is of moderate length, and hairy. The
Marmots construct extensive burrows, with long galleries, pre-
ferring the sides of high and cold mountains. • They pass the
winter in a state of profound torpidity ; not even occasionally
arousing themselves to take nourishment. They prepare a couch
of dry grass, in which they nestle ; and they securely close the
mouth of the burrow, and prevent the changes in the external
temperature from affecting their bodies, by carrying in a ball of
hay backwards, and drawing it firmly into the orifice. A sub-
division of this group, peculiar to North America, is remarkable
for its large cheek-pouches, which enable these little animals to
carry the stores of grain on which they feed. They are described
by Dr. Richardson as living in communities, and as occasionally

FAMILY SCIURID^E; — DORMOUSE, JERBOA. 253

gambolling for hours together near the mouths of the burrows ;
sentinels having been previously appointed, which indicate to
them, from some elevated situation, the approach of danger, and
which also reconnoitre when they are about to go on their preda-
tory excursions.

221. The Dormouse, also, has been commonly associated with
the Rats ; but in its general habits, the structure of its teeth,
and the hairiness of its tail, (which in some species spreads out
into a tuft at the end,) it presents a nearer approach to the
Squirrels. It has their lively expression and active movements ;
and, like them, it builds a kind of nest in the foliage, which
is usually, however, situated near the ground. A species which
inhabits Southern Europe is known to attack small birds ; but
the usual food of that which inhabits this country, consists of
haws, young hazel-nuts, and fallen acorns. Of these it lays up
a hoard for the winter ; which period is passed by it in a state
of almost constant torpidity, though it occasionally awakes to

take food. The peculiar nature of this state of hibernation,

which is better displayed in the Dormouse, than in any other
warm-blooded animal of our own country, except the Bats, — has
been elsewhere explained (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 309). The true
Squirrels also pass a large part of the winter in sleep ; but they
frequently awake to take food, of which they lay up a plentiful
store during the autumn.

222. Another intermediate link between the Squirrels and
Rats, but agreeing with the latter rather than with the former,
is the Jerboa, which is distinguished by the enormous develop-
ment of its hind-legs and tail ; causing it to bear considerable
resemblance in form to the Kangaroo ; and enabling it, like that
animal, to take prodigious leaps. It resembles the Squirrels in
possessing a hairy and tufted tail, and also in the disproportion
of its fore and hind-legs ; but in the conformation of its teeth,
it is more allied to the Rats. It is a native of Egypt, Syria, &c. ;
and was known to the ancients under the name of Dipus (two-
footed), which it still bears as its scientific appellation.

223. The family MURIDJE, consisting of Mice, Rats, and other
animals allied to them, contains the smallest, and at the same

254 FAMILY MURID.E; — BLACK AND BROWN RATS.

time the most numerous, of the Mammalia. As already men-
tioned, the animals composing it are distinguished by their long
round scaly tails, and by the presence of only three molars in
each jaw ; these are originally furnished with rounded tubercles,
but wear down into roughened disks. No undomesticated
animals are better known than mice and rats. Of the common
Mouse, Cuvier thus concisely speaks, — " known in all times and
in all places." Of the Rats, two species are known in this
country, in which they have become completely naturalized,
though there is reason to believe that neither is an original inha-
bitant of it. The Black Rat is commonly termed the old English
Rat, having been known before the introduction of the other ;
but it appears not to have been known in England before the
middle of the 16th century, when it was introduced from France.
This is now becoming rather a rare animal in this country ;
having been nearly extirpated by the other species, for which,
on account of its inferior size and strength, it is an unequal
match. It is now chiefly found in the old houses of large cities,
such as London and Edinburgh ; and especially in the cellars and
stables of the former. The Brown species is commonly known
as the Norway rat ; but to this title it has no claim whatever,
since probably not a single individual had existed in that country
at the time it received the appellation. It is believed to have
originally come from Persia, where it lives in immense burrows ;
and is said to have first arrived on the European side of the
Volga after an earthquake in 1727- From that time it gradually
spread through Europe, and was introduced into England about
the middle of the last century. Its astonishing fecundity, its
omnivorous habits, the secrecy of its retreats, and the ingenious
devices to which it has recourse, either to retain its existing place
of abode, or to migrate to a more favourable situation, all con-
duce to keep up its overwhelming numbers. By its power of
adapting itself to a great variety of circumstances, in regard to
food, temperature, and habits, it has been enabled to spread
itself, by means of British vessels, to America, New Holland,
and almost every other part of the globe; and has already
become a source of inconvenience in many of these localities.

FAMILY MURID^E; — VORACITY OF RATS. 2.55

224. Both kinds of Rat are extremely voracious, and occa-
sionally show great ferocity when attacked. They have been
not unfrequently known to attack children and infirm persons
when asleep ; and will even " show fight " against more power-
ful opponents. Of all the Rodentia, the Brown Rat seems
most capable of subsisting upon an exclusively animal diet ; of
this, the following is a remarkable example. At Montfau9on, in
the neighbourhood of Paris, is a very large establishment for the
slaughtering of horses ; and the number of rats which exist in
the neighbourhood, and which gain their subsistence from this
source alone, is so enormous, that the carcasses of the horses
killed in the course of a day, (sometimes amounting to thirty-
five in number,) are found the next morning picked bare to the
bone. A proposition was made, some time since, for the removal
of the establishment to a greater distance ; and one of the chief
obstacles urged against it was the fear entertained of the danger-
ous consequences that might result to the neighbourhood, from
suddenly depriving these voracious animals of their proper suste-
nance. The following experiment was made by the head of the
establishment, with the view of gaining an idea of the number of
Rats in its vicinity. A part of it consists of a yard inclosed
by solid walls, at the foot of which are several holes made for
the ingress and egress of the Rats. Into this inclosure he put
the carcasses of two or three Horses ; and, towards the middle
of the night, — having first cautiously, and with as little noise
as possible, stopped up all the holes, — he got together several
of his workmen, each having a torch in one hand, and a stick
in the other. Having entered the yard, and closed the door
behind them, they commenced a general massacre. It was
not necessary to take any aim ; for no matter how the blow
was directed, it was sure to immolate a Rat ; and those which
endeavoured to escape, by climbing up the walls, were quickly
knocked down. By a recurrence of this experiment, at inter-
vals of a few days, 16,050 Rats were killed in the space of a
month. After one night's massacre, the dead amounted to
2,650; and the result of four hunts was 9,101. Even this
can give but an imperfect idea of the number of these vermin ;

256 FAMILY MURID^E ; — VORACITY OF RATS.

for the inclosure in which they were thus killed, contains not
above the twentieth part of the space over which the dead bodies
of Horses are spread, and which, it is but fair to suppose, must
equally attract the Rats upon all points. These animals have
made burrows for themselves, like Rabbits, in the adjoining
fields, and hollowed out into catacombs all the surrounding
eminences ; — and this to such an extent, that it is not unusual to
see the latter crumble away at the base, leaving these subterra-
nean works exposed. So great is the number of these animals,
that they have not all been able to lodge themselves in the
immediate vicinity of the slaughter-houses ; for paths may be
distinctly traced, leading across the fields, from the inclosures in
which the Horses are killed, to a burrow about five hundred
paces distant.

225. The voracity and ferocity of Rats cause them not even
to spare their own kind. If several be inclosed together in a
box, they fight furiously ; and the weaker is not only killed but
devoured by the stronger. (The same has been observed even of
the common Mouse.) Their burrowing propensities have often
been productive of great injury ; for they have not unfrequently
excavated the foundations of a dwelling to a dangerous extent ;
and there are many instances of their fatally undermining the
most solid mason- work, or burrowing through dams, which had for
ages served to confine the waters of rivers and canals. The Brown
Rats wims with great ease. Mr.T. Bell * mentions that the gardens
of the Zoological Society of London, in the Regent's Park, are
greatly infested by them ; but as they are too cunning to risk the
danger of being caught during the day-time, or alarmed, perhaps,
at the concourse of persons by whom the gardens are frequented,
they are often seen towards evening crossing the canal in a body
from the opposite shore, in order to land in the gardens, and enjoy
their night's depredations, returning in the morning in the same
manner to their daily retreat. This animal is probably one of
the most sagacious of the Rodentia ; for the instances in which
it has been observed to show an adaptation of means to ends, to
which it can scarcely have been led by its natural instincts, and
* History of British Quadrupeds, p. 319.

FAMILY MURID.E ; RATS AND MICE. 257

which must be attributed to intelligence, are very numerous. It
has been mentioned to the Author by a trustworthy eye-witness,
that she once saw a number of Rats conveying eggs safely down
a flight of stairs, from a store-room above to their haunts below.
Each egg, held between the fore-paws of a Rat, was delivered
by it, over the edge of the step, to another reared upon its
haunches on the step below ; and in this manner the eggs were
safely transferred from the top to the bottom. In another instance,
the following expedient was adopted by a number of Rats, to get
at some treacle contained in a jar, of which the neck was too
narrow to permit them to obtain direct access to it. One Rat
after another inserted his tail into the orifice, and dipped it in
the treacle ; then, withdrawing it, he allowed his companions to
lick off the fluid; and in his turn received a share of that
abstracted by his companions in like manner.

226. To the group of true Mice belongs the beautiful little
Harvest Mouse, — the smallest of British quadrupeds, and one of
the smallest of the whole class, — which constructs a curious
globular nest for its young, by weaving together the blades of
wheat : and also the Long-tailed Field Mouse, which burrows
beneath the ground, or lives in natural excavations, which it
enlarges to suit its purpose. Both these are very beautiful little
animals, and highly interesting to the natural-
ist, though very injurious to the Agricul-
turist. A great number of species of the
same group exist in different parts of the
world, which closely resemble one another.

227. Connecting the Rats with the Mar-
mots is a curious animal of larger size, the
Capromys or Hog-rat, which inhabits Cuba,
where it is called Hutia or Utia. This is a
climbing, not a burrowing species ; it lives
in large numbers in the woods of Cuba,
and feeds entirely on vegetable matter, —
reaching the leaves of those short plants which it does not require
to climb, by making use of the tail as a third foot, somewhat in
the manner of a Kangaroo. In its mode of walking on the

258

FAMILY MURIDjE; — HAMSTER, MOLE-RAT.

ground, in the rough and bristly hair on the upper part of its
body, and in the low grunt it makes when pleased, it bears a
slight resemblance to a Hog ; whence the first part of its common
name has originated. . This species is easily domesticated, and
is very docile in captivity. — The Hamster, which has been else-
where noticed on account of its remarkable instincts (AttiM.
PHYSIOL., § 699), is another species of the Rat kind ; and is dis-
tinguished by its two enormous cheek-pouches, in which it carries
grain to be stored up in its extensive hoards. Its tail is short
and somewhat hairy. It inhabits the sandy districts of the
north of Europe and
Asia, from Germany to
Siberia ; and is very
injurious to the Agricul-
turist, on account of the
quantity of grain which
it devours. It does not
restrict itself to vegeta-
ble food, however: but

' ' FIG. 129.— HAMSTER.

attacks and devours

other small quadrupeds and birds.

227. There is another very interesting species, which seems
intermediate between this group and the next ; — the Spalax or
Mole Rat of Southern Russia in Europe. This animal is nearly

FIG. 130— SPALAX OR MOLE-RAT.

allied to the Rats in general conformation ; but presents some
remarkable points of resemblance to the Mole, both in structure

FAMILY MURID^; MOLE-RAT; VOLES. 259

and habits. It lives underground, like the Mole, and throws
up the earth in the same manner, although provided with very
inferior instruments for the purpose ; but instead of feeding on
worms and grubs, it subsists entirely on roots. It works stoutly
and rapidly ; and on the approach of an enemy instantly digs a
perpendicular burrow. The most curious point in its structure,
is that in which it resembles the Mole, — the deficiency of eyes
fitted for vision. These organs are in an undeveloped or rudi-
mentary state, being small black globules no larger than poppy-
seeds ; they are hid beneath the skin, which passes over them
without opening or even becoming thinner, and which is as much
covered with hair at that part as at any other. The Russian
species is somewhat larger than the common Rat ; but there is
another, in the islands of the Straits of Sunda, which is as large
as a Rabbit.

228. The tribe of ARVICOL^E or Voles includes many species
which are commonly termed Rats and Mice, but which are dis-
tinguished by a peculiarity in the teeth, that indicate an affinity
with the Beaver. To this group belongs the Short-tailed Field-
mouse, which is remarkable for its extraordinary voracity, and for

the rapidity of its
multiplication. It
burrows through the
ground, destroying
the roots of plants
and trees which come
in its way ; and it
also devours their
bark. In this inan-

FIG. 131 — SHORT-TAILED FIELD MOUSE. ner it has done great

in j ury to young plant-
ations, especially in the Forest of Dean, and in the New Forest,
Hampshire ; and in the years 1813 and 1814 its ravages were so
great, as to create considerable alarm, lest the whole of the
young trees in these extensive woods should be destroyed by
them. Various plans were suggested for their destruction ; but
none proved so successful as the digging of holes about 18 or 20

s2

260 VOLES; — FIELD-MOUSE, WATER-RAT, LEMMING, MUSK-RAT.

inches in depth, and much wider at the bottom than at the top,
so that the Mice which should fall in might not easily get out
again. It was calculated that, in the Forest of Dean, not fewer
than 100,000 Mice were taken by means of these holes, in the
course of a few months ; as many as 30,000 having been counted
out from them ; and a much larger number having been probably
destroyed by Stoats, Weasels, Kites, Hawks, Owls, and other
predaceous quadrupeds and birds, which resorted to these holes
to secure an easy and abundant prey. An equal number was
destroyed in the New Forest ; and the evil has not since re-
turned, to anything like the same extent. The Field Voles,
like Rats, will kill and eat their own kind, when pressed by
famine, or kept in confinement. The so-called Water Rat is also
in reality a Vole. It burrows in the banks of streams, forming
its retreat at some distance from the water ; and in this it lays
up a store of vegetable substances, on which alone it feeds. It
dives and swims with great facility, instantly seeking the water
when alarmed, and plunging at once to the bottom ; it is obliged,
however, to return to the surface for respiration, at intervals of
about a minute. The Lemmings of Siberia and Northern Russia
also belong to this group ; they burrow and ordinarily feed on
grass, rein-deer lichen, &c. ; but they sometimes multiply to
such a degree, as to be forced to migrate, in order to obtain food.
These migrations are performed by immense numbers at once ;
they move straight onwards, destroying everything in their way,
until they arrive at the ocean, where most of them are drowned.
— A curious animal, which closely connects this group with the
Beaver, is that known in Canada as the Muskquash, or Musk-
Rat, on account of the musky odour it produces. It is about the
size of a Rabbit ; its fur is of a reddish -gray ; its feet are partly
webbed, and its tail somewhat flattened. In summer it burrows
in the banks of streams and swamps ; and in winter it builds
mud huts on their margins, and sometimes even on the ice itself.
The entrance to these huts is under water, for the purpose of
procuring food, which consists entirely of aquatic vegetables;
and by very severe frost, these animals are consequently de-
stroyed, through want of food and air. It is said that, when the

FAMILY CASTORHXE; BEAVER. 261

ice closes their holes, they attack and devour one another.
Their fur, like that of the Beaver, is peculiarly adapted for
felting ; and from four to five hundred thousand skins are
annually imported into England, for the manufacture of hats.

229. The preceding group is probably to be associated, with
the Beaver, in the family CASTORID^E; of which the Beaver is to be

FIG. 132.— BEAVER.

regarded as the type. This animal is distinguished from all
other Rodents, by its horizontally-flattened tail, which is of a
nearly oval form, and covered with scales ; the hind feet are
webbed, and, together with the tail, serve to propel it through
the water with considerable facility. The incisor teeth are
very large and peculiarly hard ; and they were employed by the

North American Indians, as instru-
ments to cut bone and to fashion
their horn-tipped spears, till they were-
superseded by the introduction of
iron tools from Europe. The molar

FIG. 133. — MOLAR TEETH OF THE

BEAVER. teeth are four, above and below, on

each side ; they are furnished with

layers of cortical substance, as well as with ivory and enamel
(ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 178) ; their crowns are flattened ; and they
present very much the aspect of a riband folded upon itself, aa

262 FAMILY CASTORIDJE ; BEAVER, COYPU.

shown in Fig. 133. The Beavers are best known as inhabitants
of Canada, and of the northern parts of the United States ; where
alone their remarkable building propensity (which has been
elsewhere described, ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 706), is fully manifested.
But they are at present found also on the banks of the Rhone,
Danube, Weser, and other continental rivers; and there is
sufficient historical evidence, that they were formerly inhabitants
of Britain. As these Beavers do not build, however, but
burrow under ground, it has been supposed that they are not of
the same species with the American Beaver ; but a colony has
been recently discovered in a lonely spot, near the source of
the river Elbe, in which regular habitations have been con-
structed ; and it is known that the American Beavers take to
burrowing instead of building, when molested by Man. — The
Beaver is pursued both for its fur, and for the sake of a peculiar
odoriferous secretion, termed Castor, which was formerly much
used in medicine, but is now chiefly employed by perfumers.
The fur was formerly a most important article of commerce.
In the year 1788, upwards of 170,000 skins were exported from
Canada ; and in 1808, as many as 126,927 were sent from
Quebec alone to this country, the value of which was estimated
at nearly 120,000^. Of late years, however, the exportation
has greatly diminished ; although the country now occupied by
the hunters is of far greater extent than formerly; the animals
have been exterminated from many extensive tracts, which they
formerly inhabited. In the year 1827, the importation into
London was little beyond 50,000 skins. This diminution has
caused greater care to be taken than formerly, to prevent the
destruction of the race ; but it may be doubted whether these
animals will ever become so plentiful as they once were.

230. The deficiency in Beaver skins is partly supplied, as
already mentioned, by those of the Muskquash ; and partly by
those of a South American Rodent, the Myopotamus or Coypu^
which connects this family with the Cavidae. This animal re-
sembles the Beaver in many respects, but is of smaller size.
Its hind-feet are webbed; but its tail is round, instead of being
flattened ; and its scaly covering is partly concealed by scattered

FAMILY HYSTRICID.E ; — PORCUPINE. 263

hairs. It swims with great ease, and burrows in the neighbour-
hood of water. It is easily domesticated ; and its manners in
captivity are very mild. As many as 600,000 or 800,000 skins
of this species are annually imported into Britain from South
America, chiefly from the Rio de la Plata, under the name of
Neutria skins.

231. The second section of the Rodentia, in which the
clavicles are either absent or are imperfectly developed, altogether
occupies a lower place in the scale ; the animals composing it
being for the most part less highly organised, not capable of
executing so great a variety of actions, and less remarkable for
their instinctive propensities. It is observable that, with the
exception of the Porcupines and Hares, which are spread over
nearly the whole of the globe, almost all the very numerous
genera of which this section consists, are restricted to South
America and the West Indian Islands. The principal families
comprehended in it, are the HYSTRICIDJE or Porcupine tribe,
the CAVID.E or Guinea Pig tribe, the CHINCHILLIDJE or Chin-
chilla tribe, and the LEPORID.E or Hare tribe. These are separated
from each other chiefly by characters supplied by the teeth. In
the first and last only of these families, the molar teeth are
possessed of growing roots ; in the others, they are destitute of
them. The last is distinguished (as already remarked, § 216),
by the presence of small incisors behind the great cutting-teeth ;
and the ChinchillidEe differ from the Cavidae, in possessing
clavicles.

232. The animals properly composing the family HYSTRI-
CID^!, are well known under the name of Porcupines, which is
derived from the French porc-epin, signifying a spiny hog, — a
designation conferred upon them on account of their heavy pig-
like aspect and grunting voice, and the curious spiny covering
which their bodies possess (Fig. 47). These spines, as already
explained (§ 76), are nothing else than enormously developed
hairs. The best known species of Porcupine is the one which
inhabits the South of Italy, Sicily, Spain, and Barbary ; it is

264 PORCUPINE, COENDOU. FAMILY CAVIDJE.

between two and three feet in length, and is nearly the largest
of the Rodentia. The spines, especially those covering the
upper part of its body, are large and long ; some of them
measuring more than a foot from end to end, and having annular
marks of black and white alternating. Its head and neck have
a crest of long bristles ; and its short tail is furnished with quills
of a very singular structure, being open thin-sided tubes, about
two inches long, and supported upon slender flexible stalks,
which make a considerable sound when they are caused to strike
against each other by the shaking of this appendage. "When
the Porcupine is irritated, it erects its spines in the manner of
the Hedgehog, and these spines are often easily detached ; but it
is quite a mistake to suppose that it can lance them at its
enemies. It is a nocturnal and solitary animal, remaining
concealed during the day at the bottom of its burrow, and
becoming torpid during the winter. — Several other species,
most of them possessing shorter spines and a longer tail, are
found in different parts of the world ; and there is one, the
Coendou, that inhabits Brazil, which has a long prehensile tail,
like that of the Sapajous, and has the spines hidden, during part
of the year, by long grayish-brown fur. This animal lives
among trees, instead of burrowing.

233. The family CAVID^E, or Guinea-Pig tribe contains the

FIG. 134.— COBAYA OB GUINEA-PIG.

largest species of this order ; though even these would be con-
sidered small, when compared with other quadrupeds. Th'ey are

FAMILY CAVIDJE; — GUINEA-PIG, CAPYBARA. 265

naturally restricted to tropical America, where they seem to
replace the hares and rabbits of other countries ; but one species,
the common Guinea-Pig, has been so long domesticated in this
and other European countries, as now to have become quite
naturalised in the Old World. Whence the name was derived,
which this species bears, there does not seem now a possibility of
ascertaining ; for it seems to have been introduced into Europe
at a very early period after the discovery of South America. This
animal possesses a very low degree of intelligence ; it lives in
societies, inhabiting dry lands covered with low brushwood ; and
remains concealed during the day, coming forth on the approach
of evening to seek its food. It possesses neither cunning to avoid
danger, strength to resist, nor swiftness to escape from it ; and
nothing could save the race from extermination, except its extra-
ordinary rapidity of multiplication. In this respect this species
equals, or perhaps surpasses, any other mammiferous animal.
The ordinary litter consists of six or eight, sometimes as many as
twelve ; and young are produced several times in the year. These
young come into the world in a state which at once renders them
nearly independent of their parents : and although they do not
attain their full growth until they are eight or nine months old,
they themselves begin to breed at the age of six or eight weeks.
There is little besides this readiness of multiplication, and a
certain degree of prettiness in their external appearance, which
can render the keeping of these animals a matter of either
pleasure or profit. " Devoid of sense or docility, though inces-
santly restless, tame from stupidity, and harmless from impotence,
they perhaps possess as few claims upon our interest and affection,
as any animal of equally innoxious habits."*

234. Nearly allied to the Guinea-Pig is the Hydrochcerus or
Capylara,) which is the size of a small pig, and is the largest
known animal of the order. It has a thick muzzle, short legs,
coarse yellowish-brown hair, and no tail. Its feet are webbed,
showing its aquatic habits ; and it is said to exist, in consider-
able numbers, near all the large rivers of the tropical portion of

* Bell's " British Quadrupeds," p. 355.

266

FAMILY CAVID.E;-— CAPYBARA, AGOUTI.

South America, readily taking to the water, and swimming and
diving with facility. It runs badly, however, upon land, owing

FIG. 135. — CAPYBARA.

to the shortness of its legs. In its disposition it strongly resem-
bles the Cavy ; and like it, is capable of being readily domesti-
cated. A friend of the Author's had one alive in his house for
some years ; and it gave very little trouble, though commonly
allowed to go at large. — The Agouti is another of the Cavidse ;

resembling the Por-
cupines, however, in
possessing roots to its
molar teeth ; and re-
sembling the Hares,
also, in the length of
its hind legs, by
which it runs or
rather leaps with
considerable swift-
ness. When first taken possession of by Europeans, the West
India Islands and all the more fertile parts of South America
were literally overrun with the various species of this animal ;
they are still very numerous in most places which are not settled
and cultivated ; and even in some which are under cultivation,
their numbers are so great, as to give no little annoyance. They
live for the most part upon the surface of the ground, not climbing,

FIG. 136 — COMMON AGOUTI.

AGOUTI. — FAMILY CHINCHILLID^E. 267

nor digging to any depth ; and they commonly sit upon their
haunches, when at rest, holding their food between their fore-
paws, in the manner of Squirrels. They feed both upon the
green vegetation of the surface, and upon the roots which they
find a little below it ; and by destroying those of the sugar-cane,
they are often of great injury to the planters. It is said that,
when angry, the Agouti stamps with the fore-feet, grunts like a
young pig, and erects the bristly hair of the crupper in the
manner of a Porcupine.

235. The family CHINCHILLIDJE consists of a number of small
South American Rodents, which have been until recently only
known by the skins of some of them ; these have been long highly
valued on account of their fur, and have been largely imported.
This is especially the case in regard to the Chinchilla, a

FIG. 137 — CHINCHILLA.

native of the valleys in the high mountain districts, where the
cold is often very severe ; its fur is of a dense woolly character,
which, together with its fineness of texture, causes it to be highly
valued. Its colour is clear gray above, varying however in
depth, and passing into white on the under parts. The ancient
Peruvians are said to have made of this wool coverlets for
beds, and valuable stuffs ; but there is reason to believe that, on
account of the present extensive destruction of the species, it is
becoming more and more scarce. Of its habits in a state of
nature, little is known, save that it associates in numbers, and
excavates burrows in which it resides, feeding chiefly upon roots,

268 CHINCHILLA, VISCACHA. FAMILY LEPORHXE.

especially those of a bulbous kind. In captivity, its manners
strongly resemble those of the Cavy and Rabbit. The Viscacha
of the Pampas is another animal of this family, allied to the
Chinchilla, but larger, being when full grown of the size of the
common Badger. It burrows so extensively in the plains between
Buenos Ayres and San Luis, as to make it dangerous to travel
over them, especially at night ; their holes being so large and
deep, that a horse is almost sure to fall, if he steps into one
of them. The animal is, for the most part, nocturnal in its
habits, being seldom seen until the evening, when it comes forth to
feed and to sport near its holes. It is remarkable that the burrows
of the Viscacha are also inhabited by vast numbers of small
Owls; which are said to sit, during the day, gazing at the
passing travellers, and making a very ludicrous appearance.

236. The LEPORIDJE or Hare tribe constitutes the last family
of the Rodentia ; distinguished, as already mentioned, by the
presence of two small incisors behind the cutting teeth of the
upper jaw. Few undomesticated animals are better known than
the common Hare of this country ; which is spread, also, over
the greater portion of Europe. Its timidity and defencelessness
are beautifully compensated by its watchfulness, the acuteness of
its senses, and its swiftness of foot. Its eyes are so situated,
that the animal can see nearly all around it ; and its large ears
can be raised and directed towards any point from which the
faintest sound issues. Its brown fur, also, aids to conceal it,
by its resemblance to the russet herbage, in the midst of which
the Hare's form (as the slight hollow made by it is termed) is
usually situated. The Hare is an exclusively vegetable-feeder,
devouring various kinds of herbage and the bark of young
trees ; it is nocturnal in its habits, remaining on its form during
the day. In its stomach there is a partial division, which gives
it a degree of resemblance to that of the Ruminant Quadrupeds;
and in the Levitical directions respecting clean and unclean
animals, it is enumerated as one of those that chew the cud. It
swims well, and takes fearlessly to the water, whether to escape
from pursuit, or to seek for food. Besides the common Hare,
the Alpine or varying Hare (so named from its usual residence,

FAMILY LEPORID^E ; HARES AND RABBITS. 269

and from the changes of colour which it undergoes), inhabits tha
northern parts of Scotland, the mountainous parts of Ireland, and
has been occasionally seen in the mountains of Cumberland. It
is intermediate in size between the Rabbit and the common
Hare; and tenants the sides and summits of mountains, hiding
in the clefts of rocks, or among rocky fragments. Its ordinary
food is similar to that of the other species ; but during the
winter it feeds on lichens and on the seeds of pines. During the
summer its colour is a light grey, except on the lips and at
the tips of the ears, which are black ; but at the approach
of winter, it gradually becomes completely white, with the
exception of these parts, which remain black. At the return
of spring, the white fur is thrown off, and a new gray coat
is obtained, which in its turn undergoes the autumnal change.
That this change is solely due to the effect of cold upon the hair,
is evident from this fact, — that a Lemming (which undergoes a
similar change), caught in the summer, during one of the Arctic
voyages, and kept in the cabin of the ship, at a warm tempera-
ture, retained its summer coat far beyond the usual time ; but
when taken on deck, on the 1st of February, and exposed to
the intense cold of 30° below Zero, the colour of its fur began to
change in a few hours, and was completely turned in the course
of a week. The purpose of this curious phenomenon is evidently
to afford concealment to the animals which undergo it ; by the
resemblance between the hue of their fur, and that of the sur-
rounding snow. — The common Hare of Ireland has been lately
shown to be a species different from that of England ; and it is
curious that, besides some constant differences in its form, its fur
is valueless as an article of commerce ; being destitute of the
long fine dark hairs, which constitute the beauty of that of the
common species.

237. The structure of the Rabbit closely resembles that of the
Hare; the smaller size of the former constituting its chief variation ;
but in its habits,as is well known, it is extremely different, — living
in societies, instead of alone ; and burrowing extensively beneath
the soil, instead of squatting upon it. There is reason to believe
that the Rabbit was not originally a native of our island ; but the

270 LAGOMYS. — FOSSIL REMAINS OF RODENTIA.

date of its introduction is unknown. — The Lagomys or Pica of
Siberia, an animal nearly allied to the Hare, is of much interest,
on account of its peculiar instincts. It is about the size of a
Guinea-pig, and lives on the sides of mountains, concealed in
hollows in the rocks, or inhabiting burrows which it has itself
excavated. In the autumn it selects and dries herbage for its
winter provision ; and of this it makes regular stacks, which are
sometimes four or five feet in height, by eight in breadth. A
subterranean gallery leads from the burrow to the stack ; so that
neither frost nor snow can intercept the communication with it.
The herbage is most carefully selected, and consists chiefly of the
choicest grass and the sweetest herbs, all cut when most vigorous,
and dried so slowly as to form a green and succulent fodder ;
and the collections of it furnish a valuable supply of food for the
horses of the Sable-Hunters. The Picas are also remarkable for
their voice ; the tone of which so much resembles that of a quail,
as to be often mistaken for it, even by the inhabitants of their
native districts. Their peculiar loud and sonorous note or call
is heard only in the morning and evening (except in dark and
cloudy weather), and is repeated by each animal, both male and
female, at regular intervals.

238. The Fossil animals belonging to this order are mostly found
in very recent strata, and generally bear a very close resemblance
to those already existing. Some of them, however, were of much
larger size ; especially those inhabiting South America. Thus
the remains of a species of Capylara has been found there, which
must have been nearly five feet in length ; so as to stand mid-
way between the existing species, and the South American
Tapir. Remains of an Agouti, also, have been discovered, of
such a size that the long bones of its hind legs were nearly as
large as those of a Roebuck. And of the Coendou (or prehen-
sile-tailed Porcupine), a species must have formerly existed, very
little inferior to the wild Hog in bulk. Vast numbers of
remains of various Rodents allied to the existing species, are
found in a fossil state in the caves of that country ; and great
heaps of bones of the smaller animals of this group at present
existing there, are met with in the soil of other caves, in such a

ORDER EDENTATA; — GENERAL CHARACTERS. 271

state as to lead to the belief, that they were brought together
by Owls. Remains of Mice and Water-Rats have been found
in the Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire.

ORDER VIII.— EDENTATA.

239. This order contains a number of animals, recent and
fossil, which differ from each other most widely in habits, and in
those points of their structure which especially adapt them to
those habits ; and which yet agree in so many essential charac-
ters, and are connected together by so many intermediate links,
as evidently to require being associated in the same group. The
leaf-eating, tree-inhabiting Sloths, at present existing in South
America, — the gigantic Mylodon and Megatherium, which
formerly inhabited that Continent, and gained their subsistence,
not by climbing the trees that afforded it, but by uprooting them
with their immense digging feet, — the armour-clothed, insectivo-
rous Armadillos, also inhabiting South America, — the hairy,
toothless Ant-Eaters of the same Continent, — and the scaly
Pangolins of Southern Africa, — might almost be regarded as
types of distinct groups, so widely do they differ from each other
in external form and covering. The name given to the order is
very liable to mislead ; for it might be inferred from it, that the
animals composing the group are altogether toothless, which is
the case in regard to a small section of it only. They all agree,
however, in the absence of teeth in the front of the jaws ; and
the molar teeth, in those which possess them, are comparatively
imperfect in their structure, being destitute of enamel and of
distinct roots. The Edentata constitute the last group of Vn-
guiculated animals ; and in the diminution of the number of
toes which some of them present, as well as in the complete
enclosure of these in a large hoof-like nail, there is an obvious
tendency towards the ungulated structure, which is fully deve-
loped in the succeeding orders. — The existing species of this order
may be subdivided into two principal groups, according to the
nature of the food on which they respectively subsist ; — the first,

272 FAMILY TARDIGRADA; — SLOTH.

to which the name of TARDIGRADA has been given, on account
of the slowness of the movements of the animals composing it,
consists of the Leaf-eaters ; — and the second, which includes the
Insect and Flesh-eaters, has received the name of EFFODIENTTA,
on account of the digging habits which prevail in it. These
names are not, however, by any means universally applicable ;
for there are digging animals in the first group ; and slow-paced
ones in the second.

240. The family TARDIGRADA, contains but a single genus of
animals now existing, the Bradypus or Sloth; an animal on
which Naturalists have most liberally bestowed their pity. Not
only did Buffon fall into the error of supposing it to be an
imperfectly-constructed being, whose existence must be a burthen
to it ; but even Cuvier, whose views were in general much more
sagacious, fell into the same mistake. In the construction of the
Sloth, he remarks, "Nature seems to have amused herself in
producing something imperfect and grotesque ;" and he after-
wards goes on to speak of their " disproportioned structure," and
the " inconveniency of their organisation." The fact is, as Dr.
Buckland has well shown,* that the organisation and habits of
the Sloth are as completely adapted to each other, as are those of
any other animal ; and that our different notion respecting it is
founded, on our usually seeing it only in an unnatural condition,
for which it is not fitted. For the Sloth is formed to be produced,
to live, and to die, not on the ground, but in trees ; and not on
the branches, like the Squirrel or Monkey, but under them ;
and when this is once fully understood, the complete adaptation
of its whole structure to its mode of life becomes apparent.

241. The first peculiarity in the construction of the Sloth,
which especially strikes the observer, when the animal is placed
upon the ground, is the length of the fore-legs, which are twice
as long as the hinder pair ; and the very oblique connection of
the hind-legs with the body, arising from the great breadth of
the pelvis. The structure of the wrist and ankle-joints is such,
that the palm or sole, instead of being directed towards the

» Lirinsean Transactions, 1835.

FAMILY TARDIGRADA ; SLOTHS.

273

surface of the ground, is turned towards the body ; so that the
animal is obliged to rest upon the side of the hind-foot, and
upon the elbow (not upon the extremity) of the fore-limb ; and
it can only advance itself, by a most awkward shuffling move-
ment ; or by laying hold, with its long crooked claws, of some
fixed object, towards which it draws itself. But these peculi-
arities ought no more to excite our pity and compassion, than
the circumstance of Fishes being deprived of legs, and unable to
move upon dry ground; for when the Sloth is placed in its
natural condition, they show themselves to be most perfectly
adapted to its peculiar mode of existence, for which no other

animal is equally fitted.
When placed in a tree,
the Sloth is no longer the
slow-moving, piteous-
looking, animal which
it is commonly reputed ;
for it climbs the trunk,
and passes from branch
to branch, with consi-
derable rapidity, having
been known to ascend,
in a minute, from the
bottom to the top of a lofty tree. The only three species of
Sloth, at present known to exist, — the Ais, or three-toed Sloths,
(of which there are two species, slightly differing from each
other), and the Unau, or two-toed Sloth, — are inhabitants of the
dense forests of the tropical portion of South America, the branches
of whose trees are so intertangledwith one another, that hundreds
of miles may be traversed by passing from one tree to another.
Clinging by the hinder claws, the posterior limbs securely em-
bracing the bough, and generally holding by one of their fore-
limbs also, they employ the other to hook towards them the
foliage on which they browze. Their long arms, with the firm
claws by which they are terminated, enable them to pass from
branch to branch, even when these are at some distance from each
other; and when they live in the more open parts of the forest,

FIG. 138. — At, OR COMMON SLOTH.

274 FAMILY TARDIGRAD A ; SLOTHS.

where the trees are less contiguous, they take advantage of windy
weather, which blows the boughs together, to effect their passage,

FIG. 139. — UNAU, OR TWO-TOED SLOTH.

— seldom coming to the ground, and completely stripping the tree
of its leaves and young shoots, rather than do so. From the
peculiar construction of the Sloth, and the remarkable power of
resisting tension, or strain, which its limbs seem to possess, it ap-
pears to feel no more fatigue from remaining suspended beneath a
branch for a long time together, than we do from sitting or stand-
ing erect, — a position which the Sloth could not maintain for an
instant without support. The position which the Sloth assumes
during sleep, is no less peculiar than that of its period of activity.
It takes its place at the fork of a tree, the arms embracing the
trunk, the back resting upon the angle of the branch, and the
head reclining on the chest. The animal is thus rolled up almost
in the form of a ball ; the entire vertebral column, including the
neck, assumes a nearly circular curve ; and not only is the weight
of the whole body maintained in an attitude of ease and safety, but
the head is supported between the arms and chest, and the face

FAMILY TARDIGRADA ; SLOTHS. 275

lies buried in the long wool which covers those parts, and is thus
protected during sleep from the myriads of insects which would
otherwise attack it.

242. Although the Sloths might appear to be totally unpro-
vided with the means of defence, and liable to fall an easy prey
to their enemies, yet this is really very far from being the case ;
since their structure is no less adapted for their defence from
attacks, than it is for their peculiar dwelling-place and supply of
food. In the first place, their long shaggy hair defends them from
the insects, which in that climate are so troublesome ; its texture
is very peculiar, more resembling dry hay, or grass shrivelled
and withered by the sun, than the hair of ordinary quadrupeds ;
and its appearance so much resembles that of the bark and moss
of the branches on which the Sloth lives, as to prevent the animal
from being easily detected, except when it moves. Its usual
position places it above the reach of ordinary carnivorous quad-
rupeds ; but its powerful claws, and the peculiarly enduring
strength of its long arms, make them very efficient weapons of
defence. When attacked on the ground, the Sloth throws himself
on his back, fixes his claws on his adversary, and grasps him
with enormous power ; in this manner he has been known to
strangle a dog, holding him all the while at arm's length ; and
in the same mode he grapples with snakes of large size, which,
in his natural residence, are probably his chief enemies.

243. The teeth of the Sloths are not fitted to grind down
their food, on account of the absence of the ridges of hard enamel
which we find in the molar teeth of other herbivorous quad-
rupeds ; but they are adapted merely to bruise it, or break down
the tender structure of the buds and leaves. This deficiency is
compensated by the complex structure of the stomach, which
somewhat resembles that of the Ruminants (§ 98). In the Two-
toed Sloth, the stomach is almost completely divided into two
cavities, of which the first is again partially subdivided into
three others ; four chambers are thus formed, which are obviously
analogous to the four stomachs of the Ruminantia ; but there is no
reason to think that anything like actual rumination takes place.

244. We next proceed to a family entirely consisting of huge
fossil animals, which have entirely passed from the surface of the

T2

"276 FAMILY GRAVIGRADA ; MYLODON.

earth, and which have been named GRAVIGRADA from their mas-
sive character. Of one of these, the Mylodon (of which there is
a magnificent skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, London), an elaborate account has recently been pub-
lished by Professor Owen ; in which the other animals of the
same group are also noticed. All of them appear, from the
structure of their teeth, to have been adapted to the same kind
of food with the comparatively pigmy Sloths of the present day ;
but instead of possessing limbs adapted for climbing trees, which
could not have borne their enormous weight, their feet were con-
structed for digging ; and the evidence adduced by Professor
Owen from the structure of their skeletons, together with the
beautiful chain of reasoning which he connects with this, leave
no room for doubt, that they obtained their food by digging
around the bases of the trees, and uprooting their trunks.
" Conceive of a Sloth of the size and bulk of a Rhinoceros or
Hippopotamus, but with bones infinitely more massive, muscles
infinitely more voluminous and powerful, with a thick tail acting
as a support, and forming with the hind limbs a firm tripod,
"while the animal thus raised upright, and exerting its enormous
strength, sways the tree to and fro, and lays it at last prostrate ;
— and the reader will have a good idea of what this mighty
devastator (the Mylodon) of the primitive forests of South
America must have been." * It is an interesting circumstance,
that the skull of the specimen described by Professor Owen had
at some time been fractured and had healed, — the animal living
long afterwards ; and it is evident that these animals must have
been unusually liable, from their habits, to blows from heavy
falling bodies. It appears to be for the sake of meeting these
accidents, that the outer and inner layers of the bones of the skull
are separated from each other by large air-cells; so that the
fracture of the outer table might occur without injury to the
brain. The same structure exists in the Sloths ; and is evidently
a provision against injury from the severe falls, to which these
animals must be occasionally liable, from the giving- way of the
branches to which they cling.
245. The Megatherium was an animal nearly allied to the

* Pictorial Museum, Vol. I., p. 178.

FAMILY GRAVIGRADA ; MEGATHERIUM.

277

Mylodon in structure and habits ; and several remains of it
have been found in different parts of South America. Its name
indicates its enormous bulk, which may be judged of from the
following statement of its dimensions. Its length, when full
grown, must have been 14 feet, including the tail ; and its height
upwards of 8 feet. Its thigh-bone was twice the thickness of
that of the largest Elephant ; its fore-foot measured more than a
yard in length by twelve inches in width, and the toes were

terminated by en-
ormous claws; and
the width of the
upper part of the
tail could not have
been less than two
feet. With the re-
mains of the Me-
gatherium have
been not unfre-
quently found as-
sociated the relics
of a bony armour,
resembling that of
the Armadillo ;
and it has been
supposed that
these belonged to
it. But it is now
known that they
formed the cover-
ing of a gigantic
animal of the
Armadillo kind,
which will be
presently noticed.
The genus Mega-
lonyx (or animal
with a large claw) is founded on some remains which have been

FIG. 140.— FOOT OK MEGATHERIUM.

278

FAMILY LORICATA ; ARMADILLOS.

discovered in North and South America ; from the size and
form of the claw, it was at first supposed to be that of a carni-
vorous animal ; but Cuvier rectified the error, and referred it to
this group. The Megalonyx seems to have been closely related
to the Megatherium in structure and habits, but to have been of
less dimensions ; its size was about that of an Ox ; but it was
much more solidly and heavily built.

246. The Insectivorous Edentata may be divided into two
families, — the LORICATA, or scaly animals, — and the TRUE EDEN-
TATA, or strictly toothless animals. The former comprehends
the Armadillos and other animals allied to it ; to the latter
belong the Ant-eaters and Pangolins.

247. The Armadillos are distinguished from all other Mam-
malia by the inclosure of their bodies in a bony armour ; this
consists, first, of a large triangular or oval plate on the top of
the head, which projects backwards, so as to cover the neck ;
secondly, of a large buckler over the shoulders, and a similar

FIG. i4J PKBA, OR EIGHT-BANDED ARMADILLO.

buckler over the haunches ; and thirdly, of a series of transverse
bands which intervene between these, and are united to each
other in such a manner as to allow freedom of motion to the
body. Each of these separate portions consists of a number of
small pieces united together, like the separate portions of a
mosaic, or of a tesselated pavement. The tail, also, is covered
by a series of bony rings. The limbs, which are short and
thick, are almost entirely concealed by the edges of this armour ;

FAMILY LORICATA ; ARMADILLOS.

279

and the skin of the under surface of the body is very tough, and
is beset with long scattered hairs, of which some are also seen to
issue forth between the joints of the armour. The feet are

peculiarly adapted for dig-
ging, in regard both to their
size and strength, and in
being terminated by very
strong and sharp claws.
The muzzle is pointed, and
the mouth small ; the teeth
are feeble and destitute of
true roots ; they are set
apart from one another, in
such a manner that, when
the jaws are closed, those of
each jaw fit into the inter-
vals between those of the
other. The tongue is smooth
and slender, and is moist-
ened with a glutinous saliva.
The Armadillos are burrow-
ing animals, and remain in their retreats during the day, issuing
forth at night in search of
food. They hasten to their
burrows when alarmed, and
seem to be peculiarly sensi-
tive to unusual sounds; when
they have gained their holes,
they stoutly resist any at-
tempt to draw them forth,
by clinging to the walls with

their strong claws ; so that they have been known to leave their
tails in the hands of the hunters, who attempted thus to secure
them. When unable to gain their burrows, they either endea-
vour to dig a temporary place of refuge, or roll up their bodies
in such a manner, that almost every part is defended by their
strong coat of mail. Their food consists chiefly of succulent

FIG. 142.— FOOT OF ARMADILLO.

FIG. 14a— SKULL OF ARMADILLO.

280 FAMILY LORICATA ; ARMADILLO, CHLAMYPHORUS.

roots, fallen fruits, and other soft vegetable substances ; but they
will feed on carrion when it falls in their way ; and greedily
devour worms, small lizards and serpents, the eggs of birds which
build upon the ground, and also (it is believed) ants. Those
which live near the Pampas, glut themselves on the half-putrid
carcases of the wild cattle, which are slaughtered for the sake of
their skins and tallow ; and becoming extremely fat upon this
diet, they are esteemed great delicacies (roasted whole in their
shells), not only by the Indians, but also by the Spanish and Por-
tuguese Americans. Numerous other species exist; but they are
all confined to South America. The largest at present existing
is the Great Armadillo, which inhabits Brazil and the Northern
parts of Paraguay ; this, although 3 feet 3 inches from the nose
to the origin of the tail, must have been a pigmy in comparison
with the gigantic Glyptodon, a fossil species, of whose armour
a nearly complete specimen is contained in the Museum of the
College of Surgeons, London.

248. In South America, also, is found another very remark-
able animal, named the Cklamyphorus truncatus, or Pichiciago ;
in which several characters of different tribes are remarkably
blended. Like the Armadillo, it has a tesselated shield ; the
consistence of which is not bony, however, being between horn
and leather. This shield commences on the head, and extends
over the back and haunches, dipping abruptly down over the
latter, so as to look as if the body were cut off there (whence
the specific name of the animal is derived) ; it is divided by inter-
secting furrows into a series of bands or strips, each of which
is made up of a row of square plates ; but instead of being
firmly attached by its whole under-surface to the integuments
beneath (as is the case with that of the Armadillo), it is con-
nected with the back only by a ridge of skin along the spine,
and with the skull by two bony prominences from the forehead.
The sides and under surface of the body are covered with fine
silky hair, like that of the Mole ; to which animal it bears a
strong resemblance also, in the form of its fore-feet, in the im-
perfection of its eyes (which are not visible externally), in the
conical form of its snout, and in its general habits of life. It is

FAMILY LORICATA; ORYCTEROPUS. — TRUE EDENTATA. 281

a native of Chili, where, like a Mole, it works out galleries in
the rich soil of the valleys, living for the most part under ground
in quiet seclusion, and feeding upon the insects, worms, and
larvae which it meets with in its mining operations. It is a
very rare animal, being regarded by the natives themselves as a
curiosity.

249. The only known species of this group which is found
elsewhere than in South America, is the Orycteropus, of the
Cape of Good Hope ; which is termed by the Dutch Colonists
Aard-vark, or Earth-hog. This animal, which is about the size
of a Badger, connects the preceding group with the toothless
Ant-Eaters; having the molar teeth and strong digging fore-
feet of the Armadillos ; but being destitute of their scaly armour,
and possessing the hairy covering and long extensible tongue of
the true Ant-eaters. The Aard-vark is insectivorous in its
habits, — attacking the large ant-hills of the districts it inhabits,
by tearing open the roofs of the mud-walled hillocks which
these insects construct; and it forms very extensive burrows
at a little distance beneath the surface of the ground, which are
sometimes so numerous, as to become sources of danger to horses
and waggons traversing the country. When alarmed in its
retreat, it mines onwards with such rapidity, as frequently to
elude the search of those who would dig it out.

250. Of the TRUE EDENTATA, or toothless Ant-eaters^ which
constitute the second family of the insectivorous division of this
order, there are two genera, — the Myrmecophaga, or proper
Ant-eater of South America,: — and the Manis or Pangolin of
Africa and India. Both these are characterised by the total
absence of teeth, by the pointed form of the muzzle and the
narrowness of the mouth, by the possession of a long, slender,
extensible tongue, which is moistened by an extremely viscid
saliva, and by strong feet armed with sharp cutting claws.
These last are adapted rather for tearing open the dwellings of the
Termites, or White Ants, on which these animals feed, than for
excavating burrows in the soil ; when an entrance has been thus
forced, the long tongue is sent down in the nest, and, when with-
drawn, brings back into the mouth a large number of Ants,

282

TRUE EDENTATA ; ANT-EATER, PANGOLIN.

which are glued to its surface by the secretion that covers it.

The Ant-eaters and Pangolins differ completely, however, in

external aspect, and in
the nature of their
covering ; though they
are both furnished with
very efficient means of
defence against the In-
sects on which they
make war. For, in
the Ant-Eater, the
whole body is covered
with long shaggy hair,
which forms a kind of
mane along the back ;
and its tail, which is
carried erect, is very
bushy. In the Pan-
golin, (Fig. 49,) on

the other hand, the whole body, as well as the tail, is covered

with dense horny scales, which have an imbricated arrangement

ss~-

I

FIG. 144. — HEAD AND FOOT OF ANT-EATER.

FIG. 145.— GREAT ANT-EATER.

(each row being partly covered by the rest, like the tiles on a
roof) ; and when attacked, it rolls itself up into a ball, wraps its
tail over its head, and raises all its pointed and sharp-edged scales
in such array, as to defy the onset of any enemy. There is a

ORDER RUMINANTIA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 283

small species of Ant-Eater, inhabiting the forests of Guiana and
Brazil, which is remarkable for having only two toes on the
fore-foot, and for possessing a prehensile tail, by which it can
suspend itself from the branches of trees, in the bark and fissures
of which it seeks the insects that serve for its food.

ORDER IX.— RUMINANTIA.

251. The division of the herbivorous Mammalia, which is
designated by the title of Ruminant, forms a remarkably na-
tural and well-defined order ; by which is meant, that all the
animals composing it agree in their most important characters,
and differ from all those of other orders ; so that there can be no
doubt in regard to the position of any one of them. They seem,
indeed, as if they were all constructed upon the same model, —
the variations being often so trifling, that it is difficult to assign
definite characters to the subordinate groups. The Camels alone
constitute an exception to this general statement ; for these, in
the structure of their teeth, and in some other peculiarities,
depart from the Ruminant type, and exhibit an approach to the
order Pachydermata ; but in this manner they form just that
bond of connexion between the two orders, which allied groups,
that are really natural, always present.

252. The animals of this group are, of all the Herbivora,
those which are most completely restricted to vegetable food.
We have seen that among the Rodentia, there are many which
do not reject animal food, and some which greedily devour it.
Of the Edentata, a large proportion live on insects ; and many
of these also devour animal flesh with avidity. Among the
Pachydermata, too, there are several species (as we shall here-
after see), to which an animal diet appears by no means un-
natural. But this is not the case with a single Ruminant
quadruped ; for the whole order seems destined to feed upon
vegetable matter, and upon this exclusively. Some, as the
Camel and Giraffe, are adapted rather for browzing upon the

284 ORDER RTJMINANTIA ; — GENERAL CHARACTERS.

leaves and young shoots of trees or shrubs ; whilst the great pro-
portion have their mouths fitted for grazing upon the herbage
that covers the surface of the soil.

253. All the animals of this order agree in the absence of
incisor teeth from the upper jaws, — the hardened gum sustain-
ing the pressure of the lower incisors (which are apparently
eight in number) with their broad edges. Of these teeth, how-
ever, the two outer ones, which are usually smaller than the rest
and more oblique in their position, are really to be regarded as
canines, somewhat modified in their form ; this is evident in the
Camels, in which these teeth have the ordinary form and size
of canines. The molar teeth are six on either side of each jaw.
Their surface exhibits crescent-shaped ridges, formed by enamel
surrounding a centre of bony matter or cortical substance (ANIM.
PHYSIOL., § 182). In the Camels, -there are apparently five
molars on each side ; but a sixth molar really exists, although
it is shaped like a canine tooth, and is placed immediately
behind the true canine, far in front of the other molars, so as to
resemble a second canine. The Camels are further remarkable
for possessing canine and incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; the
latter are originally four in number ; but the two central ones
fall out early, and those which remain resemble the canines in
figure. In the Musk-Deer, too, there are canines of considerable
length in the upper jaw, though the incisors are absent ; and the
presence of canines in the upper jaw is by no means un frequent
among the males of the ordinary Ruminants, — their rudiments
being also discoverable in the female.

254. The structure of the feet of the Ruminantia varies no
more than that of the teeth ; and where, as in the Camel tribe,
we find a departure from the usual type as to the latter, we may
notice it also in regard to the former. The feet are invariably
terminated by two toes, whose extremities are enveloped in
distinct hoofs; and the surfaces of these hoofs, which look
towards each other, are so flattened, that the appearance is that
of a single cleft hoof. Each toe has three phalangeal bones ;
and these are articulated with a single long metatarsal or canon-
bone. Besides the two large or true toes, there are two small

ORDER RUMINANTIA ; — GENERAL CHARACTERS.

285

FIG. 146.— BONES

short lateral toes in some groups, each having three phalanges,

connected with a small splint-bone like that of the Horse

(Fig. 167). Now in the Camels, the toes, —

instead of being short and strong, and abruptly

terminated by hoofs which afford a flattened sur-

face for the limb to bear upon, — are lengthened,

and are only tipped with small hoofs, the bearing

Surface being a large pulpy sole or pad, covered

with a hard callous skin, and placed like a cushion

beneath the toes. The use of this peculiar con -

formation will be apparent, when the habits of the

Camel are considered.

255. The name of this order is derived from
the singular process of rumination, which the
food undergoes in all the animals composing it ;
as the nature of this process has been already
described, it need not be here repeated. (See § 99,
and ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 198). But we may stop and second rows of

„ . ., , /• .1 • tarsal bones ;c,me-

for an instant to consider the purpose of this tatarsai or canon-
curious provision ; which has a very interesting
connection with the rest of their organisation. The
Ruminantia, taken as a group, are timid, and are destitute of
powerful means of defence against their foes ; seeking safety in
flight, when alarmed, rather than stopping to defend themselves.
A large proportion of them are natives of tropical regions, where
they are liable to the attacks of the larger beasts of prey. Now
their food, — consisting as it does of grasses and herbage of
various kinds, which contain a considerable amount of woody
fibre, — requires to be thoroughly masticated, before it can be
properly digested. When feeding on the pastures they frequent,
they are subject to many alarms ; and if they were compelled to
spend a considerable time in masticating their food before
swallowing it, they would often be in danger of starvation, by
being obliged to leave their pasture before their wants were
supplied. But by their power of subsequently returning their
food to the mouth, and chewing it at their leisure, they are
enabled to dispense entirely with any mastication, previously to

286 ORDER RTJMINANTIA; — GENERAL CHARACTERS.

first swallowing it, and to feed with comparative quickness.
They thus convey a store of food into the first stomach or paunch,
as the Monkey does into its cheek-pouches ; and then, retiring to
a secluded place among their mountain fastnesses, they masticate
their aliment in comparative security. Moreover, the macera-
tion (or soaking) in the fluids of the first and second stomachs,
to which the food has been subjected, causes it to be much more
readily ground down, than if it were triturated immediately on
being first cropped from the pasture. — In this respect, there is a
remarkable analogy in the process of rumination to that of
digestion in the Fowls and other grain-eating Birds (ANIM.
PHYSIOL., § 200) ; for their food is first swallowed, then mace-
rated in the fluids of the crop, and then triturated, before it is
submitted to the true digestive process, — the only essential differ-
ence being, that this trituration is accomplished in a portion of
the stomach termed the gizzard, instead of between the jaws,
which in this class are destitute of teeth. This is only one of
many remarkable analogies, which will be hereafter pointed out
between the order RUMINANTIA among Mammalia, and that of
RASORES among Birds.

256. The general structure of the Ruminantia is obviously
adapted to what has been just stated of their habits. Their
senses are extremely acute, and serve to indicate to them the
approach of danger, as well as to direct them in their choice of
food. Their eyes are placed at the side of the head, rather than
in front ; and in this manner they have a great range of vision,
which is further extended by the horizontally-oval form of the
pupil (ANIM. PHYSIOL., $ 534), so that they can see almost as far
behind as before them. The ears also are placed far back, and
are very movable ; so that they can be turned to catch sounds in
any direction. The sense of smell seems particularly acute in
these animals, chiefly in consequence of the prolongation of the
muzzle, which affords a large surface for the distribution of the
olfactory nerve within the nose ; by its means, they are warned
of the presence of an enemy at a considerable distance, especially
in the direction of the wind, so that the hunters often find it
necessary to approach them from the contrary quarter. As

ORDER RUMINANTIA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 287

already stated, they commonly seek safety in flight when alarmed ;
and the structure of their bodies usually adapts them to great
swiftness of foot. Their legs are long in proportion to the size
of the trunk ; and the spinal column is very flexible ; both which
conditions are favourable to great activity of motion. It is for
the most part among the domesticated species, in which there is
an accumulation of flesh and fat, at the expense of muscular
firmness and vigour, that there is a deficiency in this respect.
The Ruminantia are not destitute, however, of means of attack
and defence, which they employ in their contests with each other,
or when brought to bay by their enemies. Their strong horns
are used by them to gore their opponents, and their heads to lift
and toss them ; or, presenting their hind quarters, they inflict
most powerful blows by kicking with their hind feet.

257. The Ruminants, of all animals, are those which are
most useful to Man. They furnish him with nearly all the ani-
mal flesh which he consumes. Some of them serve him as beasts
of burden; and others supply him with milk, tallow, hides,
horns, and other products most important to his comfort and
even to his subsistence. They are universally distributed over
the globe, from the equator to regions within the arctic circle, —
being most numerous, however, between the tropics ; and this
wide range is essentially connected with the well-being, and
extensive distribution, of the Human race. From the earliest
periods, certain species of this order have been domesticated, and
have accompanied Man in his gradual diffusion over the globe ;
so that there is scarcely a spot where he exists (except the
inhospitable regions tenanted by the Greenlander and Esqui-
maux, which do not afford the requisite pasture, — and some of
the islands of the Polynesian Archipelago, into which these ani-
mals have not yet been introduced), which is not tenanted also
by the Ox, the Sheep, or the Goat. Other species, again,
although equally subject to Man, are formed to inhabit certain
localities only, to which the peculiarities of their construction
specially adapt them ; and these have consequently not spread
with the others. One of these is the Rein-deer, on which the
inhabitants of Lapland, a country too cold for the Sheep and

288 ORDER RUMINANTIA ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

Ox, almost entirely depend for their support, their clothing, and
for most of the comforts and conveniences of their simple
manner of living. And another is the Camel, the " ship of the
desert," which traverses the burning sands, under a heavy load,
patient of hunger and thirst, and which is, besides, to the wander-
ing Arab, all that the Rein-deer is to the Laplander.

258. Notwithstanding the acuteness of the senses of the
Ruminants, the development of their brain is low ; and although
usually docile, they do not show any considerable amount of
intelligence. It may be remarked of them, therefore, as of the
Rodentia, that they may be tamed rather than educated. Nor
do they attract notice on account of anything peculiar in their
instinctive propensities ; for these are usually of the simplest
kind, having reference only to the selection of food, and to the
avoidance of danger.

259. As already noticed (§ 253), the Camels and Musk-
deer differ from the typical Ruminants in their dentition ; they
also differ from them in the absence of horns, which are found
on the heads of all the other animals of the order, in the males
at least. It is by the nature of these horns, that the order is
subdivided into families ; the aberrant CAMELID^E (or Camel
tribe), which lead towards the Pachydermata, and the MOSCHID.E
(or Musk-deer), which are intermediate between these and the
true Ruminants, having been first separated. — The horns, as
formerly explained (§ 82), essentially consist of prominences
of the frontal bone ; which are sometimes persistent, or enduring
with the life of the animal ; and sometimes deciduous, falling off
annually. 1. The persistent bone may be covered with a horny
substance, which grows with it during life ; this is the case with
that division of the group, — including the Oxen, Sheep, Goats,
and Antelopes, — to which the term Cattle is commonly applied.

2. The bone may be covered with a prolongation of the skin of
the head, bearing hair ; as is the case with the Giraffe.

3. The bony horn is covered with a skin, like other parts of the
head, but is altogether thrown off at intervals, and replaced by
a new growth, which is usually larger than the preceding ; this
is the case with the Deer.

FAMILY CERVID^, OR DEER TRIBE. 289

260. The family CERVID^E, or Deer tribe, then, is distin-
guished from all the rest, by the possession of bony deciduous
horns ; covered with a soft skin, or velvet, instead of with horny
matter ; and termed Antlers. " The animals of this group, cele-
brated for their beauty, vigour, and speed, are spread very exten-
sively over the globe, each quarter having its own peculiar
species. To this universality of distribution, however, there are
certain exceptions; none are found in Australia, and none in
the southern and central regions of Africa ; their place in the
latter regions being supplied by the Giraffe, and by hosts of
Antelopes.* Hills of moderate elevation, wide plains, and forests,
are the localities to which these fleet-limbed creatures give prefer-
ence ; none tenant the peaked ridges of the mountain-top, where
the Chamois and Musk-deer find a congenial abode. They delight
in a wide range of country, and trust to their swiftness of flight
for safety. Most of them herd together in troops ; some few live
singly. It may be observed that, in general, their body is round
and stout ; their limbs long, sinewy, and powerful ; their neck
long, but very muscular ; their head small and carried high ;
their eyes large and full ; their ears ample.* " With the excep-
tion of the Rein-deer, the female is destitute of antlers ; save in
a few rare individual cases, analogous to those in which the hen
assumes the plumage of a cock bird. These appendages are very
useful for the purposes of defence, and occasionally for attack ;
and it is remarkable that the species inhabiting the coldest
climates, are those in which the antlers are most flattened ; as
if they were destined to be used by the animal, like shovels,
in clearing the snow from off its food. This is especially the
case with the Elk, which, with the Rein-deer, inhabits the coldest
parts of the northern hemisphere, in both the Old and New World;
and by this character they are separated from the other Deer. —
The Elk, or Moose-deer, was once tolerably numerous in Europe,
but is now very rare in that quarter of the globe ; it is much
more abundant, however, in North America, its head-quarters
being the vicinity of the great lakes, and the forests on both

Pictorial Museum, Vol. I., p. 130.
u

290 FAMILY CERVID^ ; — ELK, REIN-DEER.

sides of the river St. Lawrence ; and in summer it frequents
marshy districts, even feeding on grass that is actually submerged.
This animal is as large as a horse, sometimes larger ; it is rather
heavy in its aspect and movements ; but it possesses great power.
The antlers of the male are, when fully formed, extremely large,
and weigh 50 or 60 Ibs. This development, however, is only
gradually attained. The first year, they are not more than an
inch in length, and the second they rise to a foot ; but they then
are simple dagger-shaped spikes, and are termed dags, or prickets.
In the third year they are forked ; and in the fourth, they are
somewhat flattened, and have six snags or projections: the
number of these goes on increasing after each change, until the
horns become extremely flattened, and possess 14 branches on
each side.

261 . The Rein-deer is the only species of this family, which
can be considered as domesticated ; and this condition does not

FIG. 147 — REIN UEEK.

seem natural to it, for the domesticated individuals are smaller
than the wild ones, even though better fed. In the wild state,
the full-grown male is equal in size to a Stag ; but it is a
much less graceful animal, the neck being very short, the head
carried in a line with the body, and the general aspect heavy.

