ENGLISH GRiSiMMAR
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M PRANG'S MODERN TEXT-BOOKS
A Modern
English Grammar
BY
HUBER GRAY BUEHLER
AND
PELHAM EDGAR, Ph.D.
Authorized by the Minister of Edmatioit for use in the Public Schools
of Ontario
PRICE 25 Cents
TORONTO
MORANG & CO., LIMITED
19 05
Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada in the year nineteen
hundred and five, by Morang & Co., Limited, at the Department of Agriculture.
GlCp
PREFATORY NOTE
Since the publication of the former edition of A Modern
English Granwiar, the publishers have received many re-
quests from public school teachers and inspectors for a
condensed edition of the book for Canadian public schools.
The marked success of the Grammar in the larger form
has encouraged the publishers to attempt an edition with
the exercises and examples somewhat curtailed. The
present volume is the result of this effort. It contains
all the best features of the former book, with the addi-
tional qualification of brevity. The exe cises have been
condensed, the whole book revised and corrected, and too
advanced material cut out. This book is not intended in
any sense to fdl the place of the larger book, but it is
hoped that it will prove of as great practical value for the
ordinary public school classes as the former edition for
high schools and continuation classes of public schools.
THE AUTHORS
CONTENTS
PAGB
Introduction i
PART I
Sentences and their Structure
I. Of Sentences in General lo
II. Of Subject and Predicate 14
III. Of Substantive and Verb 20
IV. Of Complements 28
V. Of Modifiers 33
VI. Of Substantive Phrases and Clauses 43
VII. Of Independent Elements 47
VIII. Of Sentences as Simple, Complex and Compound 51
IX. Of Elliptical Sentences 55
PART II
The Parts of Speech
I. Of the Recognition of the Parts of Speech 57
II. Of Inflection, Derivation, and Composition 73
III. Of Nouns 75
IV. Of Pronouns 93
V. Of Adjectives 114
VI. Of Articles 118
VII. Of Verbs 121
VIII. Of Adverbs i57
IX. Of Prepositions 161
X. Of Conjunctions 165
XI. Of Interjections 167
Extracts for Analysis 169
Index 179
INTRODUCTION
1. Lan^age — Everybody has an instinctive desire
to tell his thoughts and feelings to others; indeed, ex-
change of ideas is necessary in social life. One way of
expressing thoughts is to make motions with the hands
or other parts of the body, as children and deaf and
dumb persons do. But the usual and very much better
way is to make with the tongue and adjoining organs
certain combinations of sounds which by common con-
MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH.
sent have certain meanings. These combinations of
tongue-sounds, by which people express their thoughts
and feelings, form Language (from Latin /mgua," tongue").
Combinations of sounds that stand for single ideas are
called Words. These are in turn combined into thought-
groups called Sentences.
2. Why Our Language is Called English — Our lan-
guage is called English because it is the language that
INTRODUCTION
has been spoken for more than fifteen hundred years in
England, whence it has been carried to America and
other parts of the world by English colonists.
3. The Early Home of English — But the English
language did not have its beginning in England. It was
carried there in 449 A.D. by people who migrated from
the banks of the river Elbe and the southwest coasts of
the Baltic Sea. These people were from three tribes,
called Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Of the Jutes who moved
to England nearly all trace has been lost. The Angles
and the Saxons drove the original inhabitants — the Britons
— into the mountainous parts of the island, and in course
•p.
>.,N.r.
MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
of time founded the Anglo-Saxon race. They called their
new country "Angleland," or "England;" themselves
and their language they called "English."
The wonderful way in which the English language
has spread over the world is shown by the accompany-
ing maps. The map on the preceding page shows the
early home of English, when it was a mere dialect of
German, spoken by a few tribes. The shaded portions
of the map above show the regions of the world in which
English is now used.
INTRODUCTION 3
How far English has outstripped other languages may-
be seen from the following table, which shows the num-
ber of people speaking the principal European languages
in 1890: —
English 111,100,000
German 75,200,000
Russian 75,000,000
French 51, 200,000
Spanish 42,800,000
Italian 3-^,400,000
Portuguese 13,000,000
4. Old English different from Modern English — The
language carried to England by the Anglo-Saxons was
so unlike the English of to-day that at first glance it
seems to be quite a different tongue. Here, for example,
is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo-Saxon, or Old English,
with the corresponding modern English words printed
underneath : —
Feeder fire, Jju pe eart on heofenum
Father our, thou that art in heavens
Si bin nama gehalgod
Be thy name hallowed
To becume thin rice
Arrive thy kingdom
Geweorjje ]Jin willa on eortian, swa swa on heofenum
Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heavens
Ume dSghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg
Our daily loaf give us to-day
And forgyf us fire gyltas, swa swa we forgifajj urum gyltendum
And forgive us our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors
And ne gelSde JJu us on costnunge, ac aljs us of yfle
And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil
Sojjlice.
Soothly {Aynen).
5. Relation of Old English to Modern English —
Strange-looking as this Old English is, it is the same
language as that which we use. The di*fference between
it and modern English is no more to be wondered at
than the difference between a young child and the same
child when grown to manhood. Some knowledge of
hoiv our language has grown and changed is helpful to
the study of it as it is to-dav.
6. How Our Language has Grown — When our Ian-
4 INTRODUCTION
guage was carried to England, it consisted of probably
not more than two thousand words; now it contains
more than two hundred thousand — a much larger num-
ber than any other language. These new words have
come into the language in many interesting ways: —
(i) British Words — When the Anglo-Saxons settled
in England and drove off the Britons, they adopted
some British words, just as the Americans have adopted
some Indian words. Of these words, adopted from the
Britons, examples are: "cradle" and "crock."
ROMAN WALL IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND.
Built by the Romans as a defense against native tribes.
(2) Latin Words Found in Britain — For several hun-
dred years before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, England
had been in the possession of the Romans. When the
Romans withdrew from the island in 410 A. D., they left
behind a few Latin words, which were adopted by the
Anglo-Saxons. Examples are: "street" (Latin strata
via, "paved way"), "mile" (Latin viilia passuum, "a
thousand paces"), and "wall" (Latin vallum).
(3) Missionary Words — About the year 600 A.D.
Christianity began to be received by the Saxons through
Roman missionaries; and with the missionaries came
many new words from the Latin. Examples are :
"monk" (Latin monachus) and "clerk" (Latin clericus).
(4) Danish Words — Toward the end of the eighth
INTRODUCTION 5
century Norsemen or Danes overran parts of England,
and many of their words were adopted by the English.
Examples are: "sky" and "ugly."
(5) Norman-French Words — In 1066 William of Nor-
mandy conquered England in the great movement known
as the Norman Invasion. The Normans, who came from
France, spoke Norman- French, which was for the most
part modified Latin. In England they seized the land
and all the political power, filled all the offices, and made
their language the language of the court, the law, the
schools and the church. We cannot dwell on the par-
ticulars of the tremendous change in our language which
was wrought by this Norman Invasion. It is enough to
ANCIENT DANISH BOAT FOR FOURTEEN PAIRS OF OARS.
78 feet long, 10 feet broad. Found in a peat bog in Jutland.
say that after three hundred years of contact with Nor-
man-French the English language was very much richer
in vocabulary and softer in sound. Of the many hun-
dreds of Norman-French words in our language examples
are: "battle," "forest," "duke" and "family."
(6) Words from Latin Books — In the sixteenth century,
through the influence of what is called the Revival of
Learning, the study of Latin became very popular in
England. No one was considered well educated unless
he could read Latin; nearly all important books were
written in Latin; and Latin words began to appear in
English conversation and writing. Since these Latin-
6 INTRODUCTION
English words were learned from books, they closely
resembled in spelling the original Latin words. Exam-
ples are: "example" (Latin exempluvi), "fact" (Latin
factum), and "quiet" (Latin quietus).
(7) Imported Words — The descendants of the Anglo-
Saxons have always been great travellers and traders;
and in their travelling and trading they have collected
words from all parts of the world. Examples are : from
Spain, "mosquito;" from Italy, "piano;" from Holland,
"skate;" from Germany, "zinc;" from Africa, "gorilla;"
from the American Indian, "hammock" and "tomato;"
from Arabia, "sofa;" from China, "silk;" from India,
"sugar;" from Persia, "awning;" from Turkey, "tulip."
(8) New Words for New Things — New discoveries and
inventions, as they have occurred, have given new words
to our language. Examples are: "photograph" and
"telephone."
7. Proportion of Foreign Words in Modem English
— The proportion of words in modern English which
have been drawn from the sources just described may
be roughly represented as follows: —
Old English Words
Latin Words
(including Norman — French)
Greek Words
Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Hebrew, Arabic,
Persian, American Indian, etc.
8. Changes in our Language — Our language has not
only grown; it has changed.
(i) In Inflections — Old English was what is called a
highly inflected language. An inflected language is one
that joins words together in sentences by means of
"inflections" or changes in the words themselves. For
example, in Old English oxan meant "oxen," oxena
meant "of oxen," oxum meant "with oxen." Accord-
ingly, instead of saying as we do "tongues of oxen," our
Anglo-Saxon ancestors said "tungan oxena." Traces of
INTRODUCTION 7
these word-changes or inflections still remain in our
language: as, "sing," "singj-."
(2) In Order of Words — The order of words in Old
English was clumsy and involved. For example, in-
stead of saying as we do, —
When Darius saw that he would be overcome,
our Anglo-Saxon ancestors would have said, —
When Darius saw that he overcome be would.
(3) In Sound — Old English was a guttural speech, full
of harsh, choking sounds. For example, our "holy"
was once "hSlig," our "bridge" was once "brigg" (as in
Scotland to this day), our "day" was once "daeg, " our
"light" was once pronounced like the Scotch "licht."
9. How Changes Came About — The greatest changes
in our language occurred between iioo and 1500 A.D.,
that is to say, during the four centiu-ies that followed
the Norman Conquest. The story of the changes is too
long to be told here ; but some idea of how they came
about may be gained by noticing what happens to-day
when a foreigner who has only half learned English tries
to speak it. He mispronounces the words, arranges
them after the manner of his own language, neglects
the inflections. In somewhat the same way, when the
Anglo-Saxons and the Norman-French becam.e one
people, and their languages were fused into modern
English, sounds were modified, the order was changed,
and inflections were dropped.
10. Language Still Subject to Change — Since the
invention of printing, changes in English have not been
numerous; for the vast number of printed books and
papers, and the immense spread of the ability to read
and write, have given to our language a rigidity of form
which it could not have so long as it existed chiefly on
men's tongues. For example, the language of the Eng-
lish Bible, which is sixteenth-century English, differs
little from the English of to-day. But some change is
still going on, for modifying influences are still at work.
English-speaking people in different parts of the world
do not talk exactly aUke; new words are coming in; old
8 INTRODUCTION
words are dropping out; the forms and uses of other
words are changing. An example of this modern change
is found in the word "whom." The "m" in this word
is an inflection, once useful in conveying meaning; and
EARLY PRINTING PRESS.
we still say, when we wish to speak very accurately,
"Whom did you see?" But since the "m" is no longer
necessary to the meaning, people have become very
careless about using it, and good speakers often say,
' ' Who did you see ? "
11. Good English — Good English is the English used
by the best speakers and writers; and the use of such
English is "only a phase of good manners." Bad Eng-
lish, that is, English unlike that which is used by well-
informed and careful writers, produces in the mind of a
well-informed reader an impression of vulgarity or ignor-
ance similar to that which we get from seeing a person
eat with his knife. It is with language as with clothes
and conduct. Persons who wish to be classed as culti-
vated people must not only dress and act like cultivated
INTRODUCTION 9
people; they must also speak and write like them. A
help toward this end is the study of grammar.
12. Grammar — Grammar is an account of the
relations which words bear to one another when they
are put together in sentences. An understanding of
these relations requires some knowledge of the nature,
the forms, and the history of words, but only so far as
these bear on the uses of words in sentences. The
proper starting point of English grammar is the sentence.
The discussion of words considered by themselves be-
longs to the dictionary.
13. Uses of Grammar — It is not by grammar, how-
ever, that we learn to speak or write. Speaking and
writing our mother tongue are habits, formed by imita-
tion long before we acquire that knowledge which is the
subject-matter of grammar. The object of the study of
grammar is to learn the uses of words in sentences, so
that we may test the habits of speech which we have
already acquired, and make them conform to the best
models. Incidentally the study of grammar affords
invaluable mental training.
14. Grammars Old and New — Among English-speak-
ing peoples grammar was first studied as a step toward
the learning of Latin, and the first English grammar
was called an "Introduction to Lily's Latin Grammar."
The author of that first English grammar, keeping his
eye on Latin rather than on English, and making his
work conform to Latin models, treated English as if it
were in all important respects like Latin and Greek, with
no history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact,
English differs greatly from other languages. In struc-
ture it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the mistake of
the first English grammar was followed by succeeding
books for nearly four hundred years. Now we have
learned better, and study our language with reference
to its own nature and history,
PART I
Sentences and their Structure
CHAPTER I
OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL
15. Ideas and Phrases — The word "dog," when
heard or seen, instantly creates in the mind a mental
picture of a well-known animal. This mental picture
is called an idea. The idea may be made more definite
by the addition of other words, as, "The big bulldog in
Mr. Smith's yard;" but though the idea is now complex,
that is, has several parts, it still remains a single mental
picture.
Definition — A group of related words expressing a
single idea is called a Phrase.
16. Thoughts and Sentences — The phrase "The big
bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard" is satisfactory as an expres-
sion of a mental picture or idea ; but as a remark made
by some one it is incomplete, for we at once find our-
selves asking, "Well, what about that dog?" We are
satisfied when we hear that "The big bulldog in Mr.
Smith's yard barked." From this group of words, we get,
first, the idea of a certain dog, and, secondly, we get an
idea of what the dog did. Of these ideas, the second is
an assertion about the first. Two ideas of this kind —
something thought of and an assertion about it — together
form a complete thought.
~Definition-^^A group of related words expressing a
complete thought is called a Sentence.
17. Sentences and Phrases Distinguished — "The big
bulldog barking in the yard" is not a sentence, for it con-
tains no assertion. "Barking" does, indeed, imply ac-
OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL ii'
tion; but it does not assert. It is merely a descriptive
word, like "big," helping to fill out the mental picture of
a certain dog, about which as yet no assertion has been
made. "Big" shows the size of the dog, "barking"
shows his occupation, "in the yard" shows his where-
abouts; what the big dog barking in the yard did, we
have yet to learn. The words as they stand express a
single complex idea, not a thought ; that is, they form a
phrase, not a sentence. The phrase will become a sen-
tence if we add an assertion: as, "The big bulldog bark-
ing in the yard frightened me;" or if we connect "dog"
and "barking" by an asserting word like "is," which
turns the implied action into an asserted action: as, "The
big bulldog is barking in the yard." In either case we
shall have two separate ideas, one of which is an assertion
about the other.