REIN-DEER, FALLOW-DEER, IRISH ELK. 291

The Rein-deer is strictly a polar animal; it has never been
known to come further south in Europe than the Gulf of
Bothnia; and from Lapland it extends eastward along the
borders of the Arctic Sea, inhabiting many of the islands of the
Frozen Ocean, and even tenanting Spitzbergen, where Man. with all
his power of adaptation to climate, is unable to maintain a long
residence. Rein-deer, differing slightly from those of the Old
Continent, are found in North America ; but it is probable that
these are mere varieties, which have introduced themselves into
the New World, by journeying along the ice that connects it
with the nearest part of Asia. This valuable animal obtains its
subsistence in summer from the buds and twigs of the small
arctic shrubs ; and in winter from a lichen, which grows beneath
the snow, and which it digs up with its feet. In the wild state
it is gregarious ; and when domesticated, it readily associates
with its fellows into large herds, which are very obedient to the
directions of the herdsman. Many Laplanders possess no
less than two thousand of these animals ; and their wealth
is estimated by the number they possess, — as that of the
Patriarchs of old, and of the Arabs of the present time, by the
amount of their flocks, herds, and camels. — The Fallow-deer also
belongs to the group of Cervidas possessing flattened horns;
the species at present existing in the parks of this country,
appears to have been introduced from the south of Europe,
where it is occasionally to be met with in a wild state ; but
remains of a much larger species, now extinct, are not unfre-
quently met with in the peat bogs of Ireland and elsewhere, and
are commonly designated as those of the " Irish Elk/' The
antlers, however, are much less palmated (that is, flattened and
divided) than those of the true Elks ; but they spread very widely
apart, some of them having been found as much as thirteen feet
between the tips. Judging from specimens of which many of
the bones have been discovered, this animal must have stood
more than six feet high, and must have been more than nine
feet long.

262. The species of Deer with round antlers are very nume-
rous, and are diffused through the temperate and tropical portions

u 2

292

FAMILY CERVID.E; — STAG, WAPITI.

of the Old and New World ; those of temperate climates change
colour, more or less, with the seasons. As belonging to this
group, we may especially notice the common Stag, or Red Deer,
which is a native of the forests of all Europe, and of the tempe-
rate parts of Asia ; although, not being readily subservient to
Man, it is rapidly disappearing as his influence extends. In
England, very few of these noble animals still exist, and these
are mostly in a half-domesticated state ; but many still remain
in the mountainous and woody parts of Scotland, especially in

FIG. 148.— STAG, OR RED DEER.

the forest of Athol, in which several thousands are known to
reside. — The Stag is replaced in North America, by the Wapiti,
(commonly, but erroneously, termed an Elk), which is a fourth
larger than our Stag, but nearly of the same colour. Several

ROEBUCK ; — FAMILY CAMELOPARDID^E. 293

other species of Deer exist in America and Asia. — The Roebuck
s the representative of a group morenearly approaching the Goats
in form and habit ; for whilst the Stag delights in extensive
forests, and the Fallow-deer in wooded plains, the predilection of
the Roebuck is evidently for mountainous localities; and its
boldness and agility in leaping are not much inferior to those of
the Chamois. Of this kind several species exist in the temperate
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. There are species existing
in India, which are of small size, and have long canine-teeth ;
presenting, in these and other respects, an approach to the
Musk-deer.

263. The family CAMELOPARDID^E includes only that very
remarkable animal, the Giraffe ; which, though it most nearly
approaches the Deer in its general structure, has points of affinity,
also, with the Antelopes and Camels, besides very striking pecu-
liarities of its own. On a first glance at this animal, we notice
the enormous length of the fore-legs, and the height of its neck,
which carries its small, and rather delicately-formed head at a
vast height from the ground, — not less, in some instances, than
eighteen feet. Notwithstanding the great length of the neck,
however, the number of cervical vertebrae is not greater than in
other Mammalia (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 627) ; and the fewness of
the joints prevents the neck from being bent or arched with that
elegance, which is displayed by the Swan ; although nothing can
exceed the gracefulness of form which this part sometimes
presents. The aspect of the Giraffe, with its neck stretched up
to the full, while the animal gazes around with his large beam-
ing eyes, or plucks the foliage from the branches of the trees,
browsing beneath their shade, is described as peculiarly imposing.
The peculiarities of conformation which this animal displays, are
all adapted to the mode of life which is natural to it, and which
differs from that of any other species ; for it is destined to browse
upon the foliage and young shoots of trees, at a height far greater
than that which any other animal can reach, whilst standing on
the ground. For this purpose it is furnished with an elongated
prehensile tongue, which is analogous in its uses to the proboscis
of the Elephant, — being at once a feeler, a grasper, and an organ

294 FAMILY CAMELOPARDID^E ; GIRAFFE.

of taste. With this it lays hold of the tender branches, and
draws them into its mouth ; being assisted by the upper lip,

FIG. 149. GIRAFFE.

which is endowed with great flexibility and muscular power, and
projects beyond the lower. The Giraffe cannot readily bring its
mouth to the ground ; being obliged, in order to do so, to stretch
its fore-legs widely apart, and to bend its neck into a semicir-
cular form. It is obviously not adapted, therefore, to browse
near the earth ; and it seldom lowers its head to the ground,

GIRAFFE. 295

except to drink, or to pick up some unusual delicacy. The eyes
of the Giraffe are full, dark, and lustrous ; and are so prominent,
that they command, without the animal moving its head, a sur-
vey of the whole horizon. The ears are long, pointed, and
movable ; and the sense of hearing is very acute. When warned,
through these channels, of the approach of danger, the Giraffe
seeks safety in flight; and awkward as its movements seem,
when it is slowly traversing a limited space of ground, they are
far from being so on its native plains ; for it is there a match for
the swiftest coursers of the desert, whilst on rugged and broken
ground these are utterly unable to overtake it. The peculiarity
of its movements results from the shortness of its body in com-
parison with the limbs ; so that the hind- hoofs are brought at
each step as far forward, as the spot occupied during the pre-
vious moment by the fore-hoofs, — though somewhat to the
outside of it, as the hind-limbs rather diverge from each other.
The legs of either side move at the same time with each other,
alternating with those of the opposite side, so as to give the pace
termed the amble (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 660). When attacked by
enemies from which it cannot escape, the Giraffe defends itself
by kicking ; and the blows it inflicts succeed one another so
rapidly, that the eye can scarcely follow the movement. The
traveller Le Vaillant, from whose observations we may date our
first correct knowledge of this animal, says, " I know beyond a
doubt, that it often tires out, discourages, and even beats off
the lion/' After his dogs had brought an individual to bay, they
dared not make an attack, on account of the rapid succession of
kicks with which it defended itself. The horns appear never to
be used in resisting an attack ; although the Giraffes have been
observed to butt each other with them in sport. Two varieties
of this curious animal are known, — one of them peculiar to
Nubia, Abyssinia, and the adjacent districts, — the other a native
of Southern Africa. They have been regarded by some Natural-
ist as distinct species ; but this is probably an error.

264. The ANTELOPID^E, or Antelope tribe, approach the Deer
in their general conformation, as well as in the activity of their
habits. This family, which is remarkable for the slenderness of

296 FAMILY ANTELOPIDJE; — ANTELOPE TRIBE.

form and swiftness of foot of the animals composing it, contains
more than seventy well-ascertained species, bearing a strong
general resemblance to each other ; these are diffused through the
warmer parts of the globe, — the principal part being natives of
Africa, a few species inhabiting Asia, a still smaller number
being found in America, and one only, the Chamois, at present
having its residence in Europe. The horns, of which the persis-
tence distinguishes them from the Deer, are composed of a solid
bony core, which is covered with a horny sheath ; this consists
of fibres analogous to those of whalebone, or rather hair, running
longitudinally or spirally, and agglutinated into one uniform
mass. One species has four horns. (Fig. 150.) Among the

true Antelopes, the family
likeness is extremely strong ;
and it is not easy to find
characters sufficiently defi-
nite for subdividing the
group ; but many hollow-
horned Ruminants, for
which no other place could
be found in other families,
have come to be associated

FIG. 150 -FOUR HORNED ANTELOPE. w^h this ; SO that it pre-

sents a rather incongruous

assemblage. For the sake of perspicuity, the family may be
divided into four sub-families ; — True Antelopes, Bush Ante-
lopes, Capriform (Goat-like) Antelopes, and Bovine (Ox-like)
Antelopes. Each of these will be separately, though briefly,
considered.

265. The True Antelopes are remarkable for the graceful
symmetry of their bodies, the length and slenderness of their
limbs, and the lightness and agility of their movements. In
fleetness, indeed, there are few if any animals that can approach
them by speed of foot ; the greyhound unaided cannot overtake
them ; and stratagem is necessary, therefore, in hunting them.
They mostly prefer the open plains ; seeking refuge in moun-
tain fastnesses, only when they are alarmed. One of the most

TRUE ANTELOPES ; — SPRING-BOK, GAZELLE.

297

graceful and beautiful species of this group, is the Spring-bok of

Southern Africa ;
which derives its
name from its sin-
gular habit of leap-
ing perpendicularly,
when alarmed, or
as it scours the
plain, to the height
of several feet. This
animal lives in large
herds, which spread

FIG. 151.— SPRING-BOK ANTELOPE. themselves OVCr the

extensive plains

that occupy a large part of the interior of that country. The
karroos (as these vast wilds are called) are subject to seasons of
drought, in which the pasturage is completely dried up ; and
the Spring-boks, driven to change their quarters, literally inun-
date the fertile cultivated districts, over which swarm after
swarm passes, like wave after wave, destroying the hopes of the
colonists. When the rains begin to fall, the horde, thinned by
the attacks of man and beast, begins to return to the interior ;
and, in a few days, the whole disappear. Mr. Pringle mentions
that some of these migratory swarms with which he fell in,
whitened, or rather specked, the country, as far as the eye could
reach ; and he estimates the numbers at one time in view, at not
less than 25,000 or 30,000.— To the group of true Antelopes
also belongs the Gazelle, so celebrated among the poetical writers
of the East. This very beautiful species inhabits Arabia and
Syria, where it is seen in large herds, bounding over the desert
with amazing fleetness, and seeming to skim along the level plain
almost without touching it. It is usually hunted with the
assistance of falcons, which fly at its head and thus check its
speed, giving time for the dogs to come up, — the swiftest grey-
hound being completely distanced by it. It is also captured by
stratagem ; an inclosure being prepared near a rivulet or spring
to which the Gazelles resort to drink ; and the herd on its approach

298

BUSH ANTELOPES ; CAPRIFORM ANTELOPES.

being driven into the inclosure, through gaps in its sides, by
the shouts of the hunters and the noise of their fire-arms. When
taken young, the Gazelle, though naturally so wild and timid, is
readily domesticated, and becomes quite familiar. Tame Gazelles
are frequently seen at large, in the court-yards of houses in
Syria ; and their beauty, exquisite form, and playfulness, render
them great favourites.

266. The Busk Antelopes are of a more compact form, and
have shorter limbs ; hence they are animals of less activity, but
of more vigour, than the true Antelopes. They live singly or in
pairs, frequenting jungles, dense reed-beds, and the underwoods
of forests ; most of them preferring hills or mountain districts
of moderate elevation. When pursued, they dive through the
thicket, and quickly disappear. These also are chiefly found in
the Southern and Western parts of Africa. The species repre-
sented in the accompanying figure, is found in the neighbourhood
of Sierra Leone ; and by the English residents there it is called

the Bush-goat. It is a
dull heavy animal, lurk-
ing in the thickets
during the day, and
resorting to the open
spaces in the mornings
to feed. Its back is
arched, its legs short,
and it has altogether
somewhat of a pig-like
shape ; but its flesh is
more esteemed than that
of the more handsome

and agile Antelopes. Its length is about five feet ; and its height
three. The horns are very short.

267. The Capriform Antelopes are more widely diffused ;
being inhabitants of mountain ranges and hilly countries in all
quarters of the globe. They are characterised by the very com-
pact and robust form of their bodies, and by their general adap-
tation for a mountain life. The head is heavy, the neck short,

FIG. 152 — BUSH ANTELOPE.

CAPRIFORM ANTELOPES; — CHAMOIS. 299

and the limbs strong ; the horns are small or moderate ; and
their bodies are covered with coarse or wiry hair. — The species
which inhabits Europe is commonly known as the ChamoisGoat ;
it lives among the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathian and Grecian
mountains, and also the ranges of Caucasus and Taurus. " Every
where it tenants the loftiest ridges, displaying the most aston-
ishing activity. During the summer, it is only to be found on
the mountain tops, or in sequestered rock-girt glens, where the
snow lies unmelted throughout the year; but in winter it
descends below the line of perpetual snows, to the grassy slopes,
where it becomes doubly cautious and wary. Its senses of
hearing, sight, and smell are extremely acute ; and it scents;the
approaching hunter at the distance of half a league. When its
fears are once excited, it bounds from rock to rock, as if to gain
a view of the surrounding district, uttering at the same time a
singular hissing sound ; but no sooner has it caught sight of its
enemy, than off it bounds, scaling the most fearful rocks, clearing
chasms, and leaping from crag to crag with amazing rapidity.
Its course is not stopped by a perpendicular precipice of twenty
or thirty feet in depth ; with astonishing boldness it takes the
leap, striking the face of the rock repeatedly with its feet, for
the purpose both of breaking its fall, and of directing itself more
steadily to the point it aims at. It pitches on the smallest ledge,
where the eye of man scarce discerns room for its foot ; and it
traverses with security the beetling shelf that overhangs the
deepest abyss. The food of the Chamois consists of mountain
herbs and flowers, and the tender shoots of shrubs : it seldom
drinks, but is extremely partial to salt ; and many stones are
met with in the Alps, hollowed out by the continual licking of
the Chamois, on account of the saltpetre with which they
abound.''* Other Caprine Antelopes (often designated as
Goats) are found in Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, and America.
268. "We lastly proceed to the section of Boviform or Ox-like
Antelopes, which contains species that present various degrees of
relationship to the Antelopes and Oxen respectively. Some of

* Pictorial Museum, Vol. T. p. 143.

300 BOVINE ANTELOPES; — NYL-GHAU, ADDAX, GNU.

these, such as the Nyl-ghau of India, are closely allied to groups
among the true Antelopes ; whilst others have nothing of the
Antelope in form or appearance, and approach the Oxen much
more nearly. In general they are distinguished by their massive
contour, large size, and powerful limbs; the head is usually
large, the horns thick and solid, the eyes small, and the neck
short and thick. — The Nyl-ghau is a magnificent species, standing
upwards of four feet in height at the shoulder ; it resides in the
dense forests, either alone or in pairs ; and it is a resolute and
powerful animal, turning and defending itself against its pursuers
with great fury, and not being tamed down by confinement. It
is, however, the common prey of the Tiger. — The Addax is a

Bovine Antelope of
Africa, living solita-
rily or in pairs, on
the borders and oases
of the deserts, which
occupy a large part of
the centre of that con-
tinent. It is rather
heavily made ; and
its hoofs possess re-
markable breadth, to

FIG. 153.— ADDAX.

pass more easily over

the fine and loose sand. — The last species at present to be noticed,
the Gnu, is a very remarkable one, on account of the singular
mixture of characters which it presents. The head and horns
are those of a Buffalo ; and the eyes are large, wild, and
expressive of a savage and vindictive disposition. The neck
with its mane, the tail, and the general contour of the body,
resemble those of the Horse ; whilst the well-turned and vigorous
legs remind the observer of the Stag or Antelope. The chin and
throat are covered with a sort of shaggy beard ; while a full
mane flows down from the chest between the fore limbs. The
action and gallop of the Gnus are so much like those of the
Horse, that a troop of them, seen scouring the plain at a
distance, might easily be mistaken for Zebras or Quaggas, if it

GNU. FAMILY BOVID^E, OR OX TRIBE. 301

were not for the difference in colour. Its usual size is about
that of a well-grown Ass : its height exceeding four feet. It is
a native of the wild karroos and hilly districts of Southern Africa;
roaming mostly in large herds, which migrate according to the
season. These are not to be approached without difficulty ; for
they either take alarm, and retreat with great swiftness, follow-
ing a leader in single file ; or, if they are wounded, they turn
upon the assailant, charging with great fury, and using their
horns in a very dangerous manner. It is not tamed by confine-
ment ; but when taken young, it may be domesticated with
the cattle of a farm, with which it associates harmlessly.

269. The animals of the family BOVID^E, or Ox tribe, are
distinguished from those of the Antelope and Goat tribes, by the
bulkiness of their forms and their great strength ; and also by
the uniform presence of horns in both sexes, — these being com-
monly possessed by the males only, in the other tribes. The
direction of the horns, which is in the first instance lateral, then
inclining upwards or forwards, is another character of distinction.
All of the Ox group are gregarious in their habits; and no
quarter of the globe is destitute of some free native species. Of
the domesticated 0#, as of other animals brought completely
under the subjection of Man in early times, the origin is obscure.
The only existing wild race with which it can be reasonably
considered identical, is one of which a herd is preserved in Chil-
lingham Park, and another at Craven. It may be doubted,
however, whether these herds are really the remains of an original
wild race ; or whether, like the wild horses of South America,
they are not the descendants of individuals, which have once
been in subjection, and which have since returned in part to their
original condition. The latter appears most probable ; since the
skeleton of these cattle bears a much closer resemblance to that
of the domesticated Ox, than it does to that of any wild species
either at present existing, or known by its remains to have
existed in past times. It is well known that several breeds or
races of the Domestic Ox exist, differing very widely from each
other, not only in stature, but also in the proportions of the
several parts of the body. None of those known in Europe,

302 FAMILY BOVID^E ; BRAHMIN OX.

however, are so remarkable as the Zebu or Brahmin Ox, dis-
tinguished by the large fatty hump which it carries on its back ;
this breed is spread over India, China, and the Indian islands,
and also inhabits Madagascar and the eastern coast of Africa.

FIG. 154.— ZBBU OR BRAHMIN Ox.

Various races of this animal, — differing in size from that of our
largest cattle, to that of a young calf, — are found in these
countries ; they are extremely docile, and are subservient to the
same uses in their native climates as those to which we put the
Ox in this country ; the larger breeds surpass ours in strength,
and are far more active. The hump increases very much in
those individuals which are plentifully supplied with food, and
lead an indolent life ; whilst it diminishes in those which are
harder worked and poorly fed. There is a doubt amongst
Naturalists, whether the Zebu is of the same original stock
with the domestic Ox, or of a different species ; but the former
is probably the case.

270. The history of the Human race seems to show, that it
is to central Asia, rather than to the wild forests of central
Europe, that we are to look for the original types of our domes-
ticated races of animals. Nevertheless some Naturalists are

FAMILY BOVIDJE ; ITRUS, BISON. 303

inclined to regard our domestic Ox as the descendant of a wild
species, which formerly inhabited the forests of central Europe,
and which was described by Caesar and other ancient authors
under the name of the Urus. This appears from historical
records to have been far superior in size, and especially in the
dimensions of its horns, to any wild Oxen now existing in
Europe ; and these accounts are confirmed by the fact, that fossil
skulls of very large dimensions, with the cores of massive horns,
are abundant in the newer strata of Europe. In a specimen
found at Melksham, the distance between the ends of the cores
was four feet ; and the space between the tips of the horns must of
course have been much greater : from this we may form an idea
of the size of the ancient Urus, which was doubtless described truly
as a savage, untameable animal. The Urus of modern Natural-

Fio. 155. — EUROPEAN BISON.

ists is the Aurochs or European Bison, which inhabits the
forests of Lithuania ; it is an animal of great bulk and strength,
and of considerable ferocity. Such is its innate wildness, that

304 FAMILY BOVID2B; BISON, BUFFALO.

it has never been completely tamed ; it is afraid neither of the
Wolf nor of the Bear, and assails its enemies both with its hoofs
and its horns. It is extremely shy, and avoids the approach of
Man ; which, from the acuteness of its smell, it can detect at a
great distance : but, when accidentally and suddenly fallen in
with, it will passionately assail the intruder. — The American
Bison, commonly but erroneously termed the Buffalo, is very
nearly allied to the preceding, both in structure and habits ; it
is rather smaller, however, in stature. It was formerly spread
more extensively than at present ; but it still exists in the
prairies of Louisiana, associating in vast herds, of which some
have been estimated to contain 20,000 individuals.

271. The true Buffaloes are inhabitants of the Old World
only, and were originally restricted to Asia and Africa, although
they have been introduced into the South of Europe. The
common species was originally a native of India, where it has
long been domesticated, and where its services as a beast of
draught and burden render it extremely valuable. From India
it has spread into China, Siam, the Indian Archipelago, &c. ;
and also into Egypt, Greece, Italy, and Spain ; in all of these
countries there are races which have almost returned to a state of
nature, whilst others are brought under subjection to Man. The
Buffalo differs materially in its form and general aspect from the
Ox ; being a heavier and more clumsy-looking animal, but also
a more powerful one. The hide is covered sparingly with black
wiry hair; and the horns, which often attain a large size, are
first directed backwards, and then turn up sideways. In its
native state, it is savage in its temper ; and it does not com-
pletely lose its ferocity when domesticated, having been known
to turn upon its keeper and destroy him, when irritated by over-
work or unkind usage. It is sufficiently strong to be a match
for the Tiger, which is often worsted in the conflict. The
favourite residence of the Buffalo is the hot morass, in which it lies
wallowing for many hours together during the heat of the day ;
and it inhabits the most pestilential parts of Italy, seeming to pre-
fer the spots in which the malaria (or noxious exhalations), so in-
jurious to Man and to most other animals, prevail. These habits

FAMILY BOVIDvE ; BUFFALO. MUSK-OX. 305

make it especially useful as a beast of burden in such situations ;
for it will pass through morasses, rivers, and torrents, in which

FIG. 156 — INDIAN BUFFALO.

horses, mules, or oxen would be useless ; dragging large heavily-
laden carts, with enormous wheels, whilst itself chest-deep in
mud. There are numerous races of Buffaloes in India and else-
where,— some of them wild, and others domesticated, — which
differ considerably from the common species ; but it is doubtful
whether several of these are anything else than varieties, analo-
gous to those widely-different ones which we meet with among
domestic Cattle. Of these we may notice the Arnee, remarkable
for the large size of its horns, which often measure from four to
six feet in length, and ten feet between the tips. — The last
species of this family, claiming especial notice, is the Musk- Ox ;
which is an inhabitant of the coldest regions of North America,
and derives its name from possessing strongly the musky odour,
which is common to the whole group, and which is particularly
noticeable in the European Bison. This animal scarcely equals
in size the smallest of the Highland cattle ; but it appears larger
than it really is, from the profusion of long matted woolly hair,
with which it is covered, and which hangs on each side almost to
the ground. The form of its horns resembles that which is seen
in the Cape Buffalo. Though its limbs are short, it is a fleet
and active animal.

306 FAMILY CAPRIDJE ; SYRIAN AND ANGORA GOATS.

272. Although from the family Antelopidce, we were led
by the Gnu and other Bovine species to the family Bovidce, the
family we have now to consider, — the CAPRID.E or Sheep and
Goat tribe, — is equally connected with it, by the Caprine Ante-
lopes formerly described (§267). This family differs from that
of the Antelopes, by the structure of the core of the horns, which
is solid in the latter family, whilst in the Capridae and Bovidse it
is more or less hollowed into cavities or cells. Between the
Oxen and the Sheep and Goats, the principal differences are such
as have reference to their size and habits. Between the Goats
and the Sheep, the differences are extremely trifling ; for although
the distinction is obvious enough in our domesticated breeds, it is
almost imperceptible when we compare the wild species and the
domesticated races of other countries. — The original stock of the
Common Goat, as of other races of animals early subjugated by
Man, cannot be distinctly traced ; but it appears to be the same
with that of numerous half- domesticated breeds, which abound in
Asia. Of these, the one to which it probably approaches most
nearly, is the Syrian Goat, whose long hair was employed at a
very early period for the manufacture of stuffs ; whilst the milk
yielded by the females has been a most important article of food
to the inhabitants of that region. The Angora Goat has the hair

FIG. 157.— ANGORA GOAT.

longer and mere silky ; whilst the general aspect of the animal
more resembles that of the Sheep. The length and silkiness of

FAMILY CAPRHXE ; — CASHMIR GOAT, IBEX. 307

the hair is still more remarkable in the Cashmir Goat, a native
of Thibet ; from which material are woven the Cashmir shawls,
that are so highly valued in Europe. The quantity of wool
produced by eacli goat is not above three ounces ; and ten goats
are required to furnish sufficient wool for a shawl, a yard and a
half square. The wool collected in Thibet is sent to Cashmir,
where it is manufactured ; and a long and toilsome journey must
be traversed before the shawls can be transmitted to Europe.
Attempts have been made, but with what success cannot yet be
known with certainty, to naturalise the Cashmir Goat in Europe ;
the most promising result has been obtained by crossing the
Thibet and Angora breeds, — the mixed race being in all respects
superior to both the parent stocks, and producing in one season
thirty ounces of hair, finer and longer than that obtained from
either of them.

273. All these varieties have small horns ; and they are thus
distinguished from the Ibex, a genus in which the body is more
robust, and the horns very large. The Caucasian Ibex, a bold
and powerful animal, is an inhabitant of the alpine heights of
Europe and Western Asia ; and its chase is as arduous as that of

FIG. 158 — JEMLAH IBEX.

the Chamois. When hard pressed, the Ibex has been known to
turn upon its foe with impetuous rapidity, and to hurl him head-

x 2

308 FAMILY CAPRID^J ; IBEX, SHEEP.

long down the steep rocks or abrupt precipices. It is also said
that the Ibex will precipitate itself fearlessly down precipices,
always falling on the horns, the elasticity of which secures it
from injury. Several distinct species are found among the
mountain-ranges of Africa and Asia ; most of them closely
resembling each other in structure and habits. One of the hand-
somest is the Jeinlah Ibex, an inhabitant of the Himalaya
mountains. Its height is thirty-three inches ; its head is finely
formed, full of beauty and expression, and without the least
vestige of a beard ; and its horns are peculiarly massive at the
base. It lives solitarily or in small herds ; and though bold and
pugnacious, it is easily tamed.

274. The Sheep is the animal of whose subjection to Man
we have the earliest notice ; " Abel was a keeper of sheep."
Consequently, we must look to Western Asia as the original
habitation of the race ; and possibly some wild species, from
which it descended, may still exist on the slightly-explored plains
and table-lands of that region. That this animal should have
become greatly changed in its characters from the original stock,
is not to be wondered at ; for of all our domesticated animals, it
is probably the one in which the influence of external circum-
stances shows itself most evidently. Thus, the finest South-
down Sheep imported from Britain into the West India Islands,
become quite lean in the course of a year or two; and their thick
woolly fleece is replaced by a covering of short, crisp, brownish
hair. It has been noticed as a character distinguishing the
domesticated sheep from all wild species at present known, that
the tail in the latter is always very short, whilst the domesticated
breeds generally, if not always (when unmutilated), possess tails
which nearly reach to the ground. In the Egyptian and Syrian
sheep, this appendage often acquires an enormous size, sometimes
attaining a weight of 70, 80, or even 100 Ibs. ; and in order to
prevent inconvenience to the animal, it is not unfrequently sup-
ported upon a sort of little cart. Now although there are several
instances, in which domestic animals lose part or the whole length
of the tail possessed by their original wild stocks, there are none
in which an originally short tail has been converted into a long

FAMILY CAPRID^E ; ARGALI, MOUFFLON. 309

one ; and thus the difference is of considerable importance. The
Argali, or wild Sheep of Siberia, which inhabits the mountains
of Asia, and attains the size of the Fallow Deer, — and the
Moufflon of Corsica, a smaller species inhabiting the mountainous
parts of Corsica and Sardinia, but not confined to them, — have
been supposed to be the original stock of the domestic Sheep ;
but, for the reasons already mentioned, this is probably an error.
In these and other allied species of wild Sheep, some of which
are found in all quarters of the globe, the body is covered with a
harsh kind of hair, having beneath it, at its roots, a short spiral
wool, which in winter becomes longer and fuller. In some
neglected breeds of the common Sheep, the wool becomes mixed
with long hairs, which more or less obscure the wool ; and in
the Cashmir and Angora Goats, the long outer garment is hair,
and the short under-coat exquisitely fine wool. Hence it may
be reasonably inferred that, whatever the original stock of the
common Sheep, its coat resembled that of the wild species at
present existing ; and that in the early ages of Man's history,
the shepherds must have selected those individuals for breeding,
in which the wool predominated ; by following up which system,
the wool-bearing breed would be at length permanently esta-
blished. In the same manner, the silky-haired varieties of the
Goat were probably introduced ; and the establishment of any
new breed must take place upon similar principles (§ 111).

275. The preceding families include all the animals which
agree in the general characters of the Ruminant Order, as
formerly stated (§ 259) ; and there now only remain two aber-
rant groups ; the MOSCHIDJS, Musk-Deer tribe ; and the CAME-
LID.E or Camel tribe. Of these, the latter conduct us towards
Pachydermata, with which they have been associated by some
naturalists; whilst the former are intermediate between the
Camels and the true Ruminants.

276. The family MOSCHID^ takes its name from the circum-
stance, that the peculiar strongly-odorous substance termed Musk
is obtained from one of the species which it includes ; and with
this, other animals nearly allied to it in structure, but not pro-
ducing musk, are associated, on account of the correspondence in

310

FAMILY MOSCHID^E ; MUSK-DEER.

their characters. The MoschidaB closely resemble the Deer in
general form and appearance ; but they resemble them in minia-
ture ; for, with the exception of the true Musk, which equals a
Roebuck in size and stature, the rest are extremely small, some
of them not exceeding a Hare in magnitude. They are extremely
beautiful animals, and are very graceful and animated in their
movements. The family is distinguished, as formerly stated, by
the absence of horns ; and by the presence, in the upper jaw of
the male, of long canines, which project downwards, and come
forwards between the lips. Moreover on each foot there are two
accessory toes, more complete than those of the ordinary Rumi-
nants, each having its own metacarpal or metatarsal bone.

277. The true Musk-Deer inhabits the great extent of
elevated country which occupies a large part of central Asia;
being common to Nepal, Boutan, Thibet, and the districts
adjacent to the North of India and to China ; and being abundant
also in the Altaic range, near Lake Baikal. It is covered with

a long stiff inelastic fur, the
hairs of which grow erect,
instead of lying flat upon
the body ; and the presence
of this substantial covering
sufficiently indicates the
adaptation of the animal to
a cold region. The Musk is
procured from the male
only; and is the peculiar
secretion of a glandular
pouch, situated at the hinder
part of the body ; from the
high price of this perfume,
and the ease with which it is adulterated (especially when fresh),
it very seldom reaches Europe in a pure state. The habits of the
Musk-Deer closely resemble those of the Chamois ; it exhibits
peculiar activity and strength in its movements, and is very shy
of Man ; nevertheless it falls a prey, in large numbers, to the
hunters who pursue it for the sake of its costly perfume. — The

FIG. 159. — MUSK-DEER.

MUSK-DEER. — FAMILY CAMELID^E. 311

other Musk-Deer, to which the general term of Chevrotains is
given, are inhabitants of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and Southern
India ; and are adapted to a forest rather than to a mountain
life. They are very small, peculiarly elegant in their appearance
and movements, timid and wild in their native haunts, but mild
and gentle in captivity, to which they soon become reconciled.
The Napu of Java and Sumatra is particularly interesting, as
having the smallest blood-corpuscles of any animal at present
known. (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 229). No true Musk-Deer is known
to inhabit America ; two species which have been described as
such, being in reality the young of the Deer of that country.

278. We proceed lastly to the family CAMELID.E, which
includes, with the Camels and Dromedaries of the Old World,
the Llamas, which may be considered as representing them in the
New. The peculiarities which distinguish the animals of this
family from the ordinary Ruminants, have been already men-
tioned (§ 253, 254); these peculiarities for the most part show an
approach towards the Pachydermata ; and this is indicated, also,
by the greater heaviness in the form and movements of the body,
which contrast strongly with the grace and elegance of the Rumi-
nantia in general. " There is something strange and imposing
in the aspect of the gaunt and angular camel, destitute, as it con-
fessedly is, of grace and animation. We are amazed at its height,
its uncouth proportions, its long thin neck, its meagre limbs, and
the huge hump on its back, which conveys the idea of distortion.
Quietly it stands in one fixed attitude, its long-lashed eyelid
drooping over the large dark eyes ; it moves — and onward stalks
with slow and measured steps, as if exercise were painful. To
complete the picture, it is covered with shaggy hair, irregularly
disposed, here forming tangled masses, there almost wanting.
Its thick mobile upper lip is deeply divided ; its feet are large
and spreading, the toes being merely tipped with little hoofs.* "
There are two species of this animal; the Bactrian,ov two-humped;
and the Arabian, or one-humped. Both are completely domesti-
cated. The former is employed chiefly in Central Asia ; the;

* Pictorial Museum, Vol., I., p. 115.

312 FAMILY CAMELID^E; — CAMEL.

latter in Arabia, North Africa, Syria, Persia, &c. The two-
humped Camel is larger and stronger, being capable of sustaining

'Fio. 160. — BACTRIAN CAMEL.

above 1000 Ibs. weight ; and is best adapted for rugged ground.
But the Arabian Camel is most fitted, by its great power of
enduring hunger and thirst, and by the patience of its disposition,
for traversing the desert plains, whose expanse of barren land
interposes a more effectual barrier between the districts it divides,
than that of the rolling ocean. Well, therefore, has the Camel,
which furnishes the only means of carrying on intercourse between
countries thus separated, been termed " the Ship of the Desert."
279. The elastic cushion, which extends between and
beneath the toes (§ 254) of the Camel, spreads at each step,
according to the pressure made upon it, and thus affords a firm
footing even upon sand, unless this be extremely loose ; whilst
the callous skin with which it is covered, prevents the animal
from sustaining inconvenience from the heat of the surface on
which it treads. Similar callous surfaces are to be seen on the
chest, and on the joints of the fore and hind limbs ; and it is upon

FAMILY CAMELID^E ; CAMEL. 313

these that the animal rests, when it takes its repose, or kneels
down to be loaded. These natural cushions are not produced
by the habit of kneeling, as some have supposed ; for the young
animal is born with them. The elevation of the Camel1 s head,
and the acuteness of its sight and smell, enable it to discern the
green oasis, and to scent the refreshing water, at a great distance.
The eye is shielded from the intense glare of light, by a prominent
overhanging brow, and by long eyelashes ; and the nostrils are
so constructed, as to be closed by the animal at pleasure, so as to
keep out the fine sand, which is continually being driven by the
wind. Its natural food consists, not of the meadow herbage and
rich pastures in which most of the Ruminants delight, but of
thorny shrubs, date-leaves, and the leaves and branches of the
tamarisk ; these, when it meets with them, together with dates,
beans, and cakes of barley, provided by its master, constitute its
support during its toilsome journey. Hence, we see the utility
of its strong incisors, its canine teeth, and its canine-like molars,
which enable it to browse on the coarsest shrubs with ease ;
whilst its long prehensile lip, like the tongue of the Giraffe,
serves to draw the twigs and leaves to its mouth, or to hold the
tuft of herbage which is undergoing mastication.

280. When the Camel is insufficiently provided with food,
its hump gradually diminishes in size ; this results from the
consumption of the fat of which it is composed ; which is used
up, when other materials are deficient, for the maintenance of
respiration, — just like the thick layer of fat, with which
hybernating animals usually become covered during the autumn.
The Arabs are well aware of the importance of the hump ;
and are solicitous about its state, when about to commence
a journey. When it has been much exhausted, three or four
months of repose and copious nourishment are required to restore
it to its usual condition. The peculiar construction of the Camel's
stomach enables it to dispense with a frequent supply of water,
— a store of liquid being contained in the cells in its wall. The
degree in which it can sustain abstinence from fluid, depends,
however, in part upon the habit of the particular breed, and in
part upon the nature of its food. The Arabian Camel can dispense

314 FAMILY CAMELIDJE ; CAMEL, DROMEDARY.

with water until the fourth or even the fifth day ; and in spring,
when the young herbage is succulent, the journey across the great
Syrian desert, from Damascus to Bagdad, occupying twenty-five
days, may be performed without any water being required by
the Camels, In the heavy caravans which traverse the desert for
mercantile purposes, each Camel is loaded with from 500 to
800 Ibs., and the rate of travelling does not exceed 2J or 2£
miles an hour, kept up for eight hours a day ; but a lighter
caravan will travel somewhat more quickly, and will continue
the march for nine or ten hours daily.

281. The Dromedary is a lighter variety of the Arabian
Camel, bearing much the same relation to the ordinary Camel, as
a Kace-Horse or Hunter does to a Cart-Horse. It is used princi-
pally for journeys in which dispatch is required, and carries only
a single rider, or a very light burthen. But the quickness of its
journeys depends not so much upon the rapidity of its rate of
movement, as upon its power of uninterruptedly continuing a
moderate pace for a long time together. Urged to a gallop, it
cannot maintain its pace for half-an-hour, and is easily distanced
by the Horse ; but it can maintain a trot, at the rate of from 6 to 8
miles an hour, for 24 hours consecutively : and a gentle and easy
amble of from 5 to 5J miles an hour, which is the favourite pace
of the Dromedary, can be kept up by it for several days and
nights almost uninterruptedly. It appears that there is a swift
breed of the Bactrian, or two-humped Camel also ; which is in
request in China. All these animals are remarkable for their
docility, and for the patient endurance which they manifest.
Even when overloaded and fatigued, or when the load is inhu-
manely laid on sores or wounds, the animal neither refuses to rise,
nor attempts to cast off its burden ; but merely complains of the
injustice by crying out ; and his suffering must be extreme for
him to complain at all. Besides its uses as a beast of burden, the
Camel affords sustenance, by its flesh and milk, to the people
who possess it ; and also hair for the manufacture of cloth.

282. The Llamas of South America bear a strong general
resemblance to the Camels in form and structure ; but they are
of much inferior size. They further differ in the absence of the

FAMILY CAMELIDJE ; — LLAMA.

315

FIG. 161 — FOOT OF LLAMA.

hump, and the want of water-cells in the stomach ; as also in
the conformation of the foot. This consists of two toes, com-
pletely divided, each with a rough cushion beneath, and provided
at the end with a strong short hoof ; the hoofs are pointed at the
tip, and hooked downwards somewhat like a claw. This form

of the foot is as
completely adapted
to the natural habi-
tation of the animal,
as is that of the
Camel j for the
Llama is destined to
live among the rough
and rocky Cordille-
ras, the craggy sides
of which it traverses
with a free and fear-
less step, deriving great assistance in climbing from the hooked
form of its hoofs. There appear to be three species of these
animals, the Guanaco, Paco or Alpaca, and the Vicugna. The
first of these is the species which is commonly known, in subjec-
tion to Man,,as the domestic Llama. It still exists in a wild state,
however, on the highlands of Peru and Chili. In its domestic state,
the temper of the Llama is characterised by the same docility and
patient endurance as that of the Camel. At the time of the
Spanish invasion, it was the only beast of burden possessed by
the inhabitants of South America, and was kept in immense
numbers for the purposes of traffic, and also for food ; its skin,
also, was prepared as leather, and its wool spun and manufactured
into cloth. It was estimated that 300,000 were constantly
employed in the transport of the ore from the mines of Potosi
alone ; the ordinary load of each Llama was about 80 or lOOlbs. ;
and its rate of travelling with this burthen over rugged moun-
tain passes, was from 12 to 15 miles a day. At the present
time, however, the Horse, the Ass, and especially the Mule,
which have been introduced from Europe, have for the most
part superseded the Llama as beasts of burthen, though it is

316 LLAMA. FOSSIL JRUMINANTIA.

still employed in some places; whilst the introduction of the
Sheep, the Goat, and the Ox, has rendered it less necessary, as
affording either food, leather, or wool. The Paco or Alpaca,
and the Vicugna, inhabit the more elevated parts of the mountain
ranges, living almost on the borders of perpetual snow. They
are remarkable for the fineness of their wool, which has an almost
silken texture ; and they are much in request on this account.
There is little doubt that they might be introduced into this
country, and might be profitably naturalised in the mountain
districts of "Wales and Scotland ; where the temperature, and
the character of the herbage, resemble those of their native
residence. — Fossil bones of a species of Llama, which must have
fully equalled the Camel in size, have been found in South
America ; this was probably an inhabitant of the plains.

283. In addition to the species of fossil Ruminants of which
mention has been already made, it may be here stated, that
numerous species of Deer and Oxen occur in the caverns and
bone-beds of various parts of the world ; especially in the most
recent of the tertiary series of strata. The Camels and Antelopes
also had their representatives in the ancient world; and it would
appear that the latter were much more widely diffused than at
present. Few remains, however, have been found, that show
any remarkable differences from the genera at present existing ;
and in this respect the fossils of the order Ruminantia are
strongly contrasted with those of the Edentata and Pachyder-
mata. The most distinct fossil form yet discovered is that of a
South American Ruminant, to which the apellation Leptotherium
has been given. In the lightness of its skeleton it rivals the
most agile of the Antelopes ; but it departs from that group, as
well as from all others, in the details of its structure. The
remains of two species have been found ; one of them being less
than the Roe, and the other larger than the Stag.

317

ORDER X.— PACHYDERMATA.

284. The order Pachydermata, which includes all the
ungulated or hoofed true Mammalia that do not ruminate,
derives its name from the thickness of the skin, which is usually
so remarkable a character of the animals it comprehends, — as
for instance, in the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, and
common Hog. A very cursory glance through the group of
animals thus brought together, serves to show that they are not
by any means so closely allied, as are those of the preceding
order. The Elephant, the Horse, and the Hog, for example,
differ so much from one another, that we might be almost led to
regard them as types of distinct orders; or at any rate we should
be forced to suppose that the continuity or completeness of the
series had been broken into. The interruption of the chain
becomes still more striking, when we pass from any of the
animals already named, to the Dugong and other Whale-like
species, which Naturalists have now generally agreed to place in
the same order. But the researches which have been made, for
some time past, into the structure of the animals that formerly
covered our globe, as made known by their fossil remains, have
been peculiarly successful in their results as regards this order; —
furnishing, in a large proportion of cases, the very forms which
are wanting as links in the chain, and which, when placed in their
proper position, give order and completeness to that, which
previously seemed a confused assemblage of dissimilar creatures :
whilst the animals to which these remains belonged, have their
strange forms accounted for, and their striking peculiarities
explained, when they are viewed as the intermediate links
between groups, which, as known only by the animals at present
existing, seem far apart from each other.

285. For the reasons just specified, it is impossible to assign
any other general character to the order, than those which have
been already given. The conformation of the teeth, and the
structure of the extremities, which elsewhere afford such import-

318 ORDER PACHYDERM ATA. FAMILY ELEPHANTIDJ2.

ant marks of resemblance, are here so various, as to require a
separate description for each family ; it can only be stated
regarding the former, that they are chiefly formed for a vegetable
diet (though some species are omnivorous) ; whilst the extremi-
ties are constructed for support only, — the clavicles being absent,
— the bones of the fore-arm consolidated, so that the power of
rotation is altogether lost, — and the toes included in a callous
skin, or in proper hoofs. The order may be subdivided into four
sections; distinguished by the following characters: — 1. The
PROBOSCIDEA, possessing a prolonged snout or proboscis, and
having five toes on each foot, included in a very firm horny skin.
2. The PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA, in which the feet have four,
three, or two toes on each foot. 3. The SOLIDUNGULA, in which
the foot has but one apparent toe. 4. The CETACEA HERBIVORA,
in which the posterior extremities are wanting, and the anterior
formed as paddles for swimming.

286. The Proboscidean group contains but one family, the
ELEPHANTID.E, or Elephant tribe ; and this at present consists of
but a single genus. The Elephants, of which only two species —
the Asiatic and the African — at present exist, are distinguished,
not only by their proboscis, but by the absence of front teeth in
the lower jaw, and by the possession of two enormous tusks,
which project downwards from the upper. These, like the long
canines of the Rodentia, grow from a pulp which is continually
forming new ivory (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 177) ; and may be
regarded as closely analogous to the teeth, which are character-
istic of that order. The analogies between the largest and the
smallest of the terrestrial Mammalia do not,however, stop here.
They may be traced, also, in the structure of the molar teeth,
which are formed of alternating vertical plates of enamel, bone,
and crusta petrosa, arranged transversely to the jaw, as in the
Rodentia (§ 216). These grinders succeed one another, from
behind forwards, — each tooth, as it is worn, giving way to
another, which is pushed into its place ; so that the Elephant
may have one, or two, of these large grinders on each side,
according to the period of their development. The molars are
said to be thus changed eight times ; the first tusks of the young

FAMILY ELEPHANTID.E ; — ELEPHANT.

319

Elephant are shed, however, like the milk teeth of other Mam-
malia, and are not renewed more than once. In the continual
growth of the molars, there is another analogy between the
Elephants and some sections of the Rodentia (§ 231) ; although

FIG. 162.— ELEPHANT.

the mode of renewal is different. The African and Asiatic
species differ from each other in the size of the tusks, which are
much shorter in the latter than in the former ; and also in the
arrangement of the plates of enamel in the molar teeth, the
ridges of which are nearly parallel in the latter, whilst they are
lozenge-shaped in the former. The trunk, which is the peculiar

320 FAMILY ELEPHANTIDJE; — ELEPHANT.

distinctive character of these animals, is nothing else than the
nose or snout, enormously prolonged, and principally composed of
forty thousand or more small muscles, interlaced in every
direction, which give it an extraordinary degree of flexibility,
and render it a most efficient organ of prehension. We shall
hereafter see that approaches to this structure are to be found in
other animals of the order. The large size of the muscular mass
by which the trunk is connected with the head, requires an
extensive bony surface for their attachment ; and this is provided
for by the peculiar conformation of the skull, the outer plate of
which is separated from the inner by a number of large bony
cells, so as to give to the exterior of the head a much greater
size, than is required for the mere enclosure of the brain. The
trunk, which is perforated along its whole length by the nostrils,
has at its termination a small finger-like appendage, which
serves to pick up small objects, and also as a feeler; and the
sense of touch appears to be here peculiarly delicate. This
wonderful organ serves a great variety of purposes. The short-
ness of the neck, rendered necessary by the enormous weight of
the tusks (of which a single one has been known to weigh 350
Ibs, the ordinary weight of the pair being probably 4 to 5 cwt.),
is fully compensated by this instrument ; for by means of it, the
Elephant collects the herbage on which it feeds, and carries it to
its mouth ; with this he strips the trees of their branches, or
grasps his enemy and dashes him to the ground ; and with this
too he takes up the fluid which he requires, sucking it into the
extended nostrils (from which it is prevented from passing back-
wards, by a sort of valve placed where they pass into the skull),
and then discharging it into his mouth or over the surface of the
body. The tusks are useful, not only as weapons of offence and
defence, but also to root up small trees, and to tear down the
branches of larger ones, either to obtain the leaves as food, or to
make a passage for the bulky body of the animal through the
tangled forest.

287. The Elephant is the largest of the terrestrial Mam-
malia; for although the Giraffe carries his head at a greater
elevation, the height of his body is far exceeded by that of the

FAMILY ELEPHANTID^l ; — ELEPHANT, MAMMOTH. 32 1

Elephant, the back of which has been known to stand more than
12 feet from the ground. In point of bulk, the Rhinoceros and
Hippopotamus are the only existing terrestrial animals, that can
approach the Elephant ; though some other animals now extinct
must have considerably surpassed him. The enormous weight
of the body could only be sustained by legs of the most solid con-
struction ; and accordingly we find that these have the aspect of
straight columns, the joints being so formed, that each bone rests
vertically upon the one beneath it. The Elephant derives much
dignity from its colossal bulk and vast powers ; but there is no
grace in its contour, and its movements are heavy and ungainly.
From the earliest times, this noble beast has been brought under
subjection to the human race ; to whose use it is particularly
adapted, not only by its vast strength, but also by the extraor-
dinary combination of docility and intelligence which it presents.
Like the Dog and Horse, it seems peculiarly susceptible of the
influence of Man, and disposed to attach itself to him. As an
instance of its enormous power, it may be mentioned that an
Elephant, applying its forehead to the muzzle of a piece of can-
non, will urge it through a bog, from which hundreds of cattle
and men could not drag it ; or, winding his trunk round the
gun, it will lift the piece, whilst the cattle and men pull it for-
wards. The African species is not at present tamed by Man,
being pursued solely for its tusks ; but it was this which was
for the most part employed by the ancient Romans.

288. A third species of Elephant, commonly known as the
Mammoth, formerly existed in Northern Asia in great abun-
dance ; as is proved by the vast number of tusks and bones
which are found buried in the frozen soil of Siberia. The tusks
form a regular article of commerce, and are employed throughout
Russia as the ordinary ivory of the turner. A complete carcase
of the animal was found at the beginning of this century, frozen
up in the ice at the mouth of the river Lena in Siberia ; the flesh
being in such good preservation, that bears and dogs fed off it.
The skin was covered with two kinds of hair, — one long, scat-
tered, and bristly, — the other short and closely set ; so that this
animal was evidently adapted for climates much colder than

322 FAMILY ELEPHANTID^E J — MAMMOTH, FOSSIL ELEPHANTS.

those which the Elephants of the present day inhabit. Still it
cannot be imagined that the temperature of Siberia, at the time
when the Mammoths were the denizens of its wilds, was as cold
as at present ; since there would not have been a sufficient
amount of vegetation for the support of any numbers of these
immense Quadrupeds. And the belief that, from some Geolo-
gical causes, a change of climate has taken place in that region

FIG. 163.— SKELETON OF MAMMOTH.

since they inhabited it, — to which change the extinction of the
race is due, — finds confirmation from the corresponding facts
already stated (§ 206), regarding the former inhabitants of our
own country. It is probable that many other complete carcases
of the Mammoth may still remain, buried beneath the ice and
frozen soil of Siberia. In its general structure, and in the
arrangement of the plates of .enamel in its molar teeth, the
Mammoth approached the Asiatic Elephant, more nearly than
the African species; the most obvious difference is the large size of
the alveoli, or sockets for the tusks, and the greater curvature of
the tusks. — Numerous remains of other species of Elephants are
found in almost every part of Europe, and also in America ; they
are usually buried in the most recent and slightly-consolidated
strata,— such as the alluvium filling the bottom of valleys or
forming the borders of rivers, the mud of certain caverns, the
crag formation of the eastern side of our island, and other fresh

FAMILY ELEPHANTJD.E; — MASTODON. 323

water deposits of the newest tertiary series. They are com-
monly associated with remains of other animals ; of which some
may be referred to existing genera ; whilst many (some of which
will be hereafter noticed) present forms, of which we have not
any representatives amongst the races now living.

289. Nearly allied to the Elephants is an extinct genus,
termed the Mastodon, which was characterised by the form of its
molar teeth. These, instead of having the enamel disposed in
ridges, had their crowns raised up into conical eminences, with
deep furrows between them ; and these were worn down by
friction, into disks of various sizes, very much as in the Pig,
Hippopotamus, and other Pachydermata. In the young state,
moreover, there were small tusks projecting downwards, in the
lower jaw (as well as in the upper) of both sexes ; but both of
these disappear in the adult female, and only one remains in the
male. From the examination of a young specimen possessing
these tusks, it was at first supposed that it belonged to a distinct
genus, to which the name of Tetracaulodon (or four-tusked) was
given. The Mastodon giyanteus, — of which a very fine skeleton
was recently (1842) exhibited in London, under the name of the
Missouri Leviathan, — must have considerably exceeded in size
the largest Elephants of the present day. Its remains are con-
fined to the American continent, and are very abundant in some
parts, especially in the saline morass popularly termed the Big
Bone Lick. Several other species of Mastodon, however, have
been distinguished by their remains ; of these some were natives
of the Old World, and probably even of Britain ; but they were
for the most part considerably smaller than the gigantic Mastodon
of North America.

290. On the principles which should regulate the subdivision
of the group of ORDINARY PACHYDERMATA into families, Natu-
ralists are not yet agreed ; the number of dissimilar forms which
it contains being so great, as to render their arrangement very
perplexing. The division which will be here adopted is founded
upon that of Cuvier; but may not improbably require future
modification. In the first family of this group, including the
Rhinoceros, Tapir, Hyrax, and several extinct genera, the feet do

324 FAMILY TAPIRID.E ; TAPIR.

not present any indication of a cleft in the centre, the number of
toes being usually but three ; and the molars are six or seven on
each side of each jaw, with crescentic ridges of enamel ; the
incisors and canines, however, vary in the different genera. In
the second family, including the Hog, Hippopotamus, &c., the
feet have four toes and are cleft in the centre, thus presenting an
approach to the Ruminants, which is shown also in the stomach,
as well as in the foot, of the Peccaries : the teeth are variable in
number, but agree for the most part in their characters, the
molars being raised into conical summits, and the canines being
of great length.

291. Of the first family, to which the name of TAPIRID^E or
the Tapir tribe may be given, no members exist in Europe at the
present time ; but fossil remains of numerous species, some of
them of great size, exist in some localities. The whole family
appears to be usually herbivorous, although some species are as
omnivorous as the Hog. Of the Tapir, three species are at
present known ; two of them being natives of South America,
whilst the other inhabits Sumatra and Malacca. In its general
form and contour, the Tapir reminds us of the Hog ; but it is at
once distinguished by its snout, which is lengthened into a flex-
ible proboscis, that looks like the rudiment of the trunk of the
Elephant, and is sufficiently prehensile to grasp fruit or bunches
of herbage, or to serve as a hook for drawing down twigs to the
mouth (Fig. 57). The anterior feet have four toes, but the
posterior only three ; and these have only their tips cased in
small hoofs. The incisor teeth are six in number ; the canines
small ; and the molars are seven on each side of the upper jaw,
and six in the lower. The common American species, which is
between three and four feet in height, and from five to six in
length, is very extensively spread throughout the warmer regions
of South America, where it inhabits deep forests, leading a
solitary life, and going in search of food at night. Its enormous
muscular power, and the tough thick hide which defends its body,
enable it to tear its way through the underwood in whatever
direction it pleases; when thus driving onwards, it carries its
head low, and, as it were, ploughs its course. It is very fond of

FAMILY TAPIRID^E ; — TAPIR, PAL.EOTHER1UM. 3'25

the water, and resorts to it when wounded. Its disposition is
peaceful and quiet, and it never attempts to attack either man or
beast, unless hard pressed ; it is capable of defending itself
vigorously, however, and inflicts severe wounds with its teeth.
The Tapir is occasionally domesticated in Cayenne, and is harm-
less and familiar in its habits. The other South American species
is an inhabitant of the most elevated regions of the Andes, and
is covered with long, thick, black hair. In some of its charac-
ters, it approaches to the fossil Palceotherium. The Indian
Tapir closely resembles that of America in its conformation and
habits ; but it is of larger stature, and its body, instead of pre-
senting the dusky bay tint of the latter, is strangely marked with
different colours.

292. Intermediate between the Tapir and the Hog, is a very
interesting genus, now extinct, but once abundant in Europe ;
this was termed by Cuvier the Palceotherium (ancient wild-
beast). Its remains are very abundant in the gypsum quarries
near Paris, as well as in other parts of the Continent, and in
this country; and ten or eleven species have been recognised,
varying in size from that of the Rhinoceros to that of the
Hog. The reconstruction (so to speak) of these animals, from
the fossil remains which have been so long imbedded in the earth,
was one of the first fruits of the accurate study of Compa-
rative Anatomy, prosecuted by Cuvier ; whose name has been
rendered immortal by the discovery of that intimate connexion
existing between the different parts of the same animal, which
renders it possible to predict the form of the whole, with almost
positive certainty, from the examination of a small part only.
The following is his own account of this discovery, to which he
was led by the study of a collection of bones dug up from the
neighbourhood of Paris. " I found myself, as if placed in a
charnel-house, surrounded by mutilated fragments of many
hundred skeletons of more than twenty kinds of animals piled
confusedly around me ; the task assigned to me was to restore
them all to their original position. At the voice of Comparative
Anatomy, every bone and fragment of bone resumed its place.
I cannot find words to express the pleasure I experienced in

326 FAMILY TAPIRIDJE; — PAL^EOTHERIUM, RHINOCEROS.

seeing, when I discovered one character, how all the conse-
quences which I predicted from it were successively confirmed.
The feet accorded with the characters announced by the teeth ;
the teeth were in harmony with those previously indicated by
the feet. The bones of the legs and thighs, and every connect-
ing portion of the extremities, were found to be joined together,
precisely as I had arranged them before my conjectures were
verified by the discovery of the parts entire. Each species was,
in fact, reconstructed from a single unit of its component
elements." The deposits in which the remains of the Palseothe-
rium are found, are evidently of considerably older date than
those in which the bones and teeth of the Elephants and Masto-
dons are buried; and the other fossil remains of terrestrial
animals, that are found with them, are for the most part very
dissimilar to those which now inhabit our globe. These deposits,
however, were formed by the agency of fresh water ; and there
can be little doubt that the bones of Palseotheria which they
contain, are the relics of animals which, like the Tapir and
Rhinoceros of the present day, frequented the borders of lakes
and large rivers, by whose waters they were occasionally
ingulphed in seasons of flood. — Another fossil genus allied to the
Tapirs is that of Lophiodon, which differs from Palaeotherium in
having only six molars on either side of each jaw, but in other
respects closely resembles it. No less than fifteen species of this
genus have been distinguished ; their remains are commonly
found associated with those of the Palasotherium.

293. Returning to the animals now inhabiting our globe, we
have next to notice the Rhinoceros, a large and ungainly-looking
animal, which inhabits the hotter regions of the Old World.
This genus (which contains six living species, as well as several
extinct ones, whose remains occur in the same strata with those
of the Elephant) is characterised by the possession of three toes
on each foot, and by the presence (in most of the species at least)
of seven molars on each side above and below, with only four
incisors, and no canine teeth. Its most distinguishing mark,
however, is the possession of a solid horn, which is supported
upon a very strong arch, formed by the nasal bones. The horn

FAMILY TAPIRID^E; — RHINOCEROS. 327

is curved and pointed, and arises from a limpet-shaped base ; and
it is composed of agglutinated fibres analogous to those of hair,
and closely resembling those into which whalebone is so easily
separable. In some species, there are two horns, both on the
central line of the body ; and the hinder one is situated on the
frontal bone. The arch on which the horns rest has need of great
strength, not only to sustain its weight, but also to resist the

FIG. 164. — TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS.

shock occasioned by the violent blows, which the animal gives
with this powerful weapon. The skin of the Rhinoceros is thick
and coarse, with a knotty surface ; and is destitute, or nearly so,
of hairs ; in the common Indian species, it is disposed in large
folds, especially on the neck, shoulders, haunches, and thighs.
The upper lip is prolonged, and in some species is as prehensile
as that of the Tapir. The best known species of Rhinoceros
is the one which inhabits India; where it leads a tranquil
indolent life, wallowing on the marshy borders of lakes and rivers,
and occasionally bathing itself in their waters. Its movements
are usually slow ; and it carries its head low, like the Hog,
ploughing up the ground with its horn, and making its way by
sheer force through the jungle. Owing to the keenness of its
smell and hearing, the Rhinoceros cannot be easily attacked ;
for on any alarm, it retreats to its covert in the almost impene-

328 FAMILY TAPIRID^E ; —RHINOCEROS, HYDRAX.

trable jungle ; but when brought to bay, it charges with great
fury and impetuosity, and tramples down, or rips up with its
horn, any animal that opposes it. Even the Elephant cannot
withstand its fury. Another species, less powerful and savage,
is found in Java ; and a third, which possesses two horns, in
Sumatra. Three species, each possessing two horns, are found
in Africa, of which the best known, — the black, or common
Rhinoceros, — is represented in (Fig. 164). — The Rhinoceros
appears to have been formerly as widely distributed as the
Elephant and Mammoth ; and its remains are found associated
with theirs. Several species, differing from those at present exist-
ing, have been distinctly made out ; and of one of these, an entire
frozen carcase has been discovered, in the banks of one of the
tributaries of the Lena. It had two horns, but differed in many
respects from any two-horned species of the present day ; and its
skin, like that of the Mammoth, was covered with long stiff hair.
Remains of the Rhinoceros are found in almost every bone-cavern
in England, France, and Germany ; and it appears from the
researches of Dr. Buckland, that, during a long succession of
years, the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, and Hyaena,
were formerly inhabitants of our island, — the last-mentioned of
these devouring the others, or preying upon its carcase after
natural or accidental death.

294. There is a curious genus of small animals, inhabiting
the rocky districts of Africa and Syria, which is intermediate in
its characters between the Tapir and Rhinoceros, but presents
several points of resemblance to the Rodentia. This is the
Daman, or Hi/rax, an active fur-covered little animal, sometimes
called the Rock-Rabbit, and probably the Cony referred to in the
Book of Proverbs. Its skeleton closely resembles that of a Rhi-
noceros in miniature, and its molar teeth are formed in the same
manner ; the fore-feet have four toes, which are tipped with hoof-
like nails ; whilst the hind-feet have three, of which the inner-
most is furnished with a long claw-like nail. The best known
species are the Cape Hyrax, which inhabits Southern Africa ;
and the Syrian Hyrax of Syria, Arabia, and Abyssinia. Both
these are active, wary animals, somewhat larger than Rabbits,

FAMILY SUHXE, OR PIG TRIBE. 329

living in families, and taking up their abode in caves or crevices
in the sides of rocks ; they live upon the young shoots of shrubs,
and upon herbs and grass ; and they are playful in their habits,
and docile and familiar in captivity.

295. The family SUID^E, or Pig tribe, is the only group of
Pachydermata which is widely distributed over the globe;
members of it being found native in Europe, Asia, Africa, and
South America. The animals composing it are distinguished by
the conformation of their feet, which have four toes inclosed in
separate hoofs, the two central toes being much the largest, and
divided by a deep cleft. In the common Hoy, each toe has its
own distinct metacarpal or metatarsal bones ; but in the
Peccaries, the metacarpal or metatarsal bones of the two middle
toes are consolidated into a single c^wow-bone, which resembles
that of the Ruminants (§ 254) ; and the stomach of these
animals is partially divided into distinct sacculi, thus presenting
another link of connexion between the two groups. The charac-
ters of the teeth in this family have been already mentioned
(§ 290) ; but it may be added that the canines are usually very
long, and project forwards as tusks, which are used by the animal
as weapons of defence, and for rooting up the ground. The Boar,
or Wild Hog, which is distributed through the forests of Europe,
Asia, and Africa, the Phacochcere, or Vlacke Vark of the Cape
Colonists, the Babyroussa of the Indian Archipelago, and the
Peccaries of South America, closely agree in their general habits
and dispositions. Their food is naturally vegetable, and consists
of the stems and roots of plants, together with acorns, beech-
mast, and similar materials. They are for the most part inoffen-
sive when not attacked, but display great courage, and even
ferocity, when brought to bay ; whilst the length of their tusks,
and the great strength of the muscles of the neck by which the
head is thrown upwards, or violently tossed from side to side,
render them very formidable antagonists. When taken young,
however, they are easily domesticated, and even become trouble-
some from their familiarity; but they commonly show a disposi-
tion to escape from the control of Man into their native haunts,
and to resume their original habits. This disposition is displayed

330 FAMILY SDID.E ; — BOAR, PHACOCHCERE, PECCARY.

also by the Elephant, the Tapir, and even by the Horse ; and it
seems to distinguish the Pachydermata from the Ruminants,
which, when once brought into subjection to Man, remain
peaceably under it.

296. The Boar or Wild Hog is unquestionably the original
stock of our domestic race, and does not differ from the common
Pig in any essential peculiarities. The snout, however, is more
elongated, the tusks larger (sometimes attaining the length of
more than ten inches), and the contour of the frame more gaunt
and bony ; whilst the muscular strength is much greater, and
the temper more savage. Like the domesticated Pig, the Boar
is nearly omnivorous ; not however attacking and killing other
animals for the sake of their flesh, but devouring what may fall
in its way. This animal was formerly a native of the forests of
Britain, but has been long since extirpated, though at what
precise epoch is not known ; it still ranges through the forests of
France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, and extends also
as far as India ; there is some doubt, however, whether the
European and Indian species are the same. In all ages, the
chase of the Boar has been a favourite diversion : it is not unat-
tended with danger, however ; for horses and men, as well as
dogs, have not unfrequently fallen a sacrifice to the fury of the
animal ; but this danger perhaps adds to the excitement. — The
Phacochceres of Abyssinia and Southern Africa closely resemble
the Hog in general structure and habits, but differ from them
remarkably in their dentition ; for the molar teeth are formed
very much upon the plan of those of the Elephant, and successively
replace one another, by advancing from behind forwards, as in
that animal. — The Peccaries are the representatives of the Boar
in South America ; and it is remarkable that, with the Tapirs,
they constituted the only representatives of the whole order of
Pachydermata, which were found in that continent at the time of its
discovery. In ancient times, as we have already seen, numerous
species of Mastodons, and other gigantic Pachyderms, roamed
over its wilds ; but they have gradually become extinct, and
have left us only these two comparatively small and feeble genera
as their representatives. On the other hand, since the discovery

FAMILY SUID^E ; BABYROUSSA, HIPPOPOTAMUS.