Query: What other asserting words might be used
in the last sentence instead of "is"?
EXERCISE 1
1. Tell which of the following groups of words are phrases
and which are sentences. Make sentences out of the phrases
by adding appropriate asserting words: —
1. The man in the moon.
2. The man in the moon came down too soon.
3. The boy in blue.
4. The boy reciting his lesson.
5. The boy in blue reciting his lesson.
6. The boy reciting his lesson is my brother
7. His attempt to catch the ball.
8. A primrose by the river's brim.
9. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
10. The children playing in the street.
2. Construct five phrases about things in the schoolroom,
and show that they are not sentences.
3. Construct five sentences about thinss in the schoolroom,
and show that they are sentences.
18. Sentences Classified — Examine the sentences in
the following conversation : —
Donald: I found these big apples in grandfather's bam.
Dorothy: Show us where you got them.
Jack: Are there any more left?
Helen: Aren't they beauties!
12 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
You observe that, in the first sentence, Donald's thought
is an assertion ; in the second, Dorothy's thought is a re-
quest or a command; in the third. Jack's thought is a
question; in the fourth, Helen's thought seems at first
glance to be a question about the beauty of the apples;
but a little reflection shows that this cannot be, since she
already knows that the apples are beauties. As a matter
of fact she is merely expressing her delight by an exclama-
tion, which has the interrogative form.
Definitions — Sentences that assert are called Asser-
tive Sentences.
Sentences that ask are called Interrogative Sentences.
Sentences that command are called Imperative Sen-
tences.
When assertive, interrogative and imperative sen-
tences are used as exclamations expressing strong feel-
ing, they are called Exclamatory Sentences.
EXERCISE 2
Tell the kind of each sentence in the following selections: —
I We all do fade as a leaf.
2. Fear God. Honour the king.
3. The king is dead! Long Hve the king!
4. A Hving dog is better than a dead lion.
5. Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not be
burned?
19. Written Sentences — In writing, the first word
of every sentence begins with a capital letter.
The end of an assertive or an imperative sentence is
marked by a period (.). The end of an interrogative
sentence is marked by an interrogation point (?). When
the sentences are exclamatory, these marks are changed
to exclamation points ( ! ) .
EXERCISE 3
I. Write two assertive sentences about noted men. 2.
Write two interrogative sentences. 3. Write two imperative
sentences. 4. Write an exclamatory sentence.
20. Assertive Sentences Most Common — Most sen-
tences are assertive in character. Interrogative and
imperative sentences are like assertive sentences in
fundamental structure, the difference being often only a
OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 13
difference in the order of words: as, "Can he sing?"
"He can sing." Therefore, in our study of sentence-
structure, we shall speak chiefly of the assertive sen-
tence, taking it as the type-form.
21. The Origin of Sentences — if you ever cut your finger
with a knife or other sharp instrument, you probably exclaimed
"Ouch!" before you clearly reahsed what had happened. By this
exclamation you gave expression to your feeling of pain, and a per-
son hearing you would know that you were suddenly hurt; but
what hurt you or how it hurt you he would not know, for you had
not yet said anything definite. Indeed, you said "Ouch!" before
you yourself had any clear idea of what the trouble was. As
soon as you had time to think, you perceived that the cause of the
pain was a cutting, and that the person who did the cutting was
yourself. In other words, out of your feeling there presently grew
a thought, which had two parts — the idea of the person who had
caused the pain, and the idea of what this person had done. This
thought you perhaps expressed in the words, "I cut myself" — a
sentence which has two parts corresponding to the two parts of
your thought: namely, somebody ("I"), and an assertion about this
somebody ("cut myself"). A person hearing these words would
immediately recognise the two parts of your thought — the somebody
and the assertion — in other words, the actor and the act.
Perhaps you were once frightened by a noise in a dark room. If
so, the exclamation "Oh!" probably expressed your fear, — a feeling
which was immediately followed in your mind by a thought con-
taining two parts: "That — what is it?" Putting these two parts
together — an idea of something, and a query about it — you per-
haps expressed your thought in the question, "What is that?"
Similarly, if you should see a child about to eat a poisonous
berry, you would say quickly, "Throw that away." In this case
the thought aroused by what you see takes the form of a com-
mand, with two parts as before — what is to be done, and the person
who is to do it ; but the latter is not named, because you are speak-
ing to him, and to name him is unnecessary.
14 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
CHAPTER II
Olf SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
22. Two Necessary Parts to Every Sentence — Ex-
amine the following sentences : —
Naming Part Asserting Part
Fire burns.
I cut myself.
The school bell has just rung.
The big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard barked at me.
You observe that each sentence has two parts — the
naming part and an asserting part — and that both
parts are necessary.
23. Subject and Predicate Defined — The part of a
sentence which denotes that about which an assertion
is made is called the Subject.
The asserting part is called the Predicate (Latin,
"thing said").
In an interrogative sentence the predicate asks something
about the subject.
In an imperative sentence the predicate commands, and the sub-
ject is generally omitted, because the subject of a command is always
the person or persons spoken to, and to name it is unnecessary: as,
"Listen [ye];" "Don't [you] forget."
EXERCISE 4
Write out a thought or a feeling suggested by each of the
following subjects : —
I. Flowers — . 2. Lions — . 3. Indians — . 4. Stars — . 5.
Chalk — . 6. Farmers — . 7. Chickens — . 8. Bees — 9. I — .
10. He — . II. Who — ? 12. My desk — .
EXERCISE 5
With what subjects would the following predicates be
appropriate?
1. — sing. 2. — climb. 3. — spin. 4. — trot. 5. — grow.
6. — are playing. 7. — will be here soon. 8. Is — coming? 9. Can
— ride a bicycle? 10. Twice was — thrown. 11. What large mus-
cles — has! 12. — will help me?
24. Position of the Subject — The subject does not
alwavs come first. Thus : —
OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 15
Predicate Subject
Vp went the balloon.
Then burst his mighty heart.
There was a Uttle man.
The last of all the bards was he.
In the shade of the great elm trees stands a weather-beaten house.
Sometimes the subject is put between parts of the
predicate like a wedge.
I. Is Fred coming? 2. Where do pineapples grow? 3. How fast
the snow falls! 4. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 5. At the
appointed time the gladiators marched into the arena. 6. Has every
pupil in the class brought his book ?
EXERCISE 6
Construct two sentences in which the subjects come first;
two in which the subjects come last; two in which the subjects
come between parts of the predicate.
EXERCISE 7
Tell the subject of each of the following sentences: —
1. Which way does the wind come? 2. Up flew the windows all.
3. Down went the Royal George. 4. Flashed all their sabres bare.
5. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 6. Ten spears he swept within
his grasp. 7. One new-made mound I saw close by. 8. Where are
those lights so many and fair? 9. Now wherefore stopp'st thou me?
10. There lay the rider distorted and pale. 1 1. A dainty plant is the
ivy green. 12. Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave.
13. At the door, on summer evenings,
Sat the little Hiawatha.
14. On the ear
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar.
15. To seek thee did I often rove
Through woods and on the green.
16. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas,
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre
Lay in the fruitful valley.
25. Compound Subjects — Very often the same predi-
cate is used with two or more connected subjects: as,
Connected Subjects Predicate
^ -■ ^ , ^ ^
Flowers and jerns grow beside the brook.
The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel.
The present scene, the future lot, his toils,
his wants, all were forgotten.
Definition — Two or more connected subjects having
the same predicate form a Compound Subject.
i6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
26. Compound Predicates — Very often the same
subject has several connected predicates : as,
Subject Connected Predicates
' ■ > ,, ' s
States rise and fall.
Charity sufjereth long and is kind.
The King of Hearts called for the tarts and beat the knave full sore.
Definition — Two or more connected predicates having
the same subject form a Compound Predicate.
27. Compound Subject and Predicate — Sometimes
both subject and predicate are compound : as,
Compound Subject Compound Predicate
<■ ; ' ^ ' -,
Spring and sumtncr came and went.
EXERCISE 8
Construct two sentences with compound subjects ; two
with compound predicates ; two in which both subject and
predicate are compound.
EXERCISE 9
In the following sentences separate the subjects from the
predicates. If a subject or a predicate is compound, separate
it into its parts: —
1 . She and her brother were there.
2. Copper and tin are found in England.
3. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, rush by in quick
succession.
4. Sceptre and crown
Must tumble down.
5. Jack and Jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water
6. The lion and the unicorn
Were fighting for the crown.
7. Only the foolish and the dead never change their opinions.
8. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eye-
ball, and there spreads out.
9. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables
and were fed at the same time.
10. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunks of cocoanut
palms and thatch the roofs with the leaves.
11. In the best books, great men talk to us, give us their most
precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours.
12. Under the benignant influence of peace and liberty, science
has flourished, and has been applied to practical purposes.
28. Impersonal Subject — Examine the following sen-
tences : —
It rains. It is snowing. It is growing dark
OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 17
If we try to find the subjects of these sentences by
asking "What rains?" "What is snowing?" "What is
growing dark?" the only answer is "It." But "it"
does not here denote any person or thing. Therefore it
is called an Impersonal Subject, and the sentence is an
Impersonal Sentence.
EXERCISE 10
Make five impersonal sentences of your own.
29. " It " Expletive — Compare the following sen-
tences : —
(a) To find fault is easy. (6) It is easy to find fault.
In meaning these sentences are exactly alike; but,
they differ in (i) form and (2) emphasis. The effect of
the second form is to shift the emphasis from the pre-
dicate to the subject. The sentence tells us, not so much
that something is easy, as that what is easy is to find fault.
In such sentences the introductory word "it" has no
meaning, and is therefore commonly called an Expletive
(Latin, "filling up"). Other examples are : "// is doubt-
ful whether he will come;" "It is certain that the sun
spins like a top."
In such sentences, and indeed in all sentences, the
subject is invariably the answer to the question formed
by putting "who" or "what" before the predicate: as
in the sentences above, "What is certain?" "What is
doubtful?"
EXERCISE 11
Tell the subject and the predicate of each of the following
sentences : —
I. It is good to be here. 2. It dees not pay to worry. 3. It is not
all of life to live. 4. It will not suit us to go with you. 5. It is easy
to see where the fault lies. 6. It is excellent to have a giant's
strength; but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant. 7. It has
been proved by actual measurement that the thread forming the
cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles long.
EXERCISE 12
Construct five sentences that begin with "it" expletive,
and tell the subject and the predicate of each.
i8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
30. " There " Expletive — Compare the following sen-
tences : —
(o) A gust of wind came. (b) There came a gust of wind.
You observe that these sentences, too, are alike in
meaning, but differ in (i) form and (2) emphasis. The
second sentence shifts the emphasis itrom the predicate
to the subject, which is put last. The second sentence
tells us, not so much that a gust of wind came, as that
what came was a gust of wind. The use of the word
"there" is precisely like that of the word "it" described
in the last section. Having no meaning by itself, it is
an Expletive. Other examples are: "There was water
in the well;" "There are two sides to every question."
The expletive "there" is regularly used before the
various forms of "be" when they denote existence: as
"There is a God;" "There were giants in those days."
EXERCISE 13
Tell the subject and the predicate of each of the following
sentences: —
I. There is no one here. 2. There was no help for him. 3. Is
there no hope? 4. There is a reaper whose name is Death. 5. There
was a sound of revelry by night. 6. There is a higher law than the
Constitution. 7. There is no good in arguing with the inevitable.
8. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 9. There is no
gathering the rose without being pricked by the thorns. 10. There
is now less flogging in the great English schools than formerly.
EXERCISE 14
Construct five sentences that begin with "there" expletive,
and tell the subject and the predicate of each.
EXERCISE 15
(Review)
In the following sentences separate the subject from the
predicate: —
Come with me.
Our revels now are ended.
Give me your attention.
There came a burst of thunder-sound.
What became of your toy steamboat?
A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance.
The sentinel on Whitehall gate looked forth into the night.
OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE rg
8. The history of the Anglo-Saxon race is emphatically the his-
tory of progress.
9. In 1895 Nansen got within two hundred and twenty-seven
miles of the North Pole.
10. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected by
the Saracens at Seville, in Spain.
11. From Clive's second visit to India dates the poUtical ascend-
ency of the English in that country.
II
1. Here stands the man.
2. Wide open stood the doors.
3. Overhead I heard a murmur.
4. Great and marvellous are Thy works.
5. In those days came John the Baptist.
6. From floor to ceiling
Like a huge organ rise the burnished arms.
7. Within a windowed niche of that high hall
Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain.
8. On the British heart were lost
The terrors of the charging host.
9. Full many a gem of purest ray serene
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear.
10. Down the street with laughter and shout,
Glad in the freedom of school let out.
Come the boys.
11. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of
Minas,
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pre,
Dwelt on his goodly acres.
12. Meanwhile, apart, at the head of the hall, the priest and the
herdsman
Sat, conversing together of past and present and future.
13. Hearing his imperial name
Coupled with those words of malice,
Half in anger, half in shame.
Forth the great campaigner came
Slowly from his canvas palace.
14. His face
Deep scars of thunder had intrenched.
15. Him the Almighty Power
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky,
With hideous ruin and combustion, down
To bottomless perdition.
16. On each hand the flames
Driven backward slope their pointing spires.
17. The imperial ensign, full high advanced,
Shone like a meteor streaming to the wind.
With gems and golden lustre rich emblazed.
20 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
CHAPTER III
OF SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB*
31. Logic VS. Grammar — The distinction between
subject and predicate belongs to thought as well as to
the expression of thought. It exists in a speaker's mind
before he expresses his thought in words. The distinc-
tion is therefore a logical distinction rather than a gram-
matical one ; for grammar has to do only with the expres-
sion of thought, that is, with words. We come now
to consider the words used in forming the subject and
the predicate, and here we enter the field of grammar
proper.
32. Substantive and Verb Defined — Compare the
following sentences: —
Subject Predicate
^ ' ^ , ■^- ^
Stars twinkle.
The beautiful stars, which are really twinkle brightly on frosty
suns about a million miles in dia- nights.
meter and trillions of miles away,
You observe that one sentence is composed of two
words, the other of many ; but the fundamental structure
of both is the same. Both make assertions about stars,
and in both cases the assertion is that stars twinkle. But
in the second sentence the fundamental words, "stars"
and "twinkle," are accompanied by words and groups
of words called Adjuncts ("joined to").
Definition — A word used (with or without adjuncts)
to denote an object of thought is called a Substantive.
Definition — A word used (with or without adjuncts)
as the predicate of a sentence is called a Verb (Latin,
"the word ;" so named because of its supreme importance).
When we say that a sentence must contain a sub-
• To tht Tencket — Only those features of the verb are treated in this chapter
which are needed for an understanding of the general structure of sentences.
The term "substantive" is in Part I preferred to "noun," because (i) it is a
convenient term to include both nouns and substitutes for nouns, and (j) it furnishes
the useful word " substantively."
OF SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB 2i
ject and a predicate, we speak logically. Speaking
grammatically, we say that it must contain a substantive
and a verb.
33. Grammatical and Logical Terms Distinguished —
In the sentence "The beautiful stars, which are really
suns about a million miles in diameter and trillions of
miles away, twinkle brightly on frosty nights," the
substantive "stars" is called the Simple Subject to dis-
tinguish it from the Complete Subject, which consists
of the simple subject and its adjuncts. "Twinkle" is
called the Verb to distinguish it from the Predicate,
which consists of the verb and its adjuncts.
EXERCISE 16
Construct four sentences in which the simple subject is
different from the complete subject, and the verb from the
predicate.
EXERCISE 17
In the following sentences point out, in the order named,
the complete subject, the predicate, the simple subject and
the verb: —
1. The ripest fruit falls first.
2. She dwelt on a wild moor.
3. The good news arrived yesterday.
4. A hot fire of coals burned in the grate.
5. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night.
6. The sudden splash frightened the nurse.
7. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.
8. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl.
9. Waldo, playing on the bank of the brook, tumbled into the
water.
34. Verbs of Action, Being and State — Compare the
meanings of the verbs in the following sentences: —
I. Birds jmg. 2. My lady sleeps. 3. He /oi;c.y children. 4. There
is a flaw in the metal.
You observe that "sing" asserts action; "sleeps"
asserts state or condition; "loves" asserts feeling; "is"
asserts existence or being. It is sometimes said, there-
fore, that a verb is a word that asserts action, being, or
state — feelings being looked on as mental actions.
Most verbs assert action.
22 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
EXERCISE 18
1. In Exercise 7 tell whether the verbs assert action,
being, or state.
2. Construct three sentences in which the verbs assert ac-
tion ; two in which they assert state or condition ; one in
which the verb asserts existence or being.
35. The Verb "To Be" — "Am," "is," "are," "was,"
"were," and the less common "art," "wast," and "wert"
— all of them forms of the verb "to be" — are so peculiar
in their use that they require special notice. The pe-
culiarity will appear if we carefully compare the predi-
cates in the following sentences : —
I. The lightning /?oJ/^ed. 2. "LX^tmng is electricity.
In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate con-
sists of the verb "flashed," which does two things: first,
it calls up in the mind an idea of sudden brilliance;
secondly, it asserts this brilliance of the lightning. In
other words, it has both meaning and assertive power.
In the second sentence, the predicate consists of two
words, "is" and "electricity," each of which is necessary.
But mark the difference between them. "Electricity"
is a word of definite vicaning, calling up instantly a mental
picture or idea of that something of which it is the name.
But it has no assertive power, as appears when we try
in vain to make a predicate with it alone : as, " Lightning
electricity." The assertiv^e part of the predicate is sup-
plied by the verb " is," which connects the two names,
"lightning" and "electricity," in such a way as to declare
that the objects named are identical. But though "is"
has this assertive power, it has no meaning of its own, that
is, it calls up no mental picture. The predicate gets its
meaning from the idea- word "electricity."
It appears, therefore, that "is," "are," "was," "were,"
and the other forms of "be," are mere ijistruments of
assertion, conveying in themselves no idea at all, except
in those cases in which they express existence. Mean-
ingless themselves they are used to make predicates with
words that have meanings, but cannot by themselves
make assertions. They link together two different ideas
OF SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB 23
in such a way as to predicate one of the other. For this
reason the verb "be" is often called the Copula (Latin,
"link"). It often resembles in force the mathematical
symbol of equality or identity, " =."
The following verbs, in some of their uses, resemble
"be":—
I. Seem. 2. Become. 3. Look. 4. Sound. 5. Appear. 6. Feel.
7. Taste. 8. Smell. 9. Continue. 10. Remain.
EXERCISE 19
1. Construct five sentences in which forms of the verb
"to be" are used with assertive power only.
2. Construct two sentences in which forms of "to be"
are used to denote existence.
3. Construct sentences in which the following verbs are
used, like "be," to form predicates whose meaning is deter-
mined by a following word: —
I. Seem. 2. Become. 3. Look. 4. Appear. 5. Feel. 6. Taste.
7. Smell. 8. Remain.
36. Verb Phrases — Examine the following predi-
cates : —
Subject Predicate
studies, (a)
does study. (6)
has studied, (c)
has been studying, (d)
will study, (e)
may be studying. (/)
may have been studying, (g)
V, should have been studying, (h)
Here we have eight different assertions about Dorothy.
One of them contains a single asserting word, others two
words, others three, still others four. All of the predi-
cates refer to a single action, namely, Dorothy's sttidying;
but they refer to it in different ways. Predicates (a) and
(6) assert it as a customary act, with a difference in em-
phasis ; (c) and (d) as a completed act ; (£') as a future act ;
(/) and (g) as a possibiHty, with a difference in time; (h)
as a duty. In other words, the eight predicates are ahke
in expressing a single action, denoted by one or another
form of the verb "study;" they differ in representing
Dorothy
24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
this action under various aspects, as the speaker happens
to view it.
Now examine the predicates that contain two or more
words, and see whether any one of the words can be
omitted without altering or destroying the assertion.
You observe that in each case every word is necessary.
Finally, consider whether the helping words "does,"
"has," "has been," etc., taken by themselves, are of the
nature of substantives or verbs. They do not denote
objects of thought; therefore they are not substantives.
They do have assertive power, as in "Dorothy does em-
broidery," "She has a book;" therefore they are verbs.
From all this it appears that frequently, to express
varying shades of thought, we employ in our predicates
several words which together have the force of a single
verb.
Definition — A group of words which together form
one verb is called a Verb Phrase.
37. Verb Phrases in Interrogative, Negative and Em-
phatic Sentences — In interrogative and negative sen-
tences modern usage requires verb phrases. Compare,
for example, the following sentences: —
She sings. Does she sing? She does not sing.
Sometimes a verb phrase has the force of an emphatic
affirmation, implying that the thing which is asserted
has been doubted. Compare for example, the following
sentences : —
I. She sings. 2. She does sing.
EXERCISE 20
Point out the verb phrases in the following sentences: —
I. I am reading "Ivanhoe." 2. Katherine has finished the book.
3. To-morrow I shall have finished it. 4. John has cut his finger.
5. Who will help him? 6. Father may be in his study. 7. Carrie
must have been dreaming this morning. 8. You will have paid too
dear for the whistle. 9. Father has been writing all morning. 10.
The child would play by himself for hours. 1 1 . He might have been
doing something useful. 12. This ring may have been worn by a
Roman dandy.
EXERCISE 21
Change the sentences in Exercise 17 (page 21) into nega-
OF SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB 25
five, interrogative and emphatic form, and point out the
verb phrases which you use in the new sentences.
38. Caution — In such sentences as "The sun is shin-
ing" and "The sun is hot," beginners often find it hard
to decide at this stage of their work whether the itahcised
word, coming after a form of the verb "be," is or is not
a part of the verb. A good working test is this: If the
predicate of the sentence expresses action, the word in
question is part of the verb. If the predicate expresses
a condition or quality of the subject, the word in question
is not a part of the verb. For example, in the following
sentences the verbs are printed in italics: —
"The sun is shining" (action).
"The sun zV hot" (condition).
EXERCISE 33
Tell whether the words printed in itahcs are to he viewed
as parts of the verbs: —
I. The key is lost. 1. The key was lost by Bridget. 3. Tennyson
is d^ad. 4. He was buried with solemn ceremony in Westminster
Abbey. 5. I shall be studying Latin by that time. 6. I shall be
rested by that time. 7. Charlie has hurt his ankle. 8. The ligaments
are sprained. 9. They were sprained in the football game last Satur-
day. 10. We have been happy together.
39. Verb Phrases Separated — The parts of a verb
phrase are often separated by other words. For ex-
ample, the verb phrases in the following sentences are
printed in italics: —
I. I have just returned. 2. Have you not heard 9 3. I <fo not yet
know. 4. Has the man in the moon been married indeed?
EXERCISE 33
Point out the verb phrases in the following sentences: —
I. What did you see? 2. The leaves are slowly changing. 3. He
will certainly lose his place. 4. I have not seen him yet. 5. She
will sometimes lose her temper. 6. Why is he running away? 7.
Have you finished your lesson? 8. We are now reading "Tom
Brown's School Days." 9. Did the man in the boat see the thief?
ID. May not the coat have been taken by some one else?
40. Verbs Transitive or Intransitive — Compare the
verbs in the following sentences : —
John frightened Helen
John laughed.
26 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
In the first sentence, "frightened" denotes an action
which, from its nature, involves two persons: John, the
doer of the action; and Helen, on whom the action falls.
In the second sentence, "laughed ' denotes an action
which involves only one person.
Definition — A verb that denotes an action or feeling
that passes over from the doer of the action to an object
on which it falls, is called a Transitive Verb (Latin
transire, "to pass over").
Definition — A verb that denotes an action, feeling, or
state that involves only the subject, is called an Intransi-
tive Verb.
Verbs like "have," "own," "possess," "inherit," etc., though
they do not express action or feeling, are nevertheless called tran-
sitive, because they involve two objects, the possessor and the thing
possessed.
EXERCISE 24
I. Consider the meaning of the following verbs (as ordin-
arily used), and tell whether they are transitive or intran-
sitive:—
1. Take. 2. Catch. 3. Hear. 4. Fall. 5. Sleep. 6. Earn. 7.
Find. 8. Bark. 9. Seems. 10. Use. 11. Go. 12. Cry. 13. Tear.
14. Arise. 15. Wait. 16. Strike.
2. Construct three sentences in which you use transitive
verbs not in the preceding list, and two in which you use
intransitive verbs.
41. Verbs both Transitive and Intransitive — Compare
the following sentences : —
I. He walked. 2. He walked his horse.
You observe that some verbs may in one sentence be
transitive and in another intransitive.
EXERCISE 25
Construct ten sentences, using each of the following verbs,
first transitively, then intransitively: —
I. Break 2. Fly 3. Move 4. Return 5. Speak
42. Verbs Active and Passive — Compare the following
sentences : —
John frightened Helen.
Helen was frightened by John.
OF SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB 27
These sentences vary in form, but not in meaning. In
bath of them the verbs are transitive, because they de-
note action passing from one person to another. But in
the first sentence the verb represents the subject as doing
the action; in the second sentence, as receiving it.
Definition — A transitive verb which represents the
subject as doing an action is in the Active form.
Definition — A transitive verb which represents the
subject as receiving an action is in the Passive form.
Query: Can an intransitive verb have a passive form?
Give the reason for your answer.
EXERCISE 26
Construct two sentences in which the verbs are in the
active form; two in which they are in the passive form.
EXERCISE 27
Tell whether the verbs in the following selection are in
the active or the passive form:—
Apples in Ancient Times
It appears that apples made a part of the food of that unknown
primitive people whose traces have lately been found at the bottom
of the Swiss lakes, supposed to be older than the foundation of Rome,
so old that they had no metallic implements. An entire black and
shrivelled crab apple has been recovered from their stores. * * *
The apple tree has been celebrated by the Hebrews, Greeks,
Romans and Scandinavians. Some have thought that the first
human pair were tempted by its fruit. Goddesses are fabled to have
contended for it, dragons were set to watch it, and heroes were em-
ployed to pluck it. — Thoreau: "The History of the Apple Tree."
EXERCISE 28
(General Review)
Point out the simple subjects and the verbs in Exercise
15 iP'^S^ 18), and tell whether the verbs are transitive or
intransitive; if transitive, tell whether the form is active or
passive.
28 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
CHAPTER IV
OF COMPLEMENTS
In the last chapter we learned that some verbs cannot
form complete predicates without the help of other
words (35, 40). We must now look more closely at
such verbs and the words which are used with them to
complete the predicate.
43. Verbs of Complete Predication — Examine the
following sentences: —
I. The wind arose. 2. The lightning flashed. 3. The thunder
rolled. 4. The rain fell.
In each of these sentences the predicate consists of a
verb which makes a complete assertion.
Definition — A verb that by itself can form a complete
perdicate is called a Verb of Complete Predication.
44. Verbs of Incomplete Predication — Now let us try
to make assertions with the verbs "are." "was," "be-
came," "frightened," "built," "have," thus,
I. These men are. 2. Tennyson became. 3. You frightened.
4. The Romans built. 5. Battleships have.
You see at once that something is wanting. Though
we have in each case put together a subject and a verb
as before, we have not in these groups of words said
anything, for the ideas expressed by the verbs are not
complete in themselves.
Definition — A verb that does not by itself convey a
complete idea is called a Verb of Incomplete Predication.
45. Complements Defined — In order to form a predi-
cate with a verb of incomplete predication we must add
a completing word : thus.
Subject ^ Predicate ^
Verb Complement
These men
Victoria
Tennyson
You
The Romans
Battleships
are
was
became
frightened
built
have
soldiers.
(|ueen.
poet-laureate.
me.
ships.
armour.
OF COMPLEMENTS 29
Definition — The completing word added to a verb of
incomplete predication in order to form a p edicate is
called a Complement (" completing part").
Caution — Complements, which must be added to make the
predicate complete, are to be carefully distinguished from words that
may be added to make the meaning more precise. For example, in
the sentence "The rain fell fast," the word "fast" is not a comple-
ment, for we should have a complete sentence without it.
46. Attribute Complements — Are all complements of
the same kind? In order to answer, let us examine
some typical sentences, taking first the following: —
Subject Verb Complement
Tabby is a cat.
Tabby looks wise.
In both of these sentences the verbs are intransitive,
and the complements serve to describe the subject. In
the first sentence the complement "cat" describes Tabby
by attributing to him in a single word all the qualities
or marks that distinguish cats from other objects. In
the second sentence the complement "wise" describes
Tabby by attributing to him a single quality, wisdom.
Definition — A complement that describes the subject
is called an Attribute Complement. Other examples
are: —
These men are soldiers. Roses smell sweet. His name is John.
47. Object Complements — Let us examine, now, the
following sentence: —
Tabby catches mice.
In this sentence you observe that the verb "catches"
is transitive, denoting an action which involves two
things, the doer of the action, and the object on which
the action falls. The doer of the action is named by the
subject "Tabby;" the complement "mice" names the
object on which the action falls.
Definition — A complement that denotes the object on
which the action of a transitive verb falls is called an
Object Complement, or, more briefly, an Object.
Since an object complement denotes the object di-
rectly affected by the action of the verb, it is often called
a Direct Object. Other examples are : —
30 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
I see you. I cut myself. Battleships have armour. The
Romans built ships.
EXERCISE 29
Complete the following sentences, and tell whether the
compiemeyits which you supply are objects or attribute com-
plements : —
I. Squirrels crack — . 2. Grocers sell — . 3. Lincoln became — .
4. Baden-Powell was — . 5. Charles saw — . 6. The sun gives — .
EXERCISE 30
I. To each of the following subjects add an appropriate
predicate consisting of a verb and a complement, and tell
whether the complement is an object or an attribute com-
plement:—
1. Hens . 2. Jewellers . 3. Cats . 4. We •
5. Birds — — . 6. Elephants . 7. Carpenters . 8. Mon-
keys .