331

of America by Europeans, many European species have been
introduced, which have become naturalised in the country, and
now run wild through its plains and forests ; this is the case
with the Boar, and with the Horse. Independently of the
peculiarities already mentioned, the Peccaries, — of which there
are two species, the collared, and the white-lipped, — differ from
the Hog in possessing only four incisors in each jaw instead of
six, and only six molars on each side instead of seven ; the
canines, too, are not nearly so long, and do not curve outwards.
— The Babyroussa of Java and the Molucca islands is chiefly

remarkable for the
extraordinary cur-
vature of the tusks
of the upper jaw,
which is shown in
the acompanying
figure ; the pur-
pose which they
serve is entirely
unknown. The in-
cisors are four above
and six below ; the molars only five on each side.

297. "With this family we may place the gigantic Hippopo-
tamus or River Horse; an inhabitant of the African rivers,
which seems to con-
nect the Hog with
the Elephant on the
one hand, and with
the aquatic tribe of
Pachyderms (§ 304)
on the other. Its
body is scarcely in-
ferior to that of the
Elephant in bulk;
but its limbs are so
short that its belly almost touches the ground. In its general
aspect it might be compared to a gigantic Pig, but for its short,

FIG. 165.— BABYROUSSA.

FIG. 166 — HIPPOPOTAMUS.

332 FAMILY SUID.E ; — HIPPOPOTAMUS.

thick, and very blunt muzzle. The incisors and canines of the
lower jaw are long and curved forwards ; but the lips are so
large, as usually to conceal them. The canines of the two jaws
rub against each other, as in the Rodentia, and are continually
growing at the base, from a persistent pulp. The stomach is
partially divided into several sacs. The feet possess four toes,
terminated in separate hoofs. The nostrils open on the top of
the muzzle, and the eyes, which are very small, are situated high
in the head ; hence the animal, whilst its body is submerged in
the water, can look around and breathe, by raising but a very
small portion of the head above the surface. As its name
imports, it passes a large part of its time in the water ; usually
quitting it by night in search of its food, which consists of the
herbage that grows near the banks of the rivers and lakes. It
is not confined to rivers, however ; for it also tenants the inland
lakes, and seems equally disposed to take up its abode in the sea,
keeping however near the shore. It commonly resorts to
places where it can walk along the bottom, covered with a few
feet of water ; and comes every five or six minutes to the surface
to breathe. It is gregarious in its habits ; and sagacious and
wary in its disposition. It seems quite inoffensive when left to
itself, but shows great fury when attacked ; and will sometimes
become the assailant upon a very slight accidental provocation.
It is believed that two species of this animal exist ; though
the differences between them have not been satisfactorily ascer-
tained. Their range was formerly much greater than at present ;
for they gradually retreat as Man advances; but they are very
troublesome on the borders of some of the colonies, destroying
•whole plantations to satisfy the wants of their enormous fabrics.
They are in their turn objects of pursuit, on account of their flesh
and hide ; the former is much in request, and the layer of fat
which lies beneath the skin is considered a peculiar delicacy ;
the hide is of enormous thickness, being two inches deep
or more on the back and sides, and is made into shields,
whips, walking-sticks, &c. Remains of four species of Hip-
popotamus have been found in a fossil state in Europe, asso-
ciated with those of the Elephant and Rhinoceros ; indicating

FAMILY SUID^E ; ANOPLOTHERIUM. — SOLIDUNGULA. 333

that this unwieldy monster must have been once an inhabitant
of our rivers.

298. With this family we may also associate a curious fossil
genus, the Anoplotherium (or beast without weapons), of which
remains have been found with those of the Palseotherium. It
is remarkable, in the first place, for the arrangement of its
teeth, which consist of six incisors, four canines, and fourteen
molars in each jaw, forming a continued line, — uninterrupted by
that space between the canines and molars which is seen, more or
less, in every other animal except Man. The canines were small,
resembling incisors in their form, as in the lower jaw of the
Ruminants ; and the feet had only two toes, sheathed by separate
hoofs; but these toes had separate metacarpal and metatarsal
bones, as in the Hog, instead of springing from a single canon
bone. In these and other points, therefore, the Anoplotherium
seems to have been intermediate between the Ruminantia and
Pachydermata ; its head, judging from the skull, partook of the
form of that of the Horse and of the Camel, and did
not bear a prolonged snout. Several species have
been discovered, varying considerably in their gene-
ral form ; thus, one was heavy in its build, and low
on its limbs, and from its flattened tail may be re-
garded as of aquatic habits ; whilst another present-
ed a light, slender, graceful form, with much of the
contour of the Gazelle ; and was probably a fleet
and active inhabitant of the dry land, like the
Antelopes and Deer. Others, again, seem to have
had the size, form, and habits of the Chevrotains.
299. We next pass on to the group of SOLID-
UNGULA, distinguished by the complete consoli-
dation of the toes, so that there is only one set
FIG. 167 FOOT OK °^ phalangeal and metacarpal (or metatarsal)
HORSE; t, tibia; ta, bones in each foot ; and the extremity is included

to.', bones of tarsus; . -IT i f s\ • n r. ,1

c, metatarsai, or m a single large hoof. Occasionally, however, the
canon bone; »» presence of other toes is indicated; for the pha-,

splint-bone ; p,pi,r .

pt, phalangeal langes and metacarpal bones are sometimes partly,
or even completely divided, into two; and the

334 FAMILY EQUUXE; — HORSE.

rudiments of another toe are present on either side as splint-
bones (§ 254), thus making four in all. This is one of the
monstrosities or irregular formations, which often enables us to
determine the real nature of an organ, when its character has
been so changed as to obscure it. The group of single-hoofed
Pachyderms contains only one family, the EQUID^, or Horse
tribe ; and the members of this resemble each other so closely,
as to render it almost doubtful whether they ought not to be
all arranged under the same genus. They all agree in
their dentition, possessing six incisors in each jaw, and
six molars above and below on either side; the molars have
square crowns, with crescentic ridges of enamel. The males
have also two small canines in the upper jaw, and sometimes in
both ; these are wanting in the female. Between the canines
and the first molar, there is a wide space, corresponding with
the angle of the lips; it is in this that the bit is placed, by which
alone Man has been able to subdue these powerful quadrupeds.

300. The Horse is thought by some to deserve to rank as a
genus distinct from the Ass, Zebra, &c. ; on account of the
entire tail being covered with long hair, instead of the tip only ;
and also because the colour of the hair which clothes the body
has a tendency to vary in spots or patches, instead of in stripes.
But these are differences which, in other families, would not be
thought to separate even species very widely. Our ignorance of
the original stock of the Horse prevents this question from being
positively determined. It was domesticated at a very early
period, and was used especially in war and on state occasions.
The Egyptians are usually believed to have been its first tamers,
on account of the mention made of the Horse, as taken in ex-
change by Joseph for the corn which he sold* ; but as we subse-
quently readt of Horses as possessed and used in war by the
Canaanitish nations, the domestication of the race must have
been extensive, even in those remote times. As far back as the
records of profane history conduct us, we find the Scythians
possessed of Horses, and celebrated as Horsemen ; and when
Caesar invaded Britain, he found himself opposed by horsemen

* Genesis, xlvii. 17. t Joshua, xi. 4.

FAMILY EQUID.E ; — HORSE, ASS, DZIGGUETAI. 335

and chariots. Hence we have no power of ascertaining what was
the original country of the Horse. The races that are now run-
ning wild through the plains of Tartary, are almost certainly
descendants of animals that have been in a state of subjugation ;
for their habits closely correspond with those of the wild horses
which now abound in the Pampas of South America, and which
have descended from the domesticated individuals introduced into
that continent by the Spaniards, at the time of their invasion of
it. They live in troops, which are led by an old male; and
when attacked, they put the females and colts in the rear, and
make a vigorous resistance by kicking with the hind legs. They
are fleet and hardy; but by no means remarkable for beauty. The
influence of domestication in modifying the habits of the Horse,
is remarkably shown by the fact — which rests on good authority,
— that it may be brought to eat meat, though naturally as
exclusively herbivorous as any animal ; and this diet is said to
excite an unusual degree of spirit and mettle, and to enable it
better to sustain fatigue.

301. The Ass appears to have been domesticated before the
Horse ; and it was, as it still is in many parts of the East, the
beast usually ridden in civil life ; the Horse being employed
almost exclusively for war. When treated with care, attention,
and kindness, its appearance and manners are very different from
those of the serviceable, but undervalued and neglected beast of
our own country. It is in Arabia, Persia, and Syria, that the
finest breeds of the Ass are found ; those of "Western Europe are
quite degenerate. A fine race is bred in Malta. Several species
of Wild Ass have been described as natives of Central Asia and
Africa ; but there is much uncertainty regarding them ; and it is
not known to which the Domesticated stock is to be referred, or
whether it is derived from any of them. It seems to differ from
them all in the mark which is constantly observed on it, — the
cross over its shoulders. — The Dzigguetai is one of these species,
inhabiting the greater part of Central Asia, and distinguished for
its fleetness, which equals that of a very swift Arabian ; but it
is not easily tamed, being vicious in temper, and kicking violently
on the most trifling provocation. — Of the Zebra, which is a

FIG. 168. — ZEBRA.

336 FAMILY EQUID^ ; ZEBRA, QUAGGA, FOSSIL HORSES.

native of Southern Africa, two species are known ; one of which
is an inhabitant of the mountains, and the other of the plains.

They are both very
handsome and swift-
footed animals ; but are
not easily tamed, their
temper resembling that
of the last-named species.
They live in troops ;
and, from the boldness
of their markings, they
present a very brilliant
appearance when flying
before the hunter. — The
Quagga is an animal of
the same country with
the Zebras, and resembles

them in habits ; but it is far inferior in size and beauty. Its
colours are dull, and its stripes less distinct. — The skeletons of
all these animals so nearly resemble one another, that they can-
not be distinguished by the comparison of a few bones ; so that
even Cuvier was at fault in determining them. This circum-
stance prevents any certainty from being attained, as to the
relationship between the fossil remains, which have been found
abundantly in the newer tertiary strata, and the species now
existing. By some it has been supposed that the original
stock of our domesticated race is to be traced among these
remains. At any rate it is certain, that very numerous animals
of the Horse tribe must have formerly peopled Britain, as well
as the continent of Europe ; roaming over its pastures, and pro-
bably climbing its hill-sides, when its forests were tenanted by
the gigantic Elephant, its jungles by enormous Tigers, its marshes
by the massive Rhinoceros, its caves by the savage Hyaena, and
its rivers and lakes by the unwieldy Hippopotamus.

302. We have now considered the groups usually arranged
under the order Pachydermata ; and it might seem that the
space between these and the "Whale-like animals — destitute of

AQUATIC PACHYDERMATA; — DINOTHERIUM. 337

hind-feet, living entirely in the water, and having the form of
the whole body modified for an aquatic residence — is too wide to
allow them to be placed in the same order. But here, as else-
where, the space appears to be filled up by fossil species ; the
conformation of whose bones affords characters sufficiently deci-
sive, to permit their general structure and habits to be inferred
with tolerable certainty, from the consideration of even a small
part of the entire skeleton. Before proceeding to these, however,
it may be remarked that there is a much nearer connection
between the existing species of ordinary Pachyderms and the
family of MANATID^E, than might be supposed from their form
alone. It has been already remarked that, in those species
which approach the Ruminants in the division of the feet, there
is an approach also in the complexity of the form of the stomach ;
this is particularly the case in the Hippopotamus ; and precisely
the same structure is found in the Dugong and Manatee, whose
stomachs bear a very close resemblance to that of the Hippo-
potamus. Both animals are adapted by their conformation and
habits, to food of the same description ; but whilst the Hippo-
potamus usually quits the water for its food, and browses upon
the herbage and underwood in the neighbourhood, the Manatee is
confined to that which grows on the banks of the streams, or
beneath the surface. The shortness of the legs, too, in the Hip-
popotamus, prepares us for the total disappearance of one
pair ; and the flattening of the tail of the common Anoplotherium
shows the tendency to the more full development of that organ
in the Manatees. There are other points of resemblance between
the Hippopotamus and the Lamantins, in the structure and con-
tour of the skull, in the position of the eyes and nostrils, and in
the thick and complete layer of fat beneath the skin ; so that
the gap is not really so wide as it appears.

303. The remarkable genus which seems to connect the two,
has received the name of Dinotherium. The skull is the only
part yet found ; and this presents several extraordinary characters.
It is more than a yard long, the nasal portion being so pro-
longed, as to give the idea that it bore a proboscis ; a similar
conformation, however, is seen in the Dugong, which is destitute

338 AQUATIC PACHYDEEMATA ; DINOTHERIUM, TOXODON.

of that appendage, having only a large upper lip. The upper
jaw seems to have been destitute of either incisors or canines ;
but the lower is armed with two enormous tusks, which, instead
of projecting upwards or forwards, sweep downwards and curve
gently backwards, having their roots imbedded in enormous
sockets. The general conformation of the skull bears so much
resemblance to that of the Dugong, as to indicate that the Dino-
therium must have been exclusively aquatic in its habits ; pro-
bably having either the hind-feet formed as paddles, like the Seal;
or being entirely destitute of these members. Its diet was un-
doubtedly vegetable ; and we may conceive it to have used its
tusks for tearing up strong-fibred plants, by a rake-like action,
from the bed of the river, or for anchors by which it might moor
itself to the banks, or for hooks by which it might assist itself in
dragging its unwieldy body (the length of which was probably
not less than eighteen feet) out of the water. Its remains have
been found in fresh- water deposits, with those of the Rhinoceros,
Tapir, &c. — Another genus, which has been established from the
skull only, is the Toxodon^ of which the only remains at present
known are contained in the Museum of the College of Surgeons,
London. This was a large South American animal, which
seems to have been allied both to the Pachydermata and
Rodentia, and to have had the dimensions of the Hippopotamus,
though perhaps still more adapted for aquatic habits.

304. Some remains of gigantic Pachyderms, that seem to
have been intermediate between the Mastodon and the Dinothe-
rium, have been recently brought from Australia, in some parts of
which they are said to abound. " They tell us plainly," says
Professor Owen, " that the time was, when Australia's arid
plains were trodden by the hoofs of heavy Pachyderms ; but
could the land have then been, as now, parched by long-continued
droughts, with dry river-courses, containing here and there a
pond of water ? All the facts and analogies which throw light
on the habits of the extinct Mastodons and Dinotheres, indicate
these creatures to have been frequenters of marshes, swamps, or
lakes. Other relations of land and sea than now characterise the
southern hemisphere, a different condition of the surface of the

FAMILY MANATIDJE; — DUGONG, MANATEE. 339

land and of the meteoric influences governing the proportion and
distribution of fresh water on that surface, may therefore be con-
jectured to have prevailed, when huge Mastodontoid Pachyderms
constituted part of the quadruped population of Australia ; and
a change from a humid climate to the present particularly dry
one, may have been the cause, or chief cause, of the extinction
of the race."

305. The family MANATIDJB or Dugong tribe, has been
usually associated, as already stated more than once, with the
order Cetacea ; but the animals composing it differ almost as
much from the true Whales, as a herbivorous from a carnivorous
Quadruped. In their fishlike form, the absence of hinder limbs
and pelvis, the conversion of the anterior extremities into paddles,
the prolonged and horizontally-flattened tail, the nakedness
and oiliness of the skin, and other points of adaptation to the
life and habits of a Fish, the two groups agree (Fig. 59) ; and
it is interesting to observe, how completely the same objects are
attained by similar means, in both cases. But the food of the
Dugong and its allies entirely differs from that of the Whales ;
and all the parts of the structure, immediately concerned in the
reception and application of it, vary in a corresponding manner.
The molar teeth are formed upon the same plan with those of
the aquatic Pachyderms, and are obviously adapted to reduce
the submarine vegetables, which are hooked up by means of
the tusk-like incisors. The curious provision which the true
Whales possess, for causing a large quantity of water to pass
through their mouths, that they may strain out, as it were, the
small animals it contains (§ 209), is here altogether wanting.
And the stomach, instead of being simple in structure, and of
moderate size, is large and divided into sacs. Only a few species
of this family are known. — The Dugong, or Halicore, is a native
of the Indian Seas, being common among the islands of the Indian
Archipelago, and visiting also the coasts of New Holland. It
especially frequents the mouths of rivers and shallow waters; and
it is pursued on account of its flesh, which is tender and not unlike
beef. Its length is about seven or eight feet. Another species
inhabits the Red Sea. — The Manatee, or Lamantin, inhabits the

z2

340 MANATEE, ZEUGLODON. — OVO- VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA.

mouths of the rivers opening on the north and north-east of South
America, and the coast of Mexico ; it measures six or seven feet
in length ; and its paddles exhibit rudiments of nails, by the aid
of which the animal sometimes drags its unwieldly body on shore,
and crawls up the banks, either to bask in the sun, or to seek
for terrestrial vegetables. Another species is found on the
western coast of Africa ; and a third along the shores of some
parts of North America. — Some fossil teeth have been discovered
in America, which are regarded by Professor Owen as having
belonged to an animal of this family, to which he has given the
name of Zeuglodon. This name, which means yoked-toothed,
was suggested by their distinguishing peculiarity, — the form of
the posterior molars, which resemble two teeth tied or yoked
together.

SUB-CLASS II.— OVO-VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA.

306. The general character by which the animals of this divi-
sion are distinguished from the true Mammalia have been already
explained (§ 118); and it has been shown that these are of suffi-
cient importance, to require that the several species which agree
in it, should be associated together in a separate group ; even
although they differ considerably from one another, in the nature
of their food, and in the conformation of those organs by which
it is obtained and digested. Thus we find, in some members of
this sub-class, an opposable thumb, as perfect as that of many
Quadrumana ; in others, a set of teeth and sharp claws, obviously
adapted to a Carnivorous regimen ; in others, again, the general
organisation of the Insectivora ; in others, an approach to the
peculiar conformation of the Rodentia; and in others, the com-
plete absence of teeth, which characterises the true Edentata.
Hence some Naturalists have been disposed to arrange these
several animals under the Orders, to which they would be referred
by the characters just adverted to ; forgetting that they are
distinguished from these by characters of far higher importance,
— those relating to the structure of the brain ; which correspond,

OVO- VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA. 341

on one hand, with the degree of intelligence manifested by the
animal ; and, on the other, with the manner in which the pro-
cess of reproduction is carried on in them. For in the brain of
Birds, whose early development receives little assistance from the
parent, the great central commissures ( ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 434)
are altogether wanting ; whilst in the true Mammalia, in which
the embryo is sustained by a direct connection with the parent,
until it has nearly acquired the perfect form, the two hemi-
spheres of the brain are united by transverse bands, which
increase in number and complexity as we ascend towards Man ;
and in the Ovo-viviparous Mammalia, of which the embryo is
born prematurely (as it were), the brain attains a character but
very little higher than that of Birds, and the intelligence is
proportionably low. When it is recollected that intelligence,
depending on the high development of the cerebral mass, is the
characteristic feature of the class Mammalia, it becomes evident
that the group of animals, which differs from the rest in a pecu-
liarity so essential, should be completely separated from them.
And it is the less surprising that they should differ among them-
selves in characters which are elsewhere deemed important, since
we find the same occurring in other instances ; the lower or least
organised portion of a group often presenting sketches, as it were,
of the very dissimilar forms, which occur in the several divisions
above it. Thus in the Radiata, we may trace adumbrations or
shadowings-forth of the Molluscous, the Articulated, and even
the Vertebrated types ; and its several members differ far more
among each other in form and structure, than do the members of
either of the higher divisions of the Animal kingdom.

307. By some of those who have recently attended to the
classification of this group, it is regarded as containing but a
single order, and is divided at once into families ; but in
general it is first subdivided into two orders, which will be here
adopted. The first of these contains the MARSUPIALIA or pouched
animals, so named on account of the peculiar pouch or pocket
which most of them possess at the lower part of the abdomen,
for receiving and protecting the young during the period of
suckling. This pouch is supported by two bones, termed the

342 OVO-VIVIPAROUS MAMMALIA. ORDER MARSUPIALIA.

marsupial bones, the form and position of which have been already
described (§ 90). This order comprehends the Kangaroos,
Opossums, and other less known animals. The second order,
— termed MONOTREMATA, and including only two animals at
present known to exist, the Ornithorhyncus, and the Echidna, —
receives its name from a peculiarity in the structure of the
reproductive apparatus, which shows its near approach to the
class of Birds ; for the termination of the oviducts is received,
with that of the urinary duct, and of the intestine, into a canal
termed the cloaca ; so that there is but a single external orifice
for them both, instead of two, as in all higher animals. There
are many other points of structure, in which this remarkable
group approximates to Oviparous animals ; some of which will
be hereafter mentioned.

308. The geographical distribution of this Sub-Class is not
one of the least curious parts of its history. With the exception
of the Opossum family, which inhabits America (and was the
first with which naturalists became acquainted), the group is
confined to Australia, and the nearest islands of the Indian
Archipelago, where not less than 70 species have been found ;
more probably remaining to be discovered. And with the excep-
tion of the Dingo Dog, a few Bats and Seals, and one or two
Rats, these are the only Mammalia known to exist on the vast
Continent of New Holland ; a circumstance which is without
its parallel in the distribution of the Animal Kingdom.

ORDER XI.— MARSUPIALIA.

309. From what has been just stated, of the varieties of con-
formation which are found in this group, it will be evidently
necessary to proceed at once to the description of the families into
which it is subdivided ; as no account can be given of their
general structure and habits, which shall be applicable to more
than a small section of the order. The first family, DIDELPHID^E,
or Opossum tribe, is restricted to America, and chiefly consists of

FAMILY DIDELPHID^E ; — OPOSSUMS.

343

the genus Didelphis, or Opossum, of which about twenty species
are known, some of them very small. The teeth are more nume-
rous than in any other known terrestrial Mammal except the
MyrmecoUus,* — the increase being in the number of the incisors,
which are ten above and eight below, the canines being (as usual)
one on each side of either jaw, and the molars seven, — the four
last, or true molars, being crowned with sharp tubercles. The
limbs are short ; the feet plantigrade (or having the sole applied
to the ground) ; and the toes, which are five on each foot, armed
with sharp, strong, curved claws, except the inner toe or thumb

Fro. 169. — VIRGINIAN OPOSSUM.

on the hinder feet, which is opposable and destitute of a nail.
The tail is scaly and naked, except at its base; and is usually
more or less prehensile. In some species the pouch is almost

* A small shrew-like Marsupial, whose place seems to be between the two suc-
ceeding families.

344 FAMILY DIDELPHIOE ; OPOSSUMS.

entirely wanting, being indicated only by a slight fold of skin.
The Virginian Opossum, which is common in many parts of
the southern states of North America, is one of the largest and
most robust of the genus, being about the size of a Cat. It
resides in branches and hollows of trees, remaining inert during
the day, but prowling at night in search of its food, which
consists of insects, eggs, birds, and small reptiles and mammalia,
as also of fruits and roots; — sometimes even invading the precincts
of farm-houses, destroying poultry, and other domestic birds. Its
movements on the ground are slow ; but it climbs with great
facility, and can suspend itself from branches with its tail, some-
times gaining distant branches by a kind of swinging motion.
When alarmed or irritated, it emits a most disgusting odour. In
captivity it is slothful, and becomes inordinately fat, eating both
animal and vegetable food with voracity; it shows but little
intelligence, and evinces great apathy with some timidity. The
female produces several young at a time, sometimes as many as
sixteen ; and she conceals herself in a thick nest of dry grass, in
some obscure retreat. When first born, the young are in a very
undeveloped state, being minute, blind, naked, and shapeless ;
but they are always found adhering to the teats of the mother,
protected by her pouch. There they remain until they have
attained the size of a mouse, which is not until the fiftieth day ;
at this period their eyes are opened, and their bodies are covered
with hair. They now venture occasionally from their hiding-
place, but return to it on the least appearance of danger ; and it
is not until they have attained to a considerable size, that they
finally withdraw from the care of the parent. Even when they
no longer resort to her pouch for protection, it is said that they
jump on her back, and twine their tails securely with hers ; so
that she may carry them off from the threatened danger. — The
Crab-eating Opossum is common in Guiana and Brazil ; it climbs
trees with facility, but runs badly ; and prefers marshy situations,
where it feeds upon crabs, but also attacks small birds and
reptiles, and will eat insects. — Several of the South American
species are very small, and are quite insectivorous in their habits ;
so much resembling the Shrews in size and general appearance, as

FAMILY DIDELPHID^E; — CHEIRONECTES. 345

to have been mistaken for them : others are about the size, and
have the appearance and habits, of the Rat. — The only other genus

FIG. 170.— CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.

included in the family of Didelphidae, is the Cheironectes, or
Yapock, an inhabitant of the smaller streams and rivers of Brazil
and Guiana. This interesting animal bears a strong general resem-
blance to the Otter, but is much smaller. It is incapable of climbing,
but lives in holes along the banks of the rivers it frequents ; and
it is provided with cheek-pouches, in which it stows away the
food it obtains in the stream, consisting of fresh-water Crustacea,
the larvae of insects, the spawn of fishes, &c. In this genus we
do not find an opposable thumb on either foot ; and the toes of
the hind- feet are webbed. It differs from the Opossums also, in

346 FAMILY DASYURID.E; — URSINE DASYURUS.

the number of molars, which are only five on each side of
either jaw.

FIG. 171.— CHEIRONECTUS OR YAPOCK.

310. If we regard the Opossums as representing the Quad-
rumana among the Ovo- viviparous Mammalia, we shall find still
more analogy between the next family, DASYURID^E, or Ursine
Opossums, and the Carnivora : this analogy is shown in the
structure of the teeth and digestive organs, and also in the habits
of the animals themselves, as is sufficiently indicated by the
names, hyaena, wild-cat, bear, devil, &c., which are given to the
several species by the colonists of Australia, where alone they
occur. As an example of this family, we may notice the Dasyu-
rw ursinus, or Ursine (bear-like) Dasyurus, a native of Van
Diem en's land, not unlike the Badger in shape, and having the
gait of a Bear. It is a stupid, voracious animal, which conceals
itself in burrows or holes in the ground during the day ; issuing
forth at night in search of its food, which appears to be entirely
of an animal nature. The flocks and domestic poultry of the
colonists suffer considerably from its ravages. The teeth resemble
those of the Opossum in their general aspect; but differ in having
only eight incisors in the upper jaw and six in the lower ; and
also in the number of the molars, which are six instead of seven.

DASYURUS, THYLACINUS. FAMILY PERAMELIDJE. 347

Their form, too, is more decidedly carnivorous ; the individual
teeth being by no means unlike those of the Dog. The limbs
are short, robust, and clumsy ; and the toes, five on the fore-feet,
and four on the hind, are armed with sharp claws, which the
animal can use for burrowing, as well as for seizing its prey. Its
voice is a hollow barking growl. When in captivity, it displays
no quality but a stupid ferocity, and seems ready to bite at the
least irritation; it does not appear in the least influenced by
kind treatment, not even showing any recognition of its keepers,
or of those who habitually feed it. — In other species of this
genus, there is a stronger resemblance to the Dog and "Weasel,
and greater activity in the habits. — The Thylacinus, also a native
of Van Diemen's Land, has the stature and habits of a Wolf;
and would prove a very destructive animal, if it were not for its
rarity. It inhabits the caverns and fissures of the rocks, in the deep
and almost impenetrable glens of the highest mountains ; and,
like many others of this group, it is nocturnal in its habits. It
seems to have the power of over-mastering all the native quadru-
peds of Australia, managing to eat even the Echidna or porcu-
pine ant-eater; and it is very destructive to the sheep in its
neighbourhood. Owing to its back being crossed by a regular
series of black stripes, it has received from the Colonists the
names of Zebra- Wolf and Zebra- Opossum ; and has also been
called the Tiger and Hyaena.

311. The animals of the next family, PERAMELIDJE, or the
Bandicoot tribe, are evidently analogous to the Insectivora, and
take the place in Australia of the Shrews, Tenrecs, &c. of the
Old World. In number of teeth, they approach the Opossums,
but have only six instead of eight incisors in the lower jaw ;
the form of the teeth, however, is more decidedly insectivorous.
The general form of the Bandicoots is Rabbit-like, the hind
legs being much longer than the fore, and the gait being inter-
mediate between running and jumping ; moreover they
resemble Rabbits in the use they make of their fore-paws in
burrowing, and in holding their food, when they sit up on
their haunches. The form of the muzzle, however, is different ;
for this is elongated, narrow, and pointed, the nose advancing

348 FAMILY MACROPODID^E ; KANGAROOS.

considerably beyond the jaw. Notwithstanding the insectivo-
rous form of the teeth, it appears from the accounts of the colo-
nists, that these animals feed in great part upon roots, and that
they are very destructive to the potato-crops, as also to the
corn when housed in granaries. It is probable that there may
be a difference in this respect among the several species, which
are numerous, one of them inhabiting New Guinea.

312. The family MACROPODID^E (long-footed), or Kangaroo
tribe, receives its name from the enormous length of the foot,
which is the distinguishing characteristic of the posterior extre-
mity, in all the animals it includes. The anterior members are
small and comparatively feeble ; but the posterior, together
with the tail, attain a degree of development, to which we do
not see an approach in any other animal, except in the Jerboa
and some others of the Rodentia. In their ordinary position,

these animals sit nearly
erect upon their haunches,
the head and shoulders being
elevated and slightly in-
clined forwards; and the
weight of the body is coun-
terpoised by that of the tail,
which is of enormous size,
and serves at the same time
to balance and support it.

FIG. 172. — KANGAROO. m, ,, -.

Ine torm and arrangement

of the teeth, and the conformation of the stomach, remind us of
the order Ruminantia ; to which this family, being exclusively
herbivorous in its diet, bears no inconsiderable analogy. The
canines are entirely wanting, and there are only two incisors in
the lower jaw, whilst there are six in the upper ; the molars
are five on each side, and have a roughened surface, which is
given by a vertical plate of enamel surrounding a centre of bone.
The stomach is very large, and is divided into distinct sacculi ;
and the Kangaroo appears occasionally (though not regularly)
to perform a true rumination, which it does in the erect atti-
tude. When feeding, it assumes a crouching position, resting

FAMILY MACROPODID^E ; KANGAROOS. 349

on its fore-paws, as well as on the hinder extremities, whilst it
browses on the herbage ; and in this attitude it hops gently
along, deriving some assistance from its tail. On the least
alarm, however, it raises itself on its hind legs, and bounds
away to a distance with great rapidity. The leap is of very
great length ; and is accomplished by the muscular action of
the tail, almost as much as by that of the limbs (ANIM. PHY-
SIOL., § 661). Sometimes the old male of the Great Kangaroo,

FIG. 173.— SKELETON OF KANGAROO.

when excited, stands on tiptoe, and on his tail, the three extre-
mities forming a tripod ; and is then of prodigious height. The
great length of the hind foot is chiefly given by the elongation
of its metatarsal bones ; it possesses four toes, of which the two
inner ones are very small, and compacted together so as to
appear like one ; the third or middle toe is large and powerful,
and armed with a strong hoof-like nail ; the fourth or external
toe is smaller than the middle one, but is larger than the two
inner ones together, and it also has a large hoof-like nail. These
defences make the foot a very powerful weapon ; a single blow
from it being often sufficient to kill a dog. The under side of
the foot has a callous sole along its whole length. The fore-
paws have five toes armed with sharp claws ; they enjoy consider-
able freedom of motion, the clavicles being well developed ; and
they are used by the animal for a great variety of purposes.
They even aid the Kangaroo in its defence ; for it will sometimes

350 FAMILY MACROPODHXaE ; KANGAROOS.

clasp them around its antagonist, and hug it to death, or hold it
beneath the surface of the nearest water until it is drowned.

313. A considerable number of species of this group, differ-
ing in size, but bearing a strong resemblance to each other in
form and habits, have been discovered in New Holland, Van
Diemen^s Land, and New Guinea. The largest at present
known is the Great Kangaroo > which is very extensively dif-
fused through the two former countries, preferring the low
grassy hills and plains skirted by thin open forests of brushwood,
to which it resorts for shelter from the oppressive heat of the
mid-day sun ; but it is also found on the bleak and even snow-
capped summits of mountains. The male, which greatly exceeds
the female in size, has been known to measure nearly eight feet
from the nose to the extremity of the tail (the length of the
latter being three feet) ; and to weigh 220 Ibs. The other
species, however, are much smaller. The young are produced
in an extremely imperfect state. One which was examined
twelve hours after birth, is thus described by Mr. Owen. " It
resembled an earth-worm in the colour and semi-transparency of
its integument, adhered firmly to the point of the nipple, breathed
strongly, but slowly, and moved its fore-legs when disturbed. Its
body was bent upon the abdomen, its short tail tucked in between
the hind-legs, which were one-third shorter than the fore-legs.
The whole length from the nose to the end of the tail when
stretched out, did not exceed one inch and two lines." In this
condition it is not able to suck the milk from the teat of its
parent ; but the mammary gland of the Kangaroo is acted on by
a peculiar muscle, which presses the fluid from it into the mouth
of the young animal. The embryo (for such it must be still
considered) continues to increase by sustenance derived exclu-
sively from the mother, for a period of eight months ; but it then
begins to protrude its head occasionally from the orifice of the
pouch, and to crop the grass at the same time that the mother is
browsing. Having thus acquired additional strength, it quits
the pouch, and hops at first with a feeble and vacillating gait ;
but it continues to return to the pouch for occasional shelter and
supplies of food, until it has attained the weight of 10 Ibs. —

KANGAROO-BAT. FAMILY PHALANGISTIDJE. 351

There is another genus belonging to this family, that of Hypsi-
prymnus, including the Potoroos, or Kangaroo- Rats, of which
several species are known in Australia. They chiefly differ from
the Kangaroos, in possessing canine teeth in the upper jaw ; but
in other respects bear a close resemblance to them. They
present, however, a nearer approach to the Rodentia, both in
their dentition and habits ; for the foremost pair of incisors in
the upper jaw are larger and considerably longer than the rest,
and meet the large incisors of the lower jaw ; whilst with their
long and powerful fore-claws, they are continually scratching the
ground for roots, feeding rather upon these than upon herbage.
They are all of small size ; the largest having the dimensions of
a Babbit.

314. The family PHALANGISTIDJS, or Phalanger s, are nearly
allied to the Kangaroos in the conformation of the head and
teeth ; but they more resemble the Opossums in general struc-
ture and habits, and may be considered as representing those
animals in Australia and the islands of the Indian Archipelago,
in which they are found. They are nocturnal in their habits,
and live among trees, being expert climbers. Their food
consists principally of fruits, buds, leaves, &c. ; but they will
also eat insects and eggs, and even cooked meat when offered
them. They agree with the Opossums, also, in having a large
opposable thumb on the hind-feet ; but they have only six
incisors in the upper jaw, with two in the lower, as in the
Kangaroo ; canines in the upper jaw only, as in the Kan-
garoo-rat ; and five regular molars, with small additional ones
between these and the canine teeth in some species. The tail is
prehensile, and the Phalangers will sometimes remain suspended
by it for a considerable time ; and, like the Opossums, they
emit a very disagreeable odour when alarmed. They are covered
with a very soft and delicate woolly fur. A considerable number
of species are known, the largest of which is of about the size of
a Wild Cat. — Besides the true Phalangistce or Phalangers, this
family includes the Petaurus or Flying Phalanger; an animal
which bears the same relationship to the true Phalanger, as the
Flying Squirrel does to the ordinary Squirrel. The skin of the

352

FAMILY PHALANGISTID.E ; PETATJRUS, KOALA.

body is extended between the anterior and posterior limbs on
each side, for some distance beyond the flanks ; and serves as a
parachute, by which the animal can partially sustain itself when
taking leaps of great length. Its aerial evolutions, when roused
to activity by the shades of evening, are said to be peculiarly
graceful. It seems to have the power of altering the course of
its movements, while suspended in the air, so as to alight on the
desired spot. It is destitute of the prehensile tail of the true
Phalangers ; and seems to be endowed with these wing-like
appendages, by way of compensation. — The Phascolarctos or
Koala is a third form belonging to this family. It is a stoutly-
made animal, with robust limbs and powerful claws, but entirely
destitute of tail. The
fore-feet have each
five toes, of which
two are opposed
to the other three,
— a solitary in-
stance among Mam-
malia ; but in the
hind-feet this power
does not exist, al-
though the thumb
is separated from
the rest. This ani-
mal lives chiefly
among trees, and
feeds upon fruits ;

and in passing along the branches, it suspends itself by its claws,
beneath their lower side, in the manner of a Sloth. It also visits
the ground, however, and there burrows with facility ; and it is
said to lie dormant beneath it during the cold season. The young
one, when it leaves the pouch, clings to the back of the parent
for some time. By the colonists this animal is usually termed
the native Bear or Monkey.

315. The last family, that of the PHASCOLOMYIDJE, at present
contains only a single species, the Phascolomys or Wombat, which

FIG. 174. — PHASCOLARCTOS OR KOALA.

FAMILY PHASCOLOMYID^E ; WOMBAT. 353

is evidently a representative of the order Rodentia. The in-
cisors are two in number in each jaw ; they are hollow at
the base, and continue to grow as they are worn away ; as do
also the five molar teeth on either side. It is a clumsy-looking
animal, having short stout limbs and a blunt muzzle ; it burrows
deeply in the ground, feeding on roots and hard vegetable sub-
stances ; and is nocturnal in its habits. Its temper is usually
placid, but it will show considerable snappishness when pro-
voked ; and its intelligence seems extremely low.

316. Fossil remains of several species of Marsupials have
been found in the bone-caves of Australia, in which country
their occurrence might be fairly anticipated. But there is
evidence that this order was formerly diffused more widely over
the globe, than it is at present ; for remains of animals which
unquestionably belonged to it, have been found in Europe, and
even in our own country. Bones of an Opossum were found
by Cuvier in the gypsum beds of Montmartre (near Paris) ; and
portions of the lower jaw of two Opossum-like animals have been
discovered in the oolite of Stonesfield in Oxfordshire. These
last remains have given rise to much discussion ; some eminent
Anatomists having maintained that they are not the remains of
Mammals at all, but of animals of the Reptile class. But the
question may now be considered as finally settled ; since the
examination of the microscopic structure of the teeth has shown,
that it corresponds exactly with that of other Marsupials, and
differs entirely from that of any Reptiles. It is extremely
interesting to remark, that these remains occur in strata much
lower (and therefore older) than those in which any other
remains of Mammalia are found ; whence it may be concluded,
that the Ovo-viviparous sub-class was called into existence at an
earlier period in the history of the Globe, than that at which the
true Mammalia were created.

354

ORDER XII.— MONOTREMATA.

317. The peculiar characters by which this order is separated
from the preceding, have been already noticed (§ 307) ; and it
now only remains, therefore, to describe the two remarkable ani-
mals, which are its sole representatives at present known. — The
Ornithorhyncus or Duck-billed Platypus, the Water Mole of the
Colonists, is peculiar not only in regard to its internal structure,
but as to its external aspect. For having the body of an Otter,
its muzzle is not conformed like that of any other Mammal, but
is converted into a bill, closely resembling that of a duck, being
broad, flat, and covered with a leathery membrane. This union
appeared so startling to the Naturalists by whom the stuffed
specimen of the animal was first inspected, that they imagined
that a clever deception must have been practised ; the bill of a

FIG. 175 — ORNITHORHYNCUS PARADOXT:S.

Bird having been artificially attached to the skin of an Otter-like
Quadruped. This, however, was soon found not to be the case ;

ORNITHORHYNCUS. 355

the combination being one effected by the hand of Nature, and
serving (with others of a similar character) to draw together the
classes of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, which previously
appeared to be so widely separated. As in Birds, the bill
possesses no true teeth ; but on each side of either mandible,
there are two horny appendages without roots, of which one is
large with a rounded summit, whilst the other forms a long
narrow ridge near the anterior edge of the mandible. The
mouth is furnished with capacious cheek-pouches. The fore-feet
possess five toes, furnished with strong blunt burrowing claws ;
and between these a web extends, even beyond their extremities.
This web can be folded back by the animal at pleasure ; and it
consequently presents no impediment in the act of burrowing.
The hind-feet are smaller and less powerful than the anterior ;
they, too, have five toes, armed with claws, and furnished with a
web ; but the web does not extend beyond the roots of the claws.
The hind-feet are directed backwards, like those of the Seal ; and
they are obviously used chiefly for swimming. The foot of the
male is armed with a sharp spur, resembling that of a Cock.
It does not appear, however, to be used by the animal as a weapon
of defence. ' It was formerly supposed (but incorrectly) to secrete
a poisonous fluid. A rudiment of it is present in the female.
The body of the Ornithorhyncus is long and flattened, and is
covered with a very glossy, closely-set fur, resembling that of the
Mole ; beneath this is a layer of soft, short, waterproof wadding.
The tail is strong, broad, flattened, and of moderate length ; it is
covered above with longer and coarser hairs than those of the
body, but its under-surface is nearly naked. The length of the
whole animal, from the front edge of its beak to the tip of its
tail, is usually from 20 to 23 inches.

318. The whole structure of this singular animal proclaims
its aquatic habits ; and these are very much what we might
expect. It passes a great part of its time in the water, and in
the mud of oozy banks ; and seeks for the insects, small shell-
fish, &c., on which it feeds, by plunging its bill into the mud,
exactly in the manner of a Duck. It appears, that, when these
are scarce, it will eat water-weeds, — such having been found in

356 ORNITHORHYNCUS.

the cheek-pouches. The animals usually remain at the surface
of the water, with the head slightly raised above it ; but upon
the slightest alarm they instantly disappear ; and they are so
watchful of danger, that the mere act of levelling a gun is
sufficient to cause them to dive. After some little time, they
reappear at some distance from the spot where they sank. Their
burrows are excavated in the banks of the streams they inhabit,
and are of very curious construction. The entrance is situated
near the water's edge, on a steep part of the bank ; and is con-
cealed amongst the herbage. It gradually rises from the level of
the stream, proceeding in a serpentine direction to a distance of
twenty or even fifty feet from the entrance ; and its termination
is enlarged, so as to form a kind of nest for the parents and their
offspring, which is strewed with dry river-weed. The burrows
have usually a second orifice, below the surface of the water ;
communicating with the passage just within the upper entrance.
319. The young are produced in a very imperfect state, and
are very unlike the fully-developed animal. The skin is entirely
destitute of fur, and is thrown, by the curling of the body, and
the doubling of the head and tail beneath it, into transverse
folds ; the eyes are not formed, and their place is merely indicated
by the presence of a few wrinkles on the skin. The margin of
the bill is at that time soft, and the tongue (which in the adult
does not extend between the mandibles) advtnces to its front
edge ; so that the young animal can obtain nourishment by
sucking, which w^as at first thought impossible. The mammary
gland of the female is very simple in structure, and is divided
into a large number of separate lobes ; this is just what might
be expected, when it is remembered that the organ here makes
its first appearance, and presents therefore its lowest grade of
formation ( ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 358). The Ornithorhyncus is truly
ovo- viviparous ; for the embryo appears never to derive any
other sustenance from its parent, up to the time of its birth, than
that which is stored up for it in the ovum ; but, as in some
Lizards and Fishes, the egg is hatched (as it were) within the
oviduct, so that the young is born alive. In consequence of its
imperfect condition, however, it cannot leave its burrow or nest

ORNITHORHYNCUS, ECHIDNA.

357

for some time ; and this serves for the protection of the young
Ornithorhyncus, as the pouch of the Opossum or Kangaroo does
to its helpless offspring. A very interesting account has been
given by Mr. G. Bennet,* of the habits of some of these ani-
mals, which he kept in a state of captivity, during his residence
in Australia. The Ornithorhyncus appears from this statement
to be a lively interesting creature. Its voice, which it utters
when alarmed or disturbed, resembles the growl of a puppy, but
in a softer key. It dresses its fur, combing it with its feet, and
pecking at it with its beak ; and seems to take great delight in
keeping it smooth and clean. When asleep, it sometimes rolls
itself up like a hedgehog, or curls itself like a dog, keeping its
back warm by bringing over it the flattened tail. The young
are playful, and gambol with one another in a very animated
manner. They appear to be in a great measure nocturnal, pre-
ferring the twilight to the glare of day. They may be fed upon
bread soaked in water, chopped egg, and meat minced very
small. Two species have been described, differing slightly in
colour ; but it is doubtful whether these are more than varieties.
The Ornithorhyncus is confined to New Holland and Van
Diemen's Land.

320. The Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater, seems at first

sight very different in
its conformation from
the Ornithorhyncus ;
but in the most im-
portant particulars of
its structure it closely
resembles it, though
differing widely in its
habits, and in all the
peculiarities connect-
ed with them. It is
about the size and form of a Hedgehog, which it also resembles
in having its body covered with spines ; but these are much

FIG. 176. — ECHIDNA.

Transactions of the Zoological Society, Vol. I.

358 ECHIDNA.

stouter than in that animal; and the two are easily distinguished
by the long narrow snout which the Echidna possesses. This
snout is formed by the elongation of the muzzle, and is cleftf at
the point by a very small mouth. The jaws are destitute of
teeth, as in the true Ant-eater (§ 250) ; and the tongue is
long and slender, and capable of being protruded to a considerable
distance. The legs are short, but large and strong ; and both
the hind and fore-feet possess five toes, which are armed with
strong slightly-curved claws. On the heel of the hind-foot
is a curved horny spur, like that of the Ornithorhyncus. The
Echidna is a burrowing animal ; and the broad strong claws of
its fore-feet appear to be used for digging out the earth ; while
the large hollow claws of the hind-feet are to enable the animal
to cast away the loose soil. These members are twisted, and
directed obliquely backwards, in such a manner that the sides of
the claws lie on the ground, and the concave surface or sole of
the foot is behind ; thus forming very efficient shovels for this
purpose. The skin of the Echidna is remarkably thick, to give
attachment to the strong spines with which it is covered ; and
it can erect these in the manner of a Hedgehog, though unable
to roll itself into a ball, like that animal. The spines are inter-
mingled with coarse hairs, which also clothe the limbs and under
surface of the body. This animal lives entirely upon insects ;
which it obtains, in the same manner with the Ant-eaters, by
entrapping them with the viscous secretion that covers its long
tongue. It inhabits the mountain ranges of Australia, and is
found also in Yan Diemen's Land and the islands of Bass's
Straits. It burrows with great rapidity ; and will even work
its way under a pretty strong pavement, or the foundation of a
wall, removing the stones with its claws. When attacked by
dogs, it quickly sinks itself in the earth or sand, so as to present
nothing but its prickly back to its adversaries. In one instance,
a large chest of earth containing plants being given to an Echidna
in captivity, it made its way to the bottom in less than two
minutes. This individual is described as stupid and inert ; and
for the first month after its capture, it took no food whatever.
It became very thin, but did not appear to suffer. It afterwards

ECHIDNA. 359

ate a mixture of flour, water, and sugar, upon which it lived for
some time. It made frequent efforts to get out of its cage, and
displayed very great strength. The possessor of another captive
Echidna speaks of it as in his opinion the strongest Quadruped,
for its size, in existence. To lift it from the ground requires
more force than would be supposed ; so firmly does it fix itself
to the earth, by means of its powerful feet and claws. The
animal is now very rare ; and but little is known of its habits
in a state of nature. Two species or varieties of it have been
found.

321. The following Table, constructed by Professor Owen,*
is designed to express the connexions of the several orders of
Mammalia with each other, and the points at which they are
most nearly related to the inferior Vertebrata. The names of
the orders are printed in small capitals ; and those of the con-
necting genera in italics. Where the union is by a continuous
line, it is intended to show that the connexion is very close ;
but where the line is dotted, or a blank space is left, the links
are more or less wanting. Thus the order QUADRUMANA is
closely connected with the CHEIROPTERA by the Galeopithecus
(§ 163); with the CARNIVORA by the Lemur (§ 161); with
the RODENTIA by the Cheiromys (§ 164); with the MARSUPIALIA
by the Didelphis (§ 309) ;and less closely with the EDENTATA
by the Bradypus (§ 240), which approaches the QUADRUMANA
in certain particulars. Again, the CARNIVORA and the CHEIRO-
PTERA are connected by the INSECTIVORA ; and the former are
united to the CETACEA by the genus Otaria, or Fur-Seal (§ 202).
The EDENTATA are connected with the PACHYDERMATA by the
fossil Glyptodon (§ 247) ; and this last order is connected with
the RODENTIA by the fossil Toxodon (§ 303). With the RO-
DENTIA, again, the RUMINANTIA are connected by the genus
Moschus (§ 276).

* Cyclopaedia of Anatomy, Vol. III. p. 245.

360

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5 f

£—2

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CHAPTER IV.

OF THE CLASS OF BIRDS.

*

322. The class of Birds, which includes all the animals
furnished with an internal skeleton and expressly adapted for
flight, is one of the most distinct and clearly characterised of all
the subdivisions of the Animal kingdom ; whether we consider
merely the external configuration of these beings, or attend exclu-
sively to the peculiarities of their internal structure, or observe the
manner in which their functions are executed. To define this
group, it would be sufficient to say, that Birds are oviparous
vertebrated animals, whose circulation is double and complete;
but to give an exact idea of its principal characters, we must add,
that the respiration of birds is atmospheric and double (that is,
instead of being carried on in the lungs alone, as is that of the
Mammalia and Reptiles, it takes place both in these organs and
in the whole interior of the body), that their blood is warm like
that of the Mammalia ; that their anterior members have the form
of wings ; and that their skin is covered with feathers.

323. The conformation of these animals varies but little; and
harmonises with the mode of locomotion for which they are
peculiarly designed. They seldom attain a large size ; and the
presence of a considerable quantity of air within their body,
renders them very light. The feathers, which cover the whole
body of the Birds, are productions very analogous to the hairs
of Mammalia ; but of a more complicated structure. We may
generally distinguish in them a horny tube, which forms the
lower part, and which is pierced at its extremity ; a stem which
surmounts this tube ; and laminae, or vanes, on each side of the
stem, which are themselves furnished with small barbs ; and
these sometimes appear, in their turn, fringed on their edge. The
secreting organ intended to form the feather, is termed the

362 DEVELOPMENT OF FEATHERS.

capsuve; and it often acquires a considerable length. From the
observations of M. Fred. Cuvier, it would appear, that the
capsule grows during the whole period of the development of the
feathers ; and that in proportion as its base lengthens, its extre-
mity dies, — drying up as soon as it has formed the corresponding
portion of this appendix. Each capsule is composed of a cylin-
drical sheath, lined internally with two tunics united by oblique
partitions ; and of a central bulb. — The substance of the feather
is deposited on the surface of the bulb ; and, to form the laminas,
it is moulded as it were in the spaces between the partitions. In
the portion corresponding to the stem, the bulb is in contact with
its lower surface; and after having deposited there a spongy
substance, it dries up and dies ; but where the trunk of the
feather is tubular, the plate of horny matter which the secreting
organ deposits, turns round it and completely envelopes it ; this
bulb, however, when it has fulfilled its functions, dries up, and
forms, in so doing, a series of membranous cones, imbedded in
one another, which fill the interior of the tube, and are sometimes
called the cores of the quill.

324. The new feather is at first inclosed in the sheath of its
capsule, which often projects several inches beyond the stem, and
is gradually destroyed. The feather is then uncovered ; and its
laminae, at first rolled together, unfold laterally ; the extremity of
the tube remains imbedded in the skin, but in general can be
easily detached, and falls off at a certain period to give place to a
new feather. This removal of the feathers, which is called
moulting, generally takes place every year after the period of
incubation (the laying and hatching the eggs), and sometimes
twice in the same year, in spring and in autumn ; it is earlier in
old individuals than in young ones, and is a period of discomfort
to the bird, which loses its voice whilst it is going on.

325. The form of these tegumentary appendages varies much ;
there are some which are destitute of laminae, and resemble por-
cupine's quills ; of these there are four or five in the wing of the
Cassowary. In others the laminae are stiff, and provided with
small barbs which hook together, so as to form an expanded
surface, which offers complete resistance to the air ; this is the

PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. SKELETON. .363

case with the wing-feathers of the Eagle and the Crow. There
are others, again, in which the vanes and their barbs are long and
flexible, and do not hook into each other, so that they have an
extreme degree of lightness and softness ; feathers of this kind
are met with in the wings and tail of the Ostrich. And lastly,
there are some which resemble mere down, the laminse being very
narrow and totally unconnected ; such are those, obtained from
the Adjutant, which are much valued as articles of ladies' dress,
and are known under the name of Maraboo feathers. The colours
of feathers are exceedingly varied, and often surpass in beauty
and splendour those of the most beautiful flowers, or the most
brilliant stones. The plumage of the female is generally less
varied than that of the males ; and the young birds rarely exhibit
the colours that they will preserve all their lives; they often
change for two or three years successively ; and sometimes the
adult has a summer plumage quite different from its winter one.
Among aquatic birds the feathers are provided with a fatty
matter, which renders them impermeable to water ; this enables
them to preserve the skin of the animal from contact with the
liquid in which it is partly plunged.

326. The skeleton which determines the general form of Birds,
and which is at the same time one of the most important parts
of its apparatus for locomotion, is composed of nearly the same
elements as among the Mammalia ; but the form and arrange-
ment of many of its bones are different ; and with an equal
volume they are also lighter, most of them being hollowed out
into numerous small cavities filled with air. The head of these
animals (Fig. 178) is generally small ; when young the skull is
composed of the same bones as in the Mammalia; (viz. two
frontal bones, two parietal, one occipital, two temporal, one
sphenoid, and one ethmoid) ; but all these parts are firmly fixed
together at a very early age ; and then cease to be recognizable.
The face is almost entirely formed by the jaws, which are much
elongated, and which, being destined to constitute the principal
organ of prehension, vary much in size and form according to the
nature of the objects which the bird will require to seize. The
upper mandible is so united to the frontal bone, as to preserve

BB2

364

SKELETON OF BIRDS.

some power of motion; and the lower, instead of directly articu-
lating with the cranium by a projecting condyle, as in the

Interorbital
Orbit. partition.

Lachrymal
bone.

FIG. 177- — SKELETON OK VULTURE.

vct cervical vertebras; vs, sacral vertebrae ; vq, caudal vertebras ; cl, clavicle ; h, hume-
rus ; o, bones of forearm ; ca, carpus ; ph, phalanges ; st, sternum ; /, femur ; t, tibia ;
ta, tarsus.

Mammalia, is suspended to a moveable bone named the tympanic
bone, or vs quadratum, which is analogous to a portion of the

temporal bone de-
tached from the
main part, to which
it is united in the
preceding class.
Each of the branches
of this jaw is com-
posed of two pieces,
quadrat™. instead of being

FIG. 178.-SKULL OF EAGLE. formed of a single

bone; and it is by
a cavity, not by a projecting condyle, that it articulates

Nostril.

Upper Ji

SPINAL COLUMN OF BIRDS. 365

with the tympanic bone. The articulation of the head with the
vertebral column permits more varied movement than in the
Mammalia ; for it is effected by a single condyle, a kind of half-
spherical pivot, situated on the central line of the body, below
the large occipital foramen, and received into a corresponding
cavity in the atlas.

327. The neck of Birds is generally longer and more move^
able than that of most Mammalia ; as the beak is generally the
only organ of prehension by which they pick up their food from
the ground, the cervical portion of the vertebral column (Fig.
J 77) becomes longer, in proportion as these animals are more
elevated on their feet ; and where they are essentially swimmers,
as the Swan, and plunge their head in the water to seize their
prey, the length of their neck in many cases much surpasses the
height of the trunk. The number of cervical vertebra varies
in different species ; generally there are from twelve to fifteen,
but in some cases there are not so many, and in others there are
more than twenty, as in the Swan for instance. They move
easily on one another, and from the nature of their articulating
surfaces, the neck can bend in the form of an S, so as to shorten
or lengthen, as the curves increase or diminish. This arrangement
is particularly remarkable in Waders, such as the Stork ; which,
to seize their prey, require to dart their beak to a considerable
distance with great rapidity. The action of the muscles destined
to move this part, is also facilitated by the existence of numerous
processes, serving for their insertion. The vertebra of the
back, on the contrary, are in nearly all Birds, almost immovable ;
and we readily perceive the importance of this arrangement in
animals destined for flight ; for this portion of the spinal column,
serving to support the ribs, and consequently furnishing a point
of attachment to the wings, requires great solidity. In general
these vertebrae are even united to each other; but in Birds
which do not fly, such as the Cassowary and the Ostrich, they
preserve some power of motion. The lumbar and sacral vertebra
are all united in a single bone, which has the same use as the
sacrum in Man. The coccygeal vertebrae are small and move-
able ; the last, which supports the large feathers of the tail, is

366

BONES OF THE TRUNK OF BIRDS.

generally larger than the others, and elevated into a projecting
crest.

328. The ribs of Birds also present some peculiarities of
structure, which tend to give solidity to the thorax. The car-
tilage, which in the Mammalia fixes them to the sternum, is
here replaced by a bone ; and each of them is provided in the
middle with a flattened process, which is directed obliquely
backwards above the next rib; so that all these bones have
points of support on one another. But the most remarkable
part of the osseous structure is the sternum ; which, as it gives
insertion to the muscles of flight, presents in Birds a very high
development, and constitutes a sort of convex buckler, usually
square, which covers the thorax and a large part of the abdomen,

FIG. 179 — SKELETON OF OSTRICH.

In the Cassowary and Ostrich, which cannot rise in the air, and
which have only rudimentary wings, the sternum does not present

BONES OP THE SHOULDER.

367

any ridge on its front surface ; but in other Birds there is a kind
of projecting and longitudinal keel, (&, Fig. 180), which gives
more power to the muscles which draw down the wing.

329. The shoulder bones also are so disposed as to give the
greatest power to the wings. The scapula (o, Fig. 180), is narrow,
but much lengthened in the direction parallel to the spine ; and
is supported on the sternum not only by the clavicle (/), but also
by another bone (c) which fills the office of a second clavicle,
and which is called the coracoid bone, from its apparent analogy

to the coracoid process of the
human scapula. The cla-
vicles of the two sides are
generally united at their an-
terior extremity in the form
of a V, whose point is directed
downwards, and are attached
to the keel of the sternum ;
this compound bone is termed
the furcula, and in common
language the merry-thought.
The coracoid bones constitute
the buttresses, which, with
the furcula, keep the shoulders separated, and afford to the
humerus a point of support, so much the firmer as the Bird is a
better flyer. In Birds which fly but little, or not at all, the
clavicles have, on the contrary, but a slight development. Thus
in certain terrestrial Parroquets of Australia, these bones are
completely rudimentary ; in the Cassowary and American
Ostrich they are represented only by slender-pointed processes ;
in the African Ostrich and the Toucans, they almost reach the
sternum, but are not united together at their lower extremities ;
among some Owls they are united by a cartilage; whilst in
most Birds their union is complete, and they are often directly
supported on the sternum, by means of a central projection from
the point of union.

330. The anterior members of Birds never serve either for
walking, prehension, or touch; but form lateral expansions

6 J

FIG. 180 — BONES OF THE SHOULDER AND
STERNUM.

368

BONES OF THE WING.

named wings. When speaking of Bats, we saw an example of
the transformation of the thoracic members into an organ of
locomotion in the air ; in those animals it is a fold of skin which
serves to strike the air, and the fingers are much prolonged for
its support ; — but in Birds these expansions are of a different
nature ; they are formed of stiff feathers, which require to be
fixed only at the base ; and the hand, consequently, no longer pre-
sents the division into fingers,
which would impair its solidity
without being of any use ; it
has the form of a flattened, and
almost motionless stump. The
conformation of the arm and
fore-arm differs little from that
of the same parts in Man ;
the humerus has no peculiarity;
the radius and ulna cannot
turn on one another, and are
generally longer as the flight
is more powerful. The carpus
is composed of two small bones
placed together, and followed
by the metacarpus, which is
formed of two bones united
at their extremities ; on the
radial side of the base of this
last part, is inserted a rudi-
mentary thumb ; and lastly,
at its extremity is a middle

joint ; a, humerus ; b, radius ; c, metacarpus ; finger composed of two
o, rudimentary thumb ; 1, 2, 3, 4, rudiment- ••

ary phalanges of fingers. langes, and a small D lament

representing the outer finger.

331. The wing feathers are distinguished as primaries,
secondaries, or tertiaries, according as they are supported by the
hand, the fore-arm, or the humerus ; and it is on their length,
more than on that of the wing bones, that the extent of the
wings and the power of flight depend. Whenever the Bird

MECHANISM OF FLIGHT. 369

wishes to strike the air, it raises the humerus, and with it the
wing still folded ; it then unfolds this by extending the fore-arm,
as well as the hand, and suddenly depresses it ; the air, resisting
this movement, furnishes the Bird with a point of support on

which it raises itself; it then
darts forward like a projectile ;
and an impulse being once given
to the body, it slants or folds
back the wing, to diminish as
much as possible the new resist-
c b ance, which the surrounding fluid

Fro. 182,-WiNO OF FALCON. makeg to itg course> This re-

«, primaries ; b, secondaries ; c, tertiaries ; sistance, and gravitation which
d, spurious quills, arising from the thumb. , , , « i j. «„

tends to make all bodies fall

towards the centre of the earth, gradually diminish the speed
which the Bird has acquired by this stroke upon the air ; and
without new movements it will soon fall ; but before the speed
acquired by the first stroke of the wing is lost, the Bird gives a
second, which adds new speed to that which it already had, and
thus proceeds with an accelerated motion. This is, in fact, the
mechanism of flight. While the Bird is thus suspended in the
air, its wings support all the weight of its body ; and to preserve
its equilibrium in this position, its centre of gravity must be
placed nearly beneath its shoulders, and as low as possible ; on
this account, during flight, it generally projects its head forwards
by stretching out its neck ; and its trunk, instead of being
elongated like that of the Mammalia, is short and compact. — It
is evident that the resistance of the air must be greater, in pro-
portion to the mass of that fluid struck at once by the wings ;
and consequently, that the greater the extent of the wings, other
things being equal, the greater will be the speed acquired by
their down-stroke ; — thus Birds with long wings will not only
be able to fly quicker than those with short ones, but also they
will be able to support themselves longer in the air ; for they
will not be obliged to repeat so often the movement of these
organs, and consequently they will be less quickly fatigued. In
fact, all the Birds remarkable for their rapid and sustained flight

370 WINGS OF BIRDS.

have large wings ; whilst those whose wings are short, or of a
medium size in comparison with the size of the body, fly with
much less speed, and are obliged to rest more frequently.

332. Among the Birds remarkable for the speed of their
flight, we may mention the Condor, and the Frigate-Bird
(Fig. 304). The Condor, or great Vulture of the Andes, is
sometimes thirteen feet across the wings ; and rises higher than
any other Bird ; it is seen sometimes on the sea-shore, sometimes
hovering over Chimborazo, that is, at an elevation of nearly
22,000 feet above the first point. Its usual dwelling is on
the ridges of the Cordilleras of the Andes, immediately below
the limit of perpetual snow, at a level of from 10,000 to 15,000
feet above the level of the sea. It is from these pinnacles that
it descends into the valleys and plains to seek its food, which
consists principally of the corpses of large Mammalia ; it is even
said that several together can easily kill oxen, and that they are
strong enough to carry off in their claws Sheep and Llamas, and
thus transport them to the top of Chimborazo, and the other
loftiest mountains of the chain of the Andes. The Frigate-Birds,
whose wings are longer in proportion to their size, and which
dwell on the tropical seas, have so powerful a flight, that they
can venture to a distance of more than 400 leagues from land.

333. To rise vertically in the air, it is necessary that the
wings of the Bird should be entirely horizontal ; but this is not
usually the case ; they are generally inclined from before back-
wards, so as to give the animal an obliquely-ascending movement;
sometimes this inclination is such, that to rise nearly vertically
in the air, the Bird must fly against the wind. The relative
length of the wing-feathers influences the facility with. which it
can rise in calm air ; the Birds whose primaries are the longest
and most resisting at their extremity, have a more oblique flight
than those whose wing is rounded at the end. Thus the Falcons
which have pointed wings, can rise only in a zigzag, like a
tacking vessel, or by flying against the wind ; while Sparrow-
hawks, Eagles, and other Birds of prey termed ignoble, whose
wings are truncated (or abruptly cut short) at their extremity,
can rise vertically (Fig. 182). When the Bird wishes to rise

WINGS AND LEGS OP BIRDS.