2. Construct two sentences containing object comple-
ments; two containing attribute complements.
EXERCISE 31
Point out the complements in the following sentences,
and tell whether they are objects or attribute complements: —
I. Tom broke a window. 2. Bruno bit the tramp. 3. Chaucer
was a poet. 4. Who killed Cock Robin? 5. Who will toll the bell?
6. Gladstone became prime minister. 7. Some one took my bicycle.
8. Do you study Latin? 9. None but the brave deserve the fair.
10. My father remained secretary for the rest of his lile. 11. Righ-
teousness exalteth a nation. 12. A man's house is his castle. 13.
The bird forsook her nest. 14. She looked a goddess. 15. She
turned her back. 16. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman. 17. Bri-
tannia rules the waves. 18. King Alfred was called Truth Teller.
19. To-night no moon I see. 20. The laws of nature are the thoughts
of God. 21. He came a foe and returned a friend. 22. Ethel grew
tall, beautiful and queenly. 23. The dove found no rest for the sole
of her foot. 24. A wise son maketh a glad father.
48. Objective Attribute Complements — Examine the
following groups of words : —
Subject .- — Predicate
Verb Object
The Hebrews made Saul
This made him
OF COMPLEMENTS
31
In these groups of words we have subject, verb and
object; yet we do not have complete sentences. Addi-
tional words are needed, to answer the questions, "What
did the Hebrews make Saul?" and "What did this make
him?" The lack is supplied in the following sentences: —
Subject ^ Predicate ~^
Verb
Object Second Complement
The Hebrews made Saul king.
This made him vain.
The function or use of the second complements, "king"
and "vain," will appear if we write the sentences as
follows : —
Subject
The Hebrews
This
, Predicate-
Verb Object
made-king
[crowned]
made-vain
[spoiled]
From this we see that "king" and "vain" help the
verb "made" to express a certain action, and at the
same time they denote attributes of Saul resulting from
that action.
Definition — A word that helps a verb to express
action, and at the same time denotes attributes of the
object resulting from that action, is called an Objective
Attribute Complement, or, more briefly, an Objective
Complement.
Objective complements complete the predicate and
also describe the object. Or, if you prefer, they assist
the verb to express the action which falls upon the ob-
ject. Other examples are : —
Verb
elected
makes
struck
drank
consider
Object
Harry
me
Ananias
the rivers
him
Objee
tive Complem(
\\'e
Swinging
God
The Persian army
I
captain.
giddy.
dead.
dry.
honest.
EXERCISE 33
I. Fill the blanks with objective complements, and show
that they belong both to the verb and to the object: —
32 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
1. They named the boy . 4. They called the state
2. Parliament made Cromwell 5. Let ns appoint lit: .
-. 6. Do you think him ?
3. Henry painted his house 7. Why did you choose me ?
. 8. I consider her .
2. Construct three sentences containing objective com-
plements.
EXERCISE 33
Point out the objective complements, and show that they
belong both to the verb and to the object: —
I. Victoria made Tennyson a baron. 2. They sang themselves
hoarse. 3. Tell the carpenter to plane the board smooth. 4. Cra-
dles rock us nearer to the tomb. 5. You think him humble, but
God accounts him proud. 6. We cannot pump the ocean dry. 7.
Attention held them mute. 8. One touch of nature makes tlie whole
world kin. 9. Get the horses ready immediately. 10. Time makes
the worst enemies friends. 11. Dr. Holmes called Roston the hub
of the universe. 12. King George II. a])pointed Franklin Post-
master-General of the British Colonies in America. 13. Custom
renders the feelings blimt and callous. 14. Madame de Stael called
architecture frozen music. 15. Cromwell made the poet Milton
Secretary of State.
49. Complements with Passive Forms — Compare the
uses of the word "captain" in the following sentences: —
{Active) We elected Harry captain.
(Passive) Harry was elected captain.
You observe that in one sentence the verb is active,
in the other it is passive, and in each "captain" expresses
attributes bestowed on Harry by the election. In the
first sentence, where "Harry" is an object, "captain"
is an objective complement describing the object ; in the
second sentence, where "Harry" is the subject, "captain"
is an attribute complement, describing the subject.
EXERCISE 34
Change the following sentences into the passive form, and
show the use of the italicised words in the new sentences: —
I. He kept me waiting. 2. This made him angry. 3. God called
the light day. 4- They painted the house green. 5. You cannot
pump the ocean dry. 6. \'ictoria made Tennyson a baron.
50. Several Complements to One Verb — Sometimes a
single verb has several complements: as,
I. We study arithmetic and grammar. 2. Addison was a gentle-
man and a scholar.
OF MODIFIERS 33
51. Several Verbs Avith One Complement — Sometimes
a single complement belongs to several verbs: as,
Noble minds loathe and despise falsehood.
53. Summary of Sentence types — Gathering together
the different kinds of sentences that we have been study-
ing, we find nine rudimental types of the simple assertive
sentence : —
(i) Dogs bark. Grace is singing. {Intransitive verb of complete
predication.)
(2) Tabby is a cat. Alice was feeling ill. {Intransitive verbs
with attribute complement.)
(3) John frightened Helen. Dorothy is studying arithmetic.
{Transitive verb with object.)
(4) The Hebrews made Saul king. Mr. Smith is painting his
house yellow. {Transitive verb, with object and objective complement .)
(5) Harry was hurt. {Passive verb.)
(6) Saul was made king. {Passive verb, with attribute complement.)
(7) It rains. It is snowing. {Impersonal subject.)
(8) It is wrong to steal. {"It" expletive.)
(9) There was water in the well. {"There" expletive.)
EXERCISE 35
Illustrate each of the types of the simple sentence with
a sentence of your o^vn.
CHAPTER V
OF MODIFIERS
From our previous study it is clear that the essential
parts of language are Subject, Verb and Complement.
They are, as it were, the bones of every sentence, giving
shape to the thought and holding it together. But these
essential parts are seldom used alone. Generally they
are accompanied by expressions that, without being
essential, fill out the thought and give it definiteness
and accuracy, something as flesh rounds out the human
form.
53. Modifiers Defined — Many words have meanings
so wide that they must be narrowed before they exactly
M
SKNTHNCHS AND THKIR STRrCTURE
fit our thought. For example, the word "horses" ap-
plies to all the horses in the world; but we seldom wish
to speak of all horses. To bring the meaning of the
word down to the measure of our thought we add to it
some word, or words, by way of limitation or descrip-
tion: thus.
Black, big, fa.st, heaiitiful, good, trotting, our, your, these, two,
sonic, both liorscs.
Similarly there are many varieties of the action ex-
pressed bv the verb "went:" as,
He went slowly, cheerfully, fast, there, before, again soon, im-
mediately, yesterday, twice, little, often.
Often we use several limiting or describing words: as,
1. 'Sour ht\iuiijul hhu'k ttottitig, horses.
i. He often went tlutc before.
DcfiiiHion — A word joined to some part of the sentence
to qualify or limit the meaning is called a Modifier.
^Iodi^lers may be attached to any or all of the principal
parts of a sentence: as.
Modified Verb
Modified Subject
Modified Com-
plement
The
"N
Sojue
These
Five
Little
Big
boys
Spanish
Canadian
Smith's
Our J
found
some
many
twelve
big
small
rosy
sweet
sour
rii^>e
green
apples.
yesterday
to-day
often
never
there
again
once
seldom
quickly
surely
EXERCISE 36
Join af^fyrofyriaie wodijiits to the jolhufing words: —
1.— oranges. 2. — music. 3. — clouds. 4. — roses. 5. —
wind, 6. Lie — . 7. Run — . 8. Think — . 9. Sit — . 10.
balls II. churches. 13. chair, i.^. houses.
14. candy. 15. dogs.
54. Caution — Care must be t.iken not to confound
modifiers of the verb with complements. A ttiodifii^
shows the time, place, manner, or degree of the action,
being, or state expressed by the verb. An object coni-
plctnent denotes the object on which the action expressed
OF MODIFIERS 35
by the verb falls; an attribute complement points back to
the subject, mentioning one or more of its attributes.
EXERCISE 37
In the following sentences tell whether the italicised words
are objects, attribute complements, or modifiers of the verb: —
I. Father called again. 2. Some savages are cannibals. 3. The
regiment marched forth. 4. Gehazi went out a leper. 5. She sang
a ballad. 6. Bismarck was a German. 7. She sang well. 8. The
ship sailed yesterday. 9. The policeman looked surly. 10. Lot's
wife looked back. 11. They went below. 12. The deacon's horse
ran a race. 13. The deacon's horse ran away. 14. Vesuvius is a
volcano. 15. Helen wrote yesterday.
EXERCISE 38
Separate the following sentences into simple subject, verb,
complements, and modifiers: —
I. Have you much time? 2. Where is your hat? 3. Every dog
has his day. 4. Many hands make light work. 5. Little strokes feU
great oaks. 6. An undevout astronomer is mad. 7. When shall I
see you again? 8. The postman comes twice daily. 9. We often
meet nowadays; sometimes we exchange a few words; we seldom
converse long. 10. Here he comes. 1 1. They walked up and down.
12. Where did you find those apples? 13. I have nearly finished my
work. 14. We shall surely expect you to-morrow. 15. Perhaps
your sister will come too.
55. Modifying Phrases and Clauses — Compare the
modifiers in the following expressions : —
I. Blue-eyed girls. 2. Girls with blue eyes. 3. Girls whose eves are
blue.
Definition — A group of words used as a single word,
and containing neither subject nor predicate, is called a
Phrase.
Other examples of modifying phrases are : —
I. He stayed at home. 2. Stunned by the sound, he lay unconscious.
3. Having finished his work, John went home.
Definition — A group of words containing a subject and
a predicate, and used like a single word as part of a sen-
tence, is called a Clause.
Other examples of clauses are: —
I. 1/ it rains, we cannot go. 2. They started when the sun rose.
3. Whether he will come is uncertain. 4. He that is giddy thinks the
world turns round.
36 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
To THE Teacher^ — Phrases and clauses used as substantives
are treated separately in Chajjter VI.
EXERCISE 39
I. Narrow the meaning, of the following words by adding
to them modifying phrases : —
1. Clouds — . 2. A ride — . 3. A house — . 4. News — . 5.
Wind — . 6. He went — . 7. Sit — . 8. Write — . 9. The fox
ran — .
2. Construct four sentences containing modifying phrases.
EXERCISE 40
I. Narrow the meaning of the following words by adding
to them modifying clauses, and point out the subject and the
predicate in each clause: —
1. Men — . 2. The pictures — . 3. Children — . 4. The train — .
5. The book — . 6. Those — . 7. He came — . 8. Stay — . 9. Make
hay — . 10. The ground is wet — . 1 1. The brook ■ — is deep.
2. Construct four sentences containing modifying clauses.
EXERCISE 41
1. Construct a sentence in which the subject is modified
by single words; one in which it is modified by a phrase;
one in which it is modified by a clause.
2. Construct a sentence in which the verb is modified by
single words; one in which it is modified by a phrase; one
in which it is modified by a clause.
EXERCISE 42
Tell whether the following groups of words are phrases
or clauses: —
I. How he got home. 2. Whether he is ready. 3. To tell the
truth. 4. Doomed for a certain time to walk tlic night. 5. Stand-
ing by the door. 6. Where Shakspere was born. 7. Before leaving
the city. 8. Before we leave the city. 9. Busied with public affairs.
ID. That you have wronged me. 11. Ignorant of his duty. 12.
Having made his fortune. 13. Made by Indian. 14. Till on dry
land he lights. 15. Having struck twelve.
EXERCISE 43
In the following sentences point out the modifying phrases,
and tell what they modify: —
OF MODIFIERS 37
I. We sped the time with stories old. 2. A basket of fruit stood
on the table. 3. Hearing a shout, she ran to the door. 4. The
borrower is servant to the lender. 5. We saw a brick schoolhouse
standing by the road. 6. Surrounded by familiar faces, she breathed
freely again. 7. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent
youth. 8. Pins were first made by machinery in New York, in 1835.
9. The author of the "Ode to a Skylark" was bom in a stable. 10.
Glass windows were introduced into England in the eighth century.
EXERCISE 44
In the following sentences pick out the modifying clauses,
tell what they modify, and give the subject and the predicate
of each clause: —
I. They that govern most make least noise. 2. Uneasy lies the
head that wears a crown. 3. My eyes make pictures when they are
shut. 4. The city to which I refer is Constantinople. 5. When the
heart stops beating, life stops too. 6. People who Hve in glass houses
must not throw stones. 7. Rex found a young robin, which had
fallen from its nest. 8. The average age of those who enter college
i« seventeen. 9. The man who wanted to see you went away an
houi ago. 10. The fur which now warms a monarch once warmed
a bear. 11. He that loses his conscience has nothing left that is
worth keeping. 12. Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be
gathered together. 13. Kindness is the golden chain by which so-
ciety is bound together.
14. The moon, that once was round and full,
Is now a silver boat.
56. Modifying Clauses Classified — The principal ideas
expressed by modifying clauses are the following: —
(i) Description: Water that is stagnant is unv^holesome.
(2) Time: He started when the sun rose.
(3) Place: Wherever I went was my poor dog Tray.
(4) Manner: He did as he was told.
(5) Condition : Rob will go if Ethel goes.
(6) Concession: Though pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is an
evil.
(7) Cause : I came because you called me.
(8) Purpose : A glutton lives that he may eat.
(9) Degree: "Ralph is stronger than Katherine [is].
(10) Result: I am so tired that I cannot stand.
EXERCISE 45
Tell what idea is expressed by each of the modifying
clauses in Exercise 44.
57. Indirect Objects — Compare the following sen-
tences : —
I. Jack gave a penny. 2. Jack gave »te a penny.
38 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
In each of these sentences the word "penny" is an
object complement, indispensable to the predicate. Giv-
ing, however, involves a receiver as well as a thing given,
and in the second sentence this receiver is indicated by
the single word "me," placed immediately after the
verb. But "me" is less closely related to the verb than
"penny" because (i) it is not indispensable, and (2) if
we change its place, we must indicate its relation by
prefixing "to": as, "Jack gave a penny to me." More-
over, the action of giving reaches the receiver only
indirectly through the thing given. "Me" in sentence
(6) is therefore called an Indirect Object, in distinction
from "penny," which is called the Direct Object. Other
examples are : —
I. Mother bought ^/ice a doll. 2. She made i?«i/i a new dress.
Definition — A word used to denote the object indi-
rectly affected by the action of a verb is called an Indi-
rect Object.
The indirect object of a verb denotes the object to or
for whom the action is performed. But not every word
answering the question "to whom or what?" or "for
whom or what?" is an indirect object. For example,
the italicised words in the following sentence are not
indirect objects: "Mother went to town and bought me
a doll for a dollar."
The verb "ask" takes an indirect object in a relation sometimes
expressed by "of": as, "He asked me a question"; "He asked a
question of me."
EXERCISE 46
1. With the following verbs form ten sentences, each con-
taining an indirect object: —
ask, forgive, make, promise, teach, bring, get, pay, send, tell
2. Change your sentences so that indirect objects that were
single words shall now be expressed by phrases,
EXERCISE 47
Point out the indirect objects in the following sentences: —
I. Will you do me a favour? 2. He paid the men their wages.
3. Give me Hberty, or give me death. 4. He wrought the castle
much annoy. 5. Riches certainly make themselves wings. 6. Give
OF MODIFIERS 39
every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 7. Nature teaches beasts to
know their friends. 8. Owe no man anything, but to love one
another.
58. Indirect Objects in Passive Sentences — When
sentences containing a direct and an indirect object are
turned into the passive form, it would seem that the
direct object should become the subject of the passive
verb, because it denotes the object which directly re-
ceives the action expressed by the verb; and that the
indirect object should remain unchanged: thus,
I. (Active) He handed her a chair. 2. (Passive) A chair was
handed her.
As a matter of fact, however, not the direct object,
but the indirect is often made the subject of the passive
verb: as,
She was handed a chair.
This cannot be logically explained, but it is accepted
as good English. "Chair" is for convenience called a
Retained Object.
EXERCISE 48
Change the following sentences into the passive form: —
I. Harry gave me a penny. 2. She promised me a book. 3. I
gave him a receipt in full. 4. Mother bought Alice a doll. 5. He
paid the men their wages. 6. He wrought the castle much annoy.
59. Appositives — Compare the following sentences: —
Paul was beheaded in the reign of Nero.
Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero, emperor of
Rome.
In the second sentence, you observe, the meaning of
"Paul" and of "Nero" is made clear by setting next to
each of them a modifier consisting of another name for
the same person or thing.
Definition — A name set next to another name by way
of explanation, and denoting the same person or thing,
is called an Appositive (Latin, "set next to").
The two names set next to each other are said to be in
Apposition.
If an appositive is accompanied by adjuncts, it is
usually set off by commas.
40 SENTENCES AND THEIR {STRUCTURE
In the definition of an appositive, the words "denoting the same
person or thing" are needed to distinguish an appositive from a pos-
sessive modifier, hke "John's" in the expression "John's hat." In
this expression the words are not in apposition because they do not
denote the same person or thing.
EXERCISE 49
In the following sentences point out the words in ap-
position:—
1. Hail, holy hght! ofTspring of heav'n first-born.
2. The meek-ey'd Morn appears, mother of dews,
3. Come, gentle Spring! ethereal Mildness! come.
4. The postman comes, the herald of a noisy world.
5. Labour to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial
fire — conscience.
6. Let not woman's weapons, water drops,
Stain my man's cheeks!
7. A famous man is Robin Hood,
The Enghsh ballad singer's joy.
EXERCISE 50
Construct four sentences containing appositives.
60. Modifiers of Modifiers — Thus far we have con-
sidered only modifiers of subject, verb and complement.
But modifiers are themselves often modified, and we
find phrases attached to phrases, clauses attached to
clauses. Thus : —
I. Fanny sings very well. 2. The widow of the fisherman who
was drowned lives in a cottage by the sea. 3. This is the rat that
ate the malt that lay in the house that J ack built.
SB
*»
3®
c
So.
,0
p
UB
3
t)
*i 0
00
>
<v
This
is
the rat
I that ate the malt
I that lay in the house
f that Jack built.
61. Analysis — When, in order to show its structure,
we separate a sentence into its parts, we are said to
Analyse it.
Definition — The process of separating a sentence into
OF MODIFIERS 41
its parts in order to show its structure is called Analysis.
(Greek, "a taking apart").
In order to analyse a sentence we must tell —
(i) The kind of sentence.
(2) The complete subject.
(3) The predicate.
(4) The simple subject.
(5) The verb.
(6) The complement, if any.
(7) The modifiers of subject, verb and complement.
(8) The subordinate modifiers.
62. Diagrams — It is sometimes convenient, as a
time-saving device, to show the fundamental structure
of a sentence by means of a graphic representation
called a Diagram. For example, the structure of the
sentence,
All boys like the game of baseball,
may be exhibited thus : —
S. V. o,
boys like game
All ""Fthe
I of baseball
This diagram shows at a glance that the sentence has
three principal parts, and that the subject has one modi-
fier, the object two.
Phrases and clauses being used with the force cf
single words are best treated as units and not broken
up into parts.
For other examples see 60.
EXERCISE 51
Analyse the following scntetices: —
I. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower
And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down.
Model for Oral Analysis — The subject is "Three wives."
There are two predicates, "sat up in the Hghthouse tower" and
"trimmed the lamps as the sun went down." The simple subject
is "wives," modified by "three." The verb in the first predicate is
"sat," a verb of complete predication, modified by "up" and the
phrase "in the Hghthouse tower." In the second predicate the verb
is "trimmed," with "lamps" as object complement. "Trimmed"
is modified by the time clause "as the sun went down," and "lamps"
is modified by "the."
43 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
iloDEL FOR Written Anai^ysis —
S. V.
f sat
I HP
I in the lighthouse tower
and
trimmed
1 as the
sun
went dow
0.
lamps
n. 1 the
Three
2 Bright the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men.
3. Animals that live in the Arctic regions among snow and ice
have white fur.
4. Near the "bonny Doon" stands the little clay-built cottage in
which Robert Burns was born.
5. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports, made their
playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians.
6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay,
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life
away.
7. Between the andiron's straggling feet
The mug of cider simmered slow.
8. The house dog on his paws outspread
Laid to the fire his drowsy head.
EXERCISE 52
(General Review").
Analyse the following sentences: —
I . I came to a shady spot where the grass was wet with the dew
that still lay upon it. 2. Nearly all dogs like the water. 3. My
bosom's lord sits Hghtly in his throne. 4. The man in the moon came
down too soon. 5. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy
youth. 6. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in
everything. 7. When I look upon the tombs of the great every emo-
tion of envy dies in me. 8. Pompeii was suddenly buried beneath a
shower of ashes from Mount Vesuvius. 9. People will not look forward
to posterity who never look backward to their ancestors. 10. Books
that you may carry to the fire and hold readily in your hand are the
most useful after all. 11. The deep cave among the rocks on the
hillside was long the secret home of a family of foxes. 12. In Hol-
land the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and
worms that would injure the dikes.
13. Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful procession,
Came from the neighbouring hamlets and farms the Acadian
women.
Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to the sea-
shore.
OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 43
14. In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the Pilgrims,
To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive dwelling,
Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan leather.
Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish, the Puritan captain.
15. Hearing the Imperial name
Coupled with these words of malice,
Half in anger, half in shame,
Forth the great campaigner came
Slowly from his canvas palace.
CHAPTER VI
OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES
In the last chapter we learned (55) that groups of
words are often used with the force of single words, and
that such groups are Phrases if they contain neither
subject nor predicate, Clauses if they do contain a sub-
ject and a predicate. The illustrative sentences and the
exercises contained many such groups used as modifiers.
We are now to learn that phrases and clauses are also
used as substantives.
63. Phrases as Subjects — Examine the subject of
each of the following sentences, and, if possible, pick
out the single word that may be used as the simple or
bare subject : —
Subject Verb Complement
Over the fence is out.
To jump across the chasm was impossible.
Tom's being there saved the house.
You observe that no single word can be taken as the
bare subject. The assertion is made about the idea
expressed by the entire phrase used as a substantive.
EXERCISE 53
Construct assertions about the ideas expressed by the
following phrases: —
1. To die for one's country — . 4. Chopping wood — .
2. Skating on the pond — . 5. To find a horseshoe — .
3. To write a story — . 6. To tell a lie — .
44 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
EXERCISE 54
Fill the blanks with phrases used as subjects: —
1. — is dishonourable. 4. — would make you laugh.
2. — annoys me. 5. — is impossible.
3. — was great fun. 6. Does — make you tired ?
64. Phrases as Complements — Examine each of the
following complements, and determine whether any
single word mav be taken as the bare complement : —
Subject Verb Object Complement
the bridge to be lowered,
him do it.
Attribute Complement
That is out of bounds.
They were in no danger.
Subject Verb Object Objective Complement
danced themselves out of l)reath.
kept us waiting an hour.
From this it is clear that the phrases are often used
substantively as complements.
EXERCISE 55
Complete the ]olloiving sentences by adding ideas ex-
pressed by phrases, and tell whether the phrases are used as
objects, attribute complements, or objective complements: —
I. Our house is — . 2. We intend — . 3. He made us — . 4. He
seemed — . 5. What I want is — . 6. The Alps are — . 7. I like — .
EXERCISE 56
In the joUowing sentences point out the phrases, and tell
how they are lised: —
I. Study to be quiet. 2. The ve.ssels were of oak. 3. Out of
sight is out of mind. 4. Out of debt is out of misery. 5. I found the
book growing dull. 6. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean. 7. The
price of wisdom is above rubies. 8. A man should learn to govern
himself. 9. To break a promise is a breach of honour. 10. Giving to
the poor is lending to the Lord. 11. To be conscious that you are
ignorant is a great step toward knowledge. 12. The only argument
available with an east wind is to jjut on your overcoat.
EXERCISE 57
Write a sentence containitig a phrase used as subject;
as object; as attribute complement; as objective complement.
OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 45
65. Clauses as Subjects — Examine the following sen-
tences and consider whether any single word can be
named as the bare subject.
Consider, also, whether the groups of words expressing
the subject are phrases or clauses. Give the reason for
your answer : —
Subject Predicate
What they say is not to the point.
That you have wronged me doth appear in this.
Whether I can go is uncertain.
From this it is clear that a clause may be used sub-
stantively as the subject of a sentence.
EXERCISE 58
Make assertions about the ideas expressed by the follow-
ing clauses: —
I. What he wants — . 2. Whether you go or stay — . 3. That
two and two make four — . 4. Whom it belongs to — . 5. What
he does — ■. 6. Where he went — . 7. When we shall start — .
8. "Charge for the guns" — .
EXERCISE 59
Fill the blanks with clauses used as subjects: —
I. — is unknown. 2. — will never be discovered. 3. — is of no
importance. 4. — was foretold.
EXERCISE 60
Review Exercise 11 page 17), and tell whether the sub-
jects are phrases or clauses.
66. Clauses as Complements — Examine the following
sentences, and consider whether any single word can
be named as the complement. Consider, also, whether
the groups of words expressing the complementary idea
are phrases or clauses : —
Subject Verb Object
that the earth moves,
who I was.
where she had put it.
whether I can go.
From this it is clear that clauses may be used sub-
stantively as object or attribute complements.
Galileo
taught
He
asked
She
showed
I
doubt
46 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
EXERCISE 61
Fill the blanks with clauses used as complements, and
tell whether they are used as objects or attribute comple-
ments:—
I. Do you know — ? 2. I fear — -. 3. My hope is — . 4. We
saw — . 5. His cry was — . 6. Have you heard — ? 7. The
question is — . 8. Things are seldom — .
67. Clauses as Appositives — Examine the following
sentence : —
The Arabs have a superstition that the stork has a human heart.
Here the clause "that the stork has a human heart"
is in apposition (59) with the word "superstition."
From this we see that clauses may be used substant-
ively as appositives.
EXERCISE 62
Fill the blanks with clauses in apposition with the itali-
cised words: —
1. The report — is untrue. 2. The news — has just come. 3.
We have just learned the fact — . 4. I cherish the hope — . 5. He
made the assertion — .
EXERCISE 63
Point out the appositives in the following sentences: —
I. The popular idea that water is purified by freezing is a mistake.
2. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down liis life
for his friends. 3. Dr. Watts's saying that birds in their little nests
agree is far from being true. 4. The proverb "Never cross a Viridge
till you come to it" is old and of excellent wit. 5. Books have this
advantage over travel, that they convey information from remote
times.
EXERCISE 64
Write a sentence containing a substantive clause used as
subject ; as object ; as attribute complement ; as an ap-
positivc.
EXERCISE 65
In the following sentences point out the clauses, and tell
how they are used: —
1. Ask if you may go too.
2. Life is what we make it.
3. What he does is well done.
OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 47
4. What you want is not here.
5. Take whichever you choose.
6. Show us where you found it.
7. This is not what I asked for.
8. What he promises, he will do.
9. No one can tell how this will end.
10. A servant must do what he is told.
11. No man can lose what he never had.
12. "I am going a-milking, sir," she said.
13. Whether you go or stay is of little account.
14. The village all declared how much he knew.
15. One of the many objections to betting is that it demoralises
the character.
16. The world will not inquire who you are. It will ask, "What
can you do?"
17. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any con-
trol over dreams.
18. The explanation of the apparent daily motion of the sun and
stars is that the earth spins like a top.
CHAPTER VII
OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
68. Independent Elements Defined — Examine the
following sentence: —
I am going a-milking, sir.
Here, you obser\'e, the subject is "I;" the predicate
is " am going a-milking." The word "sir" belongs
neither to the subject nor to the predicate, and there-
fore is not really a part o'" the sentence. It is merely
attached to the sentence to show to whom it is addressed.
Definition — A word or group of words attached to
a sentence without forming a grammatical part of it is
called an Independent Element.
69. Vocatives — Independent elements are of several
kinds. In "I am going a-milking, sir," the independent
element "sir" indicates the person to whom the sentence
is addressed.
Definition — A word used to call to or indicate the
person or thing addressed is called a Vocative (Latin
voco, "I call").
48 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with
the subjects of imperative sentences. In "Come on,
boys," "boys" is a vocative. The subject of the com-
mand "come on" is omitted as usual; if expressed, it
would be "you:" as, "Come (you) on, boys."
EXERCISE 66
Point out the vocative words in the following sentences :-^
I. Drink, pretty creature, drink. 2. Give me of your balm, O fir
tree. 3. Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State. 4. Ye crags and
peaks, I'm with you once again. 5. Wave your tops, ye pines, in
sign of worship. 6. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll I
70. Exclamations — Examine the following sentence: —
What! are you going?
Here the subject is "you;" the predicate is "are
going." "What!" is an independent word attached
to the sentence as an outcry or sudden expression of
feeling.
Definition — A word or group of words used as an out-
cry or sudden expression of feeling is called an Exclama-
tion.
EXERCISE 67
Point out all the independent elements in the following
sentences, and tell whether they are vocatives or exclamations:
I. Oh, hurry, hurry! 2. Well, let us try it. 3. Why, that is
strange! 4. The boy, oh, where was he? 5. Poor man! he never
came back. 6. Mortimer! who talks of Mortimer?
71. Parenthetical Expressions — Examine the follow-
ing sentence: —
This, to tell the truth, was a mistake.