371

FIG. 183.— WING OF SPARROW-HAWK

from the earth, it first springs from its feet, spreading its
wings in such a manner
as to be able to strike the
air before falling back on
the ground. Those that
have very long wings,
require more space to de-
press them ; and if, there-
fore, their feet are too
short to allow them to
spring very high, they
find it difficult to raise
themselves at first. The

SwalloWS are examples of a, third primary; 6, ninth primary ; c, second-
,, . aries.

this.

334. The feathers of the tail also are useful to Birds, to
direct them in their flight ; they spread and raise them, or lower
them, like a rudder, to increase or diminish the obliquity of their
upward course : and by inclining them to one side or the other,
they are aided in changing their direction.

335. When the Bird rests on the ground, the posterior
members alone serve to support it ; it is then truly a biped ; and
as such it requires a broad pelvis firmly fixed on the vertebral
column. The iliac (hip) bones are much developed in Birds ;
and form only one piece with the lumbar and sacral vertebrae.
This bony circle is generally incomplete in front ; the pubic
bones not meeting on the central line. The thigh bone is short
and straight ; and the leg is composed, as in most of the
Mammalia, of a tibia, a fibula, and a patella; but the two
first of these are united together towards their lower extremities.
A single bone, which forms a continuation of the leg, represents
the tarsus and metatarsus ; and bears at its inferior extremity
the toes, which are usually to the number of four. They are
never more numerous; but sometimes the external, or the
internal finger, or even both, disappear, so that only three (Fig.
184), or even two remain (Fig. 185). Three of the four toes
are usually directed in front, while the fourth is turned backwards

372

FOOT OF BIRDS.

(Fig. 186) ; sometimes the outer toe also turns back, and an
arrangement which is to be noticed, especially among the

FIG. 184.— FOOT OF BUSTARD.

FIG. 185.— FOOT OF OSTRICH.

FIG. 186.— FOOT OF JER FALCON.

climbers, such as Parroquets, Toucans, Woodpeckers, &c,
(Fig. 187).

FIG. 187. — FOOT OF PARROT.

POSITION OP THE LEGS.

373

336. We have said that, during flight, the centre of gravity
of the body of the Bird ought to be under the shoulders; but in
order that it may retain its equilibrium on its feet, which are
situated behind the trunk, these organs must be capable of
being brought sufficiently forward, and the claws must be
long enough to project beyond the point, where a vertical line
would fall, passing through the centre of gravity ; — or else this
centre must itself be further back, so as to be above the base of
support. This explains the reason of the great curvature of the
thigh, and the obliquity of the tarsus on the leg ; — when the
foot is large, and the neck can be so bent back as to carry back
the head, the equilibrium is thus established without the body
being much removed from the horizontal position (Fig. 188) ;
but when the neck is short, the head large, and the claws of

Fio. 188— IBIS.

Fie. 189. — PENGUIN.

moderate length, the animal is obliged to assume during rest or
walking, a nearly vertical posture (Fig. 189). It is to preserve
their equilibrium more easily, that Birds generally place their
heads under their wings while they sleep perched on a single
foot. In many of these animals, this position is rendered
singularly convenient, by a peculiarity in the construction of the
articulation of the knee. In Man and most other Animals, the
members bend under the weight of the body, as soon as their
extensor muscles cease to contract; and it is the necessity of the

374 CONFORMATION OP THE LEGS.

permanent contraction of these organs, which renders a stationary
position so fatiguing. But in the Stork, and other long-shanked
Birds, it is very different ; the lower extremity of the femur
presents a hollow, in which is imbedded, during the extension
of the limb, a projection of the tibia, which can escape from it
only by a muscular effort; the foot once straightened con-
sequently remains extended, without the animal requiring to
contract the muscles, and without any fatigue arising from it.

337. It is always more difficult to a Bird to take flight,
when it is on the ground, than when it can dart from an elevated
point : we have already seen the reason of this ; and every one
knows that most of these animals perch more frequently than
they settle on the ground. To maintain themselves in equili-
brium on a branch, they must grasp it closely with their claws ;
and if it had been necessary to employ for this a considerable mus-
cular force, such a position would soon have become fatiguing.
But here another very simple mechanism renders all effort
nearly useless, and enables the Bird to grasp the branch which
supports it. even when it sleeps. The flexor muscles of the claws
pass over the articulations of the knee and heel in such a manner,
that when the latter bend, they necessarily press on the tendons
of the muscles, and make them bend the toes ; the weight of the
body, pressing down the thighs and legs, necessarily produces
therefore this movement; and it results from this, that the
animal grasps, without effort, the branch on which it is perched,
and there maintains itself fixed.

338. Great differences exist in the conformation of the legs,
according to the kind of life to which the Birds are destined.
Thus Birds that have the power of walking with great rapidity,
have very long and powerful legs, and the foot comparatively
small ; in the Cassowary and the Ostrich (Fig. 179), whose speed
is as great as that of the horse, this arrangement is very
remarkable; and it is observed also in the Secretary, which
walks rapidly while pursuing the Serpents, that constitute its
principal nourishment. In the Eagle, the Falcon, the Vulture
(Fig. 177)> these members are equally strong but short; and
the claws are armed with large, sharp, hooked talons, by the aid

STRUCTURE OF FOOT. ORGANS OF SENSE. 375

of which these Birds seize their prey, either to tear it to pieces
on the spot, or to carry it away with them. In Birds adapted
to live on the shores of rivers, and to seek by wading the worms
and fish which constitute their food; the feet are slender, of
extreme length, and bare below the knee (Fig. 286), — an
arrangement very favourable to this kind of life, and which has

FIG. 190. — FOOT OF GANNKT.

procured for these birds in France the name of Echassiers (stilt
birds), from Echasse (stilt). Again in the kinds formed for
living on deep water, the feet are palmated, or webbed ; that is,
transformed into a swimming apparatus, by the addition of a
membrane which extends between the claws without preventing
them from separating ; a character which is observable in Ducks,
Swans, and a number of aquatic Birds.

339. The sense of touch is but little developed in Birds ;
the feathers which clothe the whole body oppose great obstacles
to the exercise of this faculty, and the peculiar conformation of
the organs of prehension is equally unfavourable to it. Taste
is more or less obtuse in these animals ; their tongue is generally
cartilaginous, and destitute of nervous papillae ; and they appear
almost always to swallow their food without masticating it.
The organ of smell is more perfect, without presenting, however,
all the high development which is found in the Mammalia.
The nasal fossaa are sunk in the base of the upper mandible,
and do not communicate with sinuses ; their surface is covered
with a very vascular pituitary membrane, and is extended by
three cartilaginous plates (analogous to the spongy bones of
Mammalia, ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 506), turned on themselves and

376 SENSES OF SMELL AND SIGHT.

supported by the sides of the cavity. The posterior nares unite
towards the centre of the palatal arch, so as to form in it a single
longitudinal cleft. Birds of prey, especially those that live on
carrion, have the olfactory organ more developed than granivor-
ous (grain-eating) or insectivorous Birds ; most authors assure us
that among the former, the delicacy of this sense is such, that
it enables them to discover their prey, even when at a con-
siderable distance ; but the experiments of some naturalists seem
to prove, that in these animals smell scarcely exists, and that
they are almost entirely guided by sight. The organs of hearing
are less complicated than in the Mammalia ; the external ear is
generally wanting in Birds ; and the auditory canal consists of
little more than a membranous tube placed between the os
quadratum and a projecting part of the occipital.

340. The organs of sight, on the contrary, appear more
perfect than in the preceding class ; the eyes of Birds are larger
in proportion to the size of the head, and some new parts are
developed. The retina is very thick, and there proceeds from
it a black membrane, folded like a fan, which advances towards
the crystalline lens. Physiologists are not agreed respecting the
nature of this appendage, which is termed the marsupium. It is
regarded by some as a part of the choroid coat; and by others as
a nervous prolongation, intended to increase the extent of the
visual surface. The pupil is always round ; the iris very con-
tracted; the cornea transparent, large and convex; and the
sclerotic strengthened in front by a circle of bony plates lodged
in its thickness. There are two horizontal eyelids, the lower
of which is the largest and most moveable ; and there is also
a third vertical, semi-transparent eyelid, which occupies the
internal angle of the eye, and may be drawn across so as to cover
its whole surface. There are always lachrymal glands. In many
Birds the range of sight is extremely long ; there are some which,
when raised in the air to heights at which, notwithstanding
their size, we can scarcely distinguish them, clearly perceive
small animals on which they feed, and pounce upon them with
an unerring aim. In these the crystalline lens is less convex
and less dense than in the Birds which rise but little from the

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF BIRDS. 377

ground; and it wonld seem that the eye can adapt itself to these
great differences in the reach of its vision, by the contractions of
its motor muscles ; which, acting on the bony circle of the
sclerotic coat, compress the humours with which the eye is filled,
and thus produce distension of the cornea, so as to increase its
curvature, when the animal requires to become, as it were, short-
sighted for a time, to distinguish clearly very near objects.

341. The Nervous System, which influences the functions of
the organs we have just described, presents remarkable pecu-
liarities of structure. The Encephalon is less developed than in
the Mammalia ; the cerebral hemispheres are still the most
voluminous parts of it : but they have no convolutions, and they

are not united in a manner as complete ;
for the great commissure, of which we have
before spoken under the name of corpus cal-
losnm, is wanting in this class. The optic
lobes, which in the Mammalia are small, and
concealed between the cerebrum and the cere-
bellum, here, on the contrary, assume a great
development, and appear uncovered behind
" and externally to the cerebral lobes ; and in-

stead of being solid, they are hollow like the
cerebral lobes. The cerebellum is transversely
a, cerebrum ; z», optic furrowed by parallel and converging lines ; it is
lobes; c, cerebellum; fornied almost entirely by the central lobe,

d, spinal cord. . . •• • IT

which, m the Mammalia, is small in comparison
with the lateral lobes or hemispheres of the cerebellum ; these
remain in an almost rudimentary state, especially in Birdsthat fly
badly. The spinal cord of Birds is generally very long, and
has two enlargements corresponding with the origins of the
nerves of the wings and feet ; in those that fly best, the upper
enlargement is more developed than the lower ; whilst in those
that employ their feet more than their wings, there is an inverse
arrangement.

342. The food of Birds is of various kinds ; some feed
exclusively on Seeds, others on Insects, others on Fish, others
again on the flesh of Mammalia or Birds still living, and some

378 FORM OF THE BILL.

even on putrid carrion. Their feet sometimes serve for the
prehension of their food, but the beak is always the principal
organ employed for this purpose ; its form varies according to
the nature of the food, and according to the more or less
carnivorous regimen of these animals; and hence it furnishes
the zoologist with excellent characters for classification. A solid
horny substance, more or less hard, covers it externally, and
renders its edge sharp ; but it is never armed with true teeth ;
hence mastication is very incomplete, and in general there is none
whatever. In Birds that live on flesh, and require to tear their
prey, — Falcons, Eagles, Vultures, for instance, — the upper man-
dible is very short, very strong, hooked at the extremity, and
terminated by a sharp point; sometimes its edges are more or
less dentated (or toothed),
which makes it a more
powerful weapon ; and we
may judge the habits of
these Birds to be more or
less rapacious, according
to the degree in which it
possesses these characters.
Thus the Falcon is, of all

Birds Of Prey, that whose FlG- 192— BKAK OF JKB FALCON.

beak is the shortest, most curved, dentated, and strong, in
proportion to its size; it is also the most intrepid hunter.
While the Kite, which scarcely differs from the Falcon, except
in having a weaker beak, less hooked, and not dentated on the
edges, as well as less powerful claws, is naturally a coward ;
and the Vulture, whose beak is still more elongated, and con-
sequently weaker, does not even attack living animals, but feeds
on dead bodies. ^Sea Birds, which feed on the flesh of fish too
large to be swallowed at a mouthful, are equally remarkable for
their thick and hooked beak (Fig. 193); but it is more
elongated than in Birds of Prey, and consequently less powerful.
When Birds that feed on Fish, seek only fishes and reptiles
small enough to be seized and swallowed with facility, the beak
becomes straight, is still more elongated, and resembles a long

FORM OP THE BILL.

379

pair of pincers. The Kingfisher (Fig. 194) and Stork are good
examples of this. Birds that live on Insects, Seeds, or Fruits,

FIG. 193. — BEAK OF GULL.

have beaks very dissimilar from these ; the first have generally a
very slender beak, much elongated, and straight or slightly-

FIG. 194 — BEAK OF KINGFISHER.

curved (Fig. 195) ; unless indeed it is during flight that they
capture the small insects on which they feed, for then the beak
is short, very wide, and deeply cleft, — tf,n arrangement which
we see in Swallows, Goatsuckers (Fig. 196), &c.; this permits

FIG. 195. — BILL OF BEE-

EATBR.

FIG. 196.— BILL OF GOAT-
SUCKER.

FIG. 197 BILL OF

SPARROW.

them easily to engulf their prey in their wide throats. Grani-
vorous Birds, on the contrary, have a short thick beak, arched
above, or conical, and generally straight, as in the Sparrow

380

BILL AND TONGUE OF BIRDS.

FIG. 198. — BEAK or HOBNBILL.

(Fig. 197). A still more remarkable modification of this organ
is presented by the Pelicans (Fig. 303), aquatic Birds, that carry
between the two branches of the lower jaw a large and very

extensible pouch of
skin ; in which they
store up the produce
of their fishing, after-
wards disgorging it,
and feeding on it at
their leisure. We
must also remark that
the beaks of some
Birds present singu-
larities of form, the
use of which is not known to us; such, for instance, as the
kind of helmet on the top of the bill of the Cassowary
(Fig. 276) ; and a similar excrescence on the beak of the
Hornbill (Fig. 198).

343. The tongue is sometimes employed in the prehension
of food, as well as in deglutition; and presents remarkable
peculiarities of structure. The Os Hyoides, on which it rests,
is prolonged backwards in the form of two horns, which rise
behind the head, and which give attachment at their extremity
to muscles (m Fig. 199) fixed anteriorly to the lower jaw ;
when these muscles contract, they draw these horns downwards
and forwards, and conse-
quently push the tongue out
of the mouth. This mecha-
nism is particularly curious
in the Woodpeckers, and in
other Birds which dart out
their tongues with rapidity Fio ^^^ OLOTrIS, &c. . ,, tongue ;

On the insects Which COnsti- ^ hyoid bone ; m, muscles ; p, pharynx ; g,

tute their food (Fig. 200). *lottis ; <>*' tr£

This organ also presents important differences in its form.
In Parroquets, which to a certain extent masticate their food,
the tongue is thick and fleshy ; in Birds of Prey it is broad and

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF BIRDS. 381

very soft ; in most granivorous Birds it is dry, triangular, and
beset towards the base with small cartilaginous points ; and in
some insectivorous Birds, its extremity is armed with hooks

Tongue.

FIG. 200. — SKULL OF WOODPECKER.

or is jagged. The salivary glands are placed under the tongue,
and consist of a mass of small rounded follicles ; the saliva is
generally thick ; and sometimes it is quite glutinous.

344. The Pharynx is not separated from the mouth by a
movable partition, as in the Mammalia ; and has no peculiarities.
The (Esophagus (Fig. 201) beginning at the inferior part of the
neck, communicates with the first digestive cavity named the
crop ; the sides of which are membranous. The food remains
for a certain time in this first stomach, whose form and size
vary. It is in the granivorous Birds, that the crop is most
developed ; it is also found in Birds of Prey; but it is wanting
in the Ostrich, and in most Birds that feed on Fish. Below
this part the (Esophagus is again contracted, and presents
further down a second dilatation, called the ventriculus succen-
turiatus, whose internal surface is perforated by a considerable
number of small pores, communicating with follicles that secrete
the gastric juice ; in general, the size of the stomach is small ;
but in Birds deficient in the crop it is larger than usual, and
seems to take the place of it. The ventriculus succenturialus
opens below into a third stomach named the gizzard; in which
the process of chymification is completed. This varies much in
capacity; but it is particularly in the structure of its walls, that
important differences appear. In Birds that feed on flesh only,
the sides of the gizzard are thin and membranous ; but in those
that swallow food, which is harder and more difficult to digest,
it is furnished with strong muscles, intended to compress

382

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OP BIRDS.

and to grind down its contents. This organ is most muscular
in granivorous Birds ; the thickness of its fleshy sides is con-
siderable ; and its inner surface is covered with a sort of almost

(Esophagus.

- Crop.

Ventriculus
succenturiatua

— Liver.

;— Gall-bladder.
Bile-ducts.

Large Intestine-
Ureter

Flo. 201.— DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF FOWL.

cartilaginous epithelium. Its strength is immense ; in the Ostrich
for instance, the hardest bodies have been ground down by its
contractions ; and it evidently takes the place of an apparatus
for mastication.

345. The Intestine, which forms the continuation of this

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OP BIRDS. 383

series of stomachs, is much shorter than in most Mammalia ; but
is composed, as in them, of two portions ; — the small and the
large intestine. The former, after having taken its first bend,
turns in different directions ; the second differs from it but little,
and is not much enlarged ; but it is generally distinguished by
the existence, at the point of their junction, of two tubular
appendages, ending with a " cul-de-sac" which are termed caeca,
(ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 214). These appendages are wanting, or at
least are very small, in most Birds of Prey ; but they are gene-
rally long and large in granivorous and omnivorous Birds.

346. The Liver is very large, and fills a great part of the
chest, as well as of the upper portion of the abdomen, — these
two cavities not being separated, as the Diaphragm is scarcely
developed. This gland is divided into two nearly equal lobes,
and generally gives origin to two hepatic canals, which, after
uniting, terminate in the intestine. There is almost always a
gall-bladder, which receives only a portion of the bile, and sends
it into the intestine by a separate canal. — The Pancreas (sweet-
bread) is lodged in the first bend of the small intestine ; it is
generally long, narrow, and more or less divided. — The Kidneys
are large, and are lodged in hollows excavated in the upper part
of the pelvis ; there is no urinary bladder ; but the ureters ter-
minate, as do also the oviducts, in the dilated extremity of the
rectum, which is termed the cloaca (Fig. 201). The urinary
excretion is almost entirely composed of uric acid, which is
not soluble ; and the amount of water in it is very small.

347. The nutritious products of digestion are conveyed from
the intestine into the general circulation, by the lacteals ; which
by their union form two thoracic ducts ; these open into the
jugular veins on each side of the base of the neck, as in Mamma-
lia (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 266). — The blood of Birds is richer in
red particles than that of the Mammalia ; and these bodies,
instead of being circular, are elliptical in form. There is nothing
peculiar in the manner in which this fluid circulates ; and the
course it takes is the same as in the Mammalia. The blood
passes from the left ventricle of the heart, into the arteries which
distribute it to the several organs of the body ; it returns into

384 CIRCULATING SYSTEM OF BIRDS.

the right auricle, and from thence is carried to the right ventricle,
which sends it to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries ; it
returns again to the heart, enters the left auricle, -and completes
the circulation by passing into the left ventricle, from which it set
out. The heart has the same form, the same structure, the same

.„*• Lingual artery.

Trachea

Sacral artery. Cloaca.

FIG. 202 — ARTERIAL SYSTBM OF BIRD.

position, and the same coverings as in the Mammalia ; the walls
of the left ventricle are extremely thick, and the right ventricle
surrounds it on the right, and below, without prolonging itself to
the point of that organ. The Aorta at its origin divides into

CIRCULATING AND RESPIRATORY APPARATUS.

385

three large branches ; of which the two first subdivide into the
trunks that convey the blood to the head (the carotid arteries),
to the wings (the sulclavian), and to the muscles of the chest
(the mammary ^ which are of large size in Birds, on account of
the great development of those muscles, whose office is to draw
down the wings) ; whilst the third curves downwards around
the right bronchus, and constitutes the descending aorta. There
are some peculiarities in the mode of distribution of the arteries ;
but they are not important, and it is only to be remarked, that
in different points of the body they constitute remarkable plexuses,
by frequently anastomosing together. — The venous system ter-
minates in three large trunks ; one of which is analogous to the
Vena Cava of the Mammalia; and the two other nearly corre-
spond with the two subclavian veins, which do not unite to form
a common trunk (or superior vena cava), as in these last
animals.

348. The apparatus of Respiration presents more remarkable
peculiarities than that of circulation. The lungs, as we have

Trachea

Pulmonary vessels

Lun
Bronchial orifices.

— -Bronchial tube
opened.

Bronchial tube
opened.

TIG. 203.— LUNGS OF BIRDS.

already said, communicate with large cells hollowed in the cellu-
lar tissue, and thus transmit the air into all parts of the body
(Fig. 203) ; so that the respiration may be regarded as double,

386

RESPIRATION OP BIRDS.

— the venous blood coming in [contact with the oxygen, when

passing through the capillary vessels of the general system, as

well as when it passes through the pulmonary capillaries. — The

lungs are not divided into lobes as in the Mammalia, and are far

from filling the thorax; they adhere to the ribs; and they

present at their inferior surface many openings, belonging to the

bronchial tubes, which traverse them in different directions, and

carry the air into the air-cells distributed among the different

organs of the animal. These cavities are formed by membranous

partitions, or by laminae of cellular tissue, and communicate with

one another ; some are found in

the trunk, of very considerable

size; and others are prolonged

towards the head, and between

the muscles of the limbs ; the air

thus finds its way into every part

of the body, and generally also

into the substance of the bones.

An examination of the air-cells

in different Birds, shows that the

quantity of air thus distributed

into the different parts of the

body, varies, other things being

equal, in proportion to the energy

and continuity of the movements

of the animal; thus in Eagles,

Sparro wha Wks, and Other Birds Of d> the trachea ; e, the lungs ; ///, air-cells,
~ r i .a- i_j. J.1-* a '3 in which are also seen the tubes by which

powerful flight, this fluid pene- these air-c^lls communicate with the

trates into all the bones; while lungs*

in those which are destitute of the power of flight, and which
walk but slowly, as Penguins, &c., it is excluded from the
greater part, or even from the whole of the skeleton. The air
is generally in greatest abundance in the bones of the limbs
most employed in locomotion ; thus in the Ostrich, the femur
(thigh-bone) presents a remarkable development of the air-cells.
349. Birds have a more constantly-active respiration than
any other animals ; they consume more oxygen in proportion,

INCUBATION OP BIRDS. 387

and have least power of resisting the effects of the privation of
it. They produce therefore greater heat; the temperature of
their bodies rises to 108° or even to 112° ; and the feathers with
which they are covered are very useful in preventing the loss of
heat from their bodies, when they rise to great heights in the
air, or when they are partly or wholly immersed in water. — As
in the Mammalia, the organ of voice depends for its action on
the respiratory apparatus ; but the sound is produced at the
bottom, and not at the top, of the trachea. As its peculiar
structure has been elsewhere described (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 685),
it is not requisite to dwell upon it here.

350. Birds are oviparous, and do not possess, like the ani-
mals of the preceding class, mammary glands to suckle their
young. The duration of the incubation (or of the time which
the young Bird takes to develop itself in the interior) varies in
different species, but is nearly constant in each ; in the Humming-
bird, the smallest animal of this class, it is only twelve days ;
in Canaries, in a domesticated state, it is from fifteen to eighteen
days ; twenty-one days for Fowls ; twenty-five for Ducks ; and
from forty to forty-five for Swans. A certain degree of heat is
necessary for this operation ; that of the sun is sufficient to
hatch the eggs of some Birds inhabiting countries between the
tropics ; but generally it is quite otherwise ; and to keep up in
the eggs a suitable temperature, the mother covers them with her
body, and places them in a bed adapted to shelter them. Some
Birds are satisfied with making for this purpose, a rounded
cavity in the earth or sand; but most display, in the con-
struction of this kind of cradle, an admirable skill and art ; and
a point not less remarkable, is the regularity with which suc-
cessive generations execute the same labours, and build their
nests in exactly the same mode, even when the circumstances in
which they have been placed have not permitted them to see any
others or to take lessons from their parents. They are guided
by an admirable instinct, which leads them to take a number of
precautions, of whose utility they have no previous knowledge
derived from experience. The sides of the nest are usually
formed of small flexible twigs, sometimes cemented with earth
which has been tempered with the gummy saliva of the animal ;

388 NURTURE OP THEIR YOUNG.

but their form and arrangement vary considerably, as we have
elsewhere seen (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 704.) Nearly all Birds line
their nests with soft substances, which they collect with care, or
even with a thick and soft down, which they tear from their own
breasts. The warm and light substance employed in domestic
economy under the name of eider-down, comes from a kind of
duck named Eider (Fig. 293) ; which inhabits the isles of the
Arctic seas, and which thus strips itself to line its nest with the
down torn from its breast.

35 1 . Birds lay their eggs generally once, sometimes twice, a
year; in a state of domesticity their fecundity becomes greater.
The number of eggs is greater in small species than in large
ones ; Eagles lay only two or three at each season; Tomtits and
Wrens from fifteen to twenty. The constancy with which Birds
sit on their eggs is admirable ; sometimes the two parents divide
this labour between them ; in other cases the male is satisfied
with providing for the wants of the female, while she is sitting ;
and in other species, the whole charge of the incubation rests on
the mother alone. In general it is only with reluctance, and
when urged by hunger, that she quits her offspring for a few
minutes ; and when her young ones are hatched, her maternal
affection leads her to lavish on them the most tender cares ;
she covers them with her wings to protect them from the cold,
and brings themrcarefully-selected food, which she often disgorges
into their throats, after having half-digested it, to render it
more suitable to their tender stomachs. She guides their first
steps ; teaches them to use their wings ; and when danger
threatens, shows in saving them as much courage as devoted-
ness, we may almost say intelligence. There are however some
Birds, that lay their eggs in nests which do not belong to them,
in order to have them hatched by strange nurses : such as the
Cuckoo, which lays its eggs in the nests of Linnets, Yellow-
hammers, Blackbirds, or any other insectivorous Birds, accustomed
to feed their young with what would be suitable for the young
Cuckoos ; and (which is a remarkable circumstance) the foster-
mother becomes a tender and indefatigable parent to these
intruders, although they deprive her of her own offspring. Some
naturalists assert that the old Cuckoos take care to destroy the

INSTINCT OF THE CUCKOO. MIGRATION. 389

eggs, which they find in the nest where they place their own ;
but other observers state that the young Cuckoo itself throws
them out of the nest, or drives them away immediately after
their birth. The illustrious Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination,
tells us that he has often seen the contrivance, by which this
little intruder gets rid of its feeble companions ; the young
Cuckoo slides under one of the little Birds whose nest it shares,
places it on his back, where he holds it by the help of his
wings, goes backward to the edge of the nest, and throws it over ;
then he recommences the same manoeuvres with a second, and so
on, until he has made himself master of the dwelling. We do
not know what it is, that leads Cuckoos thus to abandon to other
Birds the cares of incubation. They often remain in pairs near
the place where the young ones have been deposited ; and these,
when strong enough to fly, quit their foster-parents, and rejoin
their natural ones, which now undertake the care of completing
their education.

352. The instinct which leads Birds to sit on their eggs, is
generally one of the greatest power ; yet this impulse, which in
some respects is a blind one, is capable of being modified by
external circumstances. Thus, Ostriches sit on their eggs, when
they inhabit temperate climates ; but leave the incubation to the
heat of the sun, when they live in the torrid zone. It would
appear also, that several of these large Birds often collect their
eggs into the same hole ; and take it in turns to sit on them.

353. The care which Birds bestow on their young, is a
subject of observation full of interest ; but it is a more singular,
and consequently more remarkable instinct, which leads certain
kinds to change their climate according to the season, and to
make, at fixed periods of the year, journeys more or less distant.
Some kinds migrate in order to avoid the cold, or to seek a less
elevated temperature, and go to the south or to the north, to lay,
or to pass the period of moulting ; others change their country to
procure more easily the means of subsistence, as happens with most
insectivorous Birds ; but there are some Birds which take regular
journeys, without being influenced by any obvious cause, and
without their change of place appearing to produce any appre-
ciable change in their condition. "Whatever may be the circum-

390 MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS.

stance, which renders the periodical migration of Birds useful to
themselves or to their offspring, it is very evident that it is not
this, which is usually the cause that immediately produces the
change. Migrating Birds seem to experience, at certain periods
of the year, a necessity for changing their place ; as they expe-
rience at other times a desire of constructing nests, without being
led to it by any intellectual Calculation, or by the anticipation of
the advantages which they will derive from it. It is a blind
instinct which guides them; and which sometimes developes
itself independently of everything, which would at the time
influence the well-being of the animal. Thus in experiments
made on some Birds of Passage, this need of change has shown
itself strongly at the usual time, though care has been taken to
maintain, around them a constant temperature, and to give them
proper food; individuals having been selected for the experiment,
that had not yet formed the habit of migrating. When they
change their climate, they do not wait until the cold is become
insupportable to them, and are not gradually driven towards the
south by the approach of winter ; but they precede it, and go
almost at once into tropical climates. They frequently return in
spring, when the temperature is much below what it was at
their departure ; and in certain kinds the migrations do not corre-
spond with any distinguishable external circumstance. This
phenomenon is therefore inexplicable ; but in this it does not
differ from all those determined by instinct ; and as we advance
in the study of animals, we shall meet with many examples not
less interesting and incomprehensible.

354. But because migrations depend on an instinctive and
blind impulse, we must not conclude that external circumstances
are without influence in developing in these Birds of Passage the
need they feel of change of place : it is remarked on the contrary,
that this phenomenon generally coincides with atmospheric varia-
tions ; and that the time of arrival or departure is often hastened
or delayed, according to the cessation or continuance of the
cold.

355. The time at which Birds of Passage arrive in our country,
or quit it, varies according to the species. Natives of the
northern countries of Europe come to us at the end of autumn

MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS. 391

or the beginning of winter ; and in the first fine weather, avoid-
ing our heat, as they had done excess of cold, they return to lay
their eggs in the north. Other Birds, which are born in our
own country, and wjiich may be considered as properly belonging
to it, quit us in autumn ; and after passing the winter in warm
climates, they revisit us in the spring, or perhaps, avoiding the
moderate warmth of our summer, they emigrate to Arctic regions.
Others again, natives of southern climates, come to the north to
escape from the ardour of a summer's sun ; and arrive in the
midst of our own fine weather. There are also some which
never remain in temperate countries, but merely pass through
them in their annual migrations. The time of the arrival and
departure of these travellers, is generally fixed definitely for
each species ; and experience teaches us that, in certain localities,
sportsmen may depend on the arrival of such and such Birds at
a given time, as certainly as on rent which is due on a regular
day. Age causes however some difference ; the young seldom
set out till after the old Birds ; this seems to arise from the
circumstance, that moulting taking place in them at a later
period; so that they are not sufficiently recovered from the
malady which attends this phenomenon, to endure the fatigues
of such a journey, at the time when the old Birds are ready to
undertake it.

356. Another fact not less curious in the history of Birds, is
the power by which they direct their course in unknown
countries, and distinguish, at immense distances, the direct
course to their nests. Carrier Pigeons afford a remarkable
example of this sense or instinct, quite incomprehensible to Man :
Swallows furnish another instance. These little Birds make
very long journeys at the time of migration ; and yet, by a
singular instinct, they know in the following spring how to find
again the places where they had formerly established themselves,
and always return to them. This fact has been ascertained, by
attaching to the feet of several Swallows small silken threads,
to establish their identity. They build their first nest near that
in which they were born ; the Chimney-Swallow makes its nest
every year above that of the preceding year ; and the House-
Swallow establishes itself in that which it had quitted the autumn

392 MIGRATIONS.- — SOCIABILITY. GENERAL HABITS.

before. Spallanzani, a celebrated Italian physiologist of the last
century, saw the same couples return to their old nests, almost
without taking the trouble to repair them, for eighteen years
consecutively. Swallows show, on other occasions also, a singular
power of directing themselves towards a particular place, from
which they are at a considerable distance. If a hen that is sitting
is carried to a distance, shut up in a cage, and her liberty is then
given her, she first rises to a considerable height, as if to recon-
noitre the country, and then flies in a straight line to the spot
where she has left her brood. Spallanzani repeated this experi-
ment successfully on several occasions ; and saw a couple of
River-Swallows that he had carried to Milan, return in thirteen
minutes to their young ones left at Pavia.

357. The instinct of sociability is also much developed in
certain Birds ; we have elsewhere had occasion to speak of the
manner in which several of these animals unite in the construction
of their habitations ( ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 710) ; and we shall bring
together, in the later portion of this work, some facts yet more
remarkable, in regard to the association of Birds for particular
purposes ; but we must at present be content with observing,
that this instinct is scarcely ever developed, except in species
living on insects or vegetable substances ; and that Birds of Prey
live almost always solitary, or united only in pairs.

358. Birds, as well as Mammalia, vary in the manner of
procuring their food ; most seek it only by day ; but some are
nocturnal or crepuscular (flying only by twilight) ; and it is
worthy of remark, that they have generally dark colours and
downy plumage, so that their wings strike the air without
noise ; as if the Creator, in his infinite providence, had wished
to favour these Birds in their nocturnal pursuit of food. The
several species of the families of Owls, Goatsuckers, &c., present
examples of this coincidence, between the habits of the Bird,
and the nature of the plumage.

359. The number of species of Birds known to naturalists is
about five thousand ; and, as the organisation of these animals
presents great uniformity, the classification of them offers con-
siderable difficulties. The characters employed to divide them
into orders, families, and genera, are furnished principally by

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

393

the conformation of the beak and feet ; organs whose structure
corresponds with the diet of the animal. Cuvier, whose method
we here follow with little variation, thus divides them into six
orders ; the RAPTORES, or Birds of Prey ; the INSESSORES, or
Perching Birds ; the SCANSORES, or Climbers ; the RASORES,
or Scratching Birds ; the GRALLATORES, or Waders ; and the
]NATATORES, or Swimmers. To these we shall add the order
CURSORES, or Running Birds, consisting of the Ostrich and
its allies ; which are included by Cuvier among the Waders, but
which differ considerably from them.

I. The RAPTORES, or Birds of Prey, are recognised by the
strength of their claws and bill ; the upper mandible is powerful,
bent at the end, and terminates in a sharp point suitable for
tearing the flesh of the animals they feed on (Fig. 192) ; and the
toes, equally vigorous, are furnished with strong hooked talons,
by which tney seize their prey (Fig. 186). The general con-
formation of the body indicates considerable strength ; and their
appearance denotes a ferocious character. Some are diurnal, and
are distinguished by their dense plumage, and by the lateral
direction of their eyes; such are the Vultures, the Griffins, the
Falcons, the Eagles, the Sparrow-hawks, the Hawks, the Buz-
zards, &c. Others are nocturnal, and constitute the family of
Owls ; characterised by their loose plumage, and by the anterior
direction of their eyes.

II. The INSESSORES, or Perchers, have weak, slender feet,

formed in the ordi-
nary manner; that
is, neither palmated,
nor armed with
strong hooked talons,
nor elongated into
stilts, and having
only one toe di-
rected backwards.
(Fig. 205.) Their
beak is weak,
straight, and with little or no curvature (Fig. 206) ; their

FIG. 205. — FOOT OF SONG-THRUSH AND GOLDEN-
CRESTED WREN.

394 CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

wings are of moderate size, and they have generally light and

slender forms. Some are

insectivorous, others gra-

nivorous, others again

are omnivorous ; in this

order are classed all Sing- /

ing Birds, and most Birds FlG- 206 -BFLLS OF NUTHATCH AND KINGLET.

of Passage. The number of INSESSORES is immense ; we may
cite as samples, Magpies, Blackbirds, Linnets, Swallows, Goat-
suckers, Larks, Sparrows, Crows, Birds of Paradise, Humming
Birds, "Wrens, King-fishers, Hornbills, &c.

III. The SCANSORES, or Climbers, are Birds which, with the
general organisation of the Perchers, have two toes behind and
two before (Fig. 187) ; an arrangement which enables them
better to clasp the trunk and branches of trees on which they
climb in all directions, sometimes employing even their beak to
facilitate their movements. Among these we may class the
Toucans, remarkable for their enormous beak, Parroquets,
Cuckoos, and Woodpeckers.

IV. The RASORES, or Gallinaceous Birds, have a beak of
moderate size, arched above, and calculated for a granivorous
diet only ; the wings are short, the body heavy, the feet of
ordinary structure, and the toes weak, but generally united at
their base by a small fold of skin. Most of these Birds fly badly,
do not perch on trees, and seek their food on the ground. This
order is composed of two distinct families ; Pigeons, — and the
Gallinaceae properly so called, comprising the Fowl, Pheasant,
Quail, Partridge, Heathcock, &c.

V. The CURSORES, or Runners, are distinguished by the
absence of wings ; and by the conformation of their legs and
feet, which enables them to run with rapidity on dry ground.
Their legs are usually long, and bare at their lower part, as in
the next order ; but their feet are not in any degree webbed.
They are mostly large Birds ; but the number of known species
is very small. The Ostrich, Cassowary, and Emu are examples
of this order.

VI. The GRALLATORES, or Waders, are recognised by their

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 395

very long shanks, and by the nakedness of their legs towards the
bottom — an arrangement which makes them look as if mounted
on stilts ; and which is very favourable both to their rapidity
in running, and to their fording deep waters ; their toes are
long, and are in general slightly webbed (Fig. 207) ; their

figure is usually slender ; and
the length of their neck is
such, that however high they
rise on their legs, they can,
without stooping, pick up
their food from the ground.
Some feed on vegetables,
others on aquatic Reptiles,
Mollusks, small Fish, &c.

Among these are classed river and shore birds, such as Herons,
Cranes, Storks, Bitterns, Woodcocks, Ibises, Avocets, Fla-
mingoes, &c.

VII. The NATATORES, palmated, or Swimming Birds, are
characterised by having their legs, which are of moderate
length, terminated by broad swimming paddles. These oars are
formed by the connection of the toes by a fold of the skin
(Fig. 190) ; and are generally placed very far back ; which
arrangement renders swimming easy, but walking difficult. We
may mention as examples of this group, the Auks and the Pen-
guins, whose wings are so short as to render them useless for
flight; the Petrels, Albatrosses, Gulls, and Sea-Swallows, which
have, on the contrary, long wings, and a powerful flight ; and the
Pelicans, Frigates, and Gannets, which are as well organised for
flight as the preceding, and which are remarkable for a more
complete palmation of the feet ; also, Swans, Geese, and Ducks,
whose beak is covered with a soft skin, instead of being protected
with horn.

360. Of these orders, that of INSESSORES is probably to be
regarded as typical of the class ; since it presents, in the highest
degree, all those characters by which the whole group is distin-
guished,— swiftness of flight, beauty of plumage, powers of song,
the small or moderate size of the body, and the high development

D D 2

396 ORDER RAPTORES ; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

of those instinctive propensities, which manifest themselves in the
construction of their nests, and in their migrations. It is usual,
however, to commence with the order RAPTORES ; as being the
one that contains the most powerful species of the class.

ORDER I.— RAPTORES.

361. The Birds of Prey are for the most part easily distin-
guished from all others, by their strong, curved, sharp-edged, and
sharp-pointed bills : of which the upper mandible is longer than
the lower, so as to form a sort of pointed hook, which is very
serviceable in tearing their prey ; whilst its edge is notched, so as
to form a kind of projecting tooth on either side. We shall
presently find that the degree in which these characters exist in
the several families of the order, corresponds closely with the
rapacity of their habits. The body is large and muscular ; sur-
passing in its dimensions that of nearly all other Birds. It is
supported upon robust legs, which are generally short (the
species which have long legs being aberrant forms of the order) ;
and the feet possess four strong toes, one of them directed back-
wards, which are all armed with long and crooked talons. Their
wings are usually large, and their flight prompt, rapid, and
powerful ; but in this respect there are considerable variations,
according to the habits of the several species, and the food on
which they are destined to exist. Thus, the true Falcons will
only devour (except in a domesticated state, or when hard-
pressed by hunger) the flesh t>f other Birds which they have
struck down on the wing ; and their whole conformation is
adapted for rapid and energetic flight. The Eagles also are des-
tined to feed upon the flesh of animals recently killed ; but they
will descend to the earth to obtain it, and often carry off the
bodies of Mammalia of considerable bulk ; their flight is not so
rapid as that of the Falcons, but it is very powerful, in order
that they may sustain great weights whilst on the wing. The
Vultures, on the other hand, gorge themselves on carrion ; their

ORDER RAPTORES; — GENERAL CHARACTERS. 397

office being to remove the decomposing flesh of the larger animals,
which would otherwise poison the atmosphere around. They do
not usually attempt to carry away these masses to their nests,
but content themselves with devouring as much as their stomachs
(which are very capacious) will hold; and they consequently
require neither the same swiftness nor power of flight, that the
Falcons and Eagles possess. Lastly, the Owls, which are noc-
turnal Birds of Prey, obtain their food rather by the stealthiness
with which they approach it, than by the vigour with which
they attack it; and as it consists of small animals, they do not
require any considerable power of flight in order to carry it off.
The peculiar nature of their plumage is in manifest accordance
with these habits ; for the loose downy character of their wing-
feathers imparts to their flight an extraordinary noiselessness ;
whilst it prevents them from striking the air with any force.

362. It is impossible not to recognise the obvious analogies
between the different groups of Carnivorous Mammalia, and
those of the Predacious Birds. The bold and powerful Eagles
obviously resemble the Lion and the other large Felines ; the
smaller and yet more active and sanguinary Falcons correspond
with the smaller Felines, and with the Mustelidae ; the cowardly
carrion-feeding Vultures resemble the Hysena and Wild Dog ;
whilst the Owls may be likened to the nocturnal Viverridae.
We shall also find that there are certain species, which are aquatic
in their habits ; and which are parallel, therefore, to the Otters
and Seals.

363. The RAPTORES always associate in pairs ; and it appears
that the same males and females live together during their whole
lives, — instead of pairing afresh every season, which is the case
with many Birds of other orders. It is remarkable that, in a
large proportion of this order, the female is larger than the
male ; but the general rule holds good here as elsewhere, that
her plumage is less vivid in its colours. The Birds of prey are
seldom remarkable, however, for the brilliancy of their aspect ;
their feathers being generally of a brownish hue, more or less
varied with white. They are completely destitute of the power
of song ; a hoarse cry, or call-note, being all the sound that they

398 ORDER RAPTORES ; DIVISION INTO FAMILIES.

utter. They build their nests in lofty situations, such as the
ledges of rocks, the tops of high trees, &c. ; and construct them
without any great art. They seldom lay more than four eggs ;
— frequently only two or three ; and the young come forth in
a blind and feeble state, requiring the assistance of the parent
for some time. In this respect, there is another analogy between
the Birds of Prey and the Carnivorous Mammalia ; the young of
which last also come into the world in a blind and weak condi-
tion, and are long dependent upon their parents for their nourish-
ment. The task of supporting the young Birds of Prey chiefly
devolves upon the female ; and it is probably on this account
that she is larger and more powerful than the male.

364. The order may be divided into four families, as follows.
I. FALCONID.E, the Falcons, Eagles, and Hawks, in which the
head, neck, and tarsi (or shanks) are covered with feathers ; the
bill short, very strong, and hooked at its point, and the upper
mandible more or less toothed ; and the talons very acute and
strongly curved. In this family, therefore, are most strongly
displayed the characters which mark the order ; and it is
obviously to be regarded as the typical group. — II. VULTURIDJE,
the Vultures, in which the bill is longer, straight at the base,
and slightly or not at all toothed ; and in which the head, neck,
and tarsi are bare of feathers. — III. The GYPOGERANIDJE,
including only a single species, the Secretary, which is allied to
both the Eagles and Falcons, but differs from both in the extra-
ordinary length of its tarsi, in which it resembles the "Waders.
— The preceding family, which all agree in the lateral direction
of their eyes, constitute the division of the Diurnal Birds of
Prey; the Nocturnal division, in which the eyes are directed
forwards, consists but of one family; — IV. The STRIGID^E, or
Owl tribe, which is characterised by the downiness of the
plumage ; the comparative weakness of the beak, and the
absence of teeth in the upper mandible ; and by the compara-
tive slenderness of the claws, of which the outer one can in
general be reversed, so as to bring two against two, and thus
to give a firmer grasp.

365. Among the family FALCONID^E, we shall first notice

FAMILY FALCONIDJE ; FALCONS.

399

the true Falcons, which are the most bold and daring, in propor-
tion to their size, of all the Birds of Prey. They are peculiarly
symmetrical in their forms; and their flight is graceful as well as
vigorous. Their wings are exceedingly firm in their texture, so
as to oppose the most complete re-
sistance to the air ; the keel of their
sternum is extremely prominent,
indicating the large size of the pec-
toral muscles ; and the furcula, as
well as the coracoid bones, by which
the shoulders are rendered firm, are
very strong. None of the bones are
very long ; and those of the legs,
which are not much used for walking,
are rather short : but they are firm
and well-proportioned ; and the pro-
cesses towards their extremities,
whether for giving firmness to the
joints, insertion to the muscles, or
lever-power to the tendons, are very
conspicuous. The bones of the trunk
are very firmly knit together ; whilst
those of the neck and limbs are so
united, as to give to these parts great
flexibility, in combination with
strength. The sight of the Falcons
is very acute ; enabling them to dis-

FIG. 208.— SKELETON OF JER FALCON, cern their prey at great distances,
and to pounce down upon it with

unerring certainty. The wings are pointed, — the primary
feathers extending far beyond the secondaries ; the two first
quills are the longest (the second feather extending somewhat
further than the first), and the others are gradually shortened.
These pointed wings are not so good for straightforward flight in
perfectly still air, as wings which are broader ; and therefore,
when there is no wind, and the Falcon is desiring to move
steadily onwards, its flight is rather in ascending and descending

400 FAMILY FALCONID^E j — PEREGRINE FALCON.

curves, than in a straight line. The same may be observed in
the Swallow tribe, and in other birds with pointed wings. But
the form and position of the wings adapt these birds to wheel
about with great facility; and to gain a lofty elevation with
great rapidity, by flying against the wind. The attainment of
this elevation is the great object of the Falcon in the pursuit of
its prey ; and when it cannot succeed in coming\ip with the Bird
it is chasing by simple onward flight, it always turns towards
the wind, and is then seen to ascend almost perpendicularly.
This is on the principle of the composition of forces, which has
been elsewhere explained (MECHAN. PHILOS., § 161) ; and which
is the same that raises the common paper kite, and keeps it
suspended in the air. For the position of the wings being
oblique, and the direction of the wind horizontal, the resulting
motion is vertical. When the requisite elevation has been
attained, the Falcon poises itself for a few seconds, and then
stoops, or darts downwards with great velocity, striking its prey
with its talons.

366. One of the most beautiful and powerful species of the true
Falcons, is the Peregrine Falcon, which inhabits all the temperate
and colder parts of Europe, ranging from Iceland to the islands of
the Mediterranean ; frequenting high and rocky mountains, and
building its nest on the face of precipitous cliffs. It is an
extremely elegant bird ; the length of the female is about 16 or
17 inches ; and the extent of the wings somewhat more than
3 feet. It is met with on several parts of our own coasts, as
well as in the mountainous parts of Britain ; but it is rarely seen
in level districts, and never in the neighbourhood of marshy land.
The insulated rock on which Dumbarton Castle stands, has been
particularly noticed as a breeding-place of this species. It is an
extremely courageous Bird, and attacks other Birds of much larger
size. It will sometimes attack the Kite ; not, however, to destroy
it, but to compel it to yield up its prey. The Gallinaceous Birds,
such as Partridges, Pheasants, Quails, &c., furnish the chief
supplies of food to the Peregrine Falcon ; and from their heavy
flight, they become an easy prey to it. But it will also give
chase to Ducks, Pigeons, Snipes, and other Birds of much

PEREGRINE FALCON.

401

greater power of wing ; and will continue in pursuit of them

for many miles. Its forward flight is estimated to be usually

at the rate of about

60 miles an hour ;

but its ritsh or stoop

is probably at least

twice as rapid as

this. An instance

is on record, in which

a Falcon traversed

the distance between

Fontainebleau and

Malta, not less than

1350 miles, in

twenty-four hours ;

in this case, sup-
posing it to have

been on the wing

the whole time, its

rate of flight must

have been nearly 60 miles an hour; but, as Falcons do
not fly by night, it was probably not more than 16 or
18 hours on the wing, and its rate must have therefore been
70 or 80 miles an hour. — Of all the prey at which the
Peregrine flies, the Heron appears the most difficult for it to
master. This arises, in great measure, from the height at
which the Heron flies ; which renders it very difficult for the
Falcon to rise above him, or " get the sky of him ; n so that,
as Falcons can do little or nothing to a Bird above them, the
Heron is in perfect safety, as long as he can keep uppermost.
Moreover, the Heron can ascend as rapidly with the wind, as
the Falcon can do against it ; and thus, during his ascent, he
increases his distance from his enemy. Even when the Falcon
does get uppermost, its victory over the Heron is not so certain
as over most other Birds ; for the Heron can so turn its neck,
as to cause its long bayonet-like bill to project upwards behind
the wing, at the same time that its flight is continued ; so that,

FIG. 209. — PEREGRINE FALCON.

402 FAMILY FALCONID.E ; — JER FALCON, &C.

when the Falcon darts downwards, it runs the risk of being
impaled upon this formidable weapon. The difficulty which
the Falcon has in mastering the Heron, made the hawking of
that Bird a very choice, and even a royal sport ; and in the
days when Falcons were domesticated for this purpose, Herons
also were preserved, as other kinds of game are now.

367. There are numerous other species of Falcon, of which
the Jer Falcon is the largest. Of this fine Bird, the male
measures about 22 inches in length, and about four feet across
the extended wings ; and the female is larger. In several points
of its structure and habits, it resembles the Eagles. It is a
native of the extreme north of Europe, and of some parts of
Asia ; and Iceland appears to be its head-quarters. It is some-
times seen on the coast of North Britain ; but it is not certainly
known to breed there. — The Hobby, Lanner, and Merlin, are
smaller than the Peregrine Falcon ; and the last is particularly
distinguished by its elegance of form and plumage, its swiftness
on the wing, its courage in attack, and its easy domesticability ;
qualities which, in the days of Falconry, gained it especial
repute as a lady's hawk. — The Kestrel is another Falcon, having
somewhat the habits of a Kite ; it chiefly preys on Field-mice,
which it discerns whilst hovering stationary at a moderate
height, with the head turned against the wind.

368. The true Falcons were formerly designated as noble
Birds of Prey, on account of their use in the noble sport of
Falconry ; the remainder of the family, consisting of Birds which
cannot be trained to such employments, received the name of
ignoble Birds. The Ignoble Birds of Prey are distinguished
from the Falcon tribe by the form of their wings and bill.
Their longest quill-feather is always the fourth, the first being
very short ; so that the wing looks as if its tip had been
obliquely cut off. Hence their powers of flight are inferior.
Their beak, again, is not so well armed ; for instead of having a
sharp tooth near its point on either side, there is only a wavy
edge, or festoon about the middle of its length. The bill is
generally longer, also, and consequently less powerful ; and
instead of being curved from its commencement, as in the

FAMILY FALCONID.E ; — EAGLES.

403

Falcons, it is generally straight for a greater or less distance
from its base (the part where it is attached to the skull).
Although the Falcons are the strongest and most courageous of
the whole order, in proportion to their size, yet it is in this
division of the FALCONID^E that we find the largest and most
powerful species.

369. The Eagles, which are distinguished by the feathering
of the tarsi down to the very base of the claws, are pre-eminent
in this division of the family,
for size and boldness. The
species represented in Fig.
210, is an inhabitant of our
own country ; it is now re-
stricted to the mountainous
parts of the North of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland ;
but it is more abundant on
the Continent of Europe,
where it does not confine
itself to the mountainous
districts, but, in level coun-
tries, frequents extensive
forests. It is also found in
Asia ; and it inhabits North
America, from the temperate
to the arctic regions; — so
that it is among the most
widely-spread of all species of Birds. It is everywhere regarded
as an emblem of might and courage. In ancient times, it was
deemed worthy to be regarded as the companion of the gods,
the constant associate of Jupiter himself; and it is still regarded
as the "King of Birds," holding that rank amongst the feathered
creation, which is assigned to the Lion among Beasts. This dis-
tinction has probably been conferred upon it, not merely on
account of its size, strength, and courage; but also from its
habit of soaring to a great height in the sky, and of its frequent-
ing localities which have a great deal of wild grajideur and rude

FIG. 210. — GOLDEN EAGLE.

404 FAMILY FALCONID^E; — EAGLE.

sublimity about them. The Eagle does not rise in the air so
much for the purpose of pursuing its prey on the wing, as that
it may be enabled to take an extensive survey of the country
beneath ; for its food does not consist so much of Birds that pass
most of their time in flight, as of those that live on or near the
ground, and of such Mammalia as it can vanquish. Thus in
one eyrie (or Eagle's nest) in Germany, were found the skeletons
of three hundred ducks, and forty hares ; but these were in all
probability the relics of such prey only, as it could carry to its
nest ; the carcases of such animals as sheep, fawns, roe-bucks,
&c., which were too large to be carried away entire, being torn
up and stripped of their flesh, and the skeletons left behind.
The astonishingly acute sight of the Eagle enables it to discern
its prey at an immense distance ; and, having perceived it, the
Eagle darts down upon it with a swoop or rush, like that of the
Falcon, and more terrific as its size and weight are greater. The
stroke of the foot is sufficient, not merely to dash the animal 'to
the ground, but to dislocate the spine, or fracture the skull, of
the smaller Quadrupeds and of those Birds which form the
largest portion of their prey. The length of the male Golden
Eagle is about three feet, and the expanse of its wings about
eight feet. The female is about six inches longer; and the
spread of her wings about twelve inches greater. This bird is
known to live to a great age ; one that died in confinement at
Vienna was 104 years old ; and, if tradition may be believed,
the age of the Eagle in its natural haunts often far surpasses this.
In this species, as in all the FALCONID^, the young have a plu-
mage very distinct from that of either of the parent Birds,
whose characters they assume about the third year. Hence it
has happened, as in many other instances (§ 18), that the
young have been described as belonging to a species distinct
from the parent. The nest is composed of sticks, twigs, rushes,
heath, &c. ; and is generally placed upon the jutting ledge of
some inaccessible precipice ; or, in forests, near the summit of a
lofty tree. The young are generally two, sometimes three, in
number. Notwithstanding the reputation of the Eagle as
a Bird of fierce, unreclaimable disposition, it is by no means

EAGLES ; ERNES. 405

uninfluenced by kind treatment ; and, if taken young and duly
fed, it may be gradually brought to familiarity, and even playful-
ness. Either this, or an allied species — the Imperial Eagle — is
employed by the Tartars in the chase of Antelopes, Wolves,
Foxes, Hares, &c.

370. There are numerous other species of Eagle, in different
parts of the world ; varying considerably in size, and also in
habits. Many of them frequent the sea-shore, rather than the
inland heights ; and feed upon Fish as well as upon aquatic Birds.
These last are termed Ernes or Sea-Eagles ; and among them may
be noticed the Cinereous (ash-coloured) Erne, which is an inha-
bitant of the shores of many parts of Britain ; the Chilian Erne
(Fig. 211) ; and the White-headed Erne of America. They are all

FIG. 211. — CHILIAN ERNE.

distinguished from the true Eagles, by the absence of feathers at
the lower part of the tarsi ; as is seen in the accompanying figure.
The White-headed or Bald Erne is the Eagle which is emblazoned
as an emblem on the national standard of the United States
of America ; it is a Bird of noble size and aspect ; and of great

406 FAMILY FALCONID^E ; — BALD ERNE ; OSPREY.

energy of character. It feeds on young Lambs and Pigs, Ducks,
Geese, Swans, and various Sea-Fowl ; and, like the Peregrine
Falcon, it attacks the Fish-Hawk, when rising into the air with
its finny prey in its grasp, forces it to drop this in alarm, and
then, suddenly descending, snatches the Fish with its feet, before
it reaches the water. The evolutions of the Eagle and Fish-
Hawk as they rise in the air, — the one striving for the mastery,
and the other to escape with the prey it has just obtained from
the sea beneath, — are described by those who have witnessed
them, as being really sublime. This Eagle is seldom seen alone,
but generally in company with its mate ; they hunt for the
support of each other, and feed together. The nest is usually
placed on some tall tree, and is composed of sticks, clods, weeds,
and moss ; it measures five or six feet in diameter ; and being
annually augmented by fresh layers, it is often as much in depth.
The young are from two to four in number at each brood ; they
are at least four years before they acquire their adult plumage ;
but they pair and breed in the first spring after their birth. —
The Osprey, or Fish-Hawk, departs still more widely from the
true Eagles ; being adapted for feeding exclusively upon Fish.
The tarsi are covered with scales instead of feathers ; and the
claws have their under-surface roughened with similar sharp-
pointed scales, to enable them to grasp their finny prey more
securely. Their wings are long and ample ; and the second and
third quill-feathers are the longest. The Osprey is widely spread;
being dispersed over Europe and a great part of Asia, as well as
North America; but it is everywhere a Bird of Passage, breeding
in temperate regions, and going southwards at the approach of
winter. It is more gregarious (that is, more disposed to associate
in numbers) than Birds of Prey generally are ; several pairs
living in the same neighbourhood, and pursuing their occupation
in harmony. Indeed, other Birds are permitted by them to take
up their abodes in the interstices of their capacious nests, which
are constructed of sticks, sea- weed, grass, turf, &c. ; and which,
being repaired every year, sometimes becomes a good cart-load.
No instance has ever been known of its attacking land animals
or Birds, even when pressed by hunger ; and hence its presence

GRIFFINS ; LAMMERGEYER. 407

among them does not inspire them with alarm. The Osprey is
about two feet in length : and about five feet four inches in the
expanse of its wings.

371. Some of the Eagles approach the Vultures in conform-
ation and habits ; this is the case with the Griffins, which
belong to the genus Gypaetus, — a term that includes the Greek
names of both Eagle and Vulture. As an example of this group,
we may briefly describe the Lammergeyer, or Bearded Griffin of

FIG. 212. — LAMMERGEVER, OR BEARDED GRIFFIN.

the Alps. This is a Bird fully equalling the largest Eagle in
size ; measuring four feet from the bill to the end of the tail,
and from nine to ten in the expanse of its wings. It derives its
name from a tuft of bristles, that projects downwards on each
side of the lower mandible. As in the Eagles, the head, neck,
and tarsi are clothed with feathers ; but the expression of its eye
has by no means the same daring and resolution, which we
admire in the feathered monarch ; and its bill and talons are far
less powerful instruments of attack, — the former being longer,
and hooked only at the point, — and the latter comparatively
small. In its habits, too, the Lammergeyer differs considerably
from the Eagle, and approaches the Chamois. It feeds upon the
bodies of animals that have met their death by disease, or by
falling down precipices ; and is not restricted to those which it
has itself slaughtered. Indeed it seldom, unless pressed by
hunger, attacks animals which can offer it much resistance ; its
general habit being to prey upon Hares, Lambs, Kids, and the

408 FAMILY FALCONID.E ; — LAMMERGEYER ; HAWKS.

weak and sickly of the flocks. It is said, however, to destroy
more powerful animals, by grappling with them at the edge of
some precipice or steep declivity, and forcing them down the
abyss ; and, when rendered desperate by hunger, this ravenous
Bird will even attack Man. Instead of carrying off its prey to
the nest, like the Eagle, the Lammergeyer gorges itself with the
carcass upon the spot ; removing only such parts as it destines
for the nourishment of its young. Its flight is sweeping and
majestic ; and it rises almost to the highest summits of the Alps,
when on the outlook for its prey. If it has fixed upon a living
animal, it darts down upon it in the manner of the Eagle ; but
if it be attracted by a carcass, it calmly descends to some
neighbouring crag, and then sets out for its repast, flying with
heavy wings at a short distance from the ground. A number
are usually attracted by the same object ; and feed, like the
Vultures, in harmony. The Lammergeyer is an inhabitant not
only of the high mountains of the Tyrol, Switzerland, and
Germany; but also of the mountain ranges of Africa and
Western Asia. — There are other species, belonging to the Eagle
tribe, which still more nearly approach the Vultures ; but these
it is not requisite to describe more particularly.

372. The Hawks constitute another section of the Ignoble
Birds of Prey ; but, in many of their characters and habits,
they present a near approach to the Falcons. Indeed the Gos-
hawk was formerly among the most valued of the Falconer's
Birds : it does not rise upon its prey, however, after the manner
of the true Falcons ; but darts along near the ground with
arrow-like impetuosity, threading woods, glens, and ravines.
It was consequently flown at Birds that chiefly inhabit the
ground, such as Pheasants, Land-rails, Pigeons, &c., and also
at Hares ; and for this purpose it is still occasionally employed.
The beak of the Hawks resembles that of the Falcons in its
general form, being curved from the base ; but the wings are
shorter, and want the pointed tips which are characteristic of
that division of the family. As is the case with the Falcons
and Eagles, the most powerful Hawks are found in cold lati-
tudes ; but they are not so much Birds of the mountain, the

GOS-HAWK ; SPARROW-HAWK. 409

storm, and of the free sky, — rather inhabiting hilly countries
where there are woods, and seeking their prey near the ground.
The Gos-Hawk is unquestionably the finest of the whole tribe ;
being distinguished alike by its size, the beauty of its plumage,
and the elegance of its contour. The female measures about 24

inches in length ; the male
19 or 20. It frequents the
deep solitudes of forests,
preying upon hares, squir-
rels, and the larger ground
Birds; and it builds its nest
in lofty trees, preferring, it
is said, the fir. Notwith-
standing its size and power,
it will not attempt to con-
tend with even the smaller
inhabitants of the air, such
as swallows; for when a
number of them attack it
together, they drive at it in
all directions, and so perplex

and annoy it, that it retreats to a sheltered covert. If the prey
pursued by it should conceal itself, the Gos-Hawk waits in
patience on some perch commanding a view of the spot, until
the game flies away; in this manner it has been known to
watch a Pheasant for more than fourteen hours. The Gos-
Hawk is now rare in the British islands, being chiefly restricted
to the Scottish Highlands; but it is more abundant in the
forest districts of Continental Europe, and extends also through
the temperate regions of Asia and America. — The Sparrow-
Hawk, though much smaller (the female being only 15 inches
in length), is much more daring in its character ; and is well
known as one of the terrors of the English farm-yard, being
very destructive to pigeons and poultry, as also to partridges.
No Hawk is more pertinacious in pursuit of its prey than this ;
for it has been known to follow its terrified victim through open
windows, into rooms, barns, and churches, undeterred by the

410 FAMILY FALCON ID^E ; — SPARROW-HAWK, KITES.

presence of Man. This Hawk builds in trees and thorn-bushes,
making a shallow flat nest of twigs ; occasionally it occupies
the deserted nest of a Crow ; and in the Orkneys it breeds on
the rocks and sea-cliffs. There is an African Hawk, equalling
the Gos-Hawk in size, which is an exception to the general
rule in regard to the absence of the powers of song in this
order ; having an agreeable voice, which it uses every morning
and evening, not unfrequently continuing its strain through the
whole night.

373. The Kites are much inferior in the strength of their
bills and talons ; but their wings are very long in proportion to
their size ; and their tail is forked. They are remarkable for the

ease, grace, and buoyancy of
their flight ; and for their
power of remaining for a long
time almost motionless upon
the wing. They sweep through
the air in wide circles, sailing
on outspread wings, and using
the tail as a rudder; and they

FIG. 2i4.— KITE. often mount to such a height,

as to become nearly invisible.

Their great elevation serves, as in the Eagles, to give them a wide
range, over which they cast their eyes in search of their prey ;
but, having discerned it, they do not make a stoop or rush towards
their victim, but skim it (as it were) from the surface of the earth,
or even the water, and bear it away in their talons. They habitu-
ally feed on moles, rats, mice, young poultry, and small reptiles,
but they do not refuse carrion. A very slight show of resist-
ance is usually sufficient to scare them away ; as they are by no
means courageous Birds, except when defending their young.
The common Kite or Glead (which last name seems derived
from the word glide, significant of its motion), is found in most
parts of England; though it is not now so abundant as formerly.
No longer since than the time of Henry VIII., the office of
scavenger in London and other towns was chiefly performed by
numerous Kites ; and at the present time it answers the same

FAMILY FALCONIDJE ; KITES, BUZZARDS.

411

useful purpose in Turkey and Egypt. Numerous Kites, in a
sort of half-domesticated state, are seen hovering about, or
resting on the tops of the houses ; and at the signal of a whistle,
they descend and clear the ground of any carrion which may
have been cast upon it. The nest of the Kite is usually in the
fork of a thick tree, where it is concealed by the branches ; and
it is more elaborate in its construction, than those of the Birds of
Prey usually are. The external part is formed of twigs thickly
matted together ; and the interior is lined with wool, or some
other soft and warm substance. The eggs are generally three
in number. The young remain a long time in the nest, and are
extremely voracious in their appetite, so that to provide for
them requires considerable labour. At this period the audacity
of the Kite is greater than at any other. Several different
species of Kites are known, inhabiting various parts of the
world.

374. If the Hawks may be regarded as an inferior kind of

Falcon, the Buzzards
may be considered as hav-
ing the same relation to
the Eagles. Their bodies
are robust, their wings
ample and rounded, and
their tarsi more or less
feathered, — often to the
toes ; but they are much
inferior in the strength
of the bill and talons ;
though the former, as in
the Falcons, is curved
from its base. Their flight
is easy and undulating ;
they have neither the soar
and swoop of the Falcons,
the arrow-like dash of the
Hawks, nor the circling sweep of the Kites ; but they sail easily
and rapidly along, and hunt in quest of moles, rats, mice, young

FIG. 215. — COMMON BUZZARD.

412

FAMILY FALCONID^ ; — BUZZARDS, HARRIERS.

rabbits, reptiles, and insects. The Common Buzzard (Fig. 215)
is an inhabitant of all the wooded countries of Europe, and of the
adjacent parts of Asia ; and it is also found in the fur countries
of North America. It is a Bird of considerable strength and
size ; but of no great courage. It usually looks out for its victims
from the branch of a tree, on which it perches; and when it per-
ceives its prey, it takes wing, gliding rapidly and silently on its
victim. It usually builds its nest in a tall tree, selecting the
most retired part of the wood ; and it defends its young with
great resolution. The Honey Buzzard, belonging to a different

genus from the pre-
ceding, is remarkable
for the peculiar cha-
racter of its food,
from which its name
is derived. This does
not consist of honey,
however ; but of the
larvae of bees, wasps,
caterpillars, and other
insects, — not to the
exclusion of moles,
rats, small birds, rep-
tiles, and slugs. It
is a very rare Bird
in Britain ; but it is
more common in the
warmer countries of
Europe, where it is migratory ; and it is also found in Asia.
It flies low, and runs on the ground with great celerity.

375. The Harriers differ from the Buzzards in the greater
length and slenderness of the tarsi ; and in the inferior robust-
ness of their bodies, and the length of the wings and tail. The
plumage is soft, and of looser texture than in most of the Fal-
conidae ; and the feathers round the face are so disposed, as to
form a sort of ruff, analogous to the disk which is so conspicuous in
the Owls. The Harriers are more active, and more constantly

FIG. 216.— HONEY BUZZARD.

MOOR HARRIER. — FAMILY VULTURIDJE.

413

on the wing, than the Buzzards; they chiefly frequent open moor-
lands, over which they skim in search of prey very close to the

ground ; and they
nestle and roost on
its surface, building
their nests among
reeds or fern. The
Moor Harrier (Fig.
217), the largest
species inhabiting
this country, is
commonly known as
the Moor Buzzard ;
it is a native of most
parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa ;
frequenting boggy
moorlands and ex-
tensive marshes. It
feeds upon various

kinds of Water Birds, which it surprises by its almost noiseless
flight ; also upon water-rats, and fish which expose themselves
to it by swimming near the surface of the water. It will
also feed on carrion ; and like most Carrion Birds, is somewhat
gregarious in its habits.

376. We have seen that the Birds of the family FALCONID^
have for their office to regulate the numbers of living Birds and
small Quadrupeds ; and that their head-quarters are in the cold
and temperate regions of the globe. The Vultures, and other
Birds of the family VULTURID^E, on the other hand, are the
appointed cleansers of the earth from the dead bodies of such
animals as have perished from other causes ; and their head-
quarters are between the tropics, few of them having any exten-
sive range to the north or south of these lines. Still, however,
they are for the most part inhabitants of mountainous regions ;
and their abodes are often on the confines of perpetual snow.
They execute that kind of duty, which no animals but Birds

414

FAMILY VULTURID^E ; VULTURES.

could perform ; for although the Hyasnas and Jackals may well
effect the removal of decomposing carcases from the open and
level country, the dense and tangled forests of tropical regions,
and the almost perpendicular sides of their Alpine ranges, would
prove inaccessible to any animals not endowed with the power
of flight. Vultures are Birds of enormous spread of wing, in pro-
portion to the weight of their bodies ; and even in walking, they
hold their wings half extended. Their flight is rapid when they
have an object in view ; but they can also hover with very little
effort over a spot near which they desire to remain. The bill of
these Birds is hooked at the point, and is straight at the base ;
their talons are by no means large or strong in proportion to

the size of the body, and they
are less used than the beak for
tearing the food. The cha-
racter by which they are
chiefly distinguished from all
other Birds of Prey, is the
absence of feathers on the head
and neck (Fig. 218) ; whilst
round the bottom of the latter
is a sort of ruff of soft or
slender feathers, arising from
a loose fold of skin, within
which they can withdraw the
neck, and even the greatest
part of the head, while they
remain in a semi-torpid state, motionless as statues, during the
digestion of their meal. Their whole plumage is deficient in the
neat and regular appearance of that of the Falconidas ; but it
offers so much resistance, as to be almost impenetrable to shot ;
and it suffers so little from exposure to alternations of weather,
that Vultures in confinement frequently wash themselves
thoroughly and hang out their wings to the sun and air to be
dried. In these characters and instincts we see an evident adapt-
ation to the mode of life of the Birds which manifest them ;
for the nakedness of their necks and tarsi prevents these parts

FIG. 218. — TAWNY VULTURE.

FAMILY VULTURID^i ; VULTURES. 4 1 5

from being rendered so foul by the carrion in which they are
buried when the Vulture is glutting itself with food, as they
would be, clothed with feathers ; and a natural instinct seems to
guide it to a frequent cleansing of its plumage from the soils
which it must receive.

377. Much discussion has taken place with respect to the
mode in which Vultures are directed to their food, — whether
by the sense of sight or by smell. The probability seems to be,
that they have the power of scenting it from great distances,
and are thus drawn to the spot in which it is to be found.
They are often seen to descend in considerable numbers upon
the carcass of a recently-killed animal, " as if they emerged from
a cavern in the sky;" — none having been visible but a few
minutes previously. But when they are thus drawn towards
their prey, they are probably directed to the exact spot by the
sense of sight. It is certain that the Vultures have an organ of
smell more highly developed than that of most other Birds. —
They can endure hunger for a long time, and will often sit
patiently for many hours, or even days, watching for the death
of a sickly or injured animal ; they seldom attack it before life is
extinct ; but when they once begin to devour it, they gorge
themselves until the craw forms a large protuberance above the
furcula ; and they then remain for some time in such a state of
stupidity, that they may be knocked down with a stick by any
one who approaches them.

378. As interesting examples of this group, the following
species may be mentioned. The Tawny Vulture (Fig. 218) is
a native of the mountainous parts of Southern Europe, and
Western Asia; its length is upwards of four feet, and its
strength very great. Nevertheless it never attempts to carry
off in its claws any portion of the carcass on which it is gorging
itself; but feeds its young by disgorging the half-digested
morsels from its maw. Occasionally it attacks sickly animals,
which are incapable of defending themselves ; but this is only
when no other mode of satisfying its appetite presents itself.
The Egyptian Vulture is not confined to the country where it is
best known ; but is a regular visitor of Southern Europe ; and

416 FAMILY VULTURID^E ; CONDOR, KING VULTURE.

has even been seen in this country. Its utility in Egypt and
other parts of the East, in clearing the streets of filth of every
description, has been often alluded to by travellers ; and it was
fully appreciated by the ancient Egyptians, as we may judge by
the frequent representations of this Bird upon their monuments.
Its common appellation is Pharaoh's Chicken. — The Condor of
the Andes is the most remarkable of all the Vultures, in regard
to its size and strength, and the great height at which it soars.
Its dimensions have been much exaggerated, however ; its length
being usually somewhat more than four feet, and the expanse of
its wings about nine. Its breeding-place and habitual residence
is usually at a height of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the
level of the sea ; and it is often perceived soaring at an elevation
much above this. Besides feeding on carrion, the Condor will
frequently attack young goats and lambs ; and when two are in
company, they will set upon the Llama, and even the Puma,
persecuting the animal until it falls beneath the wounds inflicted
by the beaks of its assailants. The strength of the Condor and its
tenacity of life are both very great ; so that it is quite a sufficient
match even for a powerful man, if unarmed. The Condor,
like some others of the American Vultures, is distinguished by
the presence of fleshy caruncles, or comb-like appendages,
resembling the wattles of a Turkey, at the base of the beak and
on the forehead. — The King Vulture of the inter-tropical regions
of America also belongs to the group thus characterised; it is
much smaller than the Condor ; but is remarkable for the
brilliancy of its appearance. Its general plumage is of a bright
fawn colour ; but the quill and tail feathers are glossy black,
whilst the ruff" round the neck is of a delicate gray. The naked
skin of the head and neck is deeply tinged with mingled scarlet,
orange, and violet ; over the upper edge of the beak hangs a
loose comb of bright orange ; and there is a circle of scarlet round
the eyes, which contrasts singularly with the pearl white of the
iris. It is not a mountain Bird ; but inhabits the low humid
forests, keeping in subjection the Turkey-Buzzard and the Galli-
nazo, two smaller Vultures which frequent the same localities.
379. We next pass on to the family GYPOGERANID^E, which

FAMILY GYPOGERANID.E ;— SECRETARY. 417

constitutes the last group of the Diurnal Birds of Prey. This, as
already stated (§ 364), includes but a single genus, the Secre-
tary Falcon or Vulture; of which there are probably several
species, differing but very slightly from each other. In its
general characters, the Secretary approaches some of the
Falconidae, especially those species which feed upon reptiles
(§ 364) ; thus its beak is short and abruptly hooked, and its
legs are clothed with feathers much lower down than in the
Vultures; to which, also, it has little resemblance in phy-
siognomy. The Secretary was so called by the Dutch, from the
plumes at the back of its head ; which reminded them of the
pen stuck behind the ear, according to the custom of writing-
clerks. The remarkable feature in its structure, by which it is
distinguished from all other Raptores, is the extraordinary length
of its tarsi, which raise its body above the ground, in the manner
of that of the Wading Birds. This conformation adapts it to its
peculiar instincts; which lead it to prey upon Serpents and
other poisonous reptiles, in search of which it strides over the
dry open plains frequented by them. It is further armed with
spurs on the elbow-joints of the wings ; and these are efficient
organs of defence, by which it parries the attempts made by its
prey to wound it by its venomous bite, and by successive blows
of which it weakens its foe, — destroying it at last by a stroke
of its bill, that splits open its enemy's skull. Le Vaillant men-
tions, that having killed a Secretary, which he had seen to
vanquish a Serpent, he found in its crop eleven rather large
lizards, three serpents of an arm's length, and eleven small
tortoises very entire, — all of which had received the stroke on
the head ; as well as a number of locusts, beetles, and other
insects, very little injured. Besides these, the crop contained
a species of pellet, formed of the undigested bones, scales, &c.,
of the animals previously devoured by the Secretary ; which was
destined no doubt to be ejected by the mouth, in the manner
common to other Birds of Prey. The species inhabiting Southern
Africa, which is the one whose habits are best known, builds its
nest on high trees, or in dense thickets ; and is not at all dis-
posed to associate with its fellows. Another Secretary, which

418

FAMILY STRIGIDJE, OR OWL TRIBE.

is certainly of a different species from the South African, is
found in the Philippine Islands ; and there is also one inhabiting
Senegambia, which is probably distinct from either.

380. The Nocturnal Birds of Prey, constituting the family
STRIGIDJE, or the Owl tribe, are distinguished from the preceding
by many important peculiarities ; besides that difference in the
character of the plumage, which has been already adverted to
(§ 364) : and all these peculiarities have reference to their noc-
turnal habits. The first thing that strikes us in their appear-
ance, is the large size of the head ; this is partly due to the
looseness of the plumage with which it is covered ; but it also
shows itself when this is removed, and is caused by the exist-
ence, between the inner and outer tables (or bony layers) of the
skull, of a number of large cells, which communicate with the
organ of hearing, and render that sense more acute. We find in
Owls an external ear, or conch, which exists in no other Birds ;

this is concealed by
the feathers, which
are arranged in a sort
of hollow cone around
it; and in some
species it is covered
with a sort of lid, or
operculum, which the
Bird has the power of
opening or shutting
at pleasure. In many
species the external
ear is much larger
than in the one
here represented. —
The eyes of Owls are
very large, and are
directed forwards ; they are surrounded by two conical disks of
feathers (Fig. 220), at the bottom of which the eyes are placed ;
and these being usually composed of white and shining feathers,
doubtless serve to cause the feeble rays, by the aid of which

FIG. 219.— EAR OF HOWLET.

FAMILY STRICIDJE ; OWLS.

419

FIG. 220.— EYE-DISK OF HOWLET.

these animals hunt for their prey, to fall with more power upon

the organ of vision. It is
in the Owls which are the
least nocturnal in their
habits, that we find the
external ear, and the disks
around the eyes, least de-
veloped. The pupils of the
eyes are very large, and
permit so much light to
enter, that the Birds are
quite dazzled if they open
their eyes in full day. The
apparatus of flight is
feeble in the Owls; since
they are not intended to
obtain their prey by swiftness of pursuit, but by the stealthiness
of their approach. The loose downy plumage of the wings
allows a considerable quantity of air to pass through it at each
stroke ; instead of offering a firm resisting surface, like the wing
of the Eagles and Falcons. To compensate in some degree for
this, the wings are long ; but the muscular apparatus by which
they are moved is not remarkable
for its power ; and the bony frame-
work to which they are attached, is
much less firm than in the Diurnal
Birds of Prey. Thefurcula, in par-
ticular, is very slender. The feet
are chiefly remarkable for the power
possessed by the external toe, of
being turned either backwards or
forwards. The digestive apparatus
chiefly differs from that of the Fal-
conidas in the absence of the crop, or
craw ; * but the gullet is very wide
throughout; and the stomach
more muscular than in the Diurnal Birds of Prey.

* It is stated by Cuvier that Owls have a large crop ; but this is an error.

420 FAMILY STRIGIDJE, OR OWL TRIBE ; — BARN OWL.

381. The greater part of the Owl tribe are thus adapted to
the pursuit of their prey, — which consists in the larger species
of hares, rabbits, fawns, birds, &c., and in the smaller of mice,
rats, moles, small reptiles and the larger insects, — either by night,
or in the dusky twilight ; and we find this family most abundant
in those parts of the globe where the twilight is most prolonged,
— namely, the cold and temperate regions. Nevertheless, there
are some members of it (constituting its aberrant forms), in which
the foregoing characters are much less developed, and in which
the habits are rather diurnal than nocturnal ; some of these are
known by the names of Eagle Owl and Hawk Owl, indicating
their resemblance to the Diurnal Birds of Prey. The Typical
Owls, whose adaptation to nocturnal habits is most complete,
appear scarcely capable of motion during the day ; they remain
at rest upon their perch, with their eyes half-shut or completely
closed, presenting a great appearance of gravity ; and when
attacked, or struck by the appearance of some new object, they
do not fly off, but stand more erect, assume grotesque attitudes,
and make the most ludicrous gestures. — The family may be sub-
divided into the three following groups. 1. The Typical Owls,
which have a large external ear, and large and complete disks
around the eyes. 2. The Horned Owls, in which the conch, or
external ear, is smaller, but the disks around the eyes still large ;
and in which the head is furnished with two feathery tufts,
resembling horns. 3. The Diurnal, or Haick Owls, in which
the conch is very small, the facial disks wanting, and the feathery
tufts absent. — Of the first of these groups, the common Barn
Owl is a very characteristic representative ; it is spread through
the temperate and warmer regions of Europe, but is not
found in the higher latitudes, where it is replaced by other
species. It conceals itself by day in deep [recesses among
ivy-clad ruins, in antique church-towers, in the hollow
of old trees, in barn-lofts, and similar places of seclusion;
and at night it sallies forth in search of its prey, which consists
of mice, rats, moles, shrews, and large insects. Contrary to the
general opinion, this Bird is not unfriendly to the other feathered
tribes ; it does not attack them, nor do they seem afraid of it ;

FAMILY STRIGTDJE; — BARN OWL, HORNED OWLS. 421

and it has been found very useful in the neighbourhood of dove-
cots, in keeping down the rats, which very commonly abound
there, to the destruction of the young pigeons. Mr. Waterton
has noticed that, when it has young to feed, it will bring a mouse
or young rat to the nest every twelve or fifteen minutes during
the night. Its services to the farmer, therefore, are really very
great ; and it ought to be encouraged, instead of being regarded
as a pest. The superstitious dread of the Owl, which is still
commonly entertained, is partly dependent on the dismal sounds
it utters ; and the time and circumstances under which this is
heard. The Barn Owl constructs a rude nest, in which three or
four eggs are laid at once ; the female often lays a second time
before the young are able to leave the nest ; and this has been
known to happen a third time, so that the nest at last con-
tained three broods of different ages. — Many other species, more
or less closely resembling the Barn Owl, are found in different
parts of the temperate regions of the globe.

382. It is among the Horned Owls, that we find the largest
Birds of this family. TheGraz* or Eagle Owl (Fig. 222) is but little
inferior in size to the Golden Eagle ; and is very destructive to
young roes and fawns, hares, rabbits, rats, moles, reptiles, par-
tridges, grouse, and other game. It is chiefly found in the
mountainous parts of Central Europe ; but it has been occasion-
ally seen in Britain. It frequents deep forest glens ; and makes
its nest in the fissures of rocks, in ruined castles, and similar
places. — The Harfang or Great Snowy Owl nearly equals the
Eagle Owl in size, and resembles it in its general habits ; but it
is found in very high northern latitudes, of both the Old and New
World ; obtaining its food, and rearing its young, among rocky
mountains and islands, in spite of all the vicissitudes of tempera-
ture and season. It is indeed one of the hardiest of all Birds.
Its head-tufts are small and inconspicuous ; so that it has been
described as being destitute of them. — Connecting this group
with the next, is a curious species termed the Burrowing Owl,
which is widely spread through the American Continent ; inha-
biting the burrows of the Marmot, Viscacha, and other small
Eodentia ; and, when these do not present themselves, making

422 HORNED OWLS ; HAWK OWL.

excavations for itself. This is a small Bird; its length not
exceeding ten inches. The hahit is not altogether peculiar to

FIG. 222. — THE GREAT OWL.

this species ; for even the Barn Owl occasionally takes up
its abode in the burrows of rabbits. Numerous other
species of Horned Owls are found in different parts of the
globe.

383. Of the last subdivision of this family, the Hawk-Owl
of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, may be
regarded as the type. This is the most diurnal of all the Owls
in its habits ; pursuing Birds with great boldness in daylight ;
and sometimes even snatching game that has been shot by the
fowler. It has, indeed, some of the characters of the Hawk ;
resembling that species in the smallness of the head, the narrow
feet, and the prolonged tail ; but still the conformation of its
feet, and the feathering around its eyes and bill, bring it decidedly

ORDER INSESSORES, OR PERCHERS. 423

within the Owl family. In the character of its plumage, also,
it bears a resemblance to the Diurnal Birds of Prey ; and like
them, it dashes boldly on its victim, and seizes it on the wing,
instead of stealing noiselessly upon it. In summer it feeds prin-
cipally on mice and insects ; but in the snow-clad regions which
it frequents in winter, neither of these are to be procured, and it
then preys mostly on Ptarmigan, — the flocks of which are
followed by it, in their spring migrations to the northward.
— Nearly allied to this species, which is about fifteen inches in
length, are several others ; which inhabit different portions of
the globe, and present slight variations in structure and habit.
One of these, a native of Northern Asia, is but little inferior to
the Snowy Owl in size.

ORDER II.— INSESSORES.

384. The group of Perching Birds, included in this order,
is the most numerous and the most varied in the whole class.
It comprehends all those tribes which live habitually among
trees, with the exception of the Rapacious Birds on the one
hand, and the Climbing Birds on the other. From the former
they are sufficiently distinguished, by the absence of those
characters which have been mentioned as peculiarly marking the
Birds of Prey ; and from the latter they are at once known by
the position of the toes. For in all the true Insessorial Birds,
the toes are three before and one behind (Fig. 205); whilst in
the Scansores, two of the toes are directed backwards (Fig. 187).
The adaptation of the foot of this order to grasping or perching,
is evident from the situation of the hinder toe ; which is in-
variably placed on the same level with those in front, and thus
distinguishes the Perchers from the Gallinaceous and Wading
Birds. These Birds pass the greater part of their time on the
wing, and only use their legs as an occasional support ; these
members are consequently short and weak, in comparison with
those of most of the other orders. The toes are slender, flexible,
and of moderate length ; with long, slender, and slightly-curved

424 ORDER INSESSORES ; — GENERAL CHARACTERS.

claws. The foot of the common Canary affords a good example
of the usual conformation. — On the other hand, the wings are
for the most part highly developed ; and have often a very
wide expanse in proportion to the size of the body, which is
never very bulky. — The plumage of the Perchers varies greatly
in the different families ; being dull in some, and of the most
exceeding brilliancy in others. Taken as a whole, however, this
order far surpasses all others in the elegance and beauty of the
feathered covering ; and it contains those species, which are pre-
eminent in this respect above all others of the class. The male
is nearly always larger than the female, and is more distinguished
for the gaiety of his dress. The Perchers live in pah's, and
display great art in the construction of their nests, which are
usually built in trees, bushes, &c., — seldom on the ground ; the
pairing very frequently lasts, however, but for a single season.
The number of eggs is usually considerable ; and not unfre-
quently there are two broods produced in every year. The
young come forth from the shell in a blind and naked state ; and
they are wholly dependent for their subsistence on parental care,
during some time. — It is to this group that all our Singing Birds
belong; with the exception of those contained in the nearly-
allied order of Scansores. — Thus we see that among the Inses-
sores are found pre-eminently developed all those characters,
which peculiarly distinguish the class of Birds; of which it
should therefore be regarded as the typical order (§ 360). And
it harmonizes well with this view, that it should be by far the
largest order of the whole class.

385. There is considerable variety in the food of the Perching
Birds; which is, of course, connected with variations in the
form of their beak, and in their general habits. In some in-
stances it consists exclusively of winged insects ; in others of
grubs and worms ; in others of soft pulpy fruits ; in others
of seeds ; in others of vegetable juices ; in others of small or
young birds ; in others of carrion ; whilst in some it is of a
mixed character, the digestive apparatus being adapted to act
upon all the foregoing substances. By the form of the beak,
this order is divided into four subordinate groups, as follows : —

SUBDIVISION OF INSESSORES.

425

I. CONIROSTRES, or conical-billed Birds ; having a strong
conical beak (Fig.

223), the margin of
which is generally
entire, — that is, not
toothed or indented.
The greater part of
these are omnivor-
ous ; but some are
exclusively grani-
vorous (or seed-
eating). The Crows,
Starlings, and
Finches are examples of this group.

II. DENTIROSTRES, °or toothed-billed Birds, which are cha-
racterised by a notch or tooth near the extremity of the upper

FIG 223.— BILL OF GROSBEAK.

FIG. 224. — HEAD OF SHRIKE.

mandible (Fig. 224). These feed on Insects, small Birds, &c.
The Shrikes or Butcher Birds, Thrushes, Warblers, Tits, &c.,
belong to this division.

III. TENUIROSTRES, or slender-billed Birds, which have a long
slender bill, specially adapted for sucking up vegetable juices

426 SUBDIVISION OP INSESSORES.

(Fig. 225). The Humming Birds are the most characteristic
examples of this group ; to which belong, however, many Birds
whose principal food consists of insects.

FIG. 225.— HUMMING BIRD.

IV. FISSIROSTRES, or gaping-lilled Birds; in which the
beak is very much depressed (or flattened horizontally), so as to
give it an extremely wide opening, when the mandibles are
separated (Fig.
226). The pur-
pose of this
conformation is
to allow these
Birds to cap-
ture insects on
the wing ; we
have a good
specimen of it
in the Swallow,
and a still better
one in the Goat-

- _. . , FIG. 226. — HEAD OF GOAT-SUCKER.

sucker. — Of the

very numerous families included in these groups, our limits

prevent us from noticing more than the most important.

4-27

TRIBE I.— CONIROSTRES.

386. The Birds of this division are for the most part dis-
tinguished from the rest, not only by the form of the bill, but
also by that of the feet ; which are so constructed, that they
can walk upon the ground with nearly the same facility as they
perch upon branches. This faculty is of great assistance to
them in the search for food ; which they chiefly obtain from the
surface of the earth, rather than among trees, or whilst upon the
wing. The families included in this division are the FRINGIL-
LID^E, or Finches ; the COLIDJE, or Colics ; the MUSOPHAGIDJE, or
Plantain-eaters ; the CORVIDJE, or Crows ; the STTJRNID^E, or
Starlings; the PARADISEID^E, or Birds of Paradise; and the
BUCERIDJE, or Hornbills. Most of the Birds belonging to it are
more or less domesticable ; showing a disposition to associate
with Man; and being capable of receiving a certain amount of
education from him.

387. The FRINGILLID^E, or Finches, constitute a very large
family, that includes several minor groups, such as Larks, Bun-
tings, Linnets, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, Weaver-Birds, &c. ; each
of these groups consisting of several genera, more or less closely
related to one another. None of them are of large size ; and
they bear a very strong relationship in general appearance and
habits. They tenant fields, groves, hedge-rows and woodlands ;
and they feed chiefly upon various kinds of grain and seeds,
occasionally upon insects. Many of them are remarkable for
their powers of song ; and hence they are termed hard-billed
warblers, in contradistinction to the SYLVIAD^E (§ 399), which are
spoken of as soft-billed. They are for the most part hardy
Birds ; and as they can usually obtain a sufficient supply of
food in our country through the whole winter, few or none of
the British Fringillidas are migratory ; although there are
several species that are driven hither for the winter from more
northern climates. This is the case with the Siskin or Aberde-
vine ; and with the Redpoll. Most of them associate in flocks

F F 2

428 CONIROSTRKS ; FAMILY FRINGILLID^E.

during this season, assiduously searching for food ; and they are
not unfrequently joined by others of a different species. At this

FIG. 227.'— SISKIN OR ABERDEVINE.

time they show more fearlessness in their disposition, and
approach nearer to the haunts of Man, than they do at other
times. In consequence of the abundance of their food in the
autumn, when the seeds and grains are ripe, they usually become
very fat ; and thus a store is laid up against the winter, which
contributes to maintain their heat (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 412). It
is at this period that those species which are employed as articles
of food, are most prized ; as, for instance, the Ortolan, one of the
Buntings, which is much sought after on the Continent as a
delicacy, and is regularly fattened for the market ; and the
Sky-Lark^ of which large numbers are annually taken in the
neighbourhood of Dunstable, and sent to the London market,
whilst others are brought over from Holland. — The geographical
distribution of this family is very extensive, in fact universal ;
some members of it being found in all parts of the globe where
animal life can be supported. Some of the most interesting
species will now be noticed.

388. The Grosbeak, or Hawfinch, is remarkable for the
strength of its bill (Fig. 223), which enables it to crack the
stones of cherries, and even of olives, with little difficulty ; and
it chiefly lives upon hard seeds and the kernels of fruit. Its
habits are shy and retiring, leading it to choose the most secluded

PINCH TRIBE; GOLDFINCH, CANARY, BULLFINCH. 4*29

spots for its nestling-place ; and when disturbed, it is said to
perch invariably upon the tallest tree in its neighbourhood. It
will become, however, very familiar in confinement. — The Gold-
finch surpasses all other British Finches in beauty and docility ;
hence it is one of those most frequently kept in captivity. Its

FIG. 228. — HEAD OF GOLDFINCH ; MALE AND KEMALK.

song, though soft and pleasing, is deficient in power. It is
chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its nest ; which is usually
in an orchard, large garden, or plantation, — in the neighbourhood
of Man, therefore, but not in immediate proximity to him. The
nest, for the situation of which a dense evergreen is often selected,
is an elegant piece of workmanship ; being formed externally of
moss, lichens, dry grass, or wool ; and lined with hair, and with
the down of the willow or of the seeds of various composite
plants on which it feeds, — such as the thistle, dandelion, ground-
sel, &c. — The Canary, a native of the Canary islands, is nearly
allied to our own Goldfinch in its general structure ; though in
some respects resembling the Linnets. It has long been bred in
confinement in this country ; and now appears quite reconciled
to its situation, its habits being so completely altered, that it
cannot find its subsistence if set free and left to its own resources.
The wild Canary, which is still found in Madeira, builds in the
immediate neighbourhood of the towns ; and is a most delight-
ful songster, much surpassing the domesticated race in power of
voice. It breeds very rapidly ; hatching five or even six broods,
of four or five eggs each, in the course *of every season. — The
Bullfinch is remarkable for the degree in which its voice may be
improved by training; its native song is low, soft, and pleasing,
but inaudible at a short distance ; it may be taught, however, to

430 FAMILY FRINGILLID^E ; — BULLFINCH, SNOW-BUNTING.

whistle airs with great firmness and precision. This Bird feeds

chiefly during the winter and

spring upon the buds of various

trees and shrubs ; as the thorn,

larch, birch, plum, gooseberry,

and other fruit-trees; and it is

from this cause very injurious

to orchards. — The Snow-Bunting

or Snow-flake is an inhabitant

of the Arctic regions ; building

among the rocks, and finding its

subsistence upon the seeds of rushes and other hardy plants.

When the violence of the polar winter sets in, however, it is

FIG.— 229.— HEAD OF BULLFINCH.

FIG. 230. — SNOW-BUNTING.

driven southwards, and comes in large numbers to the various
countries of the north of Europe. After their long flights, they
are usually much exhausted ; but they soon recover and become
fat, and are sometimes called the Ortolans of the North. They
usually return northwards in February and March. The Snow-
flake is a neat and lively little Bird, readily distinguished by its
peculiar colouring, in which white is very conspicuous. The
winter plumage is of a browner cast ; the black and white
feathers having a brown margin, which is worn off in summer.
— The Sky-Lark is placed by some Ornithologists in the Den-
tirostral group ; but its bill seems to indicate that its relationship

FINCH TRIBE ; — SKY-LARK.

431

FIG. 231.— HEAD OF SKY-LARK.

is rather with this family (Fig. 231). This delightful songster

is very widely spread over
Europe, Asia, and the north
of Africa. Its favourite lo-
calities are extensive arable
lands and open meadows ;
but it also frequents wild
mountain pastures. Its foot
is of peculiar construction,
being remarkable for the
great length of the claws,
especially of the hinder one ;
by this it is adapted to walk
over uneven surfaces, and to spring from the ground to a height
sufficient to cause the wings to act. This conformation destroys
the perching characters of the foot ; and in fact the Larks reside
but little among
trees, and merely
stand upon the
branches as

points of obser-
vation. Their
food consists of
insects, worms,
grains, and other
seeds ; the leaves

of the clover and of various wild plants ; and they are of con-
siderable service to the farmer, in destroying much that would
be injurious to him. The clear and animated song of the Sky-
Lark is mostly uttered whilst the Bird is rising spirally in the
air ; but it sometimes sings while resting on the ground. Con-
trary to the usual habit of the Insessores, the nest of the
Sky-Lark is placed upon the ground ; and is very rudely put
together.

389. The Tanagers constitute a very interesting subdivision
of this family, peculiar to the New World ; where they may be
considered as representing the Finches, &c., of Europe and Asia.

FIG. 232 — FOOT OF SKY-LARK.

432 FAMILY PKINGILLID^ ; — TANAGERS.

They much resemble these in general conformation, but are
remarkable for their gaiety of plumage, which is particularly to
be noticed in those species that inhabit the tropical portions of
America. The number of species is very large ; and the differ-
ences between them are usually but very slight, — though they
are such as adapt them to those varieties of climate, food, &c.,
which any widely-spread tribe of Birds must necessarily encoun-
ter. Among other points of difference between the Tanagers
and the Finches of temperate climates, we may notice the mode

FIG. 233 — ORGANIST TANAGRR.

of breeding. The nests in the former group, as in the latter,
are in general elaborately formed ; and are constructed externally
of small twigs and bits of the stalks of plants, and lined internally
with wool, feathers, or down. The eggs, however, instead of
being five or six in number, are only two or three ; but there are
two or more broods in the year. This is very common among
Birds of tropical climates ; and it is not difficult to understand the
purpose of the arrangement. The length of the day between the
tropics never varies very much from twelve hours ; and the
twilight is very short : and, further, there is an ample supply of
food throughout the year. On the other hand, the length of the
day in temperate climates, during the usual breeding season, is
much greater ; and it is only at that period, that a sufficient

FINCH TRIBE ;— TAN AGERS; WHIDAH PINCH. 433

amount of food can be readily obtained. It would be difficult
for the tropical Birds to find enough nourishment for a numerous
offspring, during their short day ; and the Creator has wisely
ordained, 'therefore, that their brood should be divided, as it
were, into two or more, and reared at different periods of the
year. But if this were the case with Birds of temperate climates,
the second brood could seldom be reared, for want of food and
warmth. — The species of Tanager represented in Fig. 233,
receives its name from its musical powers, which are greater than
those of most others of the group, though far from equalling the
Finches and other songsters of temperate climates.

390. Two other interesting genera of this family must be
noticed. One of these is the Vidua, or Whidah Finch, which is
remarkable for an astonishing development of plumage in the
male, during the breeding season. At other times the male
resembles the female. These beautiful Birds are natives of

FIG. 234.— WHIDAH FINCH.

Western Africa, and are particularly abundant in the kingdom
of "Whidah, — whence their name. The term has been corrupted,
however, to Widow-bird; which was thought not inappropriate,
as if the splendid tail of the male dropped off, after the breeding
season, in melancholy for the loss of its mate. — The genus Loaia,
or Crossbill, is an extremely remarkable one, on account of the

434

FAMILY FUING1LLID.<E ; CROSSBILL. COLIDJ2.

FIG. 235. — HEAD OF CROSSBILL.

peculiar conformation of the bill, which is represented in the

accompanying figure. The use of
this singular structure, which might
be at first deemed an imperfection,
becomes evident when the habits of
the Bird are watched. Its principal
food consists of the seed of the Pine
and Fir, which is concealed beneath
the hard scales of which their cones
are formed. In order to extract
them, the Bird fixes itself across the
cone ; and then, bringing together the
points of the mandibles (which are
much compressed), it insinuates them
beneath the scales of the cone. When this has been accom-
plished, the Bird separates the mandibles, not by opening the
beak in the usual way, but by drawing the lower mandible
sideways, which it is enabled to do by a peculiar arrangement
of muscles : when the scale has thus been raised up, the tongue
is brought forwards ; and a peculiar horny scoop, with which
it is furnished, is directed beneath the seed, which is dislodged
and carried to the mouth. The common Crossbill breeds
in this country, but is much more abundant in the large pine
forests of Germany, Sweden and Norway ; and vast flocks are
not unfrequently driven thence by the severity of the winter, to
find shelter in the southern parts of Britain. It feeds upon other
seeds, as well as those of the Pine and Fir ; and shows the enor-
mous strength of its bill (its small size being considered), in
extracting the kernel from the hard shell. When placed in a
cage, it shows great restlessness and impatience ; and exhibits
much dexterity in drawing forth the ends of the wires from the
woodwork, so as to set itself free.

391. The family of COLID^, or Colics, entirely consists of
African Birds, which dwell in bushes and thickets, living in
flocks, and feeding on fruits and buds. They are bad fliers, and
do not walk well on the ground ; but run along the branches of
trees with facility. They are chiefly characterised by the form of

PLANTAIN-EATERS. CROW TRIBE.

435

their bills ; which are short and stout, and compressed towards
the point. When they take their rest, they sleep with the head
downwards, suspended by one foot.

392. The family MUSOPHAGID^E, or Plantain-eaters^ is inter
mediate between the Finches and the Hornbills. It consists
entirely of Birds inhabiting tropical climates, and feeding upon
soft vegetable substances. Their bills are strong and thick, more
or less curved on the top, and having their cutting margins
serrated (or jagged) like the teeth of a fine saw. With these
instruments they can readily divide the stems of the plants on
which they feed ; cutting them off close to the ground. One
tribe of this family is peculiar to Africa, whilst another inhabits
South America.

393. The family CORVID^E, or the Crow tribe, on the con-
trary, is very widely diffused over the globe ; some members
of it being found in almost every country except the very coldest;
-—its general characters are consequently well known. The bill
is strong, and is compressed at the sides ; and it is covered at the
base with stiff feathers, which advance forwards so as to cover
the nostrils. In several respects these Birds are to be accounted
the most perfectly organised of the whole class ; exhibiting a
more complete combination of its distinguishing peculiarities,
than we meet with in any other group. Thus, their digestive

organs enable
them to derive
nutriment from
a great variety of
edible substances;
the bill being ca-
pable of laying
hold of almost
any kind of food;
and the stomach
being intermedi-
ate between the

membranous, or thinly-muscular kind peculiar to the carni-
vorous families, and the gizzards, or strongly-muscular organs

Fro. 236.— HKAD OF CARRION CROW.

436

FAMILY CORVID.E, OR CROW TRIBE.

FIG. 237. — FOOT OF CARRION CROW.

which are possessed by those that feed on hard vegetable sub-
stances. The form of their foot, again, adapts them to traverse
the fields and pastures
with facility, in search
of food ; whilst they can
also perch with security mm (B
on trees, as well as make
their way among the
branches ; — for the tarsi
and toes are moderately
long and stout ; and the
claws are arched and
acute. The wings are
of that form which en-
sures a powerful and
regular flight ; steady
without being heavy, and buoyant without wavering ; for
they are broad and of moderate length, and usually rounded at
their extremities. The tail, which is chiefly useful as a rudder
to direct the course of the Bird in rapid flight, is short in the
species that seek their food entirely on the ground, and long in
those which reside chiefly in trees and bushes. Their sight is
keen, and enables them to discern objects at long distances ; the
smell also, in some species, appears to be very acute. Their intel-
ligence is much above that of the generality of Birds ; they often
show a great deal of sagacity in their natural actions ; and they
possess an unusual degree of docility. They are usually of a
courageous and active disposition ; but are at the same time
extremely vigilant and cautious. — Their plumage is rather sombre
in most of the species inhabiting temperate climates ; but though
dark in hue, it is lustrous in its aspect ; and many species of
tropical climates exhibit considerable brilliancy and variety in
their colouring. The Crows and their allies have, more than any
other Birds, the power of adapting themselves to a variety of
circumstances ; by which the wide extent of their distribution is
partly accounted for.

394. The Crows, properly so called, have their bills rather

CROW TRIBE ; RAVEN, CROW, ROOK, ETC. 437

arched, and of great strength ; and they chiefly live upon the
ground, searching for carrion, worms, slugs, the larvae of insects,
&c., which they are of very great service in removing ; but,
when animal food is not to be had, they will devour grain. To

FIG. 238. — HEAD OF RAVEN

this group belong the Raven , the Carrion and Hooded Croics,
the Rook, the Jackdaw^ and the Magpie, among British Birds ;
of these the first is the largest and most powerful, and is at the
same time the most sagacious and courageous, evincing little dread
of other animals, and even of the larger Birds of Prey. It not
only feeds upon carrion and grain, but will also attack young
lambs, poultry, &c. In its general habits it is not unlike the
Eagle; for it resorts to the inaccessible ledges of rocks, tall trees,
&c., to construct its nest, and, except when domesticated, it
shuns the proximity of Man. — The Jays have a shorter bill,
which terminates rather abruptly ; they usually live in the forests
of various parts of the world, and feed upon fruits as well as
upon worms and grubs. — The Choughs have a longer and more
slender bill than most of the family ; and in some respects lead
us towards the Starlings. They nestle in rocks and towers, and
are shy and vigilant. There is only one species of Chough in

438 STURNID.E OR STARLINGS. BIRDS OF PARADISE.

Britain, usually known by the name of the Red-legged Crow ;
it is not a common Bird, being chiefly confined to some parts of
the western coast of England and Scotland ; in its food and
general habits it resembles the ordinary Corvidse. Other species,
inhabiting the Continent of Europe, resort to inland mountain
ranges, rather than to the shore ; and feed chiefly on insects,
berries, &c.

395. In the family STURNID^E, or Starlings, the bill is
usually lengthened, conical, and slender ; many of the Birds of
this group resemble Crows in miniature ; and in their internal
structure and general habits, they differ but little from the last
family. They feed rather upon worms, larvse, insects, and fruits,
than upon carrion ; and are very serviceable to quadrupeds, by
relieving them from the attacks of insects that infest them. They
are for the most part very docile, and may be taught to sing,
and even to speak with great distinctness ; though they have
little or no song of their own. To this family belongs the
Australian Bower Bird, whose remarkable habits will be noticed
hereafter; and also the Grakle of the Indian Archipelago, which
is so useful in restraining the multiplication of the Locust (p. 12).

396. In the family PARADISEID^:, or Birds of Paradise, the
bill is lengthened and more slender ; hence these Birds have been
placed by some in the Tenuirostral group. They are believed to
subsist chiefly upon fruits ; but insects also form part of their
diet. Little is known, however, of their habits ; for they are
confined to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, which
have as yet been very little explored by Naturalists. They
were formerly supposed to have no feet ; though their feet are
in fact rather strong and large. This strange error originated in
the circumstance, that the natives collect them to make ornaments
of their remarkable plumes ; and generally cut off the wings and
feet, to prevent those rigid parts from injuring the delicate
feathers. These plumes, which are of very different form and
aspect in the different species, usually consist of certain feathers
of the shoulder-tufts, or from the tail ; which are immensely
prolonged backwards, and are very thinly barbed, or even
entirely destitute of barbs. Their use is entirely unknown. In

BIRDS OF PARADISE; — HORN BILLS

439

the beautiful species represented in Fig. 239, the tail filaments
are wanting ; but three long filaments proceed from each side of

Fro. 239 — SIX-THREADED BIRD OF PARADISK.

the neck. In some species, these curious appendages are so
disposed, as to give to the Bird the appearance of having four
wings.

397. The last family of the Conirostres is that of BUCERID.E,
or Hornbills ; which is remarkable for the very large size of the
beak, and also for an extraordinary protuberance with which
this is generally surmounted. The beak is arched, and the
mandibles toothed at their edges : and when, as is sometimes the
case, the protuberance is wanting, the upper mandible itself
appears as if swollen or inflated with air. The form of the
excrescence varies much with age ; and in very young indivi-
duals there is no trace of it. When cut across, it is found to
consist of a very loose bony substance ; its interior being tra-
versed in every direction by osseous fibres, the interspaces

440

FAMILY BUCERIDJE, OR HORNBILLS.

between which are filled with air. All the bones of these

remarkable Birds are more per-
meated by air than are those of
any other known species ; even
the phalanges of the toes being
penetrated by it. The Hornbills
are confined to the warm parts
of Asia and Africa. In their
general habits, they seem to bear
a considerable resemblance to the
Crows ; their flight is sailing,
like that of the Corvidae; and
on the ground they advance by a
sort of leaping action, in which
they are assisted by the wings.
The larger species are very shy
and difficult of approach ; and
they perch on the branches of
lofty trees, where their vision can
command a wide range. They
are omnivorous in their diet; chasing mice, small birds, and
reptiles ; not disdaining carrion ; and resorting to soft vegetable
matter when no other is to be had. Like the Toucans, which
resemble them in the enormous size of the bill (Fig. 265), they
swallow their food whole, throwing it up into the air, and catch-
ing it as it falls. They breed in the hollows of decayed trees.

FIG. 240.— HORNBFLL.

TRIBE II.— DENTIROSTRES.

398. In this division of the order, the upper mandible has a
notch on either side of the tip, like that of the Noble Birds of
Prey ; and the diet is almost or completely restricted to animal
food, — these Birds being chiefly supported upon insects, worms,
£c., but the larger of them feeding also upon small birds,
reptiles, &c. The notch is not always deep, and is sometimes
altogether wanting ; in that case the place of the Bird is known

DENTIROSTRES.— FAMILY SYLVIAD^l.

441

by the correspondence of its general characters with those of the
truly toothed-billed species. But there are many whose charac-
ters are so intermediate between those of the Dentirostral and
the Conirostral tribes, that they may be placed either in' one or
the other, with considerable show of reason. In fact, there are
no such arbitrary divisions in Nature ; and it is in the study of
Birds, more perhaps than in that of any other class, that the
Zoologist feels a difficulty in strictly denning his genera and
families, on account of the gradual passage which is formed
between one and another, by intermediate species. It is inter-
esting to observe, that several of the families contained in this
tribe are evidently analogous to the principal families of the last.
Thus we have in the first instance the SYLVIAD^, or Warblers ;
a very large family of small Birds, which evidently represent
the Finches. The LANIAD.E, Shrikes or Butcher Birds, the
largest and most powerful of the order, are strikingly analogous
to the Crows. And the TURDID.E, or Thrushes , which are like
Shrikes with their peculiar characters softened down, may be
likened to the Starlings. Besides these, we have in this tribe
the MUSCICAPID^E, or Fly Catchers ; and the AMPELID^E, or
Chatterers.

399. The family SYLVIADJE, or Warblers, consists of small
Birds which have rather long and slender bills, with the tip
slightly curved and
toothed ; and it con-
tains a large propor-
tion of the species
which are most re-
markable for their
power of song. The
Nightingale (Fig.
241) will serve as a
good example of the
general aspect and
characters of the
group. These Birds
are solitary in their habits ; feeding on insects, worms, and berries ;

Fto. 241. — NIGHTINGALE.

442 FAMILY SYLVIAD^E, OB WARBLERS; NIGHTINGALE.

but preferring the former. Most of them, indeed, will not touch
vegetable matter, unless driven to it by necessity ; and, when
compelled to resort to it, they select the softer kinds of vegetable
matter, rather than the hard seeds, which are preferred by most
of the Fringillidae. The two families may be generally at once
distinguished by the form of the beak, the length and comparative
slenderness of which, together with the slight curvature at its
point (Fig. 242), are in striking contrast with the short, stout,

and straight conical bills
of the typical Fringillidae
(Fig. 223). But the
Larks and allied species
have bills so intermediate
in form between these
two, that they might be
placed in one or the other
family almost indifferently
(§ 388). The various

FIG. 242.-HEAD OF ACCENTOR MODULAR*, groups of SylviadsB are

OR HEDGK WARBLER. spread over all quarters of

the globe ; and are destined to restrain the multiplication of the
numerous tribes of insects, which would otherwise increase to
such an extent as to be destructive to all vegetation. As different
localities are assigned to different tribes of Insects, so is a diversity
of haunts assigned to the various groups of these Birds. Some
confine themselves to the higher branches of trees, some frequent
dense humid thickets, some hedgerows, some tall reed-beds, some
grassy lawns, pasture lands, and wide commons : — in each place
finding the insects most suitable to their appetites. A consider-
able number of those inhabiting temperate climates are migratory ;
arriving at their summer quarters at the time when their natural
food begins to abound ; and retiring southwards when their
food begins to diminish, and the air becomes chilly. This is
the case,*for example, with the Nightingale ; which passes its
summer in various parts of Europe, from South Britain and the
southern part of Sweden to the shores of the Mediterranean ;
and retires to Northern Africa, Egypt, and Syria, for the

WARBLERS, GOLD-CRESTS, TAILOR-BIRDS, STONE-CHATS. 44o

winter. As is the case with many other migrating Birds, the
males precede the females by several days. The distribution of
the Nightingale in Britain is very limited ; it is absent from
Devonshire, whose warm humid climate would seem peculiarly
favourable to it ; and it has been observed especially to frequent
those districts in which the cowslip abounds, — a flower which is
seldom or never met with in the county of Devon,

400. This extensive family is sub-divided into numerous sub-
ordinate groups, of which little more than an enumeration can be
here given. Thus we have first the proper Warblers, including
the Nightingale, Black-cap, "Wood- wren, Kinglet, See. ; which
are birds of small size and delicate conformation, feeding on juicy
fruits as well as on insects and larvae ; and seeking their food
chiefly among trees and bushes, seldom betaking themselves to
the ground. They form an elaborate nest ; lay from five to
eight eggs at a time : and in some instances rear two broods in

o oo

each season. The Kinglet, or Golden-crested Wren, is the smallest
of our native birds ; its length from
the tip of the beak to the end of the
tail being only 3f inches ; it derives
its name from the bright lemon-yellow
feathers on its crown, on either side
of which is a band of black. It is a
very lively little bird, chiefly inha-
biting woods and plantations of pine,
fir or larch.— Nearly allied to the War- FlG- *«— H«AD OF GOLD-

* CROWNED KINGLET.

biers are the Tailor-birds, whose curious

nest has been elsewhere described (ANIM. PHYSIOL., § 705). — The
Wheatears and Slonechats have their bills somewhat depressed (or
horizontally flattened) at the base, and the corners of the mouth
armed with a few bristles ; this conformation points them out as
insect-eaters. Their wings are lengthened and pointed ; and
their tarsi are long, enabling them to leap along the ground in
search of their food. They inhabit barren places in various
parts of the Old World ; and nestle in crevices of rocks, among
stones, or in holes in the ground. — The Accentors, or Dunnocks (of

444 SYLVIADJ3, OR WARBLERS; — ACCENTORS, TITMICE, &C.

which one species is commonly known in this country as the
Hedge-Sparrow, Fig. 242), have their bills rather straighter and
shorter, and somewhat compressed towards the edges. This
conformation shows their relationship to the Conirostral group ;
which is further manifested by their feeding on small seeds as
well as on insects. They are found in both hemispheres ; and
live chiefly on the ground, seeking their food near the shelter of
bushes, to which they retreat when disturbed, and moving with
a gait between leaping and walking. — The Titmice have short

conical bills, with the tips
not dentated, and the base
covered with a few bristles.
They are found in both he-
mispheres, and are very active
little birds, continually flit-
ting from branch to branch,
and suspending themselves
in all kinds of strange at-
titudes, whilst seeking for
insects among the foliage.
Though essentially insectivor-
ous, many of them also feed on seeds of various kinds ; and
some of them do not disdain carrion. They are petulant,
excitable, and courageous in their disposition ; defending
themselves with energy, and not hesitating to attack birds

FIR. 244. — GREAT TITMOUSE.

FIG. 245.— HEAD AND FOOT OF BLUE.HEAEED WAGTAIL.

much larger than themselves. — The Wagtails have a length-
ened and slender bill ; their wings are long and pointed ; and

WAGTAILS. LANIADJi, OR SHRIKES. 445

their tail, which they are continually shaking up and clown, is
long and narrow. Their flight is rapid and undulatory, and
buoyant and graceful in the highest degree. Their tarsi are long,
and they walk with great celerity ; the hind toe is armed with a
long claw. They frequent the margins of rivers and lakes,
inundated fields, &c. ; and they feed on insects and small seeds.
They nestle on the ground, among the herbage or in stony
places.

401. It is in the family LANIAD^E, or Shrikes, that we find
the largest and most rapacious birds of the Dentirostral tribe ;
and it is here, too, that we find the dentation of the bill most
distinct, as shown in Fig. 224. In their general habits, many
of the Laniadae resemble the Raptorial Birds ; for they sit
motionless upon their perch, watching for their prey (which con-
sists of small birds, quadrupeds, and reptiles, and the larger
insects), and then suddenly dart upon it. Many of them have
the curious habit of impaling the animals they have caught upon
a large thorn ; and then pulling them to pieces, and devouring
them at their leisure. They are said to lie in wait near the
insects which have been thus secured ; and to dart out upon any
Birds that may be attracted by them. Their rapacity causes
them to be much dreaded by the smaller birds of their own
tribe ; many of which exhibit as much alarm at their presence
as they would at that of a Hawk. They exhibit great courage
in defending themselves and their nests from more powerful
enemies ; and the parents show great attachment to each other
and to their young. It is said that when rendered more than
'usually rapacious by the wants of their hungry offspring, they
will even attack young rabbits, which they destroy by striking
the posterior part of the skull with their bills. Like the Rap-
tores, they build their nests at a considerable height from the
ground ; but they show much more art in their construction.
This group is distributed over both the Old and the New World;
but the species inhabiting temperate regions are usually migra-
tory. Three are natives of Britain.

402. The birds of the family TURDID^E, or Thrushes, have

446 FAMILY TURDIDJi ; — THRUSH, BLACKBIRD, &C.

arched and compressed bills, with a less strongly-marked tooth.
Their wings are usually long and pointed ; and their legs and toes
long and slender. Their flight is moderately rapid ; and their

FIG. 246. — HKAD OK SONG THRUSH.

advance on the ground is by leaping. Their food usually con-
sists of soft animal and vegetable substances, as fruits, worms,
and snails ; this we might infer from the comparative weakness
of their bills ; but there are some divisions of the family, in
which the bill is stronger, and the food consists of hard-cased
insects and grains. This family is very universally distributed
over the globe ; its several species being adapted to almost every
variety of climate* They generally frequent the fields and pas-
tures in search of their food ; but they nestle in thickets and
woods. Some species are remarkable for their power and variety
of song — as the common Thrush and Blackbird of this country,
and others for their power of imitating almost any sound what-
ever— which is the case with the Mocking-bird of America.
This extraordinary songster, which ranges from New England
to Brazil, cannot only imitate with facility the song of any other
Bird, with additional ornaments of its own ; but can utter almost
any other sound which it has heard, — such as the barking of a dog,
the mewing of a cat, the creaking of a wheel, &c., &$. The
Orioles are a group of this family, chiefly distinguished by the
greater breadth of the bill at its base. They are mostly tropical

ORIOLES. MUSCICAPID^E, OR FLY-CATCHERS. 447

Birds ; but one species inhabits this country during the summer,

FIG. 247. — HEAD AND FOOT OF GOLDEN ORIOLE.

and is commonly known as the Golden Thrush. They are gene-
rally remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, and for their
courageous disposition ; but they have no power of song. A
large proportion of their food consists of fruits.

403. The family of MUSCICAPID^;, or Fly-catchers, is much
more limited in its distribution ; comparatively few species being
found elsewhere than in the warmer portions of the globe. They
belong to both hemispheres ; but are most abundant in the New
World. They are characterised by the breadth and horizontal
flattening of the beak ; the base of which is armed with stiff
bristles, that serve to protect the corners of the mouth from the
struggles of the insects that are being swallowed. These cha-
racters are best seen in the Tyrants of South America ; which
are very bold and spirited birds, preying not merely on Insects,
but also on small Birds ; and pursuing" them very much in
the manner of the Shrikes. The smaller species, however, con-
fine their destructive powers to insects, and bear a general

448

FLY-CATCHERS. AMPELIDJS, OR CHATTERERS.

resemblance to the Warblers in their habits. They seldom

alight on the ground,
however, being almost
incapacitated from
moving upon it by the
shortness of their legs,
and the small size of
their feet. Two spe-
cies, the Grey and the
Pied Fly-catchers, are
annual visitants of
Britain ; arriving in
May, and departing
at the beginning of
October ; in which
interval (as is the case
with our other sum-
mer visitants) the eggs
are hatched, and the
young reared.

404. The AMPE-
LiDvE, or Chatterers,
have the same depressed
beak as the Fly-catchers; but it is somewhat shorter in propor-
tion, and slightly arched. These, also, are mostly found in the
warmer regions of the globe, especially in the New World ; and
they inhabit the low grounds or forests, feeding upon insects,
caterpillars, and sometimes upon fruits. Several species are
remarkable for their powers of song, which almost equal those of
the Nightingale. Only one species visits this country ; — the
Bohemian Chatterer, or Black-throated Waxwing, which derives
its name from a series of curious appendages to its wing-feathers
(Fig.^ 250), resembling red sealing-wax in colour. This is a very
handsome Bird, nearly equalling the Song-Thrush in size, and
resembling it in colour. It makes its appearance in Britain at
irregular periods ; visiting us generally during the winter in large

FIG. 248 — HEAD AND FOOT OF TYRANT FLY-CATCHER.

AMPELIDJS, OR CHATTERERS; — WAXWING. 449

flocks, and betaking itself to the hedges to feed on their berries.

FIG. 249. — HEAD OF BOHEMIAN CHATTERER.

It appears to be spread over the whole continent of Europe
during the winter, and to proceed northwards in the spring;
hence it has no right to the peculiar designation it has received,

FIG. 250.— WING OF WAXWING.

as the Bohemian Chatterer, or Waxwing. The use of the pecu-
liar appendages to its wing- feathers is altogether unknown.

450

TRIBE III.— FISSIROSTRES.

405. In this tribe, we find the characters of the latter families
of the preceding, carried to a much greater extent ; the bill being
extremely depressed, its gape enormous, and its angles being
furnished (in the typical forms) with very strong bristles. The
feet, too, are very short and weak, as these Birds feed chiefly on
the wing ; but their powers of flight are very remarkable. They
feed principally upon insects, which they pursue and capture in
the air ; but some of the larger species live on fish. In this
tribe are included the CAPRIMULGID.E, or Goatsuckers ; the
HIRUNDINID.E, or Swallows ; the TODID^J, or Todies ; the TRO-
GONID.E, or Trogons ; the ALCEDINID^:, or Kingfishers; and
the MEROPHXE, or Bee-eaters.

406. The Birds of the family CAPRIMULGID^J are, for the
most part, nocturnal in their habits ; and they have the soft
downy plumage, and the dingy colours, of the Owls. The bill
is here extremely remarkable for the width of its gape, which,
in the true Goatsuckers^ extends far beyond the eyes ; but it is at

FIG. 251.— EUROPEAN GOATSUCKER.

the same time extremely weak, and is incapable of seizing any-
thing that requires a firm grasp. The angles of the mouth are

FAMILY CAPRIMULGIDJE ; — GOATSUCKER. 45 1

furnished with strong lengthened bristles ; and from its interior
is secreted a stiff glutinous saliva. The instincts of the Birds
are in admirable accordance with these peculiarities of their
structure. They come forth in the evening, when the Swallows
and Fly-catchers have retired to rest ; and, like the Bats, range
with open mouths near the surface of the earth, skimming lightly
and rapidly with almost noiseless flight. But whilst the Bats
feed especially on the hard-cased insects (such as the nocturnal
Beetles, &c), the Goatsuckers especially seek the soft-bodied
Moths ; to which, in the downiness of their covering, the sobriety
of their colours, and their nocturnal habits, they bear so strong a
resemblance. These they engulph in their capacious throats ;
the viscidity of the saliva, and the bristles with which the cleft
is fenced, being sufficient to prevent their escape, when they
have been once entrapped. Almost the only sound that the
Goatsucker (often termed in this country the Fern-Owl) makes
in flying, is a peculiar humming noise, caused by the rushing of
the air into the mouth. The foot of this Bird is very curiously
constructed. The hind toe, as in the Owls, can be brought
forwards ; and the middle claw of the anterior toes is furnished

FIG. 252. — FOOT OK EUROPEAN GOATSUCKER,

with a long comb-like projection. The use of this peculiar organ
is not clearly ascertained ; by some it is affirmed that the Bird
employs it to clear away the fragments of insects, that may have
clogged up the fringe of bristles ; by others, that it strikes its
prey with its foot, and that this long serrated claw enables it to
hold the insect more securely ; and by others, again, that it uses
the instrument to clean its plumage. The Goatsucker is a solitary
Bird, and shy in its habits ; it seems to hide itself during the
day in fern brakes, and other spots where it can obtain shelter
near the ground ; and there the eggs, which are usually few in

452 GOATSUCKERS. — FAMILY HIRUNDINIU K.

number, are deposited without any nest. — There is but one
species of the whole family in Britain ; and this is a summer
visitant. Several others are found in America ; where one of
them is known as the Whip-poor- Will, and another as the Night-
Hawk. There is a species in Western Africa, which has a single
long-stemmed feather arising from the middle of each wing, and
extending considerably more than double the length of the Bird ;
these curious appendages have no vanes, except at their extremi-
ties. They strongly remind us of the feathered appendages of
the Birds of Paradise ; and, as with those organs, their use is
entirely unknown. — This family includes some Birds which are
more or less diurnal in their habits, and which depart in other
respects from its peculiar characters ; these are inhabitants of
tropical regions both in the Old and New World.

407. The HIRUNDINIDJE, or Swallows^ differ from the last
family in the closeness of their plumage, the great rapidity of
their flight, their diurnal habits, and the narrower gape of the
bill, which wants the fringe of bristles at its margin. The wings

are very long and nar-

j / row, consisting almost

J| / ^^^ entirely of the pri-

JH m ^^^ vnary feathers ; the

Ji&y^ tail is generally forked.

^Sf The feet are very short

^ajjjf ^f and slender, and are

^•^^^ ^ut I'ttk employed by

fc_ ^0jr the Bird, either for

Jap lESp^ perching or walking;

by far the largest por-
tion of its time being

FIG. 253.-SWALLOW. gpent on the wing They

are purely insectivorous in their diet ; and consequently all the
species which breed in cold or temperate regions, proceed south-
wards at the approach of winter. Their migrations are often
extremely long ; and are performed with very great rapidity, — a
large number usually congregating together for this purpose. This
family includes two groups, — the true Swallows, and the Swifts.

SWALLOWS AND MARTINS. 453

The latter have a very weak triangular depressed bill (Fig. 254),
and have all the toes directed forwards in walking ; they have
obviously, therefore, the nearest alliance to the Goatsuckers.

— The former have
a stronger bill ; and
the hind toe is in-
serted quite at the
back of the tarsus.
The Swallows are
remarkable for their
extreme activity, and
for the elegance of

FIG. 254.— HKAD AND FOOT OF WINDOW SWALLOW, OR , •

HOUSE MARTIN. tneir movements ;

and these qualities,

combined with the attachment which they show to human
habitations, render them universal favourites. They nestle in
holes ; or against the face of rocks, buildings, or trees, in which
case they construct a nest of mud, or of twigs held together by a
glutinous saliva. Three species are well known in this country
as summer visitants : — the Common Swallow ; the House, or
Window Swallow, or Martin ; and the Bank Swallow, or Sand
Martin. They resemble each other very closely in their
habits ; flitting about during the whole day in search of their
insect prey ; and especially frequenting the neighbourhood of
pools, and other spots where insects are numerous. The most
remarkable peculiarity of their flight, is the facility with which
they turn on the wing ; for they can double back, not merely at an
angle, but at a very acute angle, — almost, in fact, returning upon
their previous course ; and this without the least appearance of
effort. The two first of the species just named construct their nest
against the walls of buildings, building them up of particles of
earth attached by their glutinous saliva ; but the last burrows
into sand-banks, often to a considerable depth, — making the
entrance slope upwards so as to prevent the rain from beating
into it, and lining the interior with feathers and soft vegetable
fibres. The male and female work alternately at the excavation ;
one feeding, whilst the other is carrying it on.

454 FAMILY HIRUNDINID.E ; SWIFTS.

408. The Swift has probably the most imperfect feet of any
known bird. Owing to their extreme shortness, it is unable to
walk, except with a most constrained and hobbling gait, and
with the assistance of the wings ; and from the same cause, in
combination with the extreme length of the wings, the bird
cannot rise from a flat horizontal surface, since its body is not
sufficiently elevated above it to admit of the first downward
stroke of these members (§333). The Swift, consequently, never
settles on the ground ; but alights only in such places as present
a brink, or declivity, from the edge of which it can launch itself.
The toes are furnished with strong claws ; the direction of which
is such, that the bird can cling very securely even to a perpen-
dicular surface. It lives habitually, and pursues its prey, at a
greater height from the ground than the Swallows ; and it con-

FIG. 255. — HEAD OF BLACK SWIFT.

structs its nest at a more lofty elevation, choosing the crevices of
steeples and towers, and the crannies of rocks.
The nest is composed of twigs, straws, and
feathers, carefully arranged, but cemented
together by glutinous matter. The height
at which the Swifts fly, a good deal depends
FOOT OF BLACK SWIFT. on tne state Of the weather. When the
atmosphere is pure and dry, their flight is most elevated ;
for it is then that their insect prey rise highest on the wing.
When it is moist, on the other hand, they fly much lower;
and sometimes come down so far, as almost to touch the sur-
face of the water over which they skim. The amount of their

SWIFTS; — ESCULENT SWALLOW. 455

motion during the long summer days is immense ; for they
often pass sixteen hours in vigorous continued flight, chasing
insects not only for their own support but for that of their off-
spring ; and as the rate of their movement cannot be estimated
at less than 100 miles an hour, their day's performance must be
at least 1,600 miles. When their flight is continuous in one
direction, therefore, — as in their migrations, — we see how im-
mense distances may be traversed, with little more than the
average amount of exertion. The Swift is among the last of our
Swallows in its arrival, and the first to depart. Two species are
known in this country ; of which the Black Swift is by far the
most common, — the White-bellied or Alpine Swift being a rare
straggler. The Black Swift has perhaps the largest expanse of
feathers, in proportion to the size of its body, of any Bird ; for its
length is nearly eight inches, and its breadth across the expanded
wings eighteen inches, whilst the weight of its body does not
exceed an ounce.