Here the subject is "This;" the predicate is "was a
mistake." "To tell the truth" is a phrase, forming
no part of the sentence (which is complete without it),
but attached to it as a sort of comment or side remark.
Definition — A phrase or a clause attached to a sen-
tence as a sort of side remark or comment is called
Parenthetical (Greek, " put in beside").
OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 49
EXERCISE 68
Pick out the parenthetical expressions in the following
sentences: —
I. At all events, he did his best. 2. In fact, there was nothing
else to do. 3. Considering his age, he did very well. 4. I felt, to
say the least, a little nervous. 5. So far as I can see, there is nothing
more to do. 6. Her conduct, generally speaking, was admirable.
7. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as luck.
72. Pleonasm — Examine the following sentence : —
Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me.
Here the words "Thy rod and thy staff" name the
subject of the thought, but are independent of the sen-
tence "they comfort me," which is complete in itself,
the grammatical subject being "they" and the predicate
"comfort me." It is as if we used two subjects denot-
ing the same thing : thus,
Thy rod and thy staff ■) , ^
They ] comfort me.
Definition— ^h.^ use of more words than are needed is
called Pleonasm ("more than enough").
Other examples of pleonasm are: —
The smith, a mighty man is he.
My banks, they are furnished with bees.
This construction was once very good English, but it
is now uncommon, and as a rule should not be imitated.
73. Punctuation of Independent Elements — It is
customary to separate independent elements from the
rest of the sentence by commas or (in the case of excla-
mations) by exclamation points.
EXERCISE 69
Write two sentences of your own with vocatives attached;
two with exclamations; two with parenthetical expressions.
74. Summary of the Parts of a Sentence — The parts
of a sentence, which we have now studied, may be sum-
marised as follows: —
50 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
f Subject TWord (32).
(23) \ Phrase (63).
[Clause (65).
Intransitive ( Complete predication (43).
(40) -^ Copulative (35) with attribute
[ complement (46).
Verb
(32)
or
Verb Phrase
(36)
Transitive
(40)
Active
(42)
Passive
(42)
With object (47).
With object and objec-
tive complement (48).
'Complete predication
(43)-
With attribute com-
plement (49).
With retained object
(58).
Complements
(45)
f Attribute CW'ord (46).
(46) \ Phrase (64).
(clause (66).
Object /-Word (47).
(47) \ Phrase (64).
IClause (66).
Objective /Word (48).
(48) \ Phrase (64).
Modifiers ["Word (53).
(53) I Phrase (55).
(Clause (55, 67).
V
Independent Expressions
(68)
f Vocative (69).
I Exclamatory (
\ Parenthetical (71)
xclamatory (70).
arenthetical (;
Pleonastic (72).
EXERCISE 70
(Gener.\l Review)
1. Reproduce from memory the preceding summary,
omitting the numerical references.
2. Define and illustrate each of the terms used in the
summary.
SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 51
CHAPTER VIII
OF SENTENCES AS SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND
With respect to meaning, sentences are classified as
Assertive, Interrogative, or Imperative. With respect to
form, they are either Simple, Complex or Compound.
75. Simple Sentences — Examine the following sen-
tences : —
Subject Predicate
a. The horses were in the stable.
b. The horses"!
and - were in the same stable.
the cattle J
Ttook fright
J and
c. The horses J and
l^ran away.
d. The horses 1 /were fastened in the same stable
and y ', and
the cattle J [ were fed at the same time.
Each of these sentences, you observ^e, consists of but
one subject and one predicate, though several of the
subjects and predicates are compound.
Definition — A sentence which contains only one sub-
ject and one predicate, either or both of which may be
compound, is called a Simple Sentence.
In a simple sentence with compound subject and predicate, every
verb belongs to every grammatical subject, and every grammatical
subject belongs to every verb.
Some grammarians hold that there are as many sentences or
clauses in anything we say as there are verbs. According to them,
sentences (c) and (d) are not simple sentences, but two separate
sentences united, with some words omitted: as, "The horses took
fright and [the horses] ran away;" "The horses and the cattle were
fastened in the same stable and [the horses and the cattle] were fed
at the same time."
76. Complex Sentences — Examine the following sen-
tences : —
Subject Predicate
Where the accident occurred is not known.
Substantive Clause
The spot where the accident occurred is not known.
Modifying Clause
52 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
In each of these sentences a clause, performing the
office of a single word, forms an indispensable part of
the whole. It cannot be removed without injury to
the meaning of the sentence. On the other hand, it
depends on the rest of the sentence for its own signifi-
cance. It is clear that the subject and the predicate of
such a clause are subordinate to, that is, of lower rank
than, the subject and the predicate of the sentence of
which the clause is only a part.
Definition — A clause used like a single word as a de-
pendent or subordinate part of a sentence is called
a Dependent or Subordinate Clause.
Definition — A sentence containing a principal clause
and one or more subordinate clauses is called a Com-
plex Sentence (Latin, "woven together").
The "principal clause" in the first illustrative sen-
tence is the entire sentence; in the second sentence it is,
"The spot . . . is not known."
Subordinate clauses are either modifying or sub-
stantive clauses ; and all modifying or substantive clauses
are subordinate.
It is sometimes said that subordinate clauses can be recognised
by the fact that they do not by themselves make complete sense.
This is not a sure test; for-
for
direct quotation
dependent clause; yet it makes complete sense by itself.
(2) Some principal clauses cannot stand by themselves; for ex-
ample, "As a man lives, so must he die."
77. Compound Sentences — Examine the following
sentence : —
The rain descended, | and | the floods came, | and ] the winds
blew, I and | [they] smote upon that house; | and | it fell: | and |
great was the fall thereof.
In this selection we see united into one sentence several
that are complete in themselves. Although closely
related in thought, they could be separated without
injury; therefore they are independent of one another.
Not being dependent one on another, they are said to be
coordinate, that is, of equal rank.
SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 53
Definition — A sentence consisting of several inde-
pendent or coordinate sentences joined together is called
a Compound Sentence.
The independent sentences joined together may themselves be
complex.
EXERCISE 71
Show whether the following sentences are simple, com-
plex, or compound: —
I. In the multitude of counsellors there is safety. 2. A cow is a
very good animal in the field; but we turn her out of a garden.
3. Where the bee sucks, there suck I ;
In a cowslip's bell I Ue.
4. Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes;
Flow gently, I'll sing thee a song in thy praise.
5. My heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here;
My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer.
6. The mossy marbles rest
On the lips that he has prest
In their bloom;
And the names he loved to hear
Have been carved for many a year
On the tomb.
78. Compound Sentences Classified — If we examine
compound sentences closely, we find that they are of
four kinds : —
(i) Copulative sentences in which the separate sayings
are united because of a similarity of meaning or a con-
tinuation of the same line of thought: as,
He called for his pipe, ] and [ he called for his bowl, | and | he
called for his fiddlers three.
(2) Adversative sentences in which the separate sayings
are united because they stand in contrast: as,
He ran to the station, | but | he missed the train.
(3) Alternative sentences in which the separate sayings
are united because they present thoughts between which
one must make a choice: as,
The book is lost | or [ some one has taken it.
(4) Causal sentences in which the separate sa^nngs are
united because they express cause and effect: as,
Carl was tired, | therefore | he went to bed.
79. Connecting Words — In the sentences given in
the last section as illustrations, the connecting words
54 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
are "and," "but," "or," and "therefore." These are
the most common joining words in the four kinds of
compound sentences; but other connectives are fre-
quently used, such as "also," "moreover," "nor,"
"nevertheless," "for." Often there are no connecting
words at all, the connection between the united sen-
tences being indicated only by the punctuation. To
tell, therefore, how the separate parts of a compound
sentence are related to one another, we must consider,
not the connectives, but the meaning of the parts.
EXERCISE 72
Separate the following compound sentences into their
independent parts, and tell how the parts are related: —
1. Man proposes, but God disposes.
Model for Oral An.\lysis — This is a compound sentence,
formed by uniting, by way of contrast, the separate sentences "Man
proposes" and "God disposes." The connecting word is "but."
2. She must weep or she will die.
3. They toil not, neither do they spin.
4. It rained on Saturday, so we put off the game.
5. He says what he means, and he means what he says.
6. The leaves are falling; therefore the swallows will soon be gone.
7. The words of his mouth were smoother than butter, but war
was in his heart.
8. The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows him-
self to be a fool.
9. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament
showeth his handiwork.
10. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have
greatness thrust upon 'em.
11. Truly there is a tide in the affairs of men; but there is no gulf
stream setting forever in one direction.
12. There were gentlemen and there were seamen in the navy of
Charles II; but the seamen were not gentlemen, and the gentlemen
were not seamen.
80. Improper Compound Sentonoes — Untrained speakers
and writers sometimes unite in one compound sentence
thoughts that are not related : as,
Oliver Goldsmith was the son of a clergyman, and when he was
young he had the smallpox.
vSuch a sentence offends the taste of a cultivated per-
son. There is no connection at all between the two
facts that are mentioned, and this independence should
be indicated by putting them in separate sentences.
OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 55
EXERCISE 73
1. Construct a simple sentence with compound subject;
with compound predicate; with both subject and predicate
compound.
2. Construct a complex sentence containing a modifying
clause; a substantive clause used as subject; a substantive
clause used as complement.
3. Construct a compound sentence in which the separate
sayings are related by similarity of meaning; by contrast;
by alternate choice; by cause and effect.
CHAPTER IX
OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
81. Elliptical Sentences Defined — Language is an
intensely practical matter, designed only to express
thought, and never employed for its own sake. In
using it we very properly think far more of clearness
and force than we do of grammatical completeness. It
is, therefore, both natural and proper that we should
from time to time omit from our sentences grammatical
parts which it is unnecessary to use, our meaning being
well understood without them. Such omissions are
especially common in familiar conversation, where lan-
guage has the aid of tone and gesture, and in lively or
impassioned speech, where from haste or strength of
feeling we express only the most important ideas.
Definition — The omission of part of a sentence nec-
essary to grammatical completeness but not to the mean-
ing is called Ellipsis (Greek, "a leaving out").
A sentence in which an omission occurs is called an
Elliptical Sentence.
The following examples of ellipsis should be carefully
studied. The words inclosed in brackets are usually
omitted : —
(1) This is important if [it is] true. (2) He fell while [he was]
bravely leading his men. (3) Who did that? Jack [did it]. (4) I
56 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE
can't come. Why [can you] not [come]? (5) He has gone, no one
knows where [he has gone]. (6) Do you promise? I do [promise].
(7) He is not so tall as I [am tall]. (8) You are wiser than I [am
wise]. (9) He looks as [he would look] if he were tired. (10.) [They
being as] poor as they are [poor], they will not beg. (11) She is
seventeen [years old]. (12) It is half past ten [o'clock]. (13) [I]
thank you. (14) Why [is] this noise [made]? (15) [I wish you a]
good morning, sir.
EXERCISE 74
What words, necessary to grammatical completeness, but
not to the meaning, are omitted in the following elliptical
sentences ?
I. I walk when I can. 2. He is witty but vulgar. 3. I treat him
as a friend. 4. She is as pretty as ever. 5. She loves Fido as well
as I. 6. She loves Fido as well as me. 7. Love thy neighbour as
thyself. 8. I love my mother more than he. 9. I love my mother
more than him. 10. ^^'ho steals my purse steals trash. 11. You
have known her longer than I. 12. There is nothing so powerful as
truth — and often nothing so strange. 13. Reading maketh a full
man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man. 14.
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few
to be chewed and digested. 15. Histories make men wise; poets,
witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral,
grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.
EXERCISE 75
Construct five elliptical sentences, and tell what words are
omitted.
PART II
The Parts of Speech
CHAPTER I
OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Having in Part I studied sentences as wholes and
become familiar with their general structure, we are
now prepared to study the uses and forms of single
words.
83. Words Classified According to Function — Our
language contains more than two hundred thousand
words; but when we examine the ways in which these
words are used in sentences, we find that we can arrange
them all in a few general classes according to their function,
that is, according to what they do. These general classes
are called the Parts of Speecli.
83. Nouns — Examine the italicised words in the
following sentence: —
The crew of the battleship Victoria were under perfect discipline.
The italicised words, you observe, are names.
Definition — A word used as a name is called a
Noun.
Other examples are : —
Names of objects: Wellington, Quebec, army, iron.
Names of actions: walking, laughter, retreat, delay.
Names of qualities: sweetness, warmth, beauty, vice.
Nam^s of conditions : sickness, sleep, death, fatigue.
Names of thoughts: idea, doubt, belief, opinion.
EXERCISE 76
Write the names of two things that you can see; of two
that you can hear but not see; of two that you can feel but not
57
58 THE PARTS UF SPEECH
see; of two tlmt you can taste but not see; of two that yoti can
smell but not see; of two that you can neither see, taste, feel,
hear, nor smell.
EXERCISE 77
Point out the noiins in the following sentences: —
I. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. Misery acquaints a man with
strange bed-fellows. 3. They that die by famine die by inches.
4. Nothing is impossible to diligence and skill. 5. The music of the
great organ sometimes sounds like the roll of thunder. 6. The
length of the journey and the difficulty of the road over the moun-
tains discouraged the soldiers, though the general spirit of the army
remained excellent. 7. Sailing on this lake is somewhat dangerous,
because the wind comes through the gaps of the mountains in sud-
den and uneven puffs. 8. Pride goeth before destruction, and an
haughty spirit before a fall. 9. Solitude is as needful to the imagi-
nation as society is wholesome for the character.
84. Pronouns — No one would ever say : ' ' Charles
bought Charles a top; the top Charles afterward gave
to Charles's sister Frances; Frances wanted the top."
Such a sentence would be both disagreeable to the ear and
obscure: it might refer to one Charles and one Frances
or to more than one. We should probably say instead:
"Charles bought himself a top, which he afterward gave
to his sister Frances, who wanted it."
In asking a question about some object the name of
which we do not know, we represent the object by "who"
or "what:" as, "Who is there?" "What did you say?"
Definition — A word used to stand for a noun is called
a Pronoun.
Definition — A noun for which a pronoun stands is called
the Antecedent of the pronoun.
The antecedents of pronouns are often not expressed.
EXERCISE 78
What is your name f What five substitutes for your name
do you use in referring to yourself ? What five substitutes
for names do you use in speakitxg of yourself and others to-
gether ? What words do you use as stibstitutes for the names
of persons to whom you are speaking 9 of a boy about whom
you are speaking ? of a girl ? of a thing ? of two boys 9 of
three girls ? of four things ?