409. The Swallows and Swifts of other countries bear a strong
resemblance to our own in their general habits ; one of those
most worthy of notice is the Esculent Swallow of the Javanese,
by which are constructed the remarkable nests, that are so much
valued by the Chinese as delicacies for the table. The material
of these nests is not yet satisfactorily ascertained ; by some it has
been supposed to be a kind of sea-weed, which, by boiling or
steeping in water, may be wholly reduced to a jelly ; whilst
others consider that a secretion from the stomach or salivary
glands of the bird itself constitutes a large part of it. Fish
spawn, again, has been said to have been found in the substance
of the nests. Probably various marine substances of a gelatinous
character are employed by these Birds, which inhabit deep
caverns on the brink of the sea, where they assemble in large
numbers ; and these are united by the viscid secretion formed by
the Bird itself, as in our own Swallows. The collecting these
nests is a proceeding of great danger ; but a large number of
persons are employed in it, as may be judged from the amount of
them exported to China. About 27,000 Ibs. are annually trans-
mitted from Java ; and these are of the best quality. A still

456

FAMILY TODID^ OR TODIES ; HOLLERS.

greater quantity is obtained from the Suluk Archipelago ; and
much also from Ceylon and New Guinea. It is calculated that
about thirty thousand tons of Chinese shipping are engaged in
the traffic ; and that the value of their freights is above 280, 0001.

410. The TODIDJE, or Todies, have a remarkable depression
or horizontal flattening of the beak ; which is blunt at the end,
and has a gape extending as far back as the eyes. They are
mostly inhabitants of tropical climates ; some groups of the
family being restricted to South America and the West Indies,
and others to India and the Eastern Archipelago. They are
Birds of gaudy plumage and rapid flight ; they feed on worms,
insects, small reptiles, &c. ; and some species also devour berries.
The Rollers are the only representatives of this family in the
temperate parts of the Old World ; and they depart considerably
from its general form, the bill being much longer and narrower
than in the Todies, and hooked at the tip ; so that, except in its
wide gape and depression near the base, it somewhat resembles
that of the Corvidae. One species, the Garrulous Roller, is an

occasional visit-
ant of this coun-
try; it is about
the size of the
blue- winged jay,
and of rather ele-
gant appearance.
Its habits are shy
and solitary; but
it sometimes as-
sociates with
Rooks and other
Birds, searching
the meadows and
ploughed fields

for food. This bird is much more common in the south of Europe,
but even there it appears to be a summer migrant from Africa.

411. The TROGONID.E, Trogons or Curucuis, have a short
conical beak, with the tip, and generally the margins, dentated

FIG. 256. — GARRULOUS ROLLER.

TROGONIDJE. ALCEDINIDJ5, OR KINGFISHERS. 457

or jagged. They are covered with very fine soft feathers ; and
many of them are beautifully coloured. Their habitation is
chiefly in low damp woods, in the tropical portions of America
and Asia ; they fly early in the morning, and in the evening ;
and they build in holes in trees. Their food consists partly of
insects, and partly of berries ; and whilst watching for the
former, they will often sit for hours at a time, perched solitarily
on the low branches of trees, in the most secluded portions of
dense forests. They seem to be stupified by the glare of the
sun ; and during the day they take so little notice of the pre-
sence of intruders, that they may be approached near enough to
be knocked down with a stick. Their flight is rapid whilst it
lasts, but cannot be long sustained. The Trogon resplendens of
Mexico is a most splendid Bird ; its whole upper surface being
of the richest metallic golden green ; and the tail being covered
by long soft plumes of the same hue. These plumes were made use
of by the ancient Mexicans as ornaments for their head-dresses.

412. The Birds of the family ALCEDINID^E, or Kingfishers,
have a long quadrangular* bill ; which, but for its wide gape,
might be thought to belong to the Conirostral series. The wings
are long ; and the feet very small ; the front toes are united at
their base, whence this group has been separated from the other
Fissirostres, by the title of Syndactyli^ which indicates the
adhesion of the fingers. The tail is short ; and the course in
flight seems rather to be regulated by the long bill. These Birds

for the most part live on fish, which
they transfix with the bill, making
use of it as a fishing-spear. The
plumage is generally of a brilliant
blue or green colour ; and very
smooth and glossy, so as not to be
easily wetted by water. Their nests
are situated in holes, in the banks of
the streams, from which the birds

FIG. 257.— KINGFISHER. , . , . _ , „„ ..

obtain their food. They are soli-
tary Birds in their habits ; not even the male and female of the

* Having four sides and angles.

458 ALCEDINID.E; — KINGFISHER, PUFF-BIRDS.

same pair being seen in each other's company, except at breeding
time. Their peculiar forms, bright colours, and quick motions,
have rendered them very noted Birds from an early period.
The only species of this family that inhabits Britain, is the
common Kingfisher or Halcyon ; which remains throughout
the year in this country, shifting its station occasionally along the
margin of the streams and lakes which it frequents, — the freezing
of the shallower waters in winter driving it to the deeper. It is
at once distinguished from any other of our native Birds, by its
large body, short and thick neck, disproportionately long bill,
diminutive feet, and abbreviated tail, When Watching for its
prey, the Kingfisher perches itself upon some overhanging
branch, with its long dagger-like bill pointed downwards, and
its eye intent upon the water beneath. Suddenly, it darts
downwards, plunges headlong into the water, and speedily re-
appears with a minnow or other small fish between its mandibles.
Without loosing its hold, it passes the fish through its bill until
it has fairly grasped it by the tail ; and then destroys its life, by
smartly striking its head three or four times against the branch,
after which it gulps its prey at one mouthful, except when it
bears it away to the nest for the supply of the young. The fish-
bones, scales, and other indigestible parts are afterwards disgorged
by the mouth. Various other species of Kingfisher are found
in different parts of the Old and New World. — This family also
includes the Puff Birds of South America, which feed on
insects ; pursuing their prey on the wing, in the manner of the
preceding families. They have a moderate-sized bill, furnished
with bristles at its base ; their plumage is smooth and dense,
and is puffed out into a round ball, whence their name — The
Jaeamars, also inhabitants of South America, have very long,
three-sided, pointed bills, and a brilliant metallic plumage ; they,
too, feed upon insects.

413. The last family of the Fissirostres is that of the MERO-
PID^E, or Bee-eaters ; these have long, slightly-arched beaks, and
long, pointed wings; and are mostly of a green colour. They
associate in flocks, and fly like Swallows ; pursuing Bees and
Wasps, on which they prey with impunity. They are found

MEROPIDJ2, OR BEE-EATERS. — TENUIROSTRES.

459

only in the Old World and in Australia ; and there is one species
which is an occasional summer visitant of the British Isles.
This is a very beautiful Bird, about eleven inches in length, and
eighteen inches across the wings ; its plumage is mostly of a clear
sea-green, with a golden-yellow neck, and a half-collar of black.
It is tolerably abundant in the south-east of Europe ; even there,
however, appearing only as a summer visitant. It builds, or
rather excavates, its nest in banks remote from human habita-
tions ; but in search of food it flies in the close vicinity of houses ;

and the boys of
Crete are said to
angle for it, by
attaching a small
fish-hook and line
to a Locust or
other large in-
sect, and by let-
ting the insect
fly whilst the
line is retained
in the hand. —
A considerable
number of Bee-eaters inhabit Africa ; and other species are found
in Asia and Australia.

FIG. 258. — COMMON BEE-EATER.

TRIBE IV.— TENUIROSTRES.

414. The Tenuirostral Birds have slender compressed bills,
frequently arched ; the tongue is often divided at the tip into
numerous filaments, and is used for sucking up the honey from
the nectaries of flowers ; the wings are usually of considerable
length, but tne feet are very slender, with {he exception of the
hind toe, which is usually robust, and serves to support the
animal whilst it is feeding. These Birds are for the most part
of small size and delicate form, and of great variety and brilliancy
of plumage. They are almost exclusively confined to the torrid

HH2

460 FAMILY TROCIIILIDyE, OR HUMMING-BIRDS.

zone, and to the southern hemisphere, where alone we meet with
the typical forms of the group ; the few species that are found
beyond these limits do not exhibit its peculiarities of structure
in nearly the same degree. In this tribe are arranged the
TROCHILID^E, or Humming -Birds, and the CINNYRID.E, or Sun-
Birds^ — the families in which the beak and feet are most
remarkable for their length and slenderness ; and also the MELI-
PHAGID.E, or Honey-suckers, the UPUPID^, or Hoopoes, and the
CERTHIAD^E, or Creepers, which are more or less aberrant in
their characters, and connect the group with others.

415. The family of TROCHILID^E, or Humming-Birds,
includes the smallest and most brilliant of the whole feathered
race (Fig. 225). They are also among those most adapted
for rapid flight ; the muscles of their wings probably exceeding
those of any other known Bird, when compared with the size of
the whole body ; and the plumage being very dense and compact.
From these characters, taken in connection with the weakness of
the legs, the Naturalist might at once infer that the Humming-
Birds pass the greatest part of their time on the wing ; and this
inference would be found to correspond exactly with their real
habits. The velocity with which they glance through the air,
and the rapidity in the vibration of their wings, — so great as to
elude the sight, — are most extraordinary; and when hovering
before a flower, they seem suspended in the air, rather than
sustained by the vigorous movement of their rigid pinions.
To this movement is due the constant murmur or buzzing sound,
from which the Birds derive their name. They show great
courage, and even pugnacity ; especially during the breeding
season, when under the influence of jealousy. When attacked
by larger Birds, they will dart themselves, as it were, against
the invaders ; directing their needle-like bills against the eyes of
their opponents, so as to become very formidable adversaries.
The tongue is one of the most curious features in their organisa-
tion ; being split into two tubular filaments, which are capable
of being darted out to a considerable distance, by an apparatus
very much resembling that by which a similar motion is given to
the tongue of the Woodpecker (§ 343). By means of this

HUMMING-BIRDS. CINNYR1D.E, OR SUN-BIRDS. 461

instrument, the Humming-Bird is able to secure both vegetable
juices, and the insects which are attracted by them ; and from
the large quantity of the latter, of which the remains are found
in its stomach, they would seem to constitute the principal
portion of its food. Indeed certain species of this family appear
destined to feed exclusively upon insects ; and resort to the
webs of spiders, which they rob of the prey that has been entrap-
ped by them. This beautiful tribe is entirely restricted to
America; being most abundant between the tropics, and not
usually extending far on either side. Some species, however,
migrate into the temperate regions on either side of the equator,
during the warm season ; and stragglers have been seen in very
cold situations. They are most numerous in the dense forests of
those regions, amongst the wild blossoms which vie with them-
selves in splendour ; but they also frequent the gardens of culti-
vated districts, and do not appear at all disinclined to the society
of Man. Their nests are very beautifully constructed; being
usually composed of vegetable down, such as that of the cotton-
plant or silk-cotton tree ; and being covered on the outside with
bits of lichen, leaves, moss, &c.

416. The family of CYNNYRID^E, or Sun-Birds^ may be
regarded as representing the Humming-Birds in the Old World;
almost rivalling them in brilliancy of plumage, and closely
resembling them in general habits. The plumage glitters with
metallic reflections ; but these do not vary in hue in different
lights, as do those of the Humming-Birds, — the same points in
which have sometimes the lustre of the emerald, and sometimes
of the ruby, according to the direction in which the light strikes
them. The Sun-Birds have a lengthened, arched, and finely-
toothed bill ; and this encloses a slender tongue, which is in some
species forked like that of the Humming-Birds, and in others
pencilled at its extremity. In either case, it serves nearly the
same purpose ; the food of these Birds consisting chiefly of
vegetable juices, and of the nectar of flowers, both of which are
sought in the depths of their blossoms. They are animated,
rapid, and graceful in their movements; their disposition is
lively, and their song agreeable. In this last respect they have
the superiority over the Humming-Birds ; whose voice is

462 MELIPHAGID.E, OR HONEY-SUCKERS. UPUPIDJi.

nothing more than a shrill cry. The Sun-Birds range over
Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean ; and certain species, also
included in this family, are natives of South America.

417. Iii the MELIPHAGID^E, or Honey-suckers, — a family
peculiar to New Holland and the neighbouring islands, — the
characters exhibited by the typical groups appear softened down,
as it were ; so that their conformation is less peculiar. Thus
the bill and legs are stronger ; and the powers of flight are less
conspicuous. The tongue is still adapted for suction; being
furnished with a pencil of delicate filaments at its extremity; but
it is not nearly so extensible as in the Humming-Birds and Sun-
Birds ; and the branches of the os hyoides do not pass round the
skull. Besides the juices of flowers, and the insects obtained
with them, many of these Birds feed on berries, for which their
greater strength of bill adapts them ; and one species is said to
pick holes in the bark, and to draw forth insects from these, by
means of its long tongue, very much in the manner of the Wood-
pecker. The Honeysuckers deposit their eggs in cup-shaped
nests, placed in the fork of small branches near the ground.

418. Of the more aberrant families of this order, we may
first mention that of UPUPID^E, or Hoopoes, which seems to
connect it with the family CORVID^E among the Conirostres ; for
whilst some of the species it includes are evidently allied closely
to the suctorial groups we have just been considering, others (and
among these the Hoopoe itself) bear a close relationship to certain
forms of the Crow family. They have all a general agreement,
however, in the form of their beak ; which is elongated and
curved, but stronger than in the preceding families. — TheProme-
rops and its allies have an extensible tongue, divided at the tip,
as in the Humming-Birds ; and probably feed upon the saccha-
rine juices of plants, insects, and soft fruits. Many of these
Birds are remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, and for its
singular arrangement. The Superb Promerops of New Guinea
is four feet in length, from the extremity of the bill to the end
of the tail ; the tail being extremely long in proportion to the
body, which is delicate and slender. In this respect it is analo-
gous to the Birds of Paradise, which are inhabitants of the same
region ; and it also resembles them in the metallic lustre of its

FAMILY UPUPID^E ; — PROMEROPS, HOOPOE.

463

feathery covering. The head, neck, and under surface of the
body are glittering green ; and the feathers which cover these
parts have the softness of velvet. The back is of a changeable
violet hue ; and the wings, which also possess a velvety texture,
appear, according to the light in which they are held, blue, violet,
or deep black. The feathers of the tail and of the wing-coverts
have the brilliancy of polished steel. — The Hoopoes, on the other
hand, have much of the habit and appearance of Crows. The bill

is used in the same
manner, and for the
same purposes, as
in the Hornbills ;
— namely, for seiz-
ing Insects, &c.,
squeezing them to
death, and throw-
ing them with a
jerk into the throat.
The tongue is short,
and destitute of the
power of extension.

FIG. 259.-EUHOPKAN HOOPOE. Tlle IegS and fee*

are larger than in

the preceding groups ; and are better adapted both for perching
and walking. The European Hoopoe is an occasional visitant of
Britain ; it is about the size of the Missel-Thrush, but is readily
distinguished from it, not only by its beautiful crest, but by the
length and slenderness of its bill, and the shortness of its feet. It
is said to frequent ploughed lands and pasture grounds ; which
it searches, like the Crows, for Insect-grubs, worms, &c. ; and it
breeds in hollow trees in secluded situations. It is more abun-
dant on the Continent of Europe than in Britain ; but its sojourn
in temperate climates is but short, as its arrival from warmer
regions is late, and its departure early. In Egypt and Northern
Africa it seems to be a perpetual resident ; and on the banks of
the Nile, where it is of great service in keeping down the multi-
plication of Insects, it becomes very familiar with Man, and
builds its nest in the immediate vicinity of his habitations. The

464 FAMILY CERTHIAD^E, OR CREEPERS.

name of the Bird seems to be derived from the peculiar sound, —
resembling hoop, hoop, hoop, very softly and rapidly breathed out,
— which it is continually uttering.

419. As the preceding group conducted us towards the
Conirostral Birds, so does the family of CERTHIAD^E, or Creepers,
lead us towards the Insectivorous division of the Perchers, —
especially the Warblers, with which some of them have a very
close relationship ; whilst other species exhibit an equally close
relationship to the Birds of the next order, Scansores. They are
for the most part adapted to live upon the trunks and branches
of trees ; and to feed upon the Insects which infest the bark. The
form of the bill varies in different species ; being long and slender
in some ; short and stout, and capable of penetrating very hard
substances, in others. Their plumage is usually of a dull brown
colour. The true Creepers have a long slender arched bill, enclos-
ing a long, narrow, sharp-pointed tongue, which is jagged near

FIG. 260.— HEAD, FOOT, AND TAIL, OF BROWN CREEPER.

its tip. The wings are long and rounded ; the feet are rather
slender, but the hinder toe is long and stout ; and the tips of the
tail-feathers extend beyond the webs, and are firm and pointed.
These Birds cling by their feet to the perpendicular surface
of trees, resting upon the stiff quills of their tails ; they creep
from the base to the summit of the stem, with short jerking

CREEPERS; — NUTHATCH. 465

movements ; and search every crevice as they ascend. They will
even pass round a horizontal branch, clinging to its under-
surface with their backs to the ground. When they have
ascended one tree and completely searched it, they fly off to the
base of another, to search it in like manner. When thus
employed, they show little timorousness ; and will permit them-
selves to be approached within a few feet. The species which
inhabits this country is a permanent resident, not a migrant ;
for its food is to be obtained at all seasons. It is very generally
distributed over Europe, and seems to be the same with the
Creeper that inhabits North America. — The Nuthatches have a
stronger, straighter and more conical bill ; they are for the most
part small Birds, and present a considerable resemblance to the

Tits (§ 400) in their
general habits, as well
as in their form, size,
and colouring. They
are remarkable for
restless activity, mov-
ing with extreme
quickness up and
down the branches
and trunks of trees,

FIG. 261.— EUROPEAN NUTHATCH. . . „

searching for insects

in the crevices of bark and among the leaves, clinging and hang-
ing to the twigs, turning with astonishing agility in all direc-
tions, and flying from one tree to another in search of their food.
Unlike the Creepers, however, they generally descend trees,
instead of ascending them ; and they usually sleep with their
heads downwards. They feed not only upon insects, larvae,
&c. ; but also upon acorns, chesnuts, and other hard fruits,
which they split or perforate with their strong bills, after having
fixed them in a crevice. There is only one species in Europe ;
and this is a resident in South Britain. It is a very amusing
Bird in confinement ; but must be kept in a cage entirely formed
of wire, as it speedily chips up wood with its bill. — Several other
species, more or less closely allied to the foregoing, are found in

466 FAMILY CERTHIAD.E ; WREN, LYRE-TAIL.

America ; which country seems to be the chief habitation of this

family.

420. We are 'probably also to include in this family the

Wrens ; which have a close alliance to the Gold-crests among

the Warblers, but seem on the whole more nearly related to

the Creepers. They have a
rather long and slender bill,
short wings, an elevated tail,
and feet of moderate size.
Their colouring is usually
dull, and not in any case re-
markable for brilliancy. They
live chiefly on or near the

FIG. 262 — EUROPEAN WREN. , , . „

ground, seeking for insects

and worms among the low bushes ; and they construct a very
bulky nest of vegetable substances, such as dried ferns, lined with
moss and feathers. They inhabit both Continents; and some of the
species are among the hardiest of all the smaller Birds, in resist-
ing extremes of cold. There is only one species of true Wren in
this country, and this is widely diffused over Europe ; all the
others at present known belong to North America. The Euro-
pean Wren is one of the most familiarly known of all our small
Birds, on account of the liveliness of its habits, as well as its
peculiarity of form. Its flight is effected by a rapid and con-
tinuous motion of the wings ; but it is not long sustained, for the
Bird merely flits from one bush to another, or from stone to stone.
Sometimes, however, it ascends trees, nearly in the manner of
the Creepers. The male has a very pleasing, rich, and mellow
song; which is principally heard in spring and summer, but
which is occasionally put forth in autumn and on fine days in
winter. — Allied to the Wrens is a very extraordinary Bird,
probably the largest of the Insessorial order, — the Mcenura, or
Lyre-tail of Australia. This is distinguished by the extraordi-
nary plumage of its tail, the feathers of which rise up on either side,
so as to present the form of an ancient lyre, — whence the name
given to the Bird. In other respects, however, it bears a strong
resemblance both to the Wrens and Thrushes ; except in regard

LYRE-TAIL. — ORDER SCANSORES. 467

to its large size, — equalling that of a Pheasant, which has caused
some Naturalists to place it among the Gallinaceous Birds. Its
food appears to consist principally of insects, centipedes, snails,
&c. ; in search of • which it strides with ease over loose stones,
and the sides of rocky gullies and ravines. It is further distin-
guished for its vocal powers ; for it possesses a loud full note,
which may be heard for at least a quarter of a mile ; and also
an inward warbling song. It is an extremely shy Bird, inhabit-
ing secluded situations, and taking alarm at the slightest unac-
customed sound.

ORDER III.— SCANSORES.

421. THE power of turning one of the front toes backwards,
so as to oppose two hind toes to the two front ones (Fig. 187),
is that which particularly distinguishes this order : but the
group thus formed scarcely appears to be a really natural one ;
since the families which possess this character differ from each
other in so many particulars, that they do not seem to have any
close connection. Their food, habits, aspect, and structure, are
so dissimilar, that no general statement is applicable to all of
them; except that the form of their feet, which gives them
great power of prehension, and thus enables them to cling with
firmness to their perch, renders walking more difficult; and
that, as they pass most of their time in trees, their powers of
flight are usually moderate. This order comprehends the fami-
lies of PSITTACID^J, or Parrots; RAMPHASTID^E, or Toucans ;
PICIDJE, or Woodpeckers; and CUCULIDJE, or Cuckoos.

422. The general form and structure of the PSITTACID^E is
known to every one, from domesticated specimens. They are
characterised by their short hard beaks, which are generally
highly arched, and surrounded at the base by a naked skin, in
which are the orifices of the nostrils. They are natives of tro-
pical and the warmer temperate regions ; and they live for the
most part upon fruits, seeds, honey, &c., seeking their food in
trees, or upon the ground. This family is a very numerous one ;

468 FAMILY PSITTACID^J — PARROTS, COCKATOOS, MACCAWS.

and is subdivided, chiefly according to the form of the bill and

Fro. 263.— BILL OF COCKATOO.

tail, into several groups, most of which are well known in this

country, by the domesticated
specimens which have been
introduced into it. — The true
Parrots have the upper man-
dible toothed, and longer than
it is high ; and the tail is
short, and even or rounded at
the end. They are found in
abundance in the tropical
forests of both the Old and
New World. — In the Cockatoos,
the bill is higher and curved
from the base ; the head large
and generally crested ; the
tail lengthened, broad, and
rounded. — The Maccaws have
a long tail, pointed at the end ;
the upper mandible is very
much hooked, so that the tip
descends far over the extre-
mity of the lower one ; and the
lower one is deeper than it is

long. They live in flocks in the forests of the New World ; and

FIG, 264.— MACCAW.

PSITTACID.E ; PARRAKEETS, LOVE-BIRDS. LORIES. 469

feed on fruits, maize, &c. — They are represented in the Old
World by the Parrakeets ; of which one group, inhabiting Aus-
tralia, is formed to live on the ground. — The Love-Birds are a
beautiful group, consisting of very diminutive species ; they are
found in both Continents, and are remarkable for having no fur-
cula. — The Lories are an Oriental group, having square tails, and
dense soft plumage, the colours of which are extremely brilliant ;
their beaks are comparatively feeble. Some allied species are
remarkable for their extensible tongue, furnished with a pencil
of filaments at its extremity ; by which they are adapted to suck
up the nectar of flowers, in the manner of the suctorial birds
last described : these are termed Lorikeets. — Each species of
this numerous family appears to have its own peculiar residence,
and a very limited distribution around it ; this may be partly
accounted for by the shortness of the wings, and the want of
powers of flight, which prevent their migrations; but it is
partly due also, to the adaptation of each to a peculiar set of
conditions, which would not be met with elsewhere. Notwith-
standing the differences in their plumage, the various members
of this family appear to be formed, as it were, upon one model ;
and this model differs so widely from that of all other Birds,
that many Naturalists have proposed to class the Parrots as
an order distinct in itself. They are remarkable for their edu-
cability, and for the degree of intelligence they display ; which
appears to be superior to that of most, if not all, other Birds.
They have, too, more prehensile power than the other feathered
tribes, and make more use of it ; being often seen, when in con-
finement, to grasp their perch with one foot, and to convey
their food to the mouth with the other. Further, although
their voice is naturally harsh and unmusical, they can be taught
to imitate the sound of the human voice in speaking and singing ;
in which great assistance is probably given by their thick
fleshy tongue, as well as by the complicated structure of their
inferior larynx. In their superior prehensile powers, their intel-
ligence, and their arboreal habits, the Parrot tribe seems to hold
in the class of Birds a situation analogous to that of the Qua-
drumana among Mammalia.

470 RAMPHASTID^E, OR TOUCANS. PICIDJ5.

423. The family of RAMPHASTID^, or Toucans, is distin-
guished by the very large, light, cellular bill, which is irregularly
notched at the edge; and by the peculiar long, feather-like
tongue. The beak is used by these Birds for a sort of masti-

FIG. 265.— BILL OP TOUCAN.

cation ; the food being crushed between the mandibles in several
different directions, before it is swallowed; and being then
tossed up into the air, and caught in its descent. The Toucans
live on fruit, small birds, and eggs ; they may be kept in confine-
ment upon a vegetable diet only ; but they show great excite-
ment when a small bird is presented to them. They are only
found in tropical America, where they live retired in the deep
forests, mostly in small companies. Their flight is straight but
laborious ; among the branches of trees, however, their move-
ments are easy and active. Their voice is harsh ; its only sound
resembling the caw of a Rook, abruptly terminated.

424. The PTCID.E, or Woodpeckers, have a wedge-shaped bill,
with the hard points and the sides compressed near the tip ; the
tail is usually lengthened and rigid, serving to support the Bird,
as in the Creepers ; in other species, however, it is short and
rounded. They search the trunks and branches of trees, especially
those which are decayed, for insects and larvas ; to procure which,
they drive off chips from the bark, or dig into the wood. When
thus engaged, they cling to the trunk or branch by their strong,
curved, and finely-pointed cawls ; and support themselves by
resting on their stiff tails. When the aperture has been made
with the bill, the insect or larva is withdrawn by means of the
extensible tongue (§ 343) ; which is barbed, towards its tip, with
small but strong filaments, that act like the teeth of a rake,

PICID.E, OR WOODPECKERS; — WRYNECK. 471

and is moistened with a glutinous saliva. These Birds are
generally distributed through both Hemi-
spheres ; but are most abundant in the
warmer regions, though some live on
the borders of the frigid zone. Their
residence is in the forests, where they
live solitarily, avoiding the society of
their own species. They nestle in
holes dug by themselves in decayed
trees; and deposit their eggs at the
bottom, usually without interposing
anything between them and the wood.
Four species are found in Britain, of
which one seems to be an occasional

FIG. 266 — WOODPECKER.

visitant. — The family contains nume-
rous other genera, more or less varying in structure and habits
from the true Woodpeckers, and distributed over the whole
surface of the globe. Some of these live principally on the
ground ; and feed on ants, &c. — Among them we may mention,
as a native of Britain, the Wryneck, which has a broad soft tail,
instead of a stiff one. Though its plumage is not brilliant, it
is one of the most beautiful of British Birds ; being of elegant
form, and having its colours disposed in a curiously-intricate
manner. In its general conformation, it bears a strong resem-
blance to the Cuckoo ; but it agrees with the Woodpecker in
the extensibility of the tongue, and in the mode in which it is
used for capturing insects. Its name is derived from its curious
habit of twisting its neck, with a very odd gesture, when
alarmed. Ant-hills are its favourite resort; for these supply
it copiously with the food of which it is most fond.

425. The family CUCULID^E, or Cuckoo tribe, consists of a
rather extensive series of Birds, for the most part inhabitants
of the warmer regions of the globe, and none permanently
residing in countries subject to severe winter cold. They have
a slightly-arched compressed beak, and a long rounded tail ;
their wings are usually of moderate length, and they fly with
rapidity ; their tarsi are short, and their feet rather adapted for

472 FAMILY CUCULID.E; — CUCKOOS, HONEY-GUIDES.

grasping a perch, than for climbing trees. They feed on insects,
worms, and soft fruits ; in procuring which they glide among
the twigs and foliage, leaping from branch to branch, and flitting
from one tree to another ; when on the ground, however, they
walk awkwardly, on account of the shortness of their tarsi. The
remarkable instinct of the true Cuckoos, of which one species is

FIG. 267. — GREY CUCKOO.

a regular summer visitant in Britain, has been already noticed
(§ 351). This Bird seems to be more universally spread over
the country, than any other of the migrating species ; for it is
found not only in open cultivated districts, but in the wood and
thickets of upland glens, and on bare rocky hills and bleak
moors. — Nearly allied to the Cuckoo, are the Cowcows of
America, which, like our own race, derive their names from
their peculiar notes. Their general habits are the same ; but
they build nests for themselves, and do not intrude upon others.
To this family also belong the Indicators or Honey-guides
of Africa ; which are celebrated for their curious habit of guid-
ing the natives to the nests of the wild Bees, enticing "them to
the spot by flitting before them, and reiterating a peculiar cry.
They have short, strong, and rather conical bills, resembling
those of the Sparrow. Their skin is very tough, and protects
them from the stings of Bees ; but these sometimes kill them by
attacking their eyes.

473

ORDER IV.— RASORES.

426. THE Birds of this order are for the most part adapted
to a kind of life entirely different from the preceding ; being
destined to obtain their subsistence from the vegetable world,
and to pass their time upon the ground, rather than among trees,
or upon the wing. Their food chiefly consists of grains and
seeds ; to obtain this they are furnished with short, blunt, and
robust nails, the use of which has obtained for them the appella-
tion of Rasores, or Scratckers. Their bodies are for the most part
bulky, and their legs strong ; their powers of flight are incon-
siderable, their wings not being of a size proportionate to their
bulk; but their legs are sufficiently long to enable them to
walk with facility upon the ground. The beak is usually
arched ; and surrounded at the base with a soft skin, in

FIG. 268. — NEPAL-HORNED TRAGOPAN.

which the nostrils are pierced. To meet the difficulty which
attends the reduction of their food, they are provided with
a large crop and a powerful muscular gizzard (Fig. 201) ;
by the action of which it is prepared for the digestive pro-
cess. The nests of these Birds are rudely constructed; and
are usually situated on the ground. Instead of associating in

474 ORDER RASORES; GENERAL CHARACTERS.

pairs, they are polygamous, — that is, each male is surrounded
by several females. The male takes no part in the construction
of the nest, or in the nurture of the young ; and these are hatched
with their eyes open, and with their bodies covered with soft
downy feathers, and are generally able to walk about in search
of their own food, as soon as they leave the shell. The Birds of
this order are for the most part domesticable ; but they show a
low degree of intelligence. Of all the feathered tribes, they are
the most useful to Man ; affording him a large quantity of
wholesome and delicate food. In their domesticated state they
multiply with great rapidity, if kept well supplied with nourish-
ment. The plumage of the males is generally gay, and often
possesses a degree of brilliancy rivalling that of the most splendid
among the Perchers ; they are frequently distinguished, also, by
possessing crests, or other ornamental appendages to the head.
The females, however, are of much more sober aspect.

427. There are many interesting analogies between the
Rasorial Birds, and the Ruminant tribes among Mammalia. In
the first place, the food of both is vegetable ; and in both there
is a peculiar provision for moistening it and reducing it, before it
is submitted to the true digestive process. The crop of the
Fowl is strictly analogous to the paunch of the Sheep ; both
being mere dilatations of the oesophagus, to receive the food as fast
as it is swallowed, and to retain it whilst it is being thoroughly
saturated with fluid. Again, these tribes correspond in their
low degree of intelligence, and in the facility with which they
are brought under subjection to Man ; we find in them by far
the greater number of the domesticated species, in their respective
classes. Further, they are alike in regard to the bulk of their
bodies, and the degree in which this may be increased by an
extra supply of food. They resemble each other, also, in the
tendency to variation which they exhibit, under the influence of
varieties in external circumstances ; giving origin to numerous
different breeds. And, lastly, they correspond in the possession,
by the males, of appendages to the head; which are rarely
possessed by Birds or Quadrupeds of other orders.

428. The family of COLUMBIA, or Pigeons, differs in many

FAMILY COLUMBIA, OR PIGEONS.

475

respects from the general type of the Rasores, and approaches to
the Perching Birds. The bill is formed upon the plan of that
of the Gallinaceaa ; but the wings, feet, and tail, more resemble
those of the Insessores ; and they live more among trees than upon
the ground. They associate invariably in pairs ; their nests are
constructed in trees, or in the holes of rocks ; and both parents sit
upon the eggs. They have more musical voices, too, than the gene-
rality of the Gallinaceous Birds ; although their vocal powers are
not great. The Pigeons are further remarkable for the peculiar
mode in which the young are fed. The crop, instead of being
an expansion of the oesophagus on the right side only, as in other
Birds, is double; and its walls are furnished with numerous
glands, which become developed in both sexes during the period
of incubation. These glands secrete a sort of milky substance, with
which the food that passes into the crop is moistened ; and the
food, saturated with this secretion, is disgorged by the parents
for the nourishment of their young. In Fig. 269 is represented
the double craw of the Pigeon;
one side (a) exhibiting its usual
aspect, and the other side (b)
showing its appearance in
Pigeons which have newly-
hatched young. — The true
Pigeons are found in most parts
of the World ; and in some they
multiply to an enormous extent.
In Britain there are four native
species ; the Ring-Dove, Cushat,
or Wood- Pigeon, which is the
largest of these; the Rock-
Pigeon, which is the original of
all our domesticated breeds;
the Stock-Dove, which, like the
Ring-Dove, chiefly frequents
coppices and groves ; and the

Turtle-Dove, which is the smallest, the most elegantly formed,
and the most beautifully coloured. Among the Pigeons of other

n2

PIG. 269.— PIGEON'S CRAW.

476 FAMILY COLUMBID.E, OR PIGEONS.

countries, there are none more remarkable than the Passenger-
Pigeons of North America ; the multiplication of which is so
rapid, and their destructive power so great, that they are obliged
to migrate from place to place in vast flocks, to obtain their food.
These flocks are often so extensive, that they occupy three hours
in passing any given spot ; and as the Birds fly with great
rapidity and steadiness, their rate is probably not less than sixty
miles an hour ; from which the length of a single flock must be
180 miles. It has been calculated by M. Audubon, that the
number of individuals in one of these enormous flocks, estimating
its breadth at a mile, and allowing two Pigeons to each square
yard (which is rather within than beyond the mark), amounts to
1115 millions; and that as each Pigeon daily consumes fully
half a pint of food, the quantity necessary for supplying this
multitude must be 8,712,000 bushels per day. When it is stated,
also, that great numbers of such flocks often follow one another,
darkening the air for several days in succession, the wonder is,
not that they should do great injury to the agriculturist, and
should be dreaded by him as a pest, but that they should any-
where find a sufficient supply of nutriment. Their breeding-
places are described as large forest-tracts, fifty miles in length,
by four or five in breadth; in which every tree is occupied by
from fifty to a hundred nests. — Allied to the true Pigeons on one
side, but presenting more points of resemblance to the Insessores,
are the Tree-Pigeons of Asia, Africa, and Australia ; they have
long wings, and live among trees, feeding on fruits and berries.
And, on the other side are the Ground- Doves, which have
short rounded wings, and which are mostly seen on the ground
seeking for grains and seeds; these are inhabitants of both
hemispheres.

429. The proper Gallinaceous Birds are divided into six
families; the CRACID./E, or Cur assow- Birds ; the PHASIANID^E,
or Pheasants ; the TETRAONID^E, or Grouse ; the CHIONID^E, or
Sheath-bills ; the TINAMID^E, or Tinamous ; and the MEGAPO-
DID.JE, or Megapodes.

430. The family of CRACID^E, or Curassows, is peculiar to
tropical America, living in the woods, building in trees, and

CRACIDJE, OR CURASSOW-BIRDS. PHASIANID^.

477

easily tamed. Many of them approach the Turkey in magni-
tude ; and their flesh in delicacy and whiteness surpasses that of
the Fowl or Pheasant. They feed on berries and on various
sorts of game. In many parts of South America, these Birds
have been long domesticated ; and there is no doubt that they

might be profitably intro-
duced into Europe, since it
has been proved that they
readily become habituated
to its climate, and that they
thrive as well, and breed as
rapidly, in confinement, as
do ordinary Poultry. The
Crested Curassow is one of
the most common Birds of
Guiana; living in the forests,
and on the borders of the
cultivated tracts; and build-
ing its nest on trees. It
congregates in large troops ;
and is extremely unsuspicious of danger, except when it has been
frequently molested. This species has been bred in Holland ;
and is common in a domestic state in Berbice, Essequibo, and
elsewhere ; it requires little care, but needs plenty of room, a
dry soil and sheltered situation, and trees on which to perch.
It is found also in Mexico and Brazil, — its range being thus
very extensive.

431. In the family PHASIANIDJE, or Pheasant tribe, the hind
toe is placed higher on the tarsus than the front ones, so that
only the tip touches the ground ; and the tarsus of the male is
generally furnished with one or more spurs (Fig. 271). This
group includes, with the Common Fowls, the Peacocks, Phea-
sants, Turkeys, Partridges, &c., of various parts of the world ;
all of which agree in these characters, and in their general mode
of life. The native country of the true Fowls appears to be
India, in the jungles of which these Birds abound, their food
consisting of grain, seeds, &c. They are characterised by the

FIG. 270.— CRESTED CURASSOW.

478 FAMILY PHASIANID^; FOWLS.

arching of the tail, and its lateral compression, and by the pre-
sence of wattles on the sides of the head. Of all domestic

FIG. 271 — FOOT OF COMMON FOWL.

Birds, the Common Fowl seems to have been the earliest reclaimed,
and is the most extensively spread. It has now branched out
into numerous varieties or breeds, many of them differing con-
siderably from each other ; thus one is destitute of tail, another
has the comb replaced by a tuft of feathers, another has five toes
on each foot, and the Bantam variety has the tarsi feathered
down to the toes. The Bankiva Jungle Fowl is probably the
species whence they were derived, this being found to breed
freely with the domesticated races. The period at which it was
introduced into our island is completely uncertain ; but we know
that it must have been very remote. The ancient Greeks and
Romans valued it for its pugnacity ; and frequently engraved its
figure on their medals. The taste for Cock-fighting has pre-
vailed, not merely among the ancients, but among several
modern nations ; the Chinese, the Sumatrans, and the Mussul-
man natives of India, are devoted to the sport, — if such it may
be called ; and in our own country, it has long ranked amongst
the amusements of the people. The diffusion of intellectual
knowledge, however, combined with the elevation in the popular

PHASIANID^E; — PHEASANTS, TRAGOPANS, TURKEYS. 479

tastes, is now rapidly putting an end to the practice in this
country. — The Pheasants are nearly allied to the Fowls ; but
they have the tail more lengthened, with narrow and pointed
tail-feathers ; and the neck is usually deficient in wattles. They
are found wild in various parts of Asia, where many very
splendid species exist, — amongst them the Argus (Fig. 272),
a native of Sumatra, Malacca, and the south-east of Asia, which

FIG. 272. — ARGUS PHEASANT.

is so named from the numerous eye-like spots on its feathers.
This beautiful Bird is little inferior to a Peacock in size, and the
middle tail-feathers of the male often exceed four feet in length ;
it is remarkable for the elongation and breadth of the secondary
quill-feathers, which spread boldly out at their extremities,
and form, when the wings are opened, a sweeping, fan-like
plume.— The Tragopans (Fig. 268) seem to connect the Phea-
sants with the Turkeys, being provided with large wattles,
which are characteristic of the latter. They are inhabitants of
the countries forming the northern border of India, and are
very splendidly coloured. — The Turkeys have a short and
rounded tail, and the head and neck bare of feathers. The

480 PHASIANID^E ; TURKEYS, PEACOCKS, PARTRIDGES.

wattles, which are larger in them than in any other birds of this
family, are loose flaps of skin, copiously supplied with blood-
vessels, and capable of being contracted or dilated at pleasure ;
they are greatly affected by the emotions of the animal, becoming
distended, and of a heightened colour, under the influence of
fear or anger, — probably in the same manner as the cheeks of
Man are reddened by the blush of shame or the excitement of
rage. Turkeys are natives of the forests of North and Central
America, where they feed on grain and other vegetable sub-
stances; and their introduction into Europe, therefore, has
been of comparatively recent date. — The Peacocks are at once
distinguished by the great length of the tail, and by the peculiar
arrangement of the numerous feathers, which enables the bird to
spread them out into a complete circle at will. They are inhabit-
ants of Asia, where they inhabit the woods and jungles, feeding
on grain, buds, &c. — The Partridges and Quails seem to be
the only birds of this family that naturally inhabit cold or tem-
perate regions, and that are common to both hemispheres ; but
even these are more abundant in warmer climates. Like the
other birds of this family, they prefer the neighbourhood of Man,
resorting for their food to cultivated grounds, and finding shelter
in the enclosed fields. They run with great speed ; and have a
strong, steady, uniform flight, performed by regular beats of the
wings, and producing a whirring sound; but they generally
prefer skulking, to avoid danger. They nestle on the ground,
and bear a numerous progeny; seldom breeding, however, more
than once in the season. They present, in several particulars of
their structure, an approach to the succeeding family, with which
they are sometimes classed.

432. The family of TETRAONID^E, or Grouse, may be regarded
as representing the preceding group in the northern parts of
Europe, Asia, and America, to which it is nearly restricted. It
has many characteristics in common with it ; but the wings are
generally long and acute, and the legs more or less covered with
feathers. The Grouse, of which only a single species — the
Black Cock — now exists in Britain, but of which there are several
on the Continent of Europe, are generally strong heavy Birds,

PHASIANIDJE; — GROUSE, CAPERCAILZIE, PTARMIGAN. 481

varying in size from that of a Turkey to that of a common
Pigeon. They live upon various kinds of vegetable substances ;
such as the soft shoots and leaves of trees and shrubs, grasses,
berries, and seeds. Although they generally gather their food
on the ground, some of them betake themselves to trees for that
purpose, and many occasionally perch. In their movements
they closely resemble the Partridges ; but they frequent different
localities, preferring low, damp, grassy or ferny places, in the
neighbourhood of woods or thickets ; and are more shy and
wary in their habits. — Besides the Black Grouse, another species,
known as the Cock of the Woods, or Capercailzie, was formerly
abundant in Scotland. Having been extirpated for the last half
century by the indiscriminate zeal of sportsmen, and by the
destruction of the forests it inhabited, many attempts have been
made to re-naturalize it, by introducing individuals from Norway;
in the mountainous parts of which country it is still plentiful.
This species is of considerable size, being not much inferior to the
Turkey in bulk, and more robust in proportion. Its food
consists of the leaves and buds of the fir tribe, together with
juniper-berries, cranberries, &c. ; the young are fed at first with
insects, and especially with the larvas of ants. This fine Bird is
often domesticated in Sweden, and will breed in confinement. —
The Ptarmigans are nearly allied to the Grouse, but are destined
to inhabit still colder regions. They frequent the open heaths
and hill-sides of the northern parts of the temperate zone ; and
one species, the Grey Ptarmigan, is only found near the summits
of the loftier hills. The chief peculiarity in their structure
consists in the covering of their legs and toes with thick hair-like
feathers, down to the very claws ; and this covering becomes so
thick and deep in winter, as to give to the leg the appearance of
a Hare's foot, — from which the scientific name of the genus,
Lagopus, is derived. The base of the beak, also, is covered with
closely-set feathers ; and these increase in the colder season, until
little more than the.point of the bill is visible. Their food consists
of mountain berries and heath-shoots in summer ; and of buds
and leaves in winter ; and at the latter season, the Birds are often
obliged to burrow under the snow for food and shelter. Two

482 GREY PTARMIGAN, SAND-GROUSE. CHIONID^E.

species are inhabitants of Britain ; — the Brown Ptarmigan, or
Moor-Fowl, commonly termed the Red Grouse, which is common
on the high moorland districts of the northern counties of
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland ; — and the Grey Ptarmi-
gan, sometimes called the Alpine Partridge. It is in this last

species, that the adaptation
to a residence among bleak
and snow-clad hills, is best
seen. Its mingled grey and
brown summer livery blends
so well with the hues of
weather-stained and lichen-
tinted rocks, that a whole
covey of them may be easily
passed without being no-
ticed ; and towards winter,
the colour of the plumage

273.-GBEY PTARMHMN. gradually disappears, until

it becomes of a pure white, not distinguishable from snow. — The
Sand-Grouse are distinguished by their long pointed wings, and
by the conical form of their tails ; their bills are short and highly
arched. They are natives of the sandy plains and rocky deserts
of Africa, Asia, and the southern districts of Europe. They are
Birds of powerful and rapid flight, and love to wander from place
to place, sweeping over the hot and arid solitudes in which they
find a congenial abode. Though they repair in large flocks to
localities in which they can obtain water, they are not truly
gregarious, but disperse themselves in pairs over their feeding
grounds. They are so abundant in some districts, that when
they rise on the wing, they seem at a distance like large clouds.
433. The CHIONID^E, or Sheath-bills, resemble the Grouse,
but have the nostrils surrounded by a kind of sheath. They are
inhabitants of the southern hemisphere, where they represent
the Tetraonidse of the northern. Some of them bear a strong
resemblance to the Snipes, Plovers, and Sand-pipers among the
Waders ; and the Sheath-bill of the Southern Ocean frequents
the shores, feeding on sea-weed and inollusks, and sometimes

TINAMID^E, OR TINAMOUS. — MEGAPODID^E. 483

venturing far out to sea, — whence it has been placed by some
Naturalists among the Natatores.

434. The family of TINAMID^E, or Tinamous, is peculiar to
the warmer parts of the world. The Birds which it includes
are intermediate in form between the Phasianidae and the
Bustards ; having the long neck and legs, and the small feet, of
the latter, and a naked scale covering the nostrils, as in the
former. The tail is nearly altogether wanting, and the wings
are short ; the hind toe is not at all developed, or has the form
of a mere claw. These Birds are mostly found among the low
brushwood or tall grass ; and their food consists of fruits and
insects.

435. The family of MEGAPODID.E, or Megapodes^ is peculiar
to Australia and the adjacent islands. It derives its name from
the large size of the feet of the Birds included in it ; which are
furnished with long blunt claws. One species ( Talegalla Lathami)
is termed by the colonists the Brush Turkey, on account of the
wattles with which its neck is furnished ; it is a large handsome
bird, inhabiting brushwood, and feeding on seeds, berries, and
insects. Its flesh is delicate and tender ; and it is capable of
domestication. Another species (Lelpoa ocellata), in which the
head is clothed with feathers, and crested, is known as the Native
Pheasant ; it is more slender and elegantly formed than the last,
and inhabits rather the sandy plains, feeding chiefly upon seeds
and berries. In the genus Megapodius, the form of the beak
and the general aspect strongly resemble that of the Fowl ;
whence the name Jungle-Fowl is commonly given to it. The
head is crested ; and the toes and claws are of great size and
strength. — These Birds, therefore, may be regarded as represent-
ing in Australia the different sections of the family Phasianidae,
which are wanting in that division of the globe. They are all
remarkable for the very curious mode in which their eggs are
hatched ; this will be described in the succeeding volume.

484

ORDER V.— -CURSORES.

436. IN the Birds of this order, we have a marked excep-
tion to the general type of the class. We are accustomed to
think of Birds as denizens of the air, — as endowed with the
powers of flight ; but the Ostrich and its allies, of which this
order consists, are exclusively terrestrial. They have wings, it
is true ; but these organs are but little developed, and are totally
incapable by their most energetic action, of raising the Birds
from the ground. The utmost that they can accomplish, is to
assist the powerful run, which is effected by the strong and
highly-developed legs. The whole locomotive energy is thrown
into the posterior extremities, the bones of which are large and
stout, and the muscles acting upon them exceedingly voluminous.
These Birds all agree in the flatness of the sternum, which is
entirely destitute of projecting keel (Fig. 274) ; and the pec-

Fio. 274. — STERNUM OP EMEU.

toral muscles which arise from it are extremely thin. In many
points of their conformation they approach Mammalia; thus
we find in the Ostrich a partial diaphragm, which is still
more completely developed in the Apteryx; and the ureters
meet in a sort of urinary bladder, instead of emptying them-
selves at once into the cloaca (§ 346). It is not only in the

ORDER CURSORES ; GENERAL CHARACTERS. 485

absence of wings, bnt in the character of the plumage, that the
want of adaptation of these Birds to flight in the air is mani-
fested. For, as already stated (§ 325), the barbs of the feathers
have so little adhesion to each other, that the air can pass readily
between them ; and in some species they are at such a distance
from each other, as to give the whole feather the appearance of
a stout branching hair. All these Birds construct their nests
upon the ground ; and in several species it appears that nume-
rous females lay in the same nest ; the eggs, to the number of
thirty, or even more, being chiefly sat on by the male.

437. As in most other very aberrant groups, the number of
species contained in this order is small; but they differ widely from
each other in form and structure ; so that they might be almost
regarded as types of distinct families. The beak, in particular,
presents singular varieties in shape ; and there is also a varia-
tion in the number of toes. The Cursores, with the beak
depressed (that is, flattened horizontally) have the longest and
strongest legs, and run with remarkable velocity: this group
includes the Ostrich^ properly so called, which has only two
toes; and the Rhea, or American Ostrich, the Cassowary, and the
Emeu, which have three toes, all turned forwards. Of the
Cursores with a compressed (or vertically-flattened) beak, only a
single genus is known, and this is now extinct, — the Dodo ; this
had four toes, one of them directed backwards. And lastly, we
find in the Apteryx a prolonged form of beak, resembling that
of the Tenuirostres, with four toes, of which the posterior one
is scarcely developed. Each of these species will be briefly
noticed.

438. In the Ostrich the wings are sufficiently developed to
accelerate the speed of the Bird, when running along the plains
it frequents ; although the plumage is lax and flexible. The
African Ostrich, which has been known from remote antiquity,
is the tallest of all Birds at present known to exist ; it attains
the height of six feet and a half, or even eight feet ; and is
chiefly distinguished by the presence of only two toes upon each
foot, one of them being much larger than the other (Fig. 185).
It inhabits the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa, everywhere

486

ORDER CURSORES; — OSTRICH, RHEA.

FIG, 275.— AFRICAN OSTRICH.

avoiding the presence of Man, but not disliking the society of

other animals. Flocks of
Ostriches are not unfre-
quently seen on the Great
Karroo of South Africa,
in company with troops
of Quaggas, all amicably
feeding together, and when
alarmed scouring the de-
sert with extraordinary
rapidity. The Ostrich is,
indeed, one of the swift-
est, if not the most rapid,
of all running animals.
When darting along in a
straight line, it leaves the
swiftest Horse far behind ;
and can maintain its speed
for several hours. Hence

it can only be captured by a number of horsemen, taking different
sides of the plain, or by darting across the path of the bird.
When driven to extremities, it will occasionally turn with fury
on its pursuers, and will inflict dreadful wounds with its claw.
The Ostrich has been domesticated, and behaves in this state with
much gentleness to those with whom it is familiar, though fierce
and violent towards strangers. It will permit itself to be
mounted, even by two full-grown men, and carries them with
great ease. Its food consists of the tops of shrubby plants,
seeds, and grain ; but it will swallow many other substances with
indiscriminating voracity, such as stones, sticks, pieces of
metal, cord, leather, &c. It is probably guided by the same
instinct in swallowing hard substances, that leads the Fowl to
swallow gravel ; for they are probably of use in assisting the
action of the gizzard in the reduction of the food. The curious
habits of this Bird in regard to the incubation of its eggs will
be hereafter detailed. — The Rhea> or American Ostrich, is a
smaller Bird, more completely feathered on the head and neck ;

ORDER CDRSORES ; RHEA, CASSOWARY. 487

the wings are rather more developed than in the African species,
and are terminated by a hooked spur ; and the feet possess three
toes, armed with stout claws, the central one bein|r much the
largest. Two species are now known ; the Nandu, which
stands about five feet high ; and Darwin s Rhea, which is much
smaller. Both these species are partly aquatic in their habits ;
the former is chiefly found upon the plains bordering the river
La Plata, extending through the South of Brazil to the North
of Patagonia ; whilst the latter takes its place in Southern
Patagonia.

439. The Cassowary is a native of Java and the adjacent
islands of the Indian Archipelago ; it is much inferior in size to
the Ostrich, its height when
erect being about five feet ;
but it is robustly built, and
very strong. In many im-
portant points of internal
structure, it differs from the
Ostrich ; particularly in the
conformation of its digestive
organs, which are not adapt-
ed for hard coarse diet, but
for eggs, fruits, and tender
succulent herbage. It is
not common even in its na-
tive islands ; but is some-
times kept tame there. The
head is surmounted by a
sort of crest or helmet, which
is supported by a bony FlG'

growth, resembling that of the Hornbills (§ 397) ', and, as in that
group, the appendage is not developed in the young Bird. The
exterior of the helmet is of the most intense blue, purple, and
scarlet, blended together ; and the lower part of the neck is fur-
nished with a pair of wattles. The pinions are very small, and are
concealed between the plumage ; they do not seem to be of any
service in assisting the motions of the bird. — The Emeu, a native

488

ORDER CURSORES ; EMEU.

of New Holland, and of the neighbouring islands, is nearly
allied to the Cassowary ; but differs from it in the form of the

FIG. 277.— EMEU.

bill, and has no helmet. It nearly equals the Ostrich in bulk ;
but is lower on the legs, shorter in the neck, and more thick-set
in the body. In its native regions, it is said to stand six or
seven feet high, when its head is fully elevated. The wings are
mere rudiments, destitute of plumes, and hidden beneath the
feathers of the body ; the cheeks and throat are nearly naked.
The feathers bear a strong resemblance to branching hairs ; the
laminae of the vanes being placed at a distance from each other.
Two stems arise from each root ; one of these may be regarded
as an increased development of the accessory plume, a sort of
little tuft which grows at the base of ordinary feathers. The
Emeu feeds upon leaves, fruits, and herbage ; for the plucking of
which, its strong straight beak, rounded at the point, is well
adapted. It is a timid and peaceful bird, trusting to its speed
for safety, except when hard-pressed ; it then strikes violently
with its legs. The flesh of the young is extremely delicate ; but

EMEU; APTERYX. 489

that of the full-grown Bird is coarse. It is pursued, however,
for the oil that is obtained from it ; of which the skin produces
six or seven quarts. The eggs are highly esteemed as food.
Though not an aquatic bird, the Emeu swims well, and has been
seen to cross rivers. There is good reason to believe that it
might be easily naturalized in Europe ; as it not only thrives,
but breeds, in captivity; and seems to be quite capable of
adapting itself to the climate of England.

440. Of all the Cursores, the Apteryx of New Zealand
appears to be the one which is most completely destitute of

FIG* 278. — APTERYX.

wings, and which departs most widely from the general type of
the class of Birds. Its wings are trifling rudiments, buried
beneath the general plumage of the body, and not to be dis-
covered without difficulty ; they are each terminated by a
hooked claw. The beak is long, slender, and slightly arched,
resembling that of the Curlew. The nostrils are not situated
near the base of the bill, as in most other Birds ; but are minute
narrow fissures, one on either side of its tip. The legs are
extremely powerful, and the tarsi thick and short ; the toes are
three anteriorly and one posteriorly, — the former robust and
armed with strong claws, well adapted for digging, — the latter
a thick sharp horny spur, which is used as a weapon of offence
and defence. There is no vestige of a tail. This extraordinary
Bird is principally found in the southern parts of the middle
island of New Zealand ; especially frequenting fern-brakes ; and
seeking shelter in clefts of rocks, hollow trees, or in deep holes

490 ORDER CURSORES. APTERYX ; DODO.

which it excavates in the ground. These holes are its breeding
places, and conduct to a deep chamber in which the Bird deposits
its eggs upon a bed of fern. The food of the Apteryx consists of
insects and particularly of worms ; the latter it procures by thrust-
ing its bill into the soil, when soft, and drawing them forth ; or
by striking with its bill and feet on the ground, when it is hard,
so as to disturb the worms, which it seizes as soon as they make
their appearance. Its habits are nocturnal; and the natives
hunt it by torchlight for the sake of its skin, which is much
valued by them, as a material for the chiefs' dresses. When it
is pursued, it elevates its head like an Ostrich, and runs with
great swiftness ; and if overtaken, it defends itself with great
spirit and vigour, and inflicts dangerous blows with its spur-
armed feet. This remarkable Bird seems likely to be soon exter-
minated from the very limited portion of the globe which it
inhabits at present ; and must then be numbered among the
races that have been.

441. It is a fact of no little interest, that this family should

FIG. 279.— DODO.

include two other very remarkable Birds, whose existence we
learn only from tradition, and from some very imperfect remains

EXTINCT CURSORES; — DODO, DINORNIS. 491

that have been preserved. One of these is the Dodo ; which
appears, from the records of history, to have once abounded in the
Mauritius, Bourbon, and some neighbouring islands; but of which
the only relics we at present have, are a head and foot in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, a foot in the British Museum,
a head in the Museum at Copenhagen, and a breast-bone in the
Museum at Paris; together with various representations, of
which a painting in the British Museum is probably to be re-
garded as an accurate one. The absence of wings seems to
determine the place of the Dodo to be in this family ; notwith-
standing the conformation of its bill, which is extremely vulture-
like. The body and feet bear a strong resemblance to that of
the Gallinaceous Birds ; in size it surpassed the largest among
them, its weight being between forty-five and fifty pounds. Its
flesh is described by the early voyagers as palatable; and it
seems to be to the destruction of large numbers, for the supply of
the crews of India ships touching at the islands just mentioned,
that we are to attribute the extirpation of the race. If it should
still survive, it would probably be found in Madagascar ; which
has been, as yet, but very insufficiently explored by Naturalists.
442. The former existence, in New Zealand, of a gigantic
race of Birds of the wingless order, of which some traditionary
accounts remained among the natives, has been recently proved
by the discovery in that country of a considerable number of
bones, presenting a very strong resemblance to those of the
Ostrich, but for the most part belonging to Birds of much larger
size. These all agree so well in their general characters, as to
be placed in one genus, to which the name of Dinornis has been
given by Professor Owen ; but their differences in size and in
other particulars appear sufficient to prove, thaty?f e distinct species
must have formerly inhabited New Zealand. The largest of
these must have stood at least ten feet and a half in height, and
probably more ; several of its bones are at least twice the size of
those of the Ostrich ; but the body seems to have been more
bulky in proportion, and the tarsus was shorter and stouter, in
order to sustain its weight. The bones cannot be regarded as
fossils ; but as the remains of animals that have existed at no

K K 2

492 DINORNIS. — ORDER GRALLATORES.

very remote period. It has been suggested by Professor Owen,
that, when the islands were first colonised by a party of Malays
driven thither in a storm (which was probably the mode in which
human beings first found their way thither), these birds were
eagerly sought, as being the only large animals that could serve
as food ; and that, by being improvidently destroyed, the whole
race was speedily extirpated. The preservation of its relative,
the Apteryx, might be due, he remarks, to its comparatively
small size, and to its nocturnal and burrowing habits. The
failure of food, resulting from the destruction of this race, may
have led, he also suggests, to the practice of cannibalism, for
which in spite of their many elevated qualities, the inhabitants
of New Zealand have been notorious.

ORDER VI.— GRALLATORES.

443. THE scientific name of this order, which literally means;
stilt-walkers, is, on the whole, more appropriate than the term
Waders^ which is commonly applied to it. For all the Birds
which it includes are remarkable for the length of their legs, and
especially of the shank ; whilst many can scarcely be said to be
aquatic in their habits. The length of the lower part of the leg,
and the absence of feathers at the lower end of the tibia, enable
them to wade into water of a certain depth, without wetting
their plumage ; and thus to procure fish, mollusks, aquatic
worms and insects, &c., by means of their bills, which are usually
supported upon necks of a length proportional to that of their
legs. They are for the most part slender in form ; and thus pre-
sent a marked contrast with the robust bodies of the two preced-
ing orders. The wings of these Birds are usually long, and
adapted for rapid flight. The tail, however, is short ; and when
flying, the Birds stretch out their long legs behind, to counter-
balance their long necks, and to serve as a rudder. They are
very generally diffused over the globe j and many of them make
periodical migrations of considerable length. They generally
construct their nests upon the ground, concealing them among

ORDER GRALLATORES. OTID.E, OR BUSTARDS. 493

the herbage ; and the young are usually able to run about as
soon as they are hatched. Considerable varieties of structure
present themselves in this order ; some of the birds which it con-
tains having a strong resemblance to the Gallinaceous and Ostrich
tribes ; whilst others have a close relationship with the strictly
aquatic Birds of the next order. They may be arranged under
the following families : — OTIOSE, or Bustards; CHARADRIAD^:, or
Plovers ; GRUID^E, or Cranes ; ARDEID^E, or Herons ; SCOLOPA-
CID^E, or Snipes ; and RALLID.E, or Rails. Of these, the Bus-
tards and Cranes are the least aquatic in their habits ; and the
Rails the most so.

444. The OTID^E, or Bustards, which are peculiar to the
Eastern Hemisphere and to Australia, have the stout body,
strong limbs, long neck and legs, and small feet, of the Ostrich ;
but the wings are longer. The beak is short, conical, and com-
pressed. They have three short toes united at the base, but no
hind toe. They frequent wide plains, extensive downs, and
open lands dotted with patches of shrubby vegetation ; and their
food consists of tender herbage, grain, and insects. They run
with extreme rapidity ; and, unless closely pursued, they seldom
take wing ; when obliged to rise, however, their flight is direct
and rapid. They are shy and watchful ; and not to be approached
without difficulty. Like the Gallinaceas, they are polygamous
in their habits ; and the eggs are deposited on the ground, with-
out any proper nest. There is a remarkable difference in the
size of the male and female Bustards ; the latter being, in some
species, not above a third of the bulk of the former. The males
are further distinguished by a gayer plumage ; but this is lost
in winter. The Great Bustard is the largest of all the native
Birds, not only of Great Britain, but of Europe. The male,
when full grown, is four feet in length, and not less than nine in
the expanse of its wings ; its weight is from thirty to forty
pounds. This noble Bird was once common in our island ; but
it is now rarely to be seen, except in the western part of Norfolk.
It is still common, however, in Spain, on the plains of Greece,
in some parts of Russia, and on the wilds of Tartary. In the
adult male, there is a remarkable membranous pouch beneath

494 BUSTARDS. — CHARADRIAD^, OR PLOVERS.

the skin on the fore-part of the neck ; having an entrance to it
under the tongue ; this pouch is of considerable dimensions,
being capable of holding seven or eight pints of water ; its use
is unknown. The Little Bustard, which also is a native of
Britain (though now, like the preceding, a rare Bird), is not
above one-third of the dimensions of the preceding; and its
wings are shorter in proportion. Other species of Bustards are
found in Africa and India ; some of them closely allied to those
just described ; whilst others partake of the characters of the
next family.

445. In the comprehensive family of CHARADRIADJE, or
Plovers, the legs are long, the toes short, the hinder one small or
altogether wanting (Fig. 207), and the wings long and powerful.
The bill is short, and arched towards the tip ; its covering is soft
at the base, but hard at the extremity. These Birds chiefly
frequent sandy unsheltered shores, and exposed commons or
moors. They congregate in flocks, and run with great swiftness ;
many of them are nocturnal in their habits. They belong, for
the most part, to the Old World ; and are abundant in temperate
climates. Of the true Plovers, we have a good example in the
Golden Plover, which is a Bird of Passage, spread over Europe,
Western Asia, and portions of North Africa. It breeds in various
parts of the British Isles ; but it is only found in the southern
districts during the winter, at which time its numbers are much
increased by arrivals from northern latitudes. As in the Bustards,
the winter livery differs considerably from the summer ; being
lighter in tint, and less varied. The flight of this species is rapid
and vigorous, and, during the spring and summer, is usually at
a greater elevation ; and the Bird is frequently seen in the air
performing the most graceful evolutions as it sails round and
round. It takes its repose during the day ; and goes forth at
night in search of its food, which consists of insects, larvae, slugs,
worms, &c. For these it frequents fallow lands in the autumn,
and then becomes very fat ; in which state it is much esteemed
as a luxury for the table. The Plover associates in pairs during
the breeding season ; but at other times indiscriminately in large
flocks. The eggs are usually deposited in the neighbourhood of

PLOVERS, DOTTEREL, LAPWINGS. 495

marshes or streams, under cover of the herbage. The common
English name plover, seems to be a corruption of the French
pluvier, or Rain-Bird ; its activity being the greatest when the
weather is damp. — The Dotterel is a smaller species, which
breeds in colder latitudes than ours, and winters in warmer, —
passing over Britain in large flocks, in its spring and autumn
migrations. It occasionally breeds on the mountains of the
northern parts of our island. The Dotterel has been accused of
excessive stupidity, and its name has even become proverbial on
this account, in the parts of Britain where it is best known ;
there appears no other reason for this, however, than, that being
fresh from wilds untrodden by Man, and not having experienced
persecution, it does not so readily take alarm, as do Birds that
have lived in nearer neighbourhoods to their great enemy. — The
Grey Plover is another species which visits our island in its
migrations. Its summer residence and breeding place is within
the arctic regions ; but it retires to the countries of Central and
Southern Europe, to pass the winter. Another species of Plover
is found in the northern and temperate parts of Asia and North
America.

446. The Lapwings are nearly allied to the Plover ; but
they have the hind-toe more developed ; and the head is orna-
mented either with a crest, or with fleshy wattles and protube-
rances about the base of the beak. They frequent open grounds
and plains, especially where the soil is moist ; and they feed on
insects, worms, larvae, &c. The name is derived from the arti-
fices employed by the Parent-Birds to decoy away intruders
from their nests ; for they will place themselves almost within
reach of their enemies, feigning lameness, and fluttering and
tumbling in the path before them, until they have drawn them
to a sufficient distance ; after which they will take wing and
escape. The Lapwing, or Peewit (so called from its note), of
this country is a very beautiful Bird ; and has an elegant crest
of long slender black feathers arising from its head. Between
the spring and autumn, it frequents moorland tracts in various
parts of Britain ; but as winter approaches, it assembles in vast
flocks, which betake themselves to the districts near the sea and

496 TURNSTONE, OYSTER-CATCHER. GRUIDJ2, OR CRANES.

the mouths of rivers, especially in the southern part of our island. —
The Turnstones have a short bill, thick at the base, and narrowing
gradually to the point ; and with this they turn over the stones
on the sea-shore, in quest of the small molluscous and crustaceous
animals on which they feed. The species which visits our shores
is very universally diffused ; being met with in almost every part
both of the northern and southern hemispheres. It breeds in
high latitudes, and migrates towards the tropics for the winter
season. — Another curious Bird of this group is the Oyster-Catcher;
the bill of which is long, hard, and compressed towards its point,
which is abrupt and chisel -like. With this instrument it opens
the shells of bivalve mollusks, such as mussels, oysters, &c. ; and
detaches limpets from the rock. It wades in quest of its food
amongst the shallows ; and swims where the depth forbids
wading. This Bird is distributed over the whole of the European
Continent, and a great part of Asia and Africa, frequenting chiefly
the low flat coasts, and laying its eggs on the bare ground amidst
the shingle, or such herbage as grows above high-water mark.

447. In the family GRUID^E,
or Cranes, the hind toe is rather
short ; and is much higher on the
legs than the front ones. The
beak is strong, hard, and rather long.
The wings are rounded ; and the
secondary feathers elongated into
drooping plumes. Instead of deriv-
ing their sole subsistence from the
worms, insects, &c., of lakes and
morasses, the members of this family
live in great measure on vegetable
food ; and frequent plains and newly-
sown lands, and cultivated districts.
—The Common Crane (Fig. 280)
is an inhabitant of a large portion of
Europe, Asia, and Africa; it was

f , , . . FJG. 280. — CKANK.

formerly a regular visitor to our

island, but seems to have been driven away by the advance of cul-

DEMOISELLE, TRUMPETER. ARDEIDJ3, OR HERONS. 497

tivation, which has deprived it of many of its most congenial loca-
lities. Its breeding places are in the north of Europe and Asia ;
but in its winter migrations it visits India, Egypt, and other parts
of Africa. Its aerial voyages are performed at a great height in
the air ; and its cries may be heard, when it is itself beyond the
limits of the sight. — The DemoiselU, or Numidian Crane, is
remarkable for the grace and symmetry of its form, and the ele-
gance of its deportment. It has a beautiful drooping head-crest
of soft loose plumes, which undulate with every movement. — In
America we find a curious species, the Trumpeter, which is
remarkable for its loud harsh voice, and for the attachment it
displays to Man, in a domesticated state. It equals a large fowl
in bulk, but has much longer legs and neck ; it is a native of the
forests of tropical America and the wild uplands, never visiting
fens or the borders of lakes or rivers. It walks and runs with
great celerity, but seldom takes wing, and rises in flight but a
few feet from the ground. The name of this Bird is derived from
the hollow internal sound, which it makes without opening the
bill ; this seems to be produced by the passage of the air from
the lungs, into two large membranous bags, which are given off
from the windpipe just as it enters the chest.

448. The family ARDEID^E, or Heron tribe, may probably be
regarded as the typical group of the order ; the Birds which it
contains being pre-eminently formed for wading. They frequent,
as a rule, the margins of rivers, lakes, or marshes ; and feed on
Fish, Reptiles, and even small Mammalia. The beak is usually
long, of considerable strength, and sharp-pointed. The toes are
generally elongated, and the hind toe upon the level of the rest,
so as to form a more extensive bearing to the foot. The wings
are large, and their flight easy; and many of the species are
adorned with elegant plumes and crests (Fig. 281). They usually
build and breed in society ; but wander alone in search of food,
and separate when the breeding season is over. Many subordi-
nate groups, differing considerably from one another, are con-
tained in this family ; of these we shall briefly notice the chief.
—The Common Heron is spread over the greater part of the
Old World ; and is represented by an allied species in America.

498

; — HERON, BITTERN, SPOONBILL.

In our island, and in temperate climates, it is stationary during

the whole year ; but it is migratory
in colder latitudes. It feeds chiefly
upon fish ; which it catches by
means of a sudden dart of its long
beak. Contrary to the usual habit
of this order, the Heron builds its
nest in the highest trees of the
neighbourhood it frequents. The
young remain in the nest for five
or six weeks, and are supplied with
fish by the parents. — The Bittern
is nearly allied to the Heron, but
it is of smaller size. It frequents
wild morasses and the oozy banks
of large rivers, where it crouches
among flags, reeds, and bulrushes.
Here, too, the nest is placed, on
some slight elevation ; but never
in trees.

This Bird is remarkable for the

" booming '* sound which it utters

during the breeding season ; at other

times its cry is different. When

attacked, it defends itself with

great resolution by means of its

formidable beak; throwing itself

upon its back like a Bird of Prey.

— Notwithstanding the unusual

form of their beak, the Spoonbills

also belong to this division of the

family. They live by the edges of

marshes, or near the sea where the

ground is shaded with thick bushes ;

and sally forth from their cover to seize the small fishes that

may approach the shore, and to pick up small mollusca, crus-

tacea, and aquatic insects. They nestle sometimes in lofty trees,

FIG. 281 — CRESTED HERON.

FIG. 282.— BITTERN.

SPOONBILL, BOATBILL, STORKS.

499

sometimes in close bushes, and sometimes in tall annual herbage.
Like most other Birds of
the banks and shores, they
are migratory ; moving
in the direction of the
poles during the breeding
season ; and back again
towards the equator in
autumn. The White
Spoonbill is an inhabit-
ant of most parts of the
Eastern Hemisphere,
and occasionally visits
Britain. The BoatUll
is a Bird of the shores
and marshes of Guiana,
Brazil, and other parts
of South America. In
the form of its bill, and FlG-

in its general habits, it closely resembles the Spoonbill ; but its
diet seems more restricted to fish.

449. The Storks have long, straight, robust, and rather
conical bills; their legs are long, and naked high above the
tarsal joint ; the fore toes are connected at the base by webs,
but the hind toe is placed higher. They frequent retired marshes
and borders of pools ; and feed upon frogs and other reptiles,
mice, worms, insects, and eels, with a voracious appetite. Their
habits are migratory ; and the range of countries through which
the same species, and even the same individual, is seen, is con-
sequently very great. Though rare in this country (probably on
account of the want of a congenial habitation), the Stork is very
common in Holland and Germany, where it approaches the
dwellings of Man without fear, and is treated as a welcome guest.
In many countries it is held sacred, on account of the benefit
it confers in the destruction of vermin ; and it even, like the
Vultures, cleanses the eastern cities of carrion and offal. It has
been well ascertained that, after a migration of many thousands

500 ARDEID^E; — STORK, ADJUTANT, IBIS.

of miles, the same pairs of Storks will regularly return to the
habitations they had previously tenanted. — The Adjutant-Stork,
or Aryala^ of India, is remarkable on several accounts. Its size
is very great ; its ordinary height in
the erect attitude being five feet; its
length from the tip of the bill to the
claws being seven feet and a half ;
and the spread of its wings being
fourteen or fifteen feet. The beak is
of enormous size and strength ; the
head is large ; and the neck propor-
tionally muscular. The head and
neck are nearly bare of skin ; and
from the under part of the neck
there hangs a large pouch of skin,
like a dewlap, which is capable of
being inflated, and which gives to
the Bird a very strange appearance.
The Adjutant is a native of the
warmer parts of India ; and is very
useful in removing noxious animals

a • i « i • i i • , i FJG. 284. — POUCHED ADJUTANT.

and carrion, which it devours with

great voracity. It swallows snakes, lizards, frogs, &c. ; as well
as offal of all kinds ; and in the craw of one of these birds has
been found a land tortoise ten inches long, together with the
entire body of a large black cat. In its wild state, it usually
lives in companies ; and chiefly frequents the mouths of rivers ;
it may be readily domesticated, but is very apt to display its
voracity by purloining articles of food, and makes no difficulty
in swallowing a leg of mutton, a fowl, or a hare, at one mouthful.
From this Bird, and from an allied species in Senegal, the
beautiful Marabou feathers are obtained. — The Ibises have long
arched bills, with a blunt point ; in their general conformation
and habits, they closely approach the Storks (Fig. 188). One
species, which inhabits Egypt, is celebrated as the Sacred Ibis of
the ancient Egyptians, who entertained it in their temples with
the observances of religious worship, embalmed it after death,

FAMILY SCOLOPACID.E ; SNIPES, WOODCOCK. 501

and sculptured it upon their monuments. Various reasons have
been assigned for these honours ; according to some, it was on
account of its utility in destroying serpents, — which seems
doubtful ; the more probable opinion is, that its appearance
announced the rise of the Nile, on which (as is well known) the
fertility of the country entirely depends.

450. The members of the family SCOLOPACID^E, or Snipe
tribe, are all inhabitants of marshy lands, the borders of swamps,
lakes, and rivers, and the sea shore. Their food consists of
insects, worms, slugs, aquatic mollusks, &c. ; and they usually
obtain it by thrusting their long bills into the mud or moist
earth. For this purpose they are provided with a very peculiar
distribution of nerves upon the bill, which render its exterior
sensible, especially towards its tip, the membrane of which is
almost pulpy ; and in many species there is a peculiar muscle,
that enables the Bird to separate the flexible points of the man-
dibles, so as to seize its prey the moment it is felt, whilst the bill
is still buried in the ground. The distribution of this family is
very general ; all the Birds which it contains being more or less
migratory in their habits ; and their powers of flight considerable.
These Birds so much resemble each other in their general con-
formation and habits, that it will not be necessary to do much
more than mention the principal species included in this family.
The Snipes have a long, straight, compressed, and slender beak ;
the legs slender and short ; the toes rather long, and not united
at their base. They mostly breed in
high latitudes, and pass southwards at
the approach of winter. The British
islands are thus visited by four species ;
the Common Snipe, which sometimes
breeds in our own country ; the Solitary
or Great Snipe, which is comparatively
rare ; the Jack Snipe, a much smaller

species; and the Woodcock, which also breeds in our islands.
This last Bird conceals itself in woods, thickets, or brakes,
during the day ; but proceeds at night to damp meadows or

502 SCOLOPACIDJE J SANDPIPER, RUFF, CURLEW.

swampy open ground in search of its food, of which earth-worms
constitute a very large proportion. Its voracity is very great ;
a single individual having been known to consume within
one night more earth-worms than half filled a garden-pot of
moderate size. — The Sandpipers and their allies constitute a
numerous group, which chiefly frequent saline marshes and the
sea-shore ; though some prefer the margin of inland lakes and
rivers. They associate in flocks, and perform periodical migra-
tions in large bodies. Their food consists of worms, Crustacea,
and small mollusks ; this is obtained rather from the surface than
beneath it, — the bill not being so sensitive as in the Snipes. They
undergo a double annual moult, the summer livery differing
remarkably from that of the winter. Many of the species are
very widely diffused ; the Marsh Sandpiper, for instance, being
found in the north of Europe and in the Indian Archipelago ; and
the Willet being common to Europe and America. One of the
most remarkable species of this group is the Ruff, of which the
female is known as the Reeve. It breeds in the fenny parts of
Britain, but departs southwards for the winter. Soon after its
spring arrival in the breeding-places, a ruff of beautiful long
plumes is developed round the neck of the male ; this disappears
at the end of June. It is remarkable for the diversity of its
colouring ; the hues not being alike in any two instances. A
very extraordinary degree of pugnacity is displayed by the
males at the commencement of the breeding season ; this does
not abate in confinement ; and such fierce conflicts are excited
by merely setting a bowl of food before them, that the results
are sometimes fatal to the weaker. The Curlew, Whimbrel, and
Godwit, also belong to this family ; their bills are long, slender,
and slightly curved ; and are used to obtain food from the mud
and oozy ground, in the same manner as those of the Snipes. They
mostly breed in the high northern latitudes, and visit us only for
the winter ; but they are known to breed occasionally in Britain.
451 . Nearly allied to the preceding, but classed as a distinct
family by some Ornithologists, are the Stilts, or Stilt-Plovers,
and the Avocet; which are remarkable for the extreme length and

STILT, AVOCET.

503

FIG. 286.— STILT.

slenderness of their legs, and for the peculiar form of their bills.

Although not numerous, the Stilts

are found in every quarter of the

globe ; the species which occasion-

ally visits England and western

Europe, being spread throughout

Asia and Africa, — another being

met with in Australia, — and two

others in America. They fre-

quent marshes, shallow-lakes, salt

pools, &c. ; and feed upon minute

shell-fish, insects, Crustacea, &c.

They construct their nests in the

vicinity of these ; six or eight

pairs uniting to build a sort of

platform, by which the nests may

be raised above the level of the water. The immense length of

their legs, and the wide spread of their toes, adapts them admi-

rably for wading ; and when they get beyond their depth, they

can swim with facility ; but they cannot walk with steadiness

upon hard ground. Their wings are long, however, and they fly

with great swiftness. In the Avocet, the bill is of extraordinary

length, and slenderness ;
and curves upwards to-
wards the tip. Although
this conformation renders
it unfit for being plunged
in the mud in search of
food, it adapts it most
admirably to skim its
* surface in the manner of
a light scoop ; and thus

FIG. 287-AvocET.

insects and worms on which the Bird feeds. The way in which
it avails itself of the harvest of worms and larvae, small crusta-
ceous and molluscous animals, the spawn of fishes, &c., which
are half imbedded in the mud at the bottom of the fens and

504 AVOCET. RALLTDJE, OR RAILS.

water-courses it frequents, has some resemblance to mowing. It
moves forwards with slow but rather lengthy steps ; and scoops
the ooze or mud in curves, right and left, as it proceeds. The
traces of its scoopings may be seen in the places where the Bird
has been feeding ; until they are effaced by the tide. In this
action it does not move the bill alone, but the whole body ;
stretching it on either side from the fixed point in the feet, so
that the bill has a very wide range, considering its length, which
is about 3^ inches. The Avocet was formerly not uncommon in
England ; but it is now rare, even in the fenny districts. It
abounds, however, in Holland; and is diffused over Europe,
Asia, and Africa. It is not properly a migrating Bird ; but
frequents the inland fens and saline marshes during the breeding
season ; and resorts to the neighbourhood of the shore in winter,
for a better supply of food.

452. "We have lastly to notice the family of RALLID^E, or
Rails; in which we find many of the characters of the next

order. The toes
are long and slen-
der ; the hind one
is placed on a level
with the others ;
and they often
have a membra-
nous margin along
their sides, by
which their surface
is extended for
swimming, or for
treading on oozy
ground (Fig. 288).
Their bodies, too,

FIG. 288.— FOOT OF COOT AND GALLINULE. i.

pressed ; so as to move with greater facility through the water,
or to make their way through closely-set herbage. The family
includes, however. Birds of considerable variety of structure and
habit ; from the diving and swimming Coot to the terrestrial

RAILS, GALLINULES, COOTS, JACANAS, ETC. 505

Land-Rail. " The Rallidse have to thread their way through
beds of thick-set stems of reeds, bulrushes, and other aquatic
plants, among which they seek shelter and concealment ; or, as
in the case of the Land-Rail, through the tall grass of the
meadow ; — and that so rapidly and noiselessly, that the field
seems traversed by magic. Hence they elude pursuit with
great ease, and can seldom be forced to take wing." — The Rails
have a lengthened, slender, and slightly-arched bill. They
mostly seek the shelter of tall herbage; the Wafer-Rails tenanting
thick reed-beds, on the borders of the marshes and ponds in which
they seek their food ; whilst the Land-Rails^ or Crakes frequent
the fertile meadows, and feed on vegetables and seeds as well
as on worms and insects. — The Gallinules, or Moor-Hens, are
more exclusively aquatic in their habits ; and are able not only
to swim with facility, but even to dive. They have a short and
straight bill, the cutting edges of the upper mandible falling over
those of the lower ; and their food consists of aquatic weeds and
corn-grains, in addition to aquatic larvae, worms, &c. — The Coots
have a strong, straight, somewhat conical bill; and a membranous
border to the toes. They swim and dive with great address,
and are not inactive on land. The British species is very gene-
rally spread over temperate Europe ; and is particularly abundant
in Holland. It frequents large sheets of water, on the very
edge of which it builds its nest ; and migrates in the winter,
when the inland waters are frozen, to the saline marshes, estua-
aries, &c., of our southern coasts. — The Jacanas and Screamers
of tropical climates, are usually placed in this family ; though
sometimes separated into a distinct group. They are remark-
able for the great length of their toes, and of their spine-like
claws, especially that of the hinder toe. Yarious species of the
Jacana, which in contour and habit resemble our Moor-Hen,
are spread over the tropical regions both of the Old and New
World. They are very light birds ; and the wide surface over
which their toes extend, enables them to walk over the
floating leaves of plants with great facility, so that they really
seem as if they were treading upon water. — The Screamers,
which are confined to South America, are remarkable not merely

506 ORDER NATATORES ; — GENERAL CHARACTERS.

for their harsh and discordant voices, but for the sharp hard
spurs with which the wings are armed at the shoulder joint.
These are very efficient weapons of defence; and enable the
birds to resist the attacks of the Snakes, which infest the places
they inhabit. One species is also remarkable for the possession
of a slender pointed horn, three or four inches in length, which
arises from the top of the head, and curves gently forwards.
The use of this singular appendage is unknown.

ORDER VII.— NATATORES.

453. The Swimmers or Web-footed Birds are, of all the
orders of the feathered race, the most easily distinguishable, on
account of the peculiar structure and position of their oar-like
feet. These members are placed very far back, so as to be more
efficient instruments for the propulsion of the body in water ;
but this arrangement gives to the Birds an awkward waddling
gait on land. The feet are always webbed ; — that is, the toes
are connected together by a membrane ; but this in a different
manner in the different families. In making the swimming-
stroke, the foot is first drawn forwards ; and the toes then close
together, and the webs fold, so as to offer to the water the least
possible resistance : but when the back-stroke is made, the toes
spread out, so as to present a large surface to the water. The form
of the body is boat-shaped, so as to move through the water with
little resistance ; and the neck is usually long, so as to enable the
Bird to plunge the head far down in search of its food. The tail is
generally short ; in some instances it is composed of rigid feathers,
and serves as a rudder to direct the Bird in the act of diving ;
but in some of the aquatic Birds it is very long, and guides them in
their rapid flight. The form and size of the wings, and the powers
of flight, vary greatly in the different tribes of this order ; some of
them are almost unsurpassed in the extent of their wings ; whilst
in others, these organs are so short as to be utterly useless in
flight, and can be only used as paddles for urging them through
the water. The plumage is dense, and is oiled by a secretion

AQUATIC BIRDS. ANATID^E, OR DUCK TRIBE. 507

from certain glands near the tail, so as to throw off the water
without being wetted by it ; and there is generally an under-
garment of down, which is especially thick beneath the body.
The food of these Birds usually consists of fish, mollusks, and
insects. They live much more upon or in the water, than on
land ; and resort to the shore chiefly for the purpose of building
their nests and rearing their young. One male usually asso-
ciates with several females, and leaves to them the cares of
incubation. The nest is rudely constructed, and is placed either
upon the ground, or upon the low vegetation in the neighbour-
hood of water ; and the young are hatched in a condition that
enables them immediately to run about and seek their own food.
— This Order includes five families ; — the ANATID^E, or Ducks ;
the COLYMBID^, or Divers ; the ALCID^J, or Auks; the LABID^E,
or Gulls; and the PELICANID^E, or Pelicans.

454. The ANATID^E, or Duck tribe, are distinguished by the
breadth and depression of the bill, which is covered with a soft
sensitive skin ; and by the separation of the hind toe, which is
not included in the web. The bill is furnished with a set of
laminae or horny plates at the edge of each mandible ; the use
of which appears to be, to filter the fluid taken up by the bill,
allowing the water to escape, and retaining the solid substances
included in it, — thus serving very much the same purpose as
the sieve of Whalebone in the mouth of the Whale (§ 214).
The selection and appropriation of the food is further aided by
the tongue ; which, instead of being slender and horny, is large
and fleshy. The gizzard is strong and muscular, and is lined
in many species by a very thick, tough, and almost horny coat,
so as to be capable of grinding down the shells of mussels and
other mollusks on which they feed. The Anatidse are dispersed
over every part of the globe, and are usually more or less migra-
tory in their habits. Their flight is vigorous and rapid ; and it
is generally at a high elevation. — As connecting this family
with the preceding order, we must notice the extraordinary
Flamingo; which, from the length of its legs and neck, would
seem to be a Wading Bird ; but which, in the complete palma-
tion (webbing) of its feet, and in the form and structure

LL2

508 ANATIDvE ; — FLAMINGO ; GEESE.

of its bill, would rather seem to belong to the Duck tribe.
The beak would closely resemble that of a Swan, were it
not bent down abruptly
in the middle ; and by
this change of form, it is
adapted to be used in a
position contrary to the
usual one, — the head
being so bent down, that
the upper mandible, not
the lower, is applied
to the mud and ooze in
which the Bird is seeking
its food. The edges of
the mandibles are lami-
nated, as in the Ducks ;
and the tongue is fleshy,
and beset with rows of
curved spines. The Fla-
mingoes are waders in
their habits, chiefly fre- FIG. 289— FLAMINGO.

quenting low muddy coasts, the mouths of large rivers, creeks,
lagoons, and inland lakes. The European species is seen on the
shores of the Mediterranean ; but it is more abundant in
Southern Africa, and on the shores of the Caspian.

455. Of the true ANATID.E, the Geese seem best adapted for
an inland residence ; their food consists chiefly of grain or grass;
and their legs are placed further forwards than in the Ducks.
The parent-stock of our domesticated breeds — the common Wild
Goose or Grey Lag Goose, is still extant in some parts of England,
though its numbers are diminishing in consequence of the exten-
sion of cultivation. It ranges over the greater part of the
temperate regions of the Old World; and is replaced in the
New by a species very closely allied to it, and equally domes-
ticable,— the Canada Goose. Still further north is found the
Snow Goose, which seems altogether confined to the Arctic
regions. — The Brent Goose is a much smaller Bird than the

GEESE ; SWANS ; DUCKS. 509

Common Goose, but has much longer wings ; and it traverses
greater distances in its migrations. Its breeding-places are in

FIG. 290— BRENT GOOSE.

the far north ; but it migrates for the winter as low down as
the middle of France, and has been known (when the season
has been very severe) to attack the corn-fields in such numbers,
as to produce the most serious injury. Nearly allied to this is
the Barnacle Goose; of whose origin from the Barnacles
attached to floating timber, &c., such strange stories are told by
the older naturalists. — The Swans are more purely aquatic in
their habits; but their diet consists chiefly of the roots of
aquatic plants, and other vegetable matter, which they obtain
by means of their long necks. They are distributed through all
parts of the world ; and are remarkable for their graceful appear-
ance upon the water, which is familiar to every one. — The Ducks
are destined to feed in great part upon animal matter, such as
insects and mollusks ; as well as upon vegetables and grains.
They are inhabitants of various parts of the world, and are
generally seen upon the lakes and rivers of the interior, though
they occasionally resort to the sea-shore. Ducks can all swim
and dive with facility ; they can all fly well ; and they can all
walk, though frequently with difficulty. The number of species
is very numerous ; and they may be arranged under two sub-
divisions, according to their habits, and the peculiarities of
structure which correspond to them. — The Ducks of the first
section live for the most part inland, and frequent shallow

510 DUCKS; — MALLARD; SCOTERS, ETC.

waters, very seldom immersing the whole body ; the feet are
placed farther forwards than in the other section, so that walk-
ing is easier ; the wings are longer ; the swimming- web is less
extensive, and the hind-toe is free. They employ their wings
and legs considerably in flying or walking from one part of the
shallow to another ; and their food consists of vegetable matter,
as well as of small animals. To this section belong the common
Mallard or Wild Duck (the origin of our domesticated breeds),

Fiu. 291.— MALLARD.

the Sheldrake, Teal, Widgeon, Muscovy Duck, and many other
species. — The Ducks of the second section are inhabitants of
deeper waters and of the sea. The hind-toe is included in the
membranous web ; and the expanse of this is considerably
greater; so that the swimming powers are much increased.
Most of them, too, are good divers; and obtain their food,
which consists of small crabs, shell-fish, and aquatic plants, by
immersing the whole body in water. The neck is shorter, and
not so much adapted for dabbling in water; the wings are
smaller and less powerful ; and the legs are placed far back.
This group includes the Scoters, Eiders, Pochard, Scaup, Gol-
den-Eye, and many other species more or less known upon our
coasts. The Scoters are altogether marine in their habits, and
obtain their food by diving. They chiefly live upon fish and
mollusks; and their flesh has a rank fishy taste. They are

SCOTERS I EIDER DUCK.

511

common on the northern shores of both continents during the
winter ; and retire to the extreme north to breed during the

Fio. 292.— BLACK SCOTER.

summer months.

Their plumage is for the most part dark, or
even quite black ; but it is very
close and stiff, so that it receives
no injury from immersion in
water. The Eiders are the
largest of all the Ducks, being
as weighty as the average of
Geese. They are remarkable
for the extraordinary coating
of down, with which their
bodies are covered ; and for this
their nests are sought with
eagerness by the Fowler, a con-
siderable quantity of it being
plucked off by the female for their lining. When the eggs and

FIG. 293. — EIDER DUCK.

5 1 2 EIDER DUCK ; — MERGANSER. — DIVERS.

their covering of down have been taken away, the female
will again lay; and when she has nearly stripped herself of
down, the male affords some of his. The breeding-places of
this Bird are situated for the most part in the arctic regions ;
and it is only an accidental visitor to our southern coasts. The
shores of Iceland, Greenland, Lapland, Spitzbergen, and those of
Labrador, Hudson's, and Baffin's Bays are its chief resorts.
During the summer months, these Birds are often met with
floating in pairs, or solitary, at a considerable distance from land,
though usually in the neighbourhood of ice. — The last division
of this family consists of the Mergansers or Gooseanders; which

FIG. 294.— MKRGANSER.

have narrow cylindrical bills, with the margin jagged like a saw,
and the tip armed with a hooked nail. They are inhabitants
of the arctic regions, breeding very far north in summer, and
migrating southwards in winter, — though few, even then,
advance far into the temperate zone. Their food consists prin-
cipally of fish, which they take by rapid diving ; also of small
crabs and insects. They seem never to feed upon land ; and to
be incapable of digesting vegetable matter of any kind.

456. The family of COLYMBID^, or Divers, have short wings;
and the legs are placed so far back on the body, that they always

COLYMBID^ ; DIVERS, GREBES.

513

assume an erect position when standing. The bill is compressed
at the tip, and pointed. Some of them even suspend their nests
on rushes at the surface of the water. The true Divers have

FIG. 295.— GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.

the feet large, all the front toes entirely webbed, and the hind
toe connected to the outer membrane of the inner one. — They
are found in the northern regions ; visiting the lakes of the
interior during the breeding season. They are rapid and power-
ful divers ; feeding on fish, and sometimes on vegetables. — The
Greles have their toes flattened, separate, but broadly fringed at
their edges by a firm membrane ; this division of the webbed
foot probably assists its action, in waters where there is a
good deal of vegetation. The quickness with which they dive
is extremely remarkable ; they have been seen to plunge with
sufficient rapidity to avoid the shot of a fowling-piece, by whose

514

GREBES. — ALCIDvE, OR AUKS.

FIG. 296.— LITTLK GREBE.

discharge they were alarmed; and then to come up at two hun-
dred yards' distance. Their pro-
gression on land, however, is ex-
tremely awkward ; for they are
obliged to lie upon the whole length
of the body, and then to shuffle
along like Seals, by the action of
their feet against the ground. Their
flight is feeble, but their wings give
much assistance in the act of
diving.

457. The family ALCID^E, or
Auks, have, like the Divers, very
short wings, and the legs placed
far behind the centre of the body,
so that they stand nearly erect ;
but they have the toes all united
with a web. They pass a large
part of their time in the waters
of the ocean ; and nestle upon its borders. The power of the
wings is extremely limited ; and in
one tribe they are only capable of
acting as paddles, to assist the mo-
tion of the Bird in the water. The
form of the bill varies in the dif-
ferent genera ; but it is usually
compressed, and the tip is very com-
monly hooked. In the Auto,
or Razor-bills, the wings are per-
fectly formed, though short; and
the hind toe is wanting. These Birds
are found in the Northern Ocean,
and appear in more temperate cli-
mates during the winter. They feed
on fish, small crabs, &c. They
never leave the water, except for the
purposes of incubation; and they breed on the ledges of

FIG. 297- — GREAT AUK.

AUKS; PUFFINS; GUILLEMOTS. 515

precipices, in caverns, and in deep fissures of the rocks. When
on land, they shuffle along in a very awkward manner ; and
sometimes use the bill to draw themselves upwards on the shore ;
but in water, they dash along with the ease and velocity of
fishes.— Nearly allied to the Auks are the Puffins, which are

FIG. 298 COMMON PUFFIX.

abundant on the shores of all the northern seas, breeding in holes
and crevices of rocks, but not resorting to the land at any other
time. They breed on many parts of our own coasts ; such as
Dover Cliffs, the Needles, and the Farn islands of Northumber-
land. Their nests are much sought by fowlers, both for the
eggs, and for the parent birds, the bodies of which are much
relished by many as food. — The Guillemots strongly resemble
the Auks and Puffins in their general habits ; but differ in the
form of the bill, which is straight and compressed. They are
thick and clumsy Birds, and are almost completely destitute of
the powers of walking and of flight ; but they dive with great
address, and catch their prey with much adroitness. The most
common species is known as the Foolish Guillemot, on account
of its habit of allowing itself to be taken, rather than quit its
single egg. This Bird is widely spread through the northern
shores, and performs a southern migration for the winter ; the
extent of which depends in part upon the place it has left. Thus,
the Guillemots which breed on the small rocky islands near the

516 PENGUINS. — LARID^E, OR GULLS; PETRELS.

coast of Britain, associating with the Puffins and other Birds of
the same family, pass the winter in the Mediterranean ; whilst
those that breed in more northern spots find a sufficient change
of temperature, by passing the winter on the British shores.

458. These Birds are represented in the southern Hemisphere
by the Penguins, an extremely remarkable group ; in which the
legs are placed so far back, that the body is quite upright when
the Bird is standing on the ground ; and the wings lose alto-
gether the power of raising the body in the air, being covered
with short rigid scale-like feathers, disposed in regular order,
instead of having their surface extended by prolonged feathers
(Fig. 189). The bones, unlike those of Birds in general, are
hard, compact and heavy, and have no apertures for the admis-
sion of air ; those of the extremities contain an oily marrow.
The Penguin is exclusively a Water-Bird, except in the breeding
season ; and, aided by its paddle-like wings, it swims and dives
with great facility. It is a courageous bird, although by no
means disposed to fight. From the presence of a large number
of the horny parrot-like beaks of Cuttle-fish in the specimens
dissected, it may be inferred that these animals constitute a large
part of their food.

459. The Birds of the family LARID^J, or Gulls, are entirely
oceanic in their habits ; being seldom found at any distance from
the sea, and for the most part living upon its surface, even at
vast distances from land. They are generally distinguished for
great powers of flight ; in which respect they present a remark-
able contrast to the Birds of the preceding family. But, on the
other hand, they are not good divers ; their food being such as
they may obtain at or near the surface of the water, rather than
in its depths. They are distinguished by the shortness or
absence of the hind toe, which is not included in the web ; and
by the compressed form of the bill. These characters are,
perhaps, best seen, not in the Gulls, but in the Petrels ; in which
the hind claw originates at once from the tarsus (like a spur),
without any toe ; and each mandible of the bill (which is longer
than the head) terminates in a sort of hard nail, of which the
upper one is abruptly hooked. The Petrels are inhabitants of

STORMY PETREL ; ALBATROSS. 5 1 7

the higher latitudes of both hemispheres, and are almost con-
stantly seen on the wing, only alighting on the ocean to take a
short repose, and rarely coming to land except during the breed-
season. They feed upon fish, mollusks, and floating garbage ;
and many species are in the habit of following ships in their
course, to partake of the refuse which is thrown overboard. The
larger ones will attack other Marine Birds, compelling them to
give up their prey, or even destroying and devouring them.
The Stormy Petrels, commonly known by sailors as Mother
Careys Chickens, are the smallest of all the web-footed Birds,
and are distributed over every part of the ocean. They seem
quite at their ease amidst the most violent storms, coursing over
the roughest waves, and mounting through the breaking surge
that threatens to overwhelm them. Hence they are so associated
in the minds of seamen with the idea of tempest, that their
appearance is regarded as the sure forerunner of a storm. — To
this group also belongs the gigantic Albatross ; which is one of
the largest of all aquatic Birds, — its spread of wing being some-

FIG. 299. — ALBATROSS.

times fourteen feet, and its weight twenty pounds. This Bird
is an inhabitant of the southern seas, where it is often seen by
the voyager sailing with outspread wings around his vessel, or

518

LARID.E; — ALBATROSS; GULLS.

sweeping over the surface in chase of flying-fish. It is extremely
voracious, being often seen to swallow at one mouthful a fish of
four or five pounds weight. Albatrosses are occasionally seen
in the northern seas ; being probably attracted thither by the
migrations of fish, whose shoals they follow. Notwithstanding
their large size, they are not courageous Birds ; being often
obliged to yield their prey to the Sea-Eagles, and even to the
larger Gulls. When they meet with abundance of food, they
gorge themselves until they are almost stupified, and seem to
doze upon the water ; and when alarmed in this state, they
discharge the contents of their stomachs, which are rendered
peculiarly offensive by the secretion of a quantity of acrid oil.
In these habits they strongly remind us of the Vultures.

460. The true Gulls have the bill of moderate size, with the
tip hooked and acute. They have a small hind-toe, elevated

from the ground. They
are found in every
part of the world, and
are omnivorous in
their habits; and in
these and other par-
ticulars, they may be
regarded as represent-
ing the Crows. Some
are found at a dis-
tance from the sea,
feeding on slugs,
worms, grubs ; but
the sea-shore is their usual haunt, and there they devour all
kinds of garbage that the tide brings up, together with such
living animals as they may obtain. They are extremely useful,
therefore, in removing a great deal of matter, that would other-
wise taint the air by its putrescence. Thus if a Whale is
thrown ashore in the Orkney Islands, its carcase is speedily
devoured by innumerable Gulls, which flock, in a wonderfully
short space of time, to any spot where food is to be had. They
frequent the neighbourhood of fishing villages ; and are very

FIG. 300. — COMMON GULL.

LARID^E ; SKUAS, TERNS. 519

serviceable in carrying off the refuse that is left by Man. — The
Skuas are a tribe of Gulls which are larger than the rest, and
which obtain their chief subsistence by robbing other marine
birds of their prey. The Common Skua, which is abundant on
many parts of the British shores, is not much inferior to the
Eagles in size and strength ; and as it is a courageous Bird, it
has no difficulty in keeping the smaller Gulls in subjection,
though it is not known to attack them for the sake of devour-
ing their bodies. It is accused, in the Orkney and Shetland
Islands, of attacking lambs ; but this is unlikely, — though it
may very probably feed on the bodies of such, as it finds dead
in the pastures. Although the claws are strong and crooked,
these birds cannot carry off anything in them, from the want of
an efficient hind-toe, against which to act. — The Terns, or Sea-
Swallows, have a lengthened, straight, and slender bill, rather

FIG. 301.— TBRN, OR SEA-SWALLOW.

curved at the tip ; their wings are long and pointed ; and their
tails forked. These birds are met with on almost every
sea-coast in the world, and occasionally proceed inland to the
lakes, &c. They are continually seen on the wing, and are some-
times found at very great distances from land. Their food con-
sists principally of fish ; some also attack the eggs and young
of water-birds; and others feed only on insects, like the Swallows,
which they so much resemble. They are migratory in their
habits, passing southwards in the winter, in large flocks. Some

520

PELICANID^E ; DARTERS ; TROPIC BIRDS.

of the Gulls, also, change their abodes periodically ; but rather,
it would seem, for the purposes of breeding, or for seeking their
food, than for a change of temperature.

461. The last family of Natatores is that of PELICANID^E, or
the Pelican tribe, the birds of which are at once distinguished
from the preceding by the length of the hind toe, and its union with
the rest in the web (Fig. 190) ; they are consequently excellent
swimmers, and they often perch upon trees. The edge of the
beak is generally toothed ; and their throat is dilated into a bag,
in which they keep the fish as they catch them, to feed their
young. — The Darters have a long slender bill, broad at the

base, but much compressed and
acute at the tips. They live in
small flocks ; perching on trees by the
sides of rivers, lakes, and lagoons,
at no great distance from the shore ;
and darting at fish with their long
slender bills and flexible necks.
They thus bear a strong resem-
blance to the Kingfishers. If alarmed
on their perch, they plunge directly
into the water almost as if shot,
swim for some distance beneath the
surface, and then re-appear and
dart into the air like an arrow.
Their nests are rudely formed of
sticks, in the tops of trees. The
Darters are found near the eastern coasts of the tropical parts
of America ; and on the western coast of tropical Africa. — The
Tropic-llrds have a long bill, broad at the base, with the edges
of the mandibles finely serrated. The general form of the body
is like that of- the Gulls ; but there are two narrow middle
feathers, which are prolonged far backwards. They are found
in tropical climates, where they catch the Flying-fish, &c., on
which they prey, — hovering over the water, and then suddenly
darting down upon any fish within their reach. They rarely, if
ever, settle upon the water ; but return every evening to their

FIG. 302.— DARTER.

PELECANIDJE; — PELICANS, GANNETS. 521

roosting-places on the shore. If far out at sea, however, they
will fly all night. Their movements are remarkably graceful.
It is in the Pelicans and their allies, that we find the pouch
beneath the mouth most developed. Their bill is long and
straight, and the tip hooked ; the lower mandible is composed
of two flexible branches united only at the point ; and the
cheeks and throat are bare of feathers. Their powers of flight
are very great ; and this seems due not only to the great extent
of their wings, but also to the large size of the air-cells, which
are more extensive than in any other Birds. The Pelican is an

FIG. 303. — PELICAN.

inhabitant of tropical climates, usually keeping near the shore,
but sometimes going inland for the purposes of incubation. It
hovers over the surface of the water, watching the shoals of
fish beneath ; then suddenly descends, sinking deep into the
water, and using its bill as a scoop, by which it entraps its
finny prey ; and rising to the surface by its own buoyancy,
immediately ascends again on expanded wings. Its pouch is so
capacious, that it will hold, when distended, two gallons of water.
The Gannet^ or Solan Goose, of our own coasts, — the Brown
Gannet, or Booby of the South Seas (so called from its apathy
in allowing itself to be taken or knocked on the head), — the

522 PELECANHXE; — CORMORANT, FRIGATE BIRD.

Cormorant, which ranges from Britain to America and India, —
and the Frigate, or Man-of- War Bird, of the tropics, are all

FIG. 304.— FRIGATE BIRD.

closely allied to the Pelican in structure, and resemble it in
habits. The last-named Bird is remarkable for its extent of
wing, and for its habit of tyrannising over the Gulls and
Boobies, from which it forces the prey they have captured.

CHAPTER V.

CLASS OF REPTILES.

462. THE class of Reptiles comprises all the cold-blooded
Vertebrated animals, whose respiration (in the perfect state, at
least) is aerial and incomplete. They have lungs, as Mammalia
and Birds ; but their circulating apparatus is always arranged
in such a manner, that a part of the venous blood is mixed with
arterial blood without having traversed the respiratory organ.
This mixture usually takes place in the heart ; which only
possesses a single ventricle, into which open the two auricles.
In their general form, Reptiles approach Mammalia nearer than
Birds ; but they offer in this respect many variations, as may
be seen by comparing together, a Tortoise (Fig. 326), a Croco-
dile (Fig. 329), a Serpent (Fig. 339), and a Frog (Fig. 342).
Their head is almost always small, and their body very much
lengthened out; some, as Serpents, are entirely destitute of
members, or have only traces of them ; but the greater number
of these animals, the Lizard and Frog for instance, have four
limbs, formed so as to serve for walking or swimming. Further,
these members are generally too short to prevent the trunk from
dragging on the earth ; hence, most Reptiles are accustomed to
crawl rather than walk ; from which circumstance it is, that
their name is derived.*

463. The skeleton in this class presents much greater varia-
tions in its structure, than in warm-blooded Vertebrata. All
the parts of which it is composed are wanting in one or another
group, excepting the head, and the vertebral column ; but the
bones of which these are composed, always preserve a great
resemblance to those of Mammalia and Birds, and are easily

* The Latin repto means, to crawl or creep.

M M 2

524 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

recognised as being analogous to them. The skull is always
small, and the face lengthened ; the lower jaw is composed of
several pieces, as in Birds ; and is articulated to a bone distinct
from the temporal (the os quadratum, or tympanic bone, § 326).
Sometimes even this bone is, in its turn, suspended to a mov-
able lever ; an arrangement which greatly increases the dilata-
bility of the mouth, as we shall presently see when speaking of
the deglutition of Serpents. The upper jaw is generally im-
movable ; but in Serpents it is articulated so as to execute cer-
tain movements. Amongst several reptiles, Lizards and Tor-
toises for example, the bones of the cranium are prolonged
laterally over the temples, in the manner of a shield, and thus give
to the head a considerable length. Lastly, the head is in gene-
ral but slightly movable ; and is articulated upon the vertebral
column by means of a single condyle. The bones of the trunk
present, in their arrangement and number, more considerable
variations. In Lizards, Crocodiles, and other Reptiles formed
on nearly the same plan, there are generally but few anomalies
to be remarked ; and we shall only notice, that the ribs are more
numerous than in Mammalia or Birds ; and that they protect
the abdomen, as well as the thoracic portion of the body.
Amongst Serpents, the sternum is wanting, as well as the bones
of the members ; and the ribs, whose number is very great, are
free at their lower extremity : we sometimes count more than
300 pairs of them, in the Colubers for example ; and they are so
movable, that the animal employs them as supports in its
crawling motion. The vertebrae also possess great mobility ;
and are articulated together by means of a rounded eminence on
each, received into a corresponding cavity in the next, and held
by the aid of ligaments ; so as to form a series of ball-and-
socket joints (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 629.) Among Frogs, the
skeleton presents a contrary arrangement ; for the ribs are
entirely wanting, whilst the sternum, on the contrary, is very much
developed, and is united with the bones of the shoulder, so as to
form a kind of girdle around the chest. But it is in the Tor-
toise tribe, that the conformation of these bones is the most
remarkable ; for they form two great shields, between which the

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 525

animal can generally withdraw itself completely. One of these
shields occupies the back, and is named the carapace ; the other,
situated under the body, is called the plastron. (Fig. 327.)
They are united together on each side, in such a manner as to
leave, in front and behind, an opening that serves for the pas-
sage of the head, feet, and tail. This kind of cuirass is only
covered by the skin, which, in its turn, is generally furnished
with large scaly plates ; and all the muscles and other soft parts
are enclosed in the great cavity thus formed.

464. The osseous framework of Tortoises, in order to present
this unusual arrangement, must necessarily, it is evident, be
greatly modified : we nevertheless find the same constituent parts
as in ordinary Yertebrata ; but several of these pieces have
changed their form and size. When we examine the carapace on
its upper surface, we see that it is formed by a great number of
bony plates, united together by sutures ; of these plates, eight
occupy the median line, sixteen constitute a longitudinal range on
each side of these, and twenty-five or twenty-six surround the
whole like an oval frame. It is difficult then to recognise the
nature of these bones ; but if we examine the carapace by its
lower surface (Fig. 305), we immediately see that the central
pieces, of which we have just spoken, are nothing else than appen-
dages of the dorsal vertebrae. On the under side, the body of each*
of these bones is found, in fact, to present its ordinary form ; as
is also the vertebral canal, which serves to lodge the spinal cord ;
but the upper portion of the walls of the ring which constitute
this canal, — instead of having its usual form of a simple trans-
verse arch of bone separated by a void space from those above
and below, and instead of being surmounted by a spinous process,
— is here spread out sideways as a disk, and is continuous without
interruption with the corresponding plates, belonging to the ver-
tebra which precedes, and to that which follows. These dorsal
vertebrae, thus become immovable, have attached to each a pair
of ribs, as in Man and most other Yertebrata ; but these ribs (c)
are so much widened, as to touch each other along the whole, or
nearly the whole, of their length, and are connected together by
sutures. Finally, the marginal pieces, which are articulated with

526

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

the extremities of the ribs, and which form a kind of border to
the carapace, evidently represent the sternal portions of these

FIG. 305.— SKELETON OF LAND TORTOISE, WITH THE PLASTRON REMOVED.

vc, cervical vertebrae ; vd, dorsal vertebras ; c, ribs ; cs, sternal ribs, or marginal pieces
of the carapace ; o, scapula ; cl, clavicle ; co, coracoid bone ; b, pelvis ; /, femur ;
t , tibia ; p, fibula.

bones ; which, in Mammalia, remain in a cartilaginous state, but
which amongst Birds are completely ossified. In some Tortoises,
even, they remain cartilaginous ; and in almost all these animals
several of them are supported at their edges upon the borders
of the Plastron.

465. The plastron is formed by the sternum, which presents
an extraordinary development, and is extended from the base of
the neck to the commencement of the tail, (Fig. 327). The

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 527

pieces which enter into its formation are nine in number ; and,
instead of being placed all in a row, the one after the other as
in Mammalia, they are, with the exception of a single one,
ranged in pairs, and soldered or articulated together, so as to
form a large oval plate. Sometimes this shield is entire and
solid through all its length ; sometimes it is divided into three
parts, of which the anterior and the posterior are slightly mov-
able ; and in other cases, again, it is hollowed out in the centre
like a frame. It is fixed on each side to the carapace, either by a
large bony prolongation, or by cartilages ; and, in front as well
as behind, an interval is left between the two, in order to allow
the head, the members, and the tail to pass out. The carapace
and plastron, as we have already said, are only covered by the
skin ; there is no muscle inserted on the external surface ; and
it is consequently in the interior of the trunk, that those of the
neck and members are fixed. The shoulder, instead of being
supported upon the external surface of the walls of the thorax,
is lodged in the interior of this cavity ; and the pelvis is, so to
speak, drawn up within the abdomen.

466. The bones of the shoulder (0, cl, co) are articulated with
the vertebral column, at one end, and with the sternum, at the
other ; so as to form a kind of ring between the carapace and
plastron. We there distinguish three branches, frequently
united together at an early period, and converging towards the
articular cavity of the humerus, which is formed by their meeting.
One of these bones (0), suspended to the vertebral column, is
evidently the scapula ; the second (co), which is directed back-
wards, is analogous to the coracoid lone of Birds ; and the third
(cl), which descends to unite with the plastron, is the represent-
ative of the clavicle. — The pelvis bears a great resemblance to
the ring formed by the bones of the shoulder. It is composed of
three pairs of distinct pieces ; — an iliac bone, which is attached
to the transverse processes of the posterior vertebrae of the cara-
pace ; a pubis, and an ischium, which are both directed towards
the plastron, and are united to their fellows.

467. In other Reptiles, the form of the bones of the shoulder
bears a greater resemblance to that which we have already seen

528 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

in Birds. The members do not in general present anything very
remarkable. Sometimes they are abruptly terminated at the
end, and can only serve to push the animal forward, as in Land
Tortoises for example ; sometimes they are terminated by slender
fingers, and furnished with claws, which allow the animal to
hook itself on by inequalities of the surface, and to climb with
facility ; the feet of the Lizard are formed in this way. In other
instances there is at the extremity of the fingers a particular
arrangement, which is singularly favourable to this kind of move-
ment ; thus, among the Hyla, or Tree-Froys (Fig. 343), we see
at the extremity of each of these organs a kind of rounded and
adhesive cushion, which allows the animal to fasten itself against
the substances upon which it climbs, even when their surfaces
are very smooth ; and among the Geckos (Fig. 331) the fingers
are very much expanded towards the end, and furnished under-
neath with little folds of skin, which appear to perform the
function of suckers, and which permit these hideous Reptiles to
ascend along the smoothest walls, and even to walk in an inverted
position upon ceilings. There are also some Reptiles whose
fingers are opposible, almost as in the hand of Man ; in fact,
among Chameleons (Fig. 330) they are united in two sets, which
spread out and approach each other, like the arms of a pair of
pincers, and which enable these animals to take a firm hold of
the branches on which they rest ; Chameleons have also a pre-
hensile tail, which makes them essentially climbing animals.
Finally, in other Reptiles adapted to a life more or less aquatic,
the fingers are sometimes webbed, as is seen in the posterior feet
of the Frog ; or are even transformed to a kind of flattened
paddle, unfit for walking, but very favourable for swimming.
The Turtles (Fig. 328) are the only Reptiles, which at the
present time possess this last form of structure ; but at more
remote periods of the geological history of the globe, our seas
were peopled with large animals provided with similar paddles,
and presenting as to the rest of the body great resemblance to
Lizards and Serpents ; some of these skeletons have been dis-
covered in the fossil state, and they have been designated by the
names of Icthyosaurus (Fig. 337) and Plesiosaurus (Fig. 338).

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES,

529

468. We are also acquainted with Reptiles possessing wings.
The Drayons (Fig. 306), animals nearly allied to Lizards, are of

FIG. 306. — DRACO VOLANS.

this number. They are distinguished from all other animals of
the same class, by the existence of a broad fold of skin, situated
along each flank, and much resembling the wings of Bats ; but
this, instead of being sustained and put in motion by the anterior
members, is altogether independent of them, and is supported by
the six first false ribs, extended horizontally in a straight line.
The animal makes use of them as a parachute to sustain itself in
the air, whilst it leaps from branch to branch ; but it cannot
move them with sufficient force to fly like a Bat or Bird. These

FlG. 307- — PtERODACTYLUS.

singular Reptiles, which inhabit India, realise therefore, up to a

530 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

certain point, the fabulous Flying Lizards and Serpents of an-
tiquity ; but the Dragons of zoologists, instead of being formi-
dable animals, like those of poets, are of very small size, and
only attack insects. — At the epoch in which lived the Icthyosauri
and Plesiosauri, of which we have just spoken, there also existed
a flying Reptile still more singular than the Dragon. From the
structure of its bony framework, we see that, like our Bats, it
had the power both of walking on the ground and of flying ; for
its posterior feet and all the fingers of its anterior feet, one alone
excepted, are formed in the ordinary manner ; but the second
finger of the anterior members, is more than twice the length of
the trunk, and probably served to sustain a fold of the skin
adapted to fulfil the functions of wings. In order to designate
this singular conformation, the generic name of Pterodactylus (or
finger- winged) has been given to these Saurian fossils.

469. The movements of Reptiles are generally less lively and
prolonged, than those of Mammalia and Birds ; as, indeed, might
have been anticipated from the more limited extent of their
respiration ; for there always exists, as we have already seen, an
intimate relation between the energy of the two functions. Their
muscles receive less blood, and present a pale hue. But it is
likewise to be remarked, that these organs preserve their irrita-
bility for a longer time, after they have been removed from the
influence of the nervous system. Among warm-blooded animals,
the destruction of the brain and spinal cord, or the section of a
nerve, immediately causes a complete paralysis, either general or
local ; and in a short time after this has taken place, it becomes
impossible to excite muscular contractions, by pricking or other-
wise stimulating the affected parts* Among Reptiles, on the
contrary, the power of executing movements under the influence
of these stimulants, is preserved, in similar circumstances, for a
long time ; thus the tail of the Lizard, detached from the body,
continues to move for several hours ; and it often happens, that
the limbs of a Tortoise which has been dead for several days are
seen to move convulsively, when the muscles are stimulated by
being pricked.

470. The brain of Reptiles is very little developed ; the sur-

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 531

face of the cerebrum is smooth, and without convolutions (Fig.
308). The two hemispheres (a) are oval, more or less
elongated, and hollowed out in the interior into a ven-
tricle, as in Birds ; there is no corpus striatum ; and
at their anterior part there are often observed olfactory
lobes of moderate size, situated at the origin of the first
pair of nerves. The optic lobes (b) are generally of
PIG 308 m°derate s^ze 3 an<^ are placed behind the hemispheres
on the same level. The Cerebellum (c) is, on the con-
trary, very small ; and (as in other oviparous Vertebrata) it does
not send beneath the Medulla Oblongata, that transverse pro-
longation or commissure, which aids in forming that ring around
it, which is possessed by Mammalia. The Spinal Cord (d)9
compared with the brain, is very much developed ; and it may
also be remarked, that the nerves are larger in proportion to the
size of the central parts of the nervous system, than in the higher
animals.

471. Most Reptiles have no special organ of touch ; and in
general this sense cannot be very much developed, on account
of the nature of their integuments. Some have, it is true, the
skin completely naked, and the epidermis scarcely distinct ; but,
in the greater number, it is covered by a thick epidermic layer
formed of plates more or less dense, consisting of horny or even
bony matter. The substance known under the name of Tortoise-
shell, and employed for such various uses, consists of the horny
plates which cover the carapace of a particular species of Turtle
(Fig. 328). Among Reptiles with a naked skin, the epider-
mis, being of slight consistency, is detached and renovated very
often ; and, among the animals of that class, in which it possesses
more consistency, it is also detached at different periods of the
year, to make room for a new epidermis. Sometimes this
species of moulting is partial, or, at least, the epidermis only falls
off by shreds ; but in other instances it is detached entire, and
preserves the form of the animal by which it is thrown off.
Serpents thus cast their skins several times a year.

472. The eyes of Reptiles do not present anything very re-
markable ; their position is, in general, almost the same as in

532 GENERAL CHARACTERS OP REPTILES.

Birds ; but we only rarely find a prolongation having an analogy
with the marsupium ( §. 340). The eyelids are generally to the
number of three, but are sometimes entirely wanting; in
Serpents, for example, the skin is continuous without inter-
ruption in front of the eyes ; and only presents in this point
sufficient transparency, not to oppose any obstacle to the passage
of light, — an arrangement which gives to these animals a re-
markable fixity of look. — The auditory apparatus is much less
complete than in Mammalia, or even than in Birds. The external
ear is almost always entirely wanting ; and the tympanum is at
the surface of the head, either uncovered, or concealed beneath
the skin ; sometimes there does not exist even a trace of it. The
cavity of the tympanum is usually but very imperfectly closed
in by the bones of the cranium, and communicates by a large slit
with the pharynx, of which it sometimes seems to be only an
appendage ; the small bones of the ear are generally wanting ;
and the cochlea is often rudimentary. — The nasal fossae are but
little developed ; and the sense of taste seems to be very obtuse
in all these animals. The tongue is sometimes thickened and
fleshy ; but in general it is thin, dry, very protractile, and cleft
towards the end ; Serpents and Lizards (Fig. 309) afford us
examples of this. The tongue of Frogs
presents a singular peculiarity j it is fleshy,
and fixed to the jaw by its anterior ex-
tremity, whilst its tip, usually directed

backwards, is free and can be turned forwards. Lastly, in the
Chameleon, this organ becomes a very remarkable instrument
of prehension ; for the animal can dart it out to a distance which
exceeds the length of its body • and it is terminated by a kind
of adhesive cushion, to which the flies and other insects, on
which this slow and awkwardly-moving reptile feeds, are easily
attached.

473. There are few Reptiles which live on vegetable matter
alone. Almost all are carnivorous, and, with some exceptions,
only seek a living prey, which they swallow generally without
dividing it ; hence the choice of the animals on which they are
nourished is regulated, so to speak, by the size of their mouth.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 533

It is always widely dilated ; but it is among Serpents, that it is
susceptible of being extended in the most remarkable manner ;
hence, these Reptiles can swallow animals larger than themselves.
The two branches of the lower jaw are not united ; and the sort
of peduncle or stalk which supports them (the tympanic bone, £,
n c ma Fig. 310,) is not only movable

itself, but is also suspended to
another portion of the tem-
poral bone, called the mastoid
bone (md), which is likewise
distinct from the cranium (c),
and is attached to it only by
ligaments and muscles. The

p pi mi °

FIG. 310.— SKULL OF RATTLE-SNAKE. branches of the Upper jaw (m\

c, cranium ; ma, mastoid bone ; t , tympanic are Only fixed to the inter-
bone ; m, upper jaw ; mi, lower jaw ; n, nasal ... . , ...

bones ; p and pi, pteregoid and palatine maxillary bone by ligaments,
bones- which permit them to be more

or less separated ; and the palatine arches (p) also participate
in this mobility. This peculiarity of structure corresponds
with the habits of these essentially carnivorous Reptiles.
They can support abstinence for a long time ; but generally,
when an occasion presents itself, they take into their stomach
such a great mass of nutriment, that, during their digestion
of it, they remain in a state of torpidity more or less pro-
found. They do not masticate their food, but their mouth
is armed with hooked teeth, adapted to retain their prey
within it.

474. Several Serpents, such as the Viper, the Asp, (Fig. 340),
the Crotalus or Rattle Snake (Fig. 341), and the Trigonocepha-
lus, present still more remarkable peculiarities of structure ; for
nature has endowed them with a venomous apparatus, by the
aid of which they can immediately kill, as soon as they bite
them, the animals upon which they intend to feed. Their poison
is secreted by glands, which greatly resemble the salivary ; and
which pour this liquid out by an excretory duct, in the neigh-
bourhood of one of the maxillary teeth of the upper jaw, whose
form is modified, in order to adapt it to the uses for which it is

534 GENERAL CHARACTERS OP REPTILES.

destined. These glands (0, Fig. 311) are placed under the
temporal muscles, so as to be compressed by their contrac-
tion ; and this tooth, which is
larger than the others, is some-
times pierced by a canal, and
sometimes only channelled by
a furrow ; but in both cases,
the canal which it presents is
in communication with the
s excretory duct of the poison-

FIO, 3ii.— POISON APPARATUS OF RATTLE- gland, and serves to convey the

v, poison gland, th^e duct terminates in Ven0m to the bott°m °f the
the large movable tooth, c ,• m, muscles wound which is made by the
which elevate the lower jaw, and serve also , . . ,.

to compress the gland ; s, salivary glands ; tooth itselt. IhlS venom IS one

n, nostrils. Of the most violent of poisons.

It is neither acrid nor burning ; it only produces on the tongue
a sensation analogous to that occasioned by a fatty matter, and
may be swallowed with impunity ; but, introduced in sufficient
quantity into a wound, it produces death with frightful rapidity.
Its power varies with the species, and according to the circum-
stances in which the Serpent is found. The same species appears
to be more dangerous in warm, than in cold or temperate coun-
tries ; and the results produced by its bite are much more severe,
in proportion as the poison flows more abundantly into the
wound. Further, these animals are much more formidable,
when they have fasted some time, and when their venom is
collected in a considerable quantity in the glands in which it is
secreted ; than when they have bitten several times, and there
can only remain a small quantity of this liquid. It has also
been remarked, that their bite does not act in the same manner
upon all animals. It appears that to Leeches, Slugs, the Asp,
the Common Snake, the Slow-worm, &c., the venom of the
Viper is not a poison ; whilst it produces death with great rapi-
dity in all warm-blooded animals, Lizards, and the Viper itself.
In general the quantity of venom necessary to produce death is,
other things being equal, in proportion to the size of the animal
wounded ; thus whilst a hundredth of a grain of the venom of

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 535

the Viper is sufficient to kill a Sparrow, six times as much would
be required to destroy a pigeon.

475. Before this poison can act upon the animal body, it must
be absorbed and carried into the current of the circulation ; hence,
when a bite has been received from a venomous reptile, the most
proper means to retard this absorption should be at once em-
ployed, in order to have time to draw out, or to destroy, the
venom deposited in the bottom of the bite. Compression exer-
cised upon the veins above the bitten part, and the application
of a cupping-glass upon the wound itself, are the most proper
means to retard the absorption of the poison ; but in order to
deliver the sufferer completely from the danger which menaces
him, it is necessary in general to enlarge the wound, and to
cauterise the bottom of it, either with a red-hot iron, or with
powerful caustics. Some internal remedies have also been
praised, such as ammonia, arsenic, &c. ; but on these means,
even if they are sometimes useful, no great dependence should
be placed. The South American Indians attribute still greater
virtues to a plant of their country, known by the name of
Guaco, or Micania guaco ; they assert that not only does the
application of the leaves of the guaco upon the bite of the most
dangerous Serpents, prevent all deleterious effect, but that the
inoculation of the juice of this plant prevents these animals
from biting the person thus prepared? The celebrated and
learned traveller, M. de Humboldt, thinks, after some experi-
ments, that the guaco may give to the skin an odour which is
repugnant to the Serpent, and which hinders it from biting. The
symptoms which accompany the action of the poison differ
according to the species and circumstances. Generally, the
circulation is extremely enfeebled, the blood loses the power of
coagulating, and the parts surrounding the wound become gan-
grenous.

476. The arrangement of the poison- apparatus varies amongst
these Reptiles. Sometimes the tooth which is placed at the end
of the canal that excretes the poison, is a movable hook ; some-
times an immovable tooth, simply furrowed. — Serpents with
movable poison fangs, are the most dangerous. These fangs

536 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

(Fig. 311, c) situated in the front of the mouth, are separate from
the rest, very sharp and pierced by a small canal, which termi-
nates near their extremity ; they are fixed upon very small
maxillary bones (Fig. 310), and these bones, supported upon a
long pedicle, are very movable ; so that when the animal does
not intend to use these poison-fangs, it turns them backwards,
and conceals them in a fold of its gum, from which it can erect
them at any moment. One of these long teeth is seen on each
side ; and there are, behind each of them, several germs, destined
to replace it, if it should break in the act of biting ; but the
maxillary bones do not bear any other teeth ; and there are only
seen in the roof of the mouth, two rows of palatine teeth, instead
of four ranges, as in the common Snakes. These last animals,
like several other Reptiles have the palate furnished with teeth,
as well as the jaws. — Some Reptiles are, on the contrary, com-
pletely destitute of teeth (Frogs, for example) ; and among
Tortoises, which are likewise destitute of these organs, the jaws
are covered with a horny plate, like the beak of Birds, having
cutting edges ; but there are never fleshy and moveable lips as
in Mammalia.