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 59
EXERCISE 79
Point out the pronouns, and give their antecedents, if the
antecedents are expressed: —
I
Then spake the chief butler unto Pharaoh, saying, I do remember
my faults this day: Phar3oh was wroth with his servants, and put
me in ward in the house of '■he captain of the guard, me and the chief
baker: and we dreamed a dream in one night, I and he; we dreamed
each man according to the interpretation of his dream. And there
was with us there a young man, an Hebrew, servant to the captain of
the guard; and we told him, and he interpreted to us our dreams; to
each man according to his dream he did interpret. And it came to
pass, as he interpreted to us, so it was; me he restored unto mine
office, and him he hanged. Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph,
and they brought him hastily out of the dungeon: and he shaved
himself, and changed his raiment, and came in unto Pharaoh.
(Genesis xli, 9-14.)
85. Adjectives — Many nouns have very wide mean-
ings. The noun "horses," for example, appHes to all
the horses in the world ; and to bring the meaning of the
word down to the measure of our thought we add to it
one or more distinguishing words or modifiers: as,
Black, trotting, two, these, some, both, no.
Pronouns have no meaning in themselves; bu they
represent objects which have distinguishing attributes,
and therefore they, too, may be accompanied by dis-
tinguishing or modifying words : as,
Tired and hungry, I lay down to sleep.
Definition — A word joined to a noun or a pronoun by
way of limitation or description is called an Adjective.
Though the word "adjective" means "put next to,"
adjectives are often separated from the nouns or pro-
nouns which they modify : as,
I. You look happy. 2. The pears that you laid away have be-
come ripe.
Some adjectives show a quality or attribute of the object
we have in mind ; others show which objects ; others show
how many or how much .
EXERCISE 80
Join appropriate adjectives to the following nouns, and
tell what each adjective shows: —
6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH
I. House.
4-
Soldiers.
7. Grass.
10. Flowers.
i,'^-
Cents.
2. Bottle.
5-
Paper.
8. Store
II. Wisdom.
14-
Money.
3. Pens.
6.
Shoes.
9. Peaches.
12. Dollars.
15-
Road.
EXERCISE 81
Point out the adjectives, and tell what each shows: —
I. Little strokes fell great oaks. 2. Please make no noise. 3.
Where did you find those big apples? 4. I found them in the third
bin. 5. Let us climb yonder mountain. 6. Certain women were
there. 7. All men must die. 8. Most boys like football. 9. There
are several sailboats on the lake. 10. Every dog has his day. 11.
No school to-morrow ! 12 He has enough money. 13. Along both
banks are beautiful shaded walks; and near the mill are two little
islands covered with ancient trees.
86. Articles — Examine the words attached to the
nouns in the following selection : —
A man and a lion once had a dispute as to which belonged to the
nobler race. The man pointed to aw ancient monument on which
was sculptured a triumphant hunter standing over a vancjuished lion.
"That doesn't settle the question," said the lion; "for if <j lion had
been tlie sculptor, he would have represented the lion as standing over
the hunter."
Every noun in this selection is accompanied by "a,"
"an," or "the," of which "a" and "an" are merely
different forms of the same word. These remarkable
little words, attached to nouns by way of limitation,
are of the nature of adjectives; but they are so peculiar
in their function and so frequent in recurrence that they
are usually put in a class by themselves, with a name of
their own.
Definition — "A" or "an" and "the" are called
Articles.
EXERCISE 83
(Review)
Tell what part of speech each word is in the following
sentences: —
1. Facts are stubborn things.
2. Order is Heaven's first law.
3. Time rolls his ceaseless course.
4. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew.
5. The groves were God's first temples.
87. Verbs — The nature and importance of verbs
have already been studied in Part I, Chapter III.
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 6i
88. Adverbs — The action or state denoted by a verb
may vary in time, place, manner, or degree. For ex-
ample, a person may laugh now or to-morrow, here or
there, loudly or quietly, much or little. Words joined
to verbs to express such modifications of time, place,
manner, or degree are called Adverbs. Other examples
are: —
Adverbs
/' again 1
soon r Time
J
J
yesterday
there )
yonder r Place
yoiiuei r
iaefore )
/
cheerfully \
fast r Manner
thus
twice
often S- Degree
He went
V little
A few adverbs denote affirmation, negation, emphasis,
or uncertainty : as,
I. He certainly went. 2. He did not go. 3. Yes, he went. 4.
He went indeed. 5. Perhaps he went.
The attributes or qualities denoted by many adjectives
may vary like the actions denoted by verbs, especially
in degree; therefore adverbs, especially of degree, are
often attached to adjectives: as.
Adverbs Adjective
Tvery ^
exceedingly
He is i rather ,- shy
somewhat
uoo
Similarly, the ideas denoted by many adverbs may
vary in degree; therefore adverbs of degree are often
attached to adverbs: as,
Adverbs Adverb
f very "|
He writes- J^^j^^^ r slowly
I more J
Gathering together these different uses of adverbs,
62 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Definition — An Adverb is a word joined by way of
limitation to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
EXERCISE 83
Join adveths to the verbs in the following sentences, and
tell what they show: —
I. Come — . 2. He came — . 3. He will come — . 4. The
ship sailed — . 5. The agent called — . 6. We heard the noise — .
7. The policeman looked — . 8. The tired traveller slept — .
EXERCISE 84
Join appropriate adverbs to the following adjectives: —
1. — good. 3. — more. 5. — tired. 7. — sick.
2. — happy. 4. — rich. 6. — famous. 8. — discouraged.
EXERCISE 85
Join appropriate adverbs to the adverbs in the following
sentences: —
I. He ran — fast. 2. She sings — well. 3. She reads — more.
4. They come — often. 5. Write — carefully. 6. I must go —
soon. 7. Don't go — far. 8. I went — before.
EXERCISE 86
Point out all the adverbs, and tell what they modify: —
I. I was very kindly received. 2. Go directly south. 3. You
read very much too fast. 4. Do not show your feeling too plainly.
5. That was not done well enough. 6. I will surely disturb you no
more. 7. We are indeed almost there. 8. He is always there.
9. Yes, we unfortunately arrived too soon. 10. I surely expect him
to-morrow. 11. The current runs very fast here. 12. The shadow
on the dial never goes backward. 13. To and fro, and in and out,
the wan stars danced between. 14. She dances very well indeed.
15. He is not much distressed. 16. Possibly he has forgotten how
much you grieved. 17. The clock that usually stands here has
never run accurately. 18. Why did you come to-day? 19. You
are far too hasty. 20. I am now much better; I hope to be quite
well very soon, but I must not try to walk too far to-day. 21. You
may do that once too often. 22. 'Tis always morning somewhere
in the world. 23. He's armed without that's innocent within.
24. Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further; and here shall thy
proud waves be stayed.
EXERCISE 87
REVIEW
Tell what part of speech each word is in the following
sentences: —
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 63
I. Thou shalt surely die. 2. This child was very little hurt.
3, Little white lily smells very sweet.
89. Prepositions — Compare the following expressions : —
(a) Last year. (6) The last year of the century.
In the first expression we describe the year by the
adjective "last." In the second expression we further
describe it by telling its relation to the century. To
express this relation we use the word "of," which unites
with the words "the century" to form an adjunct or
modifying phrase.
Definition — A word placed before a noun or a pronoun
to show its relation to some other word, and forming
with it a modifying phrase, is called a Preposition.
Definition — The noun or the pronoun used with a
preposition is called its Object.
Definition — A phrase consisting of a preposition and
its object (with or without modifiers) is called a Prepo-
sitional Plirase. Other examples are : —
Prepositional Phrases
used as Adjectives
T, .,• Noun or
Preposition Pronoun
on the table.
in the desk.
The book -{ under the seat.
behind the door.
by the window.
The preceding prepositional phrases are attached to
a noun; the following are attached to a verb or an ad-
jective : —
Prepositional Phrases
used as Adverbs
T, ... Noun or
Preposition Pronoun
over the bridge,
past the schoolhouse.
We walked ^ through the tunnel,
during the storm,
with him.
f after sunset.
It is long i before dark.
I till morning.
Though the word "preposition" means "placed be-
fore," a preposition and its object are often separated
64 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
by other words; and sometimes the preposition comes
after its object : as,
I. He came with at least two thousand men. 2. The top of yon
high eastern hill. 3. What are you looking at f (i.e., .1/ what are you
looking ?)
EXERCISE 88
Show relation between the following words by using ap-
propriate prepositions: —
1. Clouds — - — us. 5. Asleep sermon.
2. Men wealth. 6. Talk nothing.
3. Train Boston. 7. Dust door.
4. Born Savannah. 8. Travel England.
EXERCISE 89
Point out the prepositions and their objects, and tell what
the prepositional phrases modify: —
The Battle of Plassey
The day broke — the day which was to decide the fate of India.
At sunrise the army of the Nabob, pouring through man^ openings
of the camp, began to move toward the grove where the English lay.
Forty thousand infantry, armed with firelocks, pikes, swords, bows
and arrows, covered the plain. They were accompanied by fifty
pieces of ordnance of the largest size, each tugged by a long team of
white oxen, and each pushed on from behind by an elephant. Some
smaller guns, under the direction of a few French au.xiliaries, were
perhaps more formidable. The cavalry were fifteen thousand. The
force which Clive had to oppose to this great multitude consisted of
only three thousand men. * * *
90. Conjunctions — Examine the following: —
Compound Sentences
Independent Clause 'word'"^ Independent Clause
, ' .— ■ « ^ ■ N
The wind blew, and the rain fell.
I ran fast but I missed the train.
Complex Sentences
T> • • > ^1 ConneptinK ^ u 1 .. /-.i
Principal Clause Word Subordinate Clause
Rob will go if Ethel goes.
He says that he will come.
Guy is older than Lewis [is old].
Connected Phrases
Connecting
Word
By the people and for the people.
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 65
Connected Words
Connecting
Word
Sink or swim.
From this it appears that some words are used as
mere connectives, joining together sentences, phrases,
or words. . .
Definition — A word used to connect sentences, phrases,
or words is called a Conjunction.
When subordinate clauses come first, they carry with
them the conjunction which connects them with the
principal clauses : as.
Conjunction Subordinate Clause Principal Clause
If
Ethel goes
Rob will go.
Unless
it rains
we shall all go.
That
he will come
is certain.
'hether
father can come
is doubtful.
Conjunctions sometimes occur in pairs, the first of
the pair being not really a connective, but a sort of
forerunner announcing that something will presently be
added : as.
Either you or I must go.
It is neither useful yior ornamental.
The king was weak both in body and in mind.
Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning of
a separate sentence, or even of a paragraph, to connect
it with what precedes.
Prepositions connect words, but not in the same way as conjunc-
tions. When words are connected by prepositions, one always bears
a modified relation to the other. When words are connected by
conjunctions, they are grammatically on an equality, the conjunction
merely indicating that they are to be taken together.
EXERCISE 90
Fill the blanks with appropriate conjunctions: —
1. Poor — honest. 2. Beautiful — good. 3. I wonder — he will
come. 4. I could — buy — borrow it. 5. I cannot deny — he
means well. 6. He was punished, — he was guilty. 7. We cannot
go — we finish our task.
EXERCISE 91
Point out the conjunctions, and tell what thev connect: —
p
66 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
I. She was good as she was fair. 2. Handsome is as handsome
does. 3. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 4. Better one bird in
hand than ten in the wood. 5. Rich gifts wax poor when beggars
prove unkind. 6. If chance will have me king, why, chance may
crown me. 7. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn
in no other. 8. So teach us to number our days, that we may
apply our hearts unto wisdom. 9. A dwarf sees farther than the
giant when he has the giant's shoulder to mount on. 10. Dost thou
love life? Then do not squander time; for that is the stuff life is
made of.
91. Interjections — Examine the tise of the italicised
words : —
(i) Ouch/ I cut myself. (2) Bravo f that was well done.
You observe that "Ouch!" and "Bravo!" form no
part of the accompanying sentences (which are com-
plete without them), but are sudden outcries, uttered
as condensed expressions of some kind of feeling. Other
examples are: "Oh!" "Pshaw!" "Alas!" "Hurrah!"
"Fie!"
Definition — A word used as a sudden expression of
feeling, but not forming part of a sentence, is called
an Interjection.
EXERCISE 92
Mention five interjections different from those given above.
EXERCISE 93
(Review)
Tell the part of speech to which each word in the following
sentences belongs: —
I. Procrastination is the thief of time. 2. Custom reconciles us
to everything. 3. The march of the human mind is slow. 4. Pati-
ence is a necessary ingredient of genius. 5. Earth with her thous-
and voices praises God. 6. How blessings brighten as they take
their flight!
92. Verbals — Besides these nine parts of speech just
described, there are two important kinds of words that
are intermediate between verbs on the one hand, and
nouns and adjectives on the other. They are formed
from verbs and retain some of the characteristics of
verbs, with which they are usually classed ; but they
differ from verbs in being used, not as predicates of
sentences, but as nouns or adjectives. They are called
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 67
Verbals, and they are of two kinds: noun-verbals, called
Infinitives ; and adjective-verbals, called Participles.
These words are, in a sense, forms of the verb; but they
are so peculiar in their nature and frequent in their
occurrence that they require separate description now.
93. Infinitives — Examine the italicised words in the
following sentence : —
o c vm \ g^ggp ^jjjg requires a slow pace.
Climbing J ^ ^ ^
Here "To climb" and "Climbing" are formed from the
verb "climb," and are followed by a direct object, "hills;"
therefore they partake of the nature of verbs. They are
used, however, not to assert an action, but to name it ;
therefore they partake also of the nature of nouns.
Definition — A word that partakes of the nature of
both verb and noun is called an Infinitive.
The distinguishing ?narks of an infinitive are these:
(i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or may take,
the same complements and modifiers as the verb from
which it is derived; (3) it is used as a noun.
With regard to form, infinitives are of two principal
kinds: (i) the Root Infinitive, with or without "to," so
called because it is the same as the root, or simple form,
of the verb; (2) the Infinitive in -ing.
The infinitive with "to" sometimes has the force of
an adjective or an adverb: as, "Water to drink;" "He
came to see us." In such cases "to" is a real preposition
with the infinitive as its object, the two forming a pre-
positional phrase.
The root infinitive without "to" is seen in "You need
not wait," where "wait" is the object complement of
"need." Other examples are: —
"You dare not do it;" "I saw him fall;" "We must go now;" "I
had rather die than do it."
EXERCISE 94
Point out the infinitives in the following sentences, and
show that they partake of the nature of both verb and noun.
1. Always take time to do your best.
2. It is better to wear out than to rust out.
3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.
68 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
4. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct.
5. One can show his moral courage by daring to do right.
6. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.
7. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels
had been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces.
8. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is
To have a thankless child!
9. Of all those arts in which the wise excel
Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well.
10. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway,
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray.
EXERCISE 95
Construct sentences illustrating, the use of the root infini-
tive and the infinitive in "-ing" as subject; as object; as
attribute complement; as object of a preposition.
94. Participles — Examine the italicised words in the
following sentences: —
The girl intently reading a book is my cousin.
The plant commonly called Nightshade is poisonous.