477. As the aliment does not require to remain in the mouth,
in order to be ground down there, the veil of the palate would
have been in general useless ; and in fact, it very seldom exists.
In the greater number «f these animals, the pharynx is not dis-
tinct from the mouth, and frequently there is not even any well-
drawn line of separation between the oesophagus and the
stomach, which is simple and of varied form. The intestines are
short and deprived of the coecal appendage ; the large intestine
differs little from the small intestine, and terminates in a cloaca,
into which open also the urinary canals and organs of reproduc-
tion.— Reptiles have, like the higher animals, lymphatic vessels,
destined to absorb the products of digestion, and to pour them
into the current of the circulation.

478. Their blood is not rich in solid matter; and the oval
corpuscles, which swim about in it, are of a greater size than in
any other class. The arrangement of the circulating system
varies ; but there is always a direct communication between the

GENERAL CHARACTERS OP REPTILES. 537

system conveying arterial blood, and that conveying venous blood ;
so that these two liquids mingle, and the body only receives
blood which has been imperfectly arterialised by the act of respi-
ration. The heart is almost always composed of two auricles
(Fig. 312), opening into a single ventricle. It follows from this

Pulmonary artery ^^T" Pulmonary arte^
Pulmonary vein Pulmonary vein.

" Left auricle.

Venacava ....... r ^ Single ventricle.

Left aortic trunk-

Right aorta

•

Abdominal aorta.

FTG. 312— HEART OF TORTOISE.

that the arterial blood coming from the lungs, received into the
left auricle, and the venous blood flowing from the different parts
of the body into the right auricle, are mixed in this common
ventricle. One portion of this mixture returns by the aorta to
the different organs, which it is destined to nourish ; whilst the
other part is carried to the lungs by vessels which arise directly
from the common ventricle, or even from the aorta. In Croco-
diles, however, the heart is formed (Fig. 313) almost in the same
manner as in Birds and Mammalia, and presents a partition
which separates the right from the left ventricle ; it follows,
therefore, that this organ presents two distinct ventricles and
two auricles, and that the arterial blood is not mixed there with
the venous blood ; but a particular arrangement of the arteries
effects this mixture at some distance from the heart, and the
vessels of all the posterior half of the body only receive im-
perfectly- arterialised blood. In fact, the venous blood received
into the right ventricle does not go entirely to the lungs, as in
warm-blooded Vertebrata ; for, at the side of the opening of the
pulmonary arteries (ap\ is found another vessel (a) which like-
wise arises from the right ventricle, and which, after bending back

538

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

ao c c a

od

behind the heart, goes to empty itself into the descending aorta (ao).
It follows from this, that at each contrac-
tion of the heart, one portion of the
venous blood is carried to the lungs, and
another portion goes to be mixed with
arterial blood ; but this mixture is not
carried on in the first part of the interior
of the aorta, but h.elow the origin of the
branches (c c) which this vessel sends to
the head and anterior part of the body,
so that these parts receive pure arterial
blood ; whilst all those parts, whose
arteries arise below the point of junc-
tion of the aorta, with the vessel arising
from the right ventricle, only receive
a mixture of red and dark blood. —
It was believed until recently, that
among other animals of this class (the
Batrachians, or Frog tribe), there only
existed a single auricle; but this has
been shown to be otherwise. With
respect to the mode of distribution of
the arteries among .Reptiles, we shall
only add, that there exist two or more

aortic arches curving to the right and to the left, and shortly
uniting to constitute one trunk (Fig. 314).

479. The respiration of Reptiles is not active ; the greater
number of these animals consume but little oxygen, and can be
deprived of it for a long time without being suffocated. More-
over, temperature has very great influence upon this phenomenon ;
and in warm weather, the necessity of respiration is felt much
more than in winter. A Frog, for example, which has been
deprived of air, perishes in summer in less than two hours, whilst
in winter it may continue to live for several days. In some
Reptiles, as we shall shortly see, gills exist in the early period
of life ; but the lungs are soon developed, and the gills usually
then wither and disappear ; so that the same animal h as at first

FIG. 313 — HEART AND LARGE
VESSELS OF CROCODILE.

vv, systemic veins, termi-
nating in the right auricle,
od ; vt, the two ventricles,
separated by an internal par-
tition ; ap, the two pulmo-
nary arteries, conveying blood
from the right ventricle to
the lungs ; a, trunk from the
same ventricle, going to join
the descending aorta ; vp,
pulmonary veins, emptying
into left auricle, og; ao, aorta,
arising from left ventricle ;
c, c, vessels proceeding to
the head.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 539

an aquatic, afterwards an aerial respiration. There are even

Arches of A

Super, vena cava— — •

Ventral Aorta"

Pulmonary artery*
Inferior vena cava

rotid artery

^.x' Arches of aorta
.xRight auricle

^.-'Ventricle

^ Pulmonary vein

. • Brachial artery

.--" Pulmonary artery

•-Vena porta>
—Intestines

FIG. 314.— CIRCULATING APPARATUS OF LIZARD.

some which retain their organs during the whole of life, and
which, having at the same time lungs, are completely amphibious ;

N N 2

540

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

the Proteus, Siren, and Axolotl (Fig. 345) are of this number;
but most Reptiles have only lungs. It does not follow from

FIG. 315 — ANATOBIY OF COLUBER.

I, tongue and glottis ; ce, aesophagus, divided at <K' to show the heart, &c. ; f , stomach ;
i', intestine ; cl, cloaca; on, anus ; /, liver ; o, ovary ; 6, eggs ; /, trachea ; p, principal
lung ; p', undeveloped lung ; vt, ventricle ; c, left auricle ; c', right auricle ; ag, left
aortic arch ; ad, right aortic arch ; d. d, ventral aorta ; ac, carotid arteries ; v, vena
cava superior ; vc, vena cava inferior ; vp, pulmonary vein.

this, however, that their respiration is always exclusively aerial ;
for in several of these animals, the skin is also an organ of respi-
ration, and can act upon the air contained in the water, as well

OENFRAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 541

as upon the oxygen in a gaseous state. In some Reptiles, the
cutaneous respiration is even so active, that in certain circum-
stances it is sufficient for the maintenance of life. The lungs
are organised in a manner which is not favourable to a great
activity of their functions ; for their air-cells are very large, and
consequently the vascular surface destined to receive the contact
of the air is of small extent (ANiM. PHYSIOL., § 312). They
are not lodged in a distinct cavity ; the thorax not being separated
from the abdomen by a diaphragm ; and the air is renewed in
their interior with less facility and regularity than in the higher
animals. Sometimes even, as in Frogs, and Tortoises, the
absence of the ribs, or the immobility of these bones, renders
the ordinary respiratory movements impossible ; and then it is
by an act df deglutition, that the air is forced into the lungs.
It is likewise to be noticed, that Serpents possess, in the arrange-
ment of the respiratory apparatus, a remarkable anomaly ; one
of their lungs being so little developed, that we can often scarcely
perceive it ; whilst the other acquires very considerable dimen-
sions (Fig. 315).

480. Reptiles are all cold-blooded animals ; that is to say,
they do not produce enough heat, to have a temperature sensibly
higher than that of the surrounding air. The whole of their
body is heated or cooled at the same time as the surrounding
medium; and the changes of temperature which they thus
experience, have great influence upon all their functions. A
warmth of from 105° to 120° is soon fatal to most of these
animals; and cold tends to depress all their vital operations.
In winter, most of them could no longer digest the food intro-
duced into their stomach, and do not take nourishment. Their
respiration also diminishes in a most remarkable manner. Thus
during the cold season, the action of the air on the skin is suffi-
cient for the maintenance of the life of a Frog ; and the lungs of
one of these animals may be removed without producing asphyxia;
whilst in summer they have need not only of the pulmonary
respiration, but also of their cutaneous ; and death soon occurs
when the ah? does not act on the skin, or is excluded from the
lungs. Limitation of the supply of air often produces in these

542

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

animals a lethargic dulness, analogous to that of hybernating
animals.

481. Like Birds, Reptiles are destitute of mammae for the
suckling of their young, and are reproduced by eggs ; but these
eggs are sometimes hatched before they come out of the body
(in the Viper, for example) ; and the name of ovo-viviparous
is given to the animals in which this phenomenon is observed.
The mode of development of most Reptiles presents nothing
irregular; but Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, and other species
known to zoologists under the general term of Batrachians, are
not born in the form which they ultimately preserve, and
undergo in the early state some remarkable metamorphoses.
They at first resemble Fishes in their external form, as well as
in their internal structure ; and it is by degrees, that they
acquire the characters peculiar to the class of Reptiles. Whilst

FIG. 316.

PIG. 320. FIG. 321.

FIGS. 316—321. — METAMORPHOSES OF BATRACHIA.

they are in this transitory state, the name of tadpoles is given
to them, and the metamorphoses which they undergo are greater

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 543

or less, according to the species. Frogs, Toads, and other
species formed almost on the same plan, are, of all the Batra-
chians, those whose metamorphoses are the most complete. At the
time when the young tadpole of the Frog comes from the egg,
it is very like a little fish, and can only live in water. Its
head is very large, its abdomen protuberant, and its body,
deprived of members, is terminated by a long and compressed
tail ; its mouth is as yet but a small aperture, hardly percep-
tible ; and its gills only consist of a tubercle placed at each side
of the posterior part of the head. These appendages are soon
elongated and divided into laminae ; the eyes are distinguishable
through the skin, and a transverse slit is seen under the neck,
so as to form there a kind of membranous operculum, analogous
to the gill-covers of Fishes. By degrees, the gills (Fig. 316)
ramify ; and the lips are covered with a kind of horny beak ;
by the aid of which the animal fixes itself to the vegetables, on
which it is chiefly nourished. This state, however, only endures
for a short time. At the end of some days, the gill-fringes,
which float on each side of the neck, disappear (Fig. 317) ; and
respiration is performed by the aid of small vascular tufts, fixed
along four cartilaginous arches, situated under the throat, and
fastened to the hyoid bone. A membranous tunic, covered by
the skin, envelops these internal gills ; to which the water comes
through the mouth, by passing through the intervals of the
arches of the hyoid ; after having bathed these organs, the
liquid escapes by one or two external slits, whose position varies
a little according to the species. The respiratory apparatus
then presents, as we see (ANIM. PHYSIOL. § 317)> a most exact
resemblance to that of Fishes. A little time afterwards, the
posterior feet of the tadpole present themselves, and are deve-
loped little by little (Fig. 318) ; and they attain considerable
length, before the anterior feet can be seen. — These last are
developed beneath the skin, which they pierce more slowly
(Fig. 319). About the same time, the horny beak falls off, and
leaves the jaws bare; the tail begins to be atrophied (Fig. 320);
the lungs are .developed; and in proportion as these organs
become more exclusively the seat of respiration, the gills shrivel

544 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

up and disappear, — the cartilaginous arches which supported
them being also in part absorbed ; finally the tail entirely dis-
appears, the little animal takes the form which it must ulti-
mately preserve (Fig. 321), and completely changes its regimen.
Herbivorous at first, it becomes by degrees exclusively carnivo-
rous; and whilst these metamorphoses are taking place, its
intestinal canal, at first long and twisted in a spiral form,
becomes short, almost straight, and enlarged in parts correspond-
ing with the stomach and colon.

482. The apparatus of circulation undergoes changes cor-
responding to those, which the organs of respiration experience.
The heart of the adult Batrachian is composed, like that of most

1 t o t o ab

vb 3 a "/> av c ab 2

FIG. 322.— BLOOD-VESSELS or THE TADPOLE m ITS FIRST STATB.

«, artery originating from the single ventricle, and dividing into six branchial arteries,
ab ; brl, br2, br3, the three pairs of gills, from which return the branchial veins vb.
The second and third branchial veins on each side form a trunk, c, which unites with
the opposite one to form the great dorsal artery, av ; the first pair of branchial veina
send off the trunks, t, t, to the head. — 1, 2, 3, communicating branches, connecting the
branchial arteries with the branchial veins, in this stage very small ; ap, pulmonary
arteries, as yet but little developed.

Reptiles, of two auricles and a single ventricle ; whence arises
a large artery, which swells at its base into a contractile bulb,
and which is sometimes bifurcated to form the two arches of the
aorta. But when the young animal respires by the gills only,
the blood forced out of the ventricle is distributed to these organs ;
and thence the greater part is returned into a dorsal artery,
whose branches convey it to the rest of the body (Fig. 322).

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 545

We have elsewhere seen (ANIM. PHYBIOL. § 289), that among

brs

FIG. 323. The same, in a more advanced state ; the communicating branches are

now enlarged, so that much of the blood transmitted to the branchial arteries finds its
way at once into the branchial veins, without passing through the gills ; the pulmonary
arteries, ap, are also much increased in size.

Fishes, the blood follows the same course ; but when the lungs

are developed, the arrange-
ment of the vascular appa-
ratus changes; there is esta-
blished a direct communi-
cation between the arteries
which carry the blood to
the gills, and those which
return it from these organs ;
so that the nutritious fluid
is no longer compelled to
traverse this apparatus of
aquatic respiration, in order
to arrive at the dorsal artery,
and thence into the different
parts of the body (Fig.
323). The artery (a) which
arises from the ventricle,

ap

ap

FIG. 324.— The same, in the perfect animal ;
the gills have now disappeared, and the course
of the blood is entirely through the communi-
cating branches ; that of the first pair conveys
it .direct to the trunks, t, t, supplying the head ;
and those of the second and third to the aorta, .

av. The respiratory circulation is now entirely ana WHICH might DC at first
carried on by the pulmonary arteries, ap. compared to a branchial

artery, then becomes the origin of the dorsal trunk, and forms

546 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

with it a true aorta ; of which certain branches, that are sent
to the lungs, are developed at the same time, and establish the
pulmonary circulation. Finally, the branchial vessels are oblite-
rated, and then the circulation becomes almost the same as in
other Reptiles (Fig. 324). The venous blood returning from
every part of the body, is poured into the ventricle by one of
the auricles, and is there mixed with the arterial blood coming
from the lungs, and forced into the same ventricle by the
other auricle. This mixture then passes into the aorta ; a
small part of it being distributed to the lungs, and a larger part
to the different organs of the animal.

483. Certain Batrachians undergo less complete metamor-
phoses. Thus Salamanders, like Frogs, acquire members in the
progress of time and lose their gills ; but they also preserve
their long tail (Fig. 344) : and, as we have already stated,
there are also some of these Reptiles which, as regards their
mode of respiration, always remain in the tadpole state ; for
their gills are preserved during the whole of life, and the deve-
lopment of the lungs is stopped at an early stage. — It is one of
the most curious proofs of the influence of external conditions
upon the development of animals, that, by seclusion from light,
and by being kept at a low temperature, the common Tadpole
may be prevented from changing into a Frog, and may be made
to continue to grow as a Tadpole.

484. In general, Reptiles abandon their eggs as soon as they
have laid them ; and they are hatched by the aid of atmospheric
warmth only ; but there is in this respect a remarkable excep-
tion ; a large Serpent of India, nearly allied to the Boas and
Colubers, known by the name of Python, twines itself round its
eggs ; and whilst it remains rolled round its offspring, it gives
out such a considerable amount of heat, that the temperature of
its body is sometimes raised to more than 104° Fahr. Another
Reptile, nearly allied to the Toad, the Pipa (Fig. 325), also pre-
sents a peculiarity of habit, which deserves to be noticed here.
This animal, in its adult state, lives on the earth ; but it is born
in the form of a Tadpole, and requires to be then immersed in
water. When the eggs are laid, the male places them upon the

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 547

back of the female ; and her skin, irritated by the contact of

FIG. 325.— PIPA.

these bodies, swells and forms cells, in which the young are
enclosed ; the mother, thus loaded, betakes herself to the water,
remains there until the young have completed their meta-
morphoses ; and the young Pipas then quit these chambers, and
the mother returns to the earth.

485. The class of Reptiles may be most naturally divided
into the four following orders, the differences between which are
very obvious and important.

I. CHELONIA, or Tortoises ; in which the trunk is enclosed
between a carapace and plastron (§ 475) formed by the dorsal
vertebrae, ribs, and sternum; the mouth destitute of teeth, but
furnished with a horny beak ; the skin covered with large horny
plates ; and the members, four in number, all formed upon the
same plan.

II. SAURIA, or Lizards ; in which the dorsal vertebrae and
ribs are moveable, so that there is neither carapace nor plastron ;
the horny beak absent, but the mouth armed with teeth ; the
skin covered with scales; and the members usually four in
number.

III. OPHIDIA, or Serpents ; which are formed upon the same
general plan with the Lizards, but are destitute of sternum and
of members.

548 ORDER CHELONIA.

IV. BATRACHIA, or Frogs ; which have neither ribs nor
sternum, but which possess four members ; the skin is soft and
naked (or uncovered with scales) ; and in their early state they
respire by means of gills, which are sometimes retained through
the whole of life.

As the chief peculiarities of these several orders have been
already noticed, a very short account of the principal families
included in them will suffice.

ORDER I.— CHELONIA.

486. The animals composing this order vary considerably in
those details of their structure, which adapt them to different
habits of life ; some of them being destined to reside exclusively
upon the solid ground, others to pass nearly their whole time in
water, and others to dwell amidst marshes, the muddy banks
of rivers, &c. The most obvious variations are in the structure
of the feet, and in the form of the shell. Thus in the proper
Land-Tortoises, we meet with a short stumpy foot, not unlike
that of an Elephant, — the toes not being separated, and only the
claws apparent (Fig. 326.) In the Marsh and River- Tortoises,
the toes are divided and webbed, so as to increase the extent of
surface; and in the Marine- Tortoises, or Turtles, we find them
extended into large undivided paddles, by which the animals
can propel themselves rapidly through the water (Fig. 328). —
The carapace is highly arched and very strong in the Land-Tor-
toises (Fig. 326) ; but more flattened in the aquatic families, for
the better adaptation of their form to motion in a liquid. The
plastron differs considerably in degree of development, and in the
relative consolidation of its different parts. It is most complete
in the Land-Tortoises ; in many of which, the anterior and
posterior portions of it are so jointed to the centre-piece, as to
be able to close the orifices before and behind, after the head,
tail, and legs have been drawn in, — thus affording to the animal
the most excellent means of passive defence. The natural food
of many of the Chelonia is vegetable, and they can endure long

ORDER CHELONIA. — TESTUDINIDvE. 549

fasting with impunity ; there are some species, however, which
are carnivorous, and which show much ferocity of disposition.
They are extremely tenacious of life ; surviving the severest
mutilations for days or even weeks. Their movements are
usually slow and awkward ; but they continue them with great
perseverance, and for a long time, apparently without fatigue, so
as to produce effects which would not have been anticipated.
Their sensations appear to be very obtuse ; and altogether they
may be said to live very slowly. Connected with this slowness
appears to be the remarkable length of their lives ; which has
been known to exceed (in the case of a Garden Tortoise) two
hundred and twenty years, and may have been much more. —
The Chelonia are divided, according to the form of their shell
and extremities, into four families: — 1. TESTUDINID.E, or Land-
Tortoises ;•— 2. EMYD^E, or Marsh- Tortoises ; — 3. TRIONYCHXE,
or River- Tortoises ; — and 4. CHELONIDJE, or Turtles (Marine
Tortoises).

487. The TESTUDINIDJE are slow, quiet, inoffensive animals ;
feeding upon vegetable substances, and seldom wandering far

FIG. 326. FIG. 327.

from their usual haunts. They are for the most part inhabit-
ants of the warmer regions of the globe ; though many species
will bear removal to colder climates, — passing the winter, how-
ever, in a torpid state. The Testudo Grceca, of which the
upper and under surfaces are shown in Figs. 326 and 327, is

550 TESTUDINID^E J EMYDJE.

the species best known in this country ; it is a native of the
South of Europe ; but it will live in our gardens for many years
without any particular care. It digs a pit in the ground, in
which to hybernate; and it also buries its eggs in the soil,
lightly covering them with earth. Some very large species of
this group are found between or near the tropics. Thus the
Gallipagos Islands are inhabited by great numbers of gigantic
Tortoises, weighing above two hundred pounds each ; which are
described as wholesome and palatable articles of food. And in
the Zoological Gardens of London, at the present time, is an
immense Tortoise, originally brought to the Mauritius from the
Seychelles Islands, in 1766 ; the length of which, taken along
the curve of its back, is four feet four inches ; its breadth, four
feet nine inches ; and its weight, two hundred and eighty-five
pounds. — The EMYD^E, or Marsh Tortoises, form an extensive
family, diffused through the warmer latitudes of both the Old
and the New World, and occurring in Australia, where hitherto
no Land Tortoise has been detected. They have a more flattened
shell; and their feet are expanded and webbed between the
toes, which are armed with sharp claws. These animals tenant
swamps, lakes, ponds, and small rivers ; and swim with con-
siderable facility. On land they are more active and alert than
the species of the previous family ; but they never venture far
from the water, and invariably seek it as a refuge from danger.
The plastron is generally less developed than in the Testudinidse,
and is frequently united to the carapace by cartilage only : in
some species, as the Emysaurus serpentinus, the carapace and
plastron are so small, that the head and limbs cannot be
drawn within the shell. The Emydae are carnivorous in their
habits ; pursuing fishes, newts, frogs, and insects with eagerness.
Some of them are formidable from their size and ferocity ; this
is the case with the species just named, which is commonly
known under the name of the Alligator Tortoise. It is a native
of the lakes, rivers, and morasses of Carolina ; and is remark-
able for its activity, and for the strength of its jaws, — darting
snddenly upon aquatic Birds, Fishes, or other animals that
come within its reach, and snapping them up between its

TRIONYCID^E ; — CHELONID.E. 55 1

mandibles, from which habit it is sometimes designated as the
" Snapping Turtle." It cannot be safely approached even by
Man.

488. The two other families of this order are exclusively
aquatic ; coming on shore only to deposit their eggs, and doing
this stealthily by night. In the TRIONYCID^, or River Tortoises,
however, the structure of the feet does not depart so widely from
the forms of the preceding families, as it does in the Turtles ;
for although the toes are connected by a web, and only three of
them are furnished with claws, they are still distinguishable.
Like the EmydaB, these Tortoises are exclusively carnivorous ;
and they eat their food in the water. They subsist upon Fishes,
Reptiles, Birds, &c., at which they dart out from their hiding-
places, launching out their long necks and snapping at their
prey with great energy and rapidity. The edges of their man-
dibles are so sharp and firm, that they can readily bite off a
man's finger. The carapace has only a centre of bone, the cir-
cumference being cartilaginous ; and the plastron is not osseous
throughout. The skin, too, is destitute of scales. Hence these
animals are sometimes called Soft Tortoises. No species of this
family is European ; but almost every large river and lake, in
the warmer regions of the Old and New World, is inhabited by
them. They are particularly numerous in the Ganges ; where
they prey, with the Gavials, on the human bodies which are
always floating in that stream. — The Marine Tortoises, CHELO-
NID^E, or Turtles, are at once distinguished by the compressed and
paddle-like form of the feet ; of these, the anterior pair is most
developed ; and they are used as oars, or rather as aquatic
wings ; by means of which these animals can move through the
water in any direction, with considerable rapidity and address.
This conformation, however, renders their progression on land so
much the more difficult ; they can only shuffle along at a slow
rate and with laborious efforts ; and, from the flattened form of
their carapace, they are unable to recover their natural position,
when turned upon their backs upon a flat surface. The jaws of
the Turtles are robust ; and the upper mandible is received into
a groove in the lower, so that their grasp is very firm. Most

552

CHELONID^E, OB TURTLES.

of the species feed upon marine plants ; but the Hawkslill
(Fig. 328), so named from the peculiar hooked form of the end of
the upper mandible, also eats Crustacea, Shell-fish, Echini, &c.
These animals are found in all the seas of warm climates, but
principally in the tropical ocean ; though stragglers occasionally
arrive at our own shores. They have their favourite breeding-
places, to which thousands periodically resort, often travelling
thither from immense distances ; these are usually islands situated
in the midst of the open ocean, — such as the island of Ascension,
which is one of those most frequented by them. At other times
they are found at the distance of many hundred leagues from
any land. — The species most valued as food is the Chelone midas,
or Green Turtle; this occasionally attains an enormous size,

measuring six or seven feet in
length, and weighing from five to
eight hundred pounds; its ordi-
nary bulk, however, is much less. —
The Chelone imbricata, or Hawks-
bill Turtle, is the one most in re-
quest for its covering of horny
plates, which are known as tor-
toise-shell; these plates are of large
size, and lie over one another like
the tiles of a house, so that each
is overlapped by the one in front
of it, to one-third of its extent.

FIG. 328— HAWKSBILL TURTLB. Hence, although this Species is not

nearly so large as the Green Turtle, the plates are of greater dimen-
sions, as well as of finer quality. Its flesh, however, is neither
so palatable, nor so wholesome. — One other species maybe noticed,
the Sphargis, or Leathery Turtle ; which differs from all other
Turtles, in having the bones covered with a leathery skin, instead
of with plates. When attacked and wounded, it utters loud,
piercing cries, which have been heard nearly a mile off. It
sometimes attains dimensions as great as those of the Green
Turtle. Its flesh appears to be very unwholesome.

489. Little is as yet known of the fossil forms of this order ;

ORDER SATJRIA; — GENERAL CHARACTERS. 553

but, from discoveries recently made among the Himalaya moun-
tains, it appears that Tortoises must have formerly existed, far
surpassing in dimensions the most bulky of the Chelonidas now
living.

ORDER II.— SAU'RIA.

490. THE number of species included in this order is very
considerable : and their variation in form, dimensions, and cha-
racter, is far greater than is to be met with in the preceding
group. The contrast is still stronger, when we include in
our survey those fossil remains of the Saurian Reptiles, which
abound in many parts of the world ; for not even the gigantic
and ferocious Crocodile is nearly so striking in comparison with
the harmless little Lizard of our walls and copses, as were the
monstrous Saurians of the ancient streams and marshes, or the
Pterodactylus, which winged its Bat-like flight through the air.
The diversity in the habits of the existing Saurians is very con-
siderable ; some being more or less aquatic; others strictly
terrestrial, living on the ground and retreating for shelter to
holes burrowed beneath the surface ; and others entirely arboreal,
passing their whole lives in the midst of trees. They mostly feed
on animal substances ; some of them preferring flesh, others
attacking small animals, and others pursuing insects; one family,
however, is for the most part herbivorous. They are all fur-
nished with teeth ; which are of a simple conical form, and
adapted rather for securing and tearing their prey, than for
masticatinor it. — The chief families included in this order are the

O

following: — 1. CROCODILID^E, or Crocodiles ; — 2. CHAMELEONID.E,
or Chameleons; — 3. GECKOTHXE, or Geckos; — 4. IGUANIDJB,
or Iguanas ; — 5. AGAMID^E, or Agamas ; — 6. VARANID^E, or
Varans ; — 7- TEID^E, or Teguixins ; — 8. LACERTIDJE, or True
Lizards; — 9. CHALCID^E, or Snake Lizards; — 10. SCINCID.^,
or Scinks ; — besides certain fossil forms, which cannot be referred
to any of these.

491. Some writers consider the family CROCODILID.E as
forming a distinct order, intermediate between the Turtles and

554 FAMILY CROCODILID^J; CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS.

the Lizards ; their bodies being covered with square bony plates,
instead of with scales; and the skull having a remarkable
solidity. Their general plan of structure, however, is the same
as that of the Lizards ; but they are in some respects superior to
other Reptiles, — their heart possessing four cavities (§ 478),
and their lungs being more subdivided than those of Reptiles in
general. These animals, as is well known, are very ferocious in
their disposition ; they seize their prey for the most part in the
water, but retire to some retreat on land to devour it ; and they
relish it in a state of putrescence. Their aquatic habits are indi-
cated by the vertical flattening and expansion of the tail, and by
the webbing of the posterior feet ; in this respect, however, there
is a difference between the several groups of this family. These
animals are only found in warm climates ; and inhabit the rivers,
lakes, and marshy places, sometimes swimming out to sea, even
to a considerable distance from land. — This family is divided
into three genera, the Crocodiles, Alligators and Gavials ; which
differ in their structure and in their geographical distribution. —
The true Crocodiles are inhabitants of Africa, India, and the
hotter parts of America. Their muzzle is more pointed than
that of the Alligators, but much less so than in the Gavials ;
the longest teeth in the lower jaw are received into notches on
each side of the upper ; the hinder limbs have a ridge of scales
along their external border, resembling that which runs along

FIG. 329. — CROCODILE.

the upper edge of the tail ; and the three outer toes of the hind-
feet are entirely webbed. The movements of these animals on
land are awkward, the legs being ill formed for running, and
the head possessing but little power of motion from side to side ;
but in water they dart along with great rapidity, by the lateral
movements of the tail, aided by the action of their swimming-
feet. — The Alligators, or Caymans, are confined to America, and

ALLIGATORS, GAVIALS, FOSSIL CROCODILES. 555

are less aquatic in their habits than the Crocodiles. They are /
distinguished by the shortness and roundness of the muzzle ; by /
the reception of the longest teeth of the lower iaw into cavities

-r*rf-.»S*«-..- ;., ,

in the upper ; by the absence of the ridge of scales on the hind-
legs ; and by the much inferior development of the webs between
the toes. They frequent swamps and marshes, rather than rivers ;
and are occasionally seen basking on dry ground, during the day,
luxuriating in the heat of the sun. It is during the night that
they are most active ; and they then set up a loud bellowing, not
unlike that of a bull. Several species of Alligator are known ;
vary ing in length from two to more than twenty feet. — The Gamal^
or Crocodile of the Ganges, of which only one species is known,
is the largest of the living Saurian Reptiles ; and differs remark-
ably from the preceding, in several particulars. The muzzle is
extremely prolonged and narrow, forming a sort of beak ; and
this is swollen at its extremity, around the aperture of the
nostrils. The teeth are large and numerous, 118 or 120 being
usually present ; and the longest of the lower jaw are received
into notches in the upper, as in the Crocodile. The Gavial is
quite as aquatic in its habits, as is the Crocodile of the Nile ; its
hind-feet are fully webbed ; and the crest on the tail, increasing
the surface by which it strikes the water, is much elevated. This
powerful animal frequently attains the length of twenty-five
feet ; and is very formidable from its strength and ferocity. It
is very serviceable in devouring the numerous dead bodies of
men and animals, which are committed to the sacred river ; and
which would otherwise taint the air by their decay. — Several
species of Crocodiles are found in a fossil state ; some of them
having been much larger than any now existing. It is interest-
ing to remark, that remains of forms allied to the Gavials are
found in the same strata with those of the Icthyosaurus and
Plesiosaurus ; which strata are, geologically speaking, much
older than those in which the remains of Mammals occur. It is
in these last, that we find relics of Sauria resembling the Cay-
mans of the present time ; and this is in accordance with the
general rule, that the terrestrial animals were the last to make
their appearance on the surface of the globe.

556 FAMILY CHAMELEONIDJE, OR CHAMELEONS.

492. The family CHAMELEONIDJE, or Chameleons, is dis-
tributed through the warmer parts of the Old World, but not in
America. The species it includes are distinguished from all
others, by several very remarkable peculiarities. Their bodies
are much compressed, or flattened sideways ; and the back is
surmounted by a sharp ridge. Two of the toes are directed
backwards, opposing the three anterior ones, and thus forming
very efficient instruments of prehension. The tail also, which
is of a tapering form, is prehensile. The tongue is a hollow

FIG. 330 — CHAMELEON.

tube, with a swollen fleshy extremity ; and it is capable of being
darted out instantaneously to a great distance, and of being as
rapidly drawn in. This organ is furnished with a glutinous
saliva ; by which the insect prey, that serve for the support of
these extraordinary Reptiles, are attached to it. The eyes of
the Chameleon are capable of being moved independently of each
other ; and they are constantly covered with a sort of eyelid,
in which there is a small aperture corresponding with the pupil.
Its skin is not furnished with scales, but is beset with horny
granules. It undergoes, as is well known, remarkable changes
of colour; varying through different shades of yellow, red,
gray, brown, violet, and dull inky blue. The cause of these
changes is not well understood ; by M. Milne Edwards, they are
referred to two differently coloured layers of pigment, which are
stated by him to be so arranged, that either of them may be
made to appear alone under the cuticle, or the two may be
presented in different degrees of combination. It is not easy

CHAMELEON. FAMILY GECKOTID^l. 557

to understand, however, by what arrangement this can be
effected ; or how all the shades of colour, which the Chameleon
presents, can be given by the mixture of two only. These
curious animals are arboreal in their habits ; traversing the
twigs and branches in a slow and cautious manner, with the aid
of the grasping powers of the feet and tail ; and occasionally
darting out their tongues at insects that come within their reach,
with such rapidity that the movement is scarcely perceptible.
They are very inanimate in their appearance, often remaining in
precisely the same position for many hours together ; and they
can exist for several months without food. The lungs are large,
and are connected (as in Birds) with air-cells that lie among the
muscles and beneath the skin ; hence the appearance of the
animal varies greatly, according as these cavities are full or
empty, — being sometimes full and bloated, and the next minute,
lean and shrunken.

493. The GECKOTID^E, or Geckos, are Lizards of small size,
but of repulsive aspect ; their bodies being flattened, and their

'Fin. 331— GECKO.

colour lurid. Many of the species are considered as poisonous
by the inhabitants of the countries in which they are found ;
and some even assert that they infect every substance over which
they walk ; but both these opinions are, to say the least, very
doubtful. From the peculiar structure of their toes (§ 467),
they are capable of running along the smoothest surfaces, of
creeping up walls, and even of traversing ceilings, — like a fly, —

558 GECKOS. FAMILY IGUANIDJE.

with the back downwards : they lurk in the chinks and fissures
of walls and trees, and in holes and crannies of buildings. From
the flatness and flexibility of their bodies, they are capable of
insinuating themselves into the smallest crevices ; and there they
lurk during the day, coming forth at night in quest of their
insect prey, and pursuing it with much activity, — occasionally
uttering a kind of chuckling cry, from which their name is
derived. The Geckos are diffused through the warmer regions
of all quarters of the globe ; being most numerous in the
tropical portions of Africa.

494. The family IGUANIDJS, or Iguanas, is a very extensive
one ; numbering upwards of 150 species, many of which are
among the largest Saurians at present existing, with the excep-
tion of the Crocodiles. Of the true Iguanas, which are re-
stricted to America, the general aspect will be seen from the

FIG. 332. — IGUANA.

accompanying figure. They have a crested ridge along the
back ; and a curious dewlap, formed by a fold of the skin,
under the throat, which is capable of being distended with air.
The tail is long and flexible, and is laterally compressed, as in
the Crocodiles. The Iguanas are chiefly distinguished by the
form and insertion of the teeth ; these are not lodged in distinct
sockets, but are fixed along the internal face of the jaw-bone in
a sort of furrow, and adhere by one side of the bony substance
of the root; the surface of the teeth is irregular, adapting them
to grind down the vegetable substances on which these animals
feed. They are arboreal in their habits, and feed principally
upon vegetable aliment; it appears, however, that they will

FAMILY IGUANIDJE J IGUANODON ; ANOLIS. 559

sometimes eat eggs, or other animal substances. Their disposi-
tion is rather fierce, and they will defend themselves with vigour ;
when water is near, they betake themselves to it, and swim with
considerable rapidity, by the lateral strokes of the tail. The
colour of the Iguanas is usually a mixture of green and brown,
— adapted to conceal them during their residence in trees ; and
their hues seem to have some of that power of change, which is
so remarkable in the Chameleons. Their usual length is from
four to six feet, including the tail. The flesh is very palatable,
and is much esteemed in the West Indies as an article of food ;
the animals, however, are now becoming scarce in most of the
islands. — Remains of a gigantic Saurian have been discovered in
the South East of England; which appears, from the structure of
the teeth, to have been undoubtedly allied to the Iguanas of the
present day ; and which has received the name of Iguanodon.
This animal could not have been less than 70 feet in length, and
was perhaps more. Its teeth were evidently fitted, — by the
roughness of their surface, — and by the provision made in the
arrangement of the enamel, for the continued maintenance of that
roughness, notwithstanding the wear of the tooth, — to grind
down hard vegetable substances to a pulp ; and remains of terres-
trial plants have been found associated with it, showing that its
habits were nearly the same as those of the existing Iguanas.

495. In this family are also included several other genera ;
of which those that have the teeth arranged on the same plan

FIG. 333. — ANOLIS-

as the Iguanas, are, like them restricted to the New World.
The Anolis is a small, slender, active little animal ; frequenting

560 FAMILY IGUANID^E; — ANOLIS ; BASILISK.

woods and rocky places ; and running, leaping, and climbing
with singular address and rapidity. It is very timid and harm-
less ; and when under the influence of fear or other excitement,
the dewlap beneath its throat becomes inflated, and the tints of
its skin change with great celerity. In the structure of its feet,
it bears some resemblance to the Geckos ; and like them, it
feeds chiefly on insects, although it also subsists in part upon
vegetable substances. The largest species of this genus (of
which several abound in the West India Islands) is not above a
foot in length. — Another genus of this family has received the
name of Basilisk ; a term that was applied by the ancients to
a monster, which existed only in their own imaginations, yet of
which the most detailed accounts have been transmitted to us.
The name was derived from a Greek word, signifying royalty ;
and the animal was represented as the king of the Serpents,
with a regal crown upon its head, blighting the herbage with its
breath, and striking dead with a glance of its eye. It was
described as being eight feet long, and as having two large scales
for wings. The idea of such an animal could not have originated
in the harmless little creatures to which the name is now applied ;
since these were not known to the ancients. But the term
has been retained, on account of the crest or projection on thu

FIG. 334.— MITRED BASILISK.

head by which they are characterised. The 'Mitred Basilisk is
an inhabitant of Guiana, Martinique, and the tropical portions
of South America. In its general form and habits, it is not
unlike the Iguanas; but it is more aquatic, and swims with
great address by means of the lateral motions of its finny tail.

DRACO VOLANS; STELLIS. FAMILY AGAMID^J. 561

496. Besides the foregoing, some other genera, having the
teeth arranged on the upper edge of the jaw, belong to this
family ; and these are for the most part inhabitants of the Old
World. Here we place the curious little Draco volans (Fig.
306), whose structure and habits have been already described
(§ 468) ; this interesting animal is a native of the Asiatic
Archipelago. To this group also belongs the Stellio, the dif-
ferent species of which are the most common Lizards of the
Levant, — tenanting old walls, piles of stones, crevices of rocks,
&c., and feeding upon insects.

497. The AGAMID^E, or Agamas, are in general short, thick-
bodied lizards, covered with a lax skin, which is capable of being

inflated with air at the
will of the animals ; they
are frequently beset with
spines, which are raised
up when the skin is in-
FIG. 335.-AGAMA. flate(]9 presenting a formi-

dable array. In many of them, the general form and aspect are
so Toad-like, that, were it not for the presence of a tail, they
might be mistaken for that Reptile on a first glance. These lurk
among rocks, heaps of stones, and mouldering ruins ; where
their dull and sombre colours protect them from observation.
Others, however, have a more slender contour, longer limbs,
and more flexible toes ; and ascend trees with facility. Many
of them are capable of changing the colours of the skin. A
very remarkable species of this group, found in Australia, is
distinguished by the presence of a sort of frill or ruff attached
to the neck ; this lies back in plaits, when the animal is undis-
turbed ; but is raised, to the extent of five inches on either side,
when the animal is alarmed. This Frilled Lizard has received
the scientific name of Chlamydosaurus.

498. The family VARANID^:, or Varans, includes the largest
of the Saurian Reptiles, with the exception of the Crocodiles.
It is chiefly characterised by the form of the tongue, which is
fleshy and very extensible, and forked at the tip like that of Ser-
pents ; and by the peculiar mode in which the skin is covered

562 FAMILY VARANID^. TEID.fi. LACERTIDJE,

with small scales, these not being imbricated (that is, overlap-
ping one another like the tiles of a house), but being arranged
side by side, so as to form circular rings, inclosing the head,
body, and limbs. The figure of these animals is elongated and
graceful, and their actions are quick and alert. Some of them
have a conical, nearly rounded, tail, which assists the animals
in their rapid serpentine movements on land ; whilst in others
the tail is compressed laterally, and is a very efficient instru-
ment for motion in water. The Varans are only found in
the warmer parts of the Old World, tenanting desert and rocky
places, and the borders of rivers; their food consists of the
larger kinds of insects, as locusts, &c., eggs, birds, and small
mammalia, reptiles, and fish. It is said that they unite toge-
ther in packs on the banks of rivers, and seize such quadrupeds
as approach unsuspectingly to drink. The Varan of the Nile,
which is about six feet in length, is very destructive to the eggs
and young of the Crocodile. Remains of much larger Reptiles
belonging to this family, however, are found in the chalk and
neighbouring deposits ; the Mososaurus, for example, which
seems more allied to the Varans than to any other group, must
have been more than twenty-five feet in length. Its residence
was in the sea ; and its habits seem to have been exclusively
aquatic. — Even this was but a pigmy, however, in comparison
with the Megalosaurus ; which, from the scanty remains of it
yet discovered, may be proved to have been at least seventy feet
in length, — equalling the Elephant in height, and approaching
the largest Whales in bulk.

499. The family of TEID^E, or Teguixins, which is exclu-
sively American, is closely allied to the preceding ; it contains
some large Lizards, which have been termed Safeguards and
Monitors, from the idea that they give warning by a hiss of the
proximity of the Alligator, — which has also been supposed,
though erroneously, respecting the Varans and Crocodiles. In
their general habits, they much resemble the Varans.

500. The LACERTIRE, or True Lizards, are bright-eyed,
active, slender little animals, adorned with brilliant colours, and
having nothing repulsive in their aspect or manners. They are

VIVIPAROUS LIZARD ; SAND LIZARD. 563

covered above with small imbricated scales ; and below with
larger plates. The tongue is long and forked ; and there are
generally small teeth on the palate. To this group, — which is
peculiar to the Old World, and most abundant in Southern
Europe and Western Asia, — belong the only two species of
Saurians that inhabit our own country, the Viviparous Lizard)
and the Sand Lizard. The former derives its name from the
circumstance, that the eggs are hatched before leaving the
oviduct of the female ; so that the young are produced alive.
It frequents thickets, heaths, and sunny banks ; and several are
often seen in such situations basking in the summer's sun, and
watching for their insect prey. The females in particular
expose themselves to as much external warmth as possible,
during the time that the incubation of the eggs is going on within
them ; and this is not improbably connected with the unusual
development which these animals subsequently attain, in regard
to the acuteness of their senses, and the activity of their muscular
movements. They burrow in the ground, and retreat to their
hiding-places on the slightest alarm. The average length of this
species is about six inches. The Sand Lizard is larger than
the preceding, its length varying from seven to twelve inches ;
two varieties of it appear to exist, — one being of a sandy-brown
colour, — and the other having a mixture of green, more or less
decided. The ordinary residence of this species is on sandy
heaths ; and though less quick and active than the Viviparous
Lizard, it runs with considerable alertness. The greener variety,
however, seems to frequent more verdant localities. — There is a
beautiful green species, nearly allied to the preceding, which is
common in the south of Europe, and which is frequently brought
over to this country in cages. It soon becomes very tame in
captivity, and will take flies from those to whom it is familiar.
In all these Lizards, the tail is extremely brittle ; so that it
snaps off at the slightest touch, when the attempt is made to
seize them by it. Nature has provided a remedy for this acci-
dent, by giving to the animals the power of forming a new tail ;
this organ has only a central cartilage, however, in place of the
bones, and is often covered with scales different from those of the

564 FAMILY CHALCID.E ; — SNAKE-LIZARDS.

rest of the tail. If the tail be cracked only on one side, and not
thrown off, a new tail often springs out of the crack, so that the
member becomes forked. Other Lizards have a similar power
of reparation.

501. In the family CHALCID^E, we meet with a series of
forms, which presents us with a gradual transition from the order
of Lizards to that of Serpents, — some of them, indeed, having
been placed by many Naturalists in the latter. The body is
usually cylindrical, and extremely elongated or snake-like ;
sometimes destitute of limbs, and mostly with the limbs only a
little developed : there is usually no distinct neck between the
head and trunk ; and the latter merges imperceptibly into the
tail. The accompanying figure represents the Four-toed Sau-
rophis, or Snake-Lizard, which is a native of the southern part

FIG. 336. — SXAKK-LIZARD.

of Africa ; it possesses four minute limbs, each provided with
four toes. In the Anguine Lizard, also a native of South Africa,
the limbs are still more reduced, and have each but a single toe.
The Scheltopusic, a native of Northern Africa and South- Western
Asia, and common also in the Morea, has no fore-limbs, and the
hind-legs are mere scaly appendages. — In the Ophisaurus, or
Glass-Snake, of Carolina, there is an entire absence of limbs; yet
there are certain anatomical peculiarities, which indicate that it
belongs rather to the Saurian than to the Ophidian group. —
The same may be said of the Amphisbcena, an animal of very
remarkable appearance and habits. Its head and body are of
uniform thickness ; and its tail terminates bluntly ; so that at a
first glance it is not easy to distinguish between the head and
tail, more especially as the minute eyes are so covered by horny
plates, as only to be distinguished as little black dots. The
name of the animal, derived from two Greek words, has reference
to its power of crawling head or tail foremost with equal facility;

AMPHlSBJiNA. FAMILY SCINCID^. 565

from which circumstance, joined to the similarity in the appear-
ance of the two extremities, the idea has arisen among the
natives of some of the countries inhabited by it, that it has a
head at each end of the body. The Amphisbaena bores in the
soft earth like a worm, working its way with considerable
dispatch ; and it lives principally on Ants and Termites (com-
monly termed "White Ants) and their larvae. One species inha-
bits Spain, Portugal, and Northern Africa ; but many more are
found in America.

502. In the family SCINCIDJE, or Scinks, we meet with a
similar gradual transition from the form of the Lizards to that of
the Serpents ; but the animals composing it differ from those of
the last family in the arrangement of the scales, and in certain
other peculiarities. The head is covered with large plates of
an angular figure, as in the true Lizards; but the body, tail, and
limbs, are covered with uniform overlapping scales, having a
glossy and polished aspect, and presenting almost the appearance
of a coat of mail. The true tfcw&shave four legs, and a sharp-
edged muzzle, by which they bury themselves in the sand of the
deserts they inhabit. One species, a native of Arabia, Northern
Africa, &c., was long held in repute, on account of its supposed
medicinal virtues. — From these we pass, through genera in which
the limbs are reduced to mere footless appendages, and others in
which either the anterior or posterior pair is deficient, to the
genus Anguis; of which one species, inhabiting our own country,
is known as the Slow-worm, or Blind-icorm. In this animal,
which is from twelve to fifteen inches in length, the legs are
reduced to mere rudiments, which do not manifest themselves
externally, but may be traced by careful dissection beneath the
skin. The Slow-worm frequents copses, orchards, old moulder-
ing walls, and banks, where it delights to bask in the sun ; it is
a sluggish, timid creature ; and its food consists chiefly of worms
and slugs. Its whole body is as brittle as the tail of the Vivi-
parous Lizard ; breaking asunder on the slightest attempt to
bend it, or on a trifling blow, in consequence (as it would seem)
of the violent contraction of the muscles induced by alarm. —

566 FOSSIL SAURIANS ; PTERODACTYLUS; ICTHYOSAURUS.

The Acontias, or Javelin Snake, of Southern Africa, is nearly
allied to our Slow-worm.

503. We have now to advert to some extraordinary Reptiles
of a past age ; which establish, in a remarkable manner, the
connection between this class and the other Yertebrata. The
remains of the Pterodactylus (Fig. 307), the chief peculiarity in
whose structure has been already noticed (§ 468), are found in
the lias and oolite formations ; mingled with the remains of large
insects, such as Dragon-flies and Beetles. There can be no
doubt that they were adapted to lead the life of the Bats and
Swallows of the present day ; restraining the multiplication of the
Insect tribes, at a period when neither Birds nor Bats existed.
Some of the larger species may not improbably have been partly
aquatic in their habits, and may have fed on fish. From the
size and form of the posterior extremities, the Pterodactylus
seems to have been able to walk and perch upon them, after the
manner of Birds ; and with the anterior and posterior combined,
it could probably walk and climb on rocks and cliffs, like Bats
and Lizards. Several species have been already found, and more
probably remain to be discovered ; their size varied from that of
a Snipe to that of a Cormorant. One of these was remarkable
for the enormous length of its head ; in all of them the neck was
very long, and thus enabled the head to make a sudden dart
upon the prey.

504. In the same deposits, we find the remains of numerous
species of Icthyosaurus, or Fish-Lizard ; the whole organisation
of which shows its intermediate position between the Reptiles,
Fishes, and Cetaceous Mammalia. The spinal column is formed
upon the plan of that of the Fish ; the vertebrae being concave
on both surfaces, and having had a bag of fluid interposed
between each pair (§ 66) ; and the arches which enclosed the
spinal chord always remained distinct from the bodies. Hence
the body must have had great flexibility, and must have been
able to move rapidly through the water by its undulations from
side to side ; whilst the spinal column could not have been
sufficiently strong to support the weight of the trunk upon land.

ICTHYOSAURUS. 567

But the progression of these animals through the water was
accomplished in part by means of the anterior and posterior

FlO. 337 ICTHYOSAURtJS.

extremities, which are very efficient instruments of propulsion,
being formed very much upon the plan of the paddles of the
Whale ; but their number of fingers and phalanges was
much greater; and the bones themselves, being shorter, were
arranged in a tessellated manner. The muzzle is elongated and
pointed ; and the teeth very numerous. The general form of
the head is not unlike that of the Porpoise ; but it must have
had far greater strength, and the surface for the attachment of
muscles is very extensive. The form and solidity of the sternal
arch, to which the anterior paddles are attached, show that
provision was made for imparting enormous power and firm-
ness to these ; and certain peculiarities in the structure of the
tail seem to prove, that the Icthyosaurus must have had a ver-
tical cartilaginous tail-fin, like that which is seen on the back of
many Cetacea. From the absence of any remains of scales or
plates, it may be concluded that the skin was naked, like that
of the Whales and their allies. There is no question that the
Icthyosaurus was exclusively an air-breathing animal ; no trace
of any adaptation to branchial respiration being perceptible.
From the remains of partially-digested food, which are found
with their bones, it appears that they fed (as might have been
anticipated) exclusively upon Fishes ; and especially upon one
species, which is known only in a fossil state. Some of the
largest of these aquatic Reptiles must have exceeded thirty feet
in length ; and it is easily to be conceived that they were very
formidable enemies to the other inhabitants of the deep. They
seem to have taken the place of the Grampus, and other vora-
cious Cetacea, at a time when no Mammals had been called into
existence.

568 PLESIOSAURUS.

505. Still more extraordinary in its conformation, was the
animal known under the name of the Plesiosaurus ; which has
been designated by Cuvier as the most heteroclite, — that is,
made up of the most unexpected combination of parts, — of any
that had come under his knowledge. To the head of a Lizard,

FIG. 338. — Pi-EsrosAURUS.

it united the teeth of a Crocodile ; a neck of enormous length,
resembling the body of a Serpent ; the trunk and tail having
the proportions of an ordinary Quadruped ; the ribs resembling
those of the Chameleon ; and the paddles being like those of the
Whale. " Such," says Dr. Buckland, " are the strange com-
binations of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus ; a genus,
the remains of which, after interment for thousands of years,
amidst the wreck of millions of the inhabitants of the ancient
earth, are at length recalled to light by the researches of the
geologist, and submitted to our examination in nearly as perfect
a state as the species that are now existing upon the earth."
The Plesiosaurus was evidently a marine animal ; and, if ever
it visited the land, its motions must have been very awkward.
The probability is, that it swam habitually on or near the sur-
face of the water, arching back its long neck like the Swan, and
occasionally darting it down at the fish which happened to float
within its reach. Or it may have lurked in shoal water along
the coast, like the long-necked Emydae of the present time
(§ 487) ; suddenly darting at such fish or reptiles as approached
its place of concealment. The neck had no less than forty
vertebrae in some species ; — a greater number than exists in any
other known animal, the Swan having but twenty-three.

569

ORDER III.— OPHIDIA.

506. THE division of the class of Reptiles, which includes
the Serpent tribes, is one which is almost universally regarded
with feelings of horror and aversion. These doubtless originate
in the venomous qualities of certain families of the order, and in
the terrific strength that characterises others ; and also in the
insidious manner in which they usually approach their victims.
The prejudice is unjust, however, as regards a considerable
number of the order, which are neither furnished with poison-
fangs, nor of a strength or size to render them dangerous to
Man ; and when it can be overcome, there is much in the beauty
of their markings, and the grace of their movements, to excite
our interest. The species belonging to this order may be
naturally grouped in three sections: — 1. Harmless Snakes;
— 2. Venomous Snakes ; — 3. Water Snakes.

507. The Harmless Snakes are divided into two families, —
the COLUBRIDJE, or Colubers, — and the BOID^J, or Boas. Of the
former of these, which contains more than half the entire number
of species of Snakes, we have an example in our own country,
the common Ringed Snake ; which is abundant in low moist
woods, damp meadows, and hedgerows in the vicinity of water,
these being the situations in which its favourite food, the Frog,
is always to be procured. In this fondness for water, and in
its power of swimming with facility, the Ringed Snake differs
from the Viper, which prefers dry localities. It is a voracious
animal, and pursues its prey with great determination ; besides
frogs, it feeds on mice, shrews, and nestling birds ; these are
swallowed whole, whilst yet alive, by the peculiar mechanism of
the jaws (§ 473). This Snake may be readily tamed, and
exhibits feelings of attachment to its protector. It passes the
winter in a state of torpidity, retreating to some sheltered situ-
ation, in which numbers often collect, for the sake of preserving
their warmth; in an instance which has come within the
Author's knowledge, as many as 1300 were found in an old

570 COLUBRID^E. BOID^E.

limekiln. The length of this species is usually between three
and four feet ; in tropical countries, however, the Colubers
attain a much greater size. — The family ColubridaB includes
many species which habitually reside among trees ; and these
are, for the most part, distinguished by the brilliancy of their
colours, and the gracefulness of their forms and movements.
They are harmless and very tameable. One species belonging
to this family, the Acrochordus, or Oular Carron of the Java-
nese, is remarkable on account of its diet ; which (contrary to
the general habit of the order) seems to consist chiefly or
entirely of fruits.

508. Whilst the Colubridas are very widely distributed,
some species being found in almost every part of the world, the
BOID^E are restricted to tropical climates. They are Serpents of
very large size and enormous muscular strength ; and from their
power of coiling round and firmly compressing the bodies of
their victims, they are able to overcome animals of the largest
dimensions. The tail has great prehensile power ; and is much

FIG 239, — BOA CONSTRICTOR.

aided in its grasp, by two hook-like claws sheathed with horn,
which are supported upon bones that obviously represent those

BOAS; PYTHONS. CROTALID/E. 571

of the hinder limbs, in their position and attachments ; these
claws are put in action by powerful muscles, and serve as a kind
of antagonist to the tail in grasping any object. The true Boas
are restricted to America ; the name of Python being given to
the large Serpents of Africa and India. There is no doubt that
individuals of both genera occasionally attain a size that enables
them to overpower and gorge animals of large size, such as Men
or Cattle ; but these are rarely met with, — the usual length of
these Serpents being from 15 to 30 feet. It is related by Pliny,
that the army of Regulus was alarmed by a huge Serpent, whose
length was 123 feet ; but it is doubtful how far this account is
to be relied on. A well-authenticated instance has occurred in
recent times, however, of the destruction of a Snake above 62
feet long, whilst in the act of coiling itself round the body of a
man. After having destroyed the life of their victims by the
compression of the body, these huge Snakes proceed to envelope
them whole in their capacious swallow; and owing to the re-
markable power of distention, which the jaws and oesophagus
possess, even the bodies of men and cattle can be thus engulfed.
After gorging themselves to a degree which causes the skin of
the neck to appear as if it would burst, they retire to their hiding
places, and there continue in an almost torpid state, until the
process of digestion has been completed ; after this period (which
sometimes lasts a month) is over, the Snake again issues forth in
search of its prey. The Boas of America seem to have been
tamed by the ancient Mexicans ; and to have been especially
used by the priests, as instruments for impressing the people with
awe and reverence for their power.

509. The section of Poisonous Snakes also contains two
families, — the CROTALID^E, or Rattle- Snakes, — and the YIPEBID^E,
or Vipers. — The true Rattle- Snakes, distinguished by the peculiar
appendage to their tails from which their name is derived, are
confined to America ; but there are other species, included in the
family CROTALID.E, which are found in the Old World also.
The rattle consists of a number of thin horny cells, which are
articulated loosely to each other, and which produce a rustling
noise when shaken. The number of joints increases, up to a

572 RATTLE- SNAKES. VIPERID^E, OR VIPERS.

certain amount at least, with each casting of the skin. The Rattle-
snake vibrates this appendage when irritated or alarmed, and

gives timely warning of its ap-
prorfch; it would seem, however,
that most of the small animals
on which it usually preys, are so
bewildered by the neighbourhood
of their dreaded enemy, as to
make but little attempt at escape.
There is no reason to believe that
it ever attacks Man, unless it
be trodden on, or otherwise
molested. Its bite, however,
when severe, is almost certainly
fatal; unless immediate mea-
sures be taken to prevent the
absorption of the poison (§ 475) :
small animals, such as dogs, are
very rapidly affected by the poi-
son ; death taking place in a few minutes. The usual length
of these Snakes is about four feet ; but they have been occa-
sionally met with double that size.

510. The family VIPERID^E is a very numerous one, and
widely distributed. One species, and this among the smallest,
is an inhabitant of our own country ; giving preference to dry
woods, sandy heaths, sunny banks, and similar places. The
Viper, or Adder (as it is commonly termed), is subject to great
differences in colour ; thus we have black, red, and blue-bellied
varieties, which have been described (though erroneously) as
distinct species. The Yiper feeds upon small animals, such as
mice, rats, birds, &c., which are very speedily killed by its bite ;
it never attacks Man unless provoked to do so ; and although
very unpleasant consequences follow the insertion of the poison-
fangs into his body, it is very seldom (if ever) thai fatal results
occur to persons previously healthy. The Viper is ovo-vivipa-
roug, the eggs being hatched within the body; and the female,
when loaded with them, may often be seen basking in the sun,

VIPERS. — HYDRIDE, OR WATER SERPENTS.

573

and thus taking advantage of its warmth for the development of
her offspring. — The Viperidas of tropical regions are much more
venomous ; their bite being fatal to Man. Among these we
may mention the Cerastes, or Horned Viper, so named from a

little pointed horn which rises
from the upper edge of each
eye ; the Indian Naja, Cobra
di Capello, or Spectacle-
Snake, which has a curious
mark resembling a pair of
spectacles, on the loose skin of
its neck ; the Egyptian Naja,
or Asp, which (in common
with the preceding) has a sort
of hood, formed by the loose
skin of the neck, that rises
when the animal is excited ;
the Hamadryas, another In-
dian Serpent, which some-
times attains the length of
twelve feet; and the Trigonocephalu*, or Lance-headed Viper,
of Martinique, which also is extremely dangerous from its size
and venomous power.

511. The Marine Snakes, belonging to the family HYDRIDJE,
are characterised by the compressed form of their bodies, and by
the vertical flattening of the tail, which adapts them to move
through the water with facility. In their general aspect and
movements they strongly resemble Eels ; but they are altogether
destitute of fins, and are covered with scales. They appear
seldom or never to quit the land ; and they can only live for a
short time out of salt water. Little is known of their habits ;
but it has been proved (contrary to the general opinion), that
all the species are venomous, some of them extremely so. These
Serpents, of which more than fifty species are known, are peculiar
to the seas of tropical Asia and New Holland.

FIG. 241.— EGYPTIAN NAJA.

574

ORDER IV.— BATRACHIA.

512. The peculiarities of this curious order have already
been dwelt upon in so much detail, that we need not do more
than notice the principal varieties of form which it includes.
These, like the varieties of the Marsupialia, which occupy a
somewhat corresponding position among the Mammals, are very
numerous and remarkable ; the other orders of the Reptile class
finding their representatives, so to speak, in this one; whilst many
of its forms present us with a very close resemblance to the Fishes.
— The family RANID.E, including the Frogs, Toads, &c., is the
one in which the metamorphoses is most complete, — the perfect
form being most unlike the Tadpole state. The different species
vary in size and in the adaptation of their structure to aquatic
habits ; but in other respects they have a close correspondence.

They have a broad, short, de-
pressed body, quite destitute of
any tail. Their hind-legs are
much larger than the anterior
pair ; and they are the chief
instruments in the progression of
the animal, which is accom-
plished on land by leaping, and
in water by swimming. The
family is divided into three
groups ; — the Frogs, which have
teeth in their upper jaw, and

FIG. 242 —TOAD. . . . , , , ™ ,

their feet webbed ; — the Toads,

which have no teeth in either jaw, and the toes but little
connected with webs ; — and the Hylce or Tree Frogs, which
have the ends of their toes dilated into small pads, that enable
them to walk on the under sides of smooth surfaces, in the
manner of the Geckos (§ 467). The food of all these is nearly
the same, consisting of insects, slugs, &c., in the capture of
which the tongue performs an important part. The Tree

TREE FROGS. — CjECILIAD^E. SALAMANDRID^E. 575

Frogs, which are common in most temperate and tropical

regions, although none occur
in Britain, are very beautiful
and active little animals,
dwelling amidst the foliage
of the woods, and changing
their hues in accordance with
the colour of the surrounding
objects. — There is distinct
evidence, derived from im-
pressions of footsteps, and
from remains of teeth and

FIG 243. — HYLA OR TREE-FROG. , ., ,. , .

bones, that a gigantic animal

of the Frog tribe, measuring at least three or four feet in length,
inhabited Britain, at the time when the New Red Sandstone
was in process of formation ; this has received the name of Laly-
rinthodon, from peculiarities in the structure of the teeth.

513. The Tortoises seem to be represented in this group, by
a species of Frog that inhabits Brazil ; in which a sort of
carapace and plastron are formed by the thickening of the skin
above and below. — The Serpents are represented by the very
curious family of C^ECILIADJE, which are intermediate in their
characters between the two groups, having the form of Serpents,
but the naked skin and imperfectly-developed ribs of the Frogs.
That their real position is in this order, has been recently proved
by the discovery, that they undergo a metamorphosis like the
Batrachia in general. — The Lizards, too, find their represent-
atives in the family SALAMANDRIDJE, or Salamanders; of which
we have examples in this country, the Water and Land-Newts,
or Efts, bearing much ^yvV^^z.

the same relation to
each other, as do the
Frogs and Toads.
These are extremely
harmless animals, not FIG. 244.-WATER-NBWT.

at all deserving the aversion with which they are commonly
regarded. The Menopoma of the Ohio and Alleghany rivers

576 PROTEID^E ; — PROTEUS, SIREN, AXOLOTL, LEPIDOSIREN.

belongs to this family ; it is about two feet in length, and is
described as very voracious. It is interesting as exhibiting the
first stage of the incomplete metamorphosis of the respiratory
organs, — the branchial aperture remaining open in the neck
during the whole of life. Remains of a gigantic Salamander,
nearly six feet long, have been found near JEningen.

514. In the PROTEID^E, or perennibranchiate Batrachia, the
gills remain during the whole of life, and the lungs are not
developed sufficiently to maintain the respiration by themselves.
The body, too, retains much of the Tadpole form and aspect.
Of these very curious animals, several distinct genera are known.
The Proteus inhabits the underground lakes of the Tyrol,
retreating from the light of day, and burying itself in the mud
when the waters in which it dwells (as sometimes happens) are
dried up. It is very Eel-like in its appearance and movements,
but has four short limbs. — The Sirens have no hind limbs ;
and the anterior pair are short feeble rudiments ; these animals
inhabit the marshy grounds of Carolina. — The Axolotl (Fig. 19)
is common in the Lake of Mexico, and is considered as an article
of luxury by the inhabitants of that city. Its general form is
very Fish-like ; though its extremities are more developed than
those of the preceding. Finally, the curious Lepidosiren (Fig. 20)
— of which one species (about a foot long) inhabits the upper
part of the river Gambia, and another (from two to three feet
in length) is a native of the large rivers of South America,
— approaches the most nearly of any of this group to the
class of Fishes ; with which, indeed, it is ranked by some
eminent Naturalists. In its respiratory apparatus, it bears the
closest correspondence with the Perennibranchiate Batrachia ;
but in many other points of its internal structure, it more
resembles certain species of the class of Fishes. The African
species is said to pass nine months out of the twelve in a
state of torpidity ; burying itself in the mud during the dry
season, and again reviving when the sources of the river are
swollen by the rains.

BRADBURY AND F.VANS, PRINTERS, WHITFFRIARS.