In the first sentence "reading," formed from the verb
"read," has an object, "book," and is modified by an
adverb, "intently:" therefore it partakes of the nature
of a verb. But it is attached to the noun "girl" by way
of description, and therefore it partakes also of the
nature of an adjective.
In the second sentence "called," formed from the verb
" all," has an attribute complement, "Nightshade,"
and is modified by an adverb, "commonly;" therefore
it partakes of the nature of a verb. But it is attached
to the noun "plant" by way of description, and there-
fore it also partakes of the nature of an adjective.
Definition — A word that partakes of the nature of both
verb and adjective is called a Participle.
The distinguishing marks of a participle are these:
(i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or may take,
the same complements and modifiers as the verb from
which it is derived; (3) it is used as an adjective.
From simple participles are derived Phrasal Parti-
ciples: as, "Florence, having said good-bye, turned to
go"
Very often a participle is loosely attached to the sub-
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 69
ject of a sentence, not so much to describe it, as to ex-
press some attendant action or condition : as,
Hearing a noise in the street, I went to the window.
EXERCISE 96
Point out the participles in the following sentences, and
show that they partake of the nature of both verb and ad-
jective:—
1. I am going the way of all the earth.
2. The smallest worm will turn, being trodden on.
3. He rushed into the field, and foremost fighting fell.
4. Sweeping and eddying through the bridge rose the belated
tide.
5. Peter the hermit, dressed in a coarse robe, and bearing in his
hand a crucifix, travelled through Italy and France, preaching the
duty of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre from the Mohammedans.
6. A little fire is quickly trodden out;
Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench.
7. Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl.
8. The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.
EXERCISE 97
Construct two sentences containing participles ending in
"-ing;" two containing other participles.
95. Caution — Not all words ending in "ing" are
infinitives or participles. Examine, for instance, the
italicised words in the following sentences : —
(i) The child slept during all the noise. (2) Nothing daunted,
he began again. (3) There is something in the wind. (4) This
constant climbing of steep hills takes my breath.
In (i) the word ending in "-ing" is a preposition.
In (2) it has the force of an adverb, modifying the par-
ticiple "daunted." In (3) it is a noun derived, not
from a verb, but from the vague noun "thing." In
(4) it is a noun derived from a verb, and so far it re-
sembles an infinitive; but it differs from an infinitive
in having completely lost its verbal characteristics, for
it is modified by adjectives instead of by adverbs, and
instead of taking a direct object like the verb from
which it came, it is followed by a prepositional phrase.
In (5) it is impossible to tell whether the word ending
70 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
in "-ing" should be classed as an infinitive or as a pure
noun, for it has no adjuncts to guide us. Nor is the
question important. When adjuncts are present the
classification is easy: thus,
Good spelling is easier for some than for others. (Pure noun,
because modified by an adjective, "good.")
Spelling long words is easier for some than for others. (Infini-
tive, because accompanied by an object, "words.")
EXERCISE 98
Classify the italicised words in the following sentences: —
I. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his starving
tenants. 2. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses, thanking
God for their beauty. 3. In the battle off Cape Vincent, Nelson
gave orders for boarding the "San Josef," exclaiming, "Westminster
Abbey, or victory!" 4. I have done with expecting from her any
course of steady reading, for she will not submit to anything requir-
ing industry and patience or much exercise of the understanding.
5. Gladstone protested against people's going to Monte Carlo, and
putting down their five francs just for the fun of the thing, and so
adding to the respectability of the place, and then thinking that they
are doing no harm.
EXERCISE 99
Construct a sentence containing an infinitive in "-ing ;"
a participle ending in "-ing;" a pure noun ending in
"-ing ;" a preposition ending in "-ing."
96. Caution — It must not be supposed that the
same word is always the same part of speech. Examine,
for instance, the function of "iron" in the following
sentences : —
(a) Iron is heavy. (6) An iron kettle hung on the crane, (c)
Laundresses iron clothes. (</) An ?roH-bound bucket hung in the
well.
EXERCISE 100
Tell to wJmt part of speech each word in italics belongs: —
1. (a) The sun shines on rich and poor alike, (b) He is a rich
man, but a poor scholar.
2. (a) You must, must you? (b) "Must" is made for the queen.
3. (a) They summer at Bar Harbour. (6) One swallow does not
make a summer, (c) This is a summer hotel.
4. (a) Farewell! (b) Adieu! (c) Where thou art gone adieus
and farewells are a sound unknown.
5. (a) I am very glad to see you. (b) You are the very man I
was looking for. (c) " Very" is a common word.
RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 71
6. I was about to send for you, for I have something to show you.
7. (a) Farmers till the soil, (b) Look in the till, (c) Stay till
the bell rings, (d) Stay till the next train.
8. (a) Do not lose a second, (b) I second your motion, (c) She
won second prize, (d) You come second.
9. (a) We walked about, (b) What did you talk about 9 (c) We
talked about golf, {d) About a dozen girls were there.
ID. (a) The tops of many mountains are above the clouds, (b)
The captain went above, (c) Above five hundred were present.
{d) A voice came from above, (e) He rooms on the floor above.
11. (a) .A// men are mortal. (6) He staked his all on the turn
of a card, (c) ^// agree with me. {d) That is all right.
12. (a) Take either road. (6) He must either work or starve,
(c) Ask either of them.
13. (a) He ran /a.f^ (6) He was a /ajf runner, (c) They /aj-/
twice in a week, (cf) This /a5< lasted forty days.
14. (a) I like him. (6) I shall not look upon his like again,
(c) He looks like his grandfather, {d) He talks like his mother,
(e) Like causes produce like results. (/) Like produces like.
15. (a) A little child shall lead them. (6) It matters little what
he says, (c) Give me a little.
16. (o) We want wore men. {b) Fear no wore the heat of the
sun. (c) Have you any more of this?
17. (a) He laughs too much, (b) Much learning hath made you
mad. (c) She made much of him.
18. (a) It was his only chance. (6) He went otily to the cor-
ner, (c) "Ow/y" should come next to the expression that it modifies.
19. (a) Turn over a new leaf. (6) We came over the mountain.
(c) We must have walked over six miles.
20. (a) Since that time I have not seen her. (6) Since it is rain-
ing, we will not go. (c) I have not seen her since.
21. (o) The house j/i// stands. (6) All is i^/i//. (c) A still small
voice, (d) Alcohol is made in a still. (c) With his name the
mothers still their babies.
22. (a) Tluit bird is a thrush. (6) I thought that it was a robin,
(c) A city </ia/ is set on a hill cannot be hid. (d) That you have
wronged me doth appear in this, (e) Tlmt is what I meant.
23. (a) Since then he has done better, (b) The apple trees were
then in blossom, (c) If you stay, then I will stay.
24. (a) There is a spider. (6) There is nothing more to do. (c)
T/iere .' i^ere .' be quiet.
25. (a) We read for a while, (b) We read wfei/e they played
tennis, (c) They ii//ii7e away the time with books and games.
EXERCISE 101
I. Use each of the following words first as a notin, then
as a verb : —
bark cheat comb fall guide pen run talk
72 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
2. Use each of the following words first as a noun, then
as an adjective: —
autumn cloth dinner hollow much plain silver tin
3. Use each of the following words first as an adjective,
then as a verb: —
clean dull lame left lower smooth thin weary
4. Use each of the following words first as a noun, then
as an adjective, then as a verb: —
blind calm last light roast sound spring steel
5. Use each of the following words first as an adjective,
then as an adverb, then as a verb: —
better long wrong
6. Use each of the following words first as an adverb, then
as a preposition: —
about above behind down on up
7. Use each of the following words first as an adverb, then
as a preposition, then as a conjunction: —
after before since
97. Summary of the Parts of Speech — The classes
of words described in this chapter comprise all the words
of our language. They may be summarised as follows ; —
Nouns: Words used as names.
Pronouns: Words used to stand for nouns.
Adjectives: Words joined to nouns or pronouns by way of
limitation or description.
Articles: The words "a" "an," or "the."
Verbs: Words used, with or without adjuncts, as the predicates
of sentences.
Infinitives: Words that partake of the nature of both verb and
noun.
P.\rticiplEs: Words that partake of the nature of both verb and
adjective.
Adverbs: Words joined by way of limitation to verbs, adjectives,
or other adverbs.
Prepositions: Words placed before nouns or pronouns to show
their relation to other words, and forming with them modifying
phrases.
Conjunctions: Words used to connect sentences, phrases, or
words.
Interjections: Words used as sudden expressions of feeling,
but not forming part of a sentence.
OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, ETC. 73
CHAPTER 11
OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, AND COMPOSITION
Before proceeding with the study of the parts of
speech, we must learn to distinguish those changes in
the form of a word that are made by Inflection, Deriva-
tion and Composition,
98. Inflection — Examine the following groups of
words : —
Noun
Pronoiin
Adjective
Verb
man
he
sweet
sing
man's
his
sweeter
sings
men
him
sweetest
sang
In each of these groups we recognise the same word
under different forms. These variations in form denote
slight modifications in the meaning and use of the word,
but they do not change either the general meaning or
the part of speech; the noun remains a noun, the verb
a verb. Moreover, most other words of the same class,
as "boy," "they," "sick," "hear," undergo similar al-
terations in form, corresponding to similar changes in
meaning and use.
Definition — A change in the form of a word to
show a slight change in its meaning or use is called
Inflection.
EXERCISE 102
Mention as many inflections as yon can of the following
words: —
child do eat heavy move they teeth who
99. Derivation — Compare the following words : —
I. true 2. truly 3. truth 4. truthful 5. untruth 6. untruthfulness
Here we have six words entirely different in meaning
and use. Some belong to one part of speech, others to
another; and those that belong to the same part of
speech, as "truth," "untruth," and "untruthfulness,"
have distinctly different meanings. But though they
are thus different in meaning and use, the last five words
74 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
are clearly formed from the first by attaching a Prefix
("un-") or a Suffix ("-ly," "-th," "ful," "-ness"), or
both.
Dcfiniiion — The process of forming a new word from
another word by attaching a prefix or a suffix, or by
changing a vowel, is called Derivation. The new word
is called a Derivative.
Examples of derivation by change of vowel are: bless,
bliss; feed, food; gild, gold; heat, hot; pride, proud;
raise, rise; tale, tell.
Definition — The original form of a word in inflection
or derivation is called the Root.
EXERCISE 103
Mention derivatives formed from the following words,
and show that the new forms are derivatives, not inflec-
tions:—
child friend give man pure wise
100. Composition — Examine the following words: —
black
board
blackboard
Here we have three different words, entirely distinct
in meaning and use; but the last is formed by combin-
ing the first two.
Definition — The process of forming a new word bv
combining two other words is called Composition. The
new word is called a Compound word.
The parts of a compound word are often connected
with a hyphen: as, "hair-brush," "son-in-law." Whether
to use the hyphen or not cannot be decided by rule. It
is for the most part a question of usage, which must be
learned from observation or from the dictionary.
EXERCISE 104
Make a list of five compound words, determining from a
dictionary how they should be written.
OF NOUNS 75
CHAPTER III
OF NOUNS
I. CLASSIFICATION^
A Noun is a word used as a name (83).
101. Different Kinds of Nouns — Examine the names
in the following sentence : —
The crew of the battleship Victoria were under perfect discipline.
"Battleship" and "Victoria" both name the same
object, but in different ways: "Battleship" is the name
of any one of a class of ships resembling one another
in structure and purpose; "Victoria" is the name of a
particular battleship. "Crew" is the name of a body
of men considered collectively. "Discipline" is the
name of a condition.
103. Proper Nouns — The noun "Victoria," in our
illustrative sentence, is the name of a particular battle-
ship.
Definition — A noun that is the name of some particular
object, to distinguish that object from others of its
kind, is called a Proper Noun.
Other examples of proper nouns are : —
John Cabot Monday Ottawa Ontario Mont Blanc
Proper nouns, when written, always begin with capital
letters ; so also do words derived from them : as, Ameri-
ca, American, Americanism.
103. Common Nouns — The noun "battleship" is a
name common to all ships of the same class.
Definition — A noun that is common or applicable
to all objects of the same class is called a Common
Noun.
Other examples of common nouns are : —
city day man mountain state
Common nouns, when written, begin with small
letters.
76 THE PARTS OF' SPEECH
EXERCISE 105
Write two proper nouns suggested by each of the following
common nouns: —
boy city dog girl newspaper ocean river state
, EXERCISE 106
Give the common nouns that are applicable to the following
individual objects: —
Toronto Manitoba Donald England Friday Helen July
104. Collective Nouns — The common noun "crew"
is applied to a body of men considered collectively.
Definition — A noun that is the name of a number
of objects taken together is called a Collective Noun.
Other examples of collective nouns are : —
I. army (a collection of soldiers). 2. fleet (a collection of vessels).
This distinction is important when collective nouns
are referred to by pronouns or are used as subjects of
sentences. For instance, we refer to a committee as
"it" when we think of it as a whole; when we think of
the individuals who compose it, we use the pronoun
"they." Similarly we say, "The jury has retired,"
thinking of it as a single body; "The jury have dined,"
thinking of the members.
EXERCISE 107
What objects are grouped together by the following col-
lective nouns 9
audience choir drove flock squadron swarm team
105. Abstract Nouns — An ivory ball we know to be
round, white, and elastic. These qualities exist to-
gether in the ball; but in the mind we can consider
them separately, apart both from the ball and from one
another. The mental power that enables us thus to
separate a quality or attribute from the object that
possesses it is called Abstraction (Latin, "separating").
Definition — A noun that is the name of a quality,
action, or condition withdrawn or abstracted in thought
from the object to which it belongs, is called an Abstract
Noun.
OF NOUNS 77
Examples of abstract nouns are : —
ability discipline freedom hardihood strength
carelessness faith friendship influence velocity
This distinction has only slight grammatical bearing ; but it is
important for other reasons.
EXERCISE 108
Give two abstract nouns suggested by each of the following
objects: —
a flower a lemon a mountain a race horse a stone
EXERCISE 109
Classify the nottns in Exercise yj (page 58).
Nouns are occasionally inflected to show Gender, and
regularly inflected to show Number and Case.
II. GENDER
106. Gender Defined — Observe the distinction be-
tween the following nouns : —
lion lioness
Both nouns name animals of the same general class,
but one is the name of the male animal, the other of the
female. This distinction is indicated by the inflection
"-ess." The distinction between the objects themselves
is called Sex. The distinction between their names is
called Gender.
Definition — Gender is a classification of nouns and
pronouns according to the sex of the objects for which
they stand.
Definition — A word denoting a male object is in the
Masculine Gender.
Definition — A word denoting a female object is in the
Feminine Gender.
Definition — A word denoting an object that has no
sex is in the Neuter Gender (Latin, "neither").
Words like "friend," "child," "thief," "bird," which
applv without change to either male or female objects,
are masculine or feminine according to the sex of the
particular object spoken of.
Words that apply to objects of either sex are said by some gram-
marians to be in the Commou GendeP ; but most modern gram-
marians reject this classification as useless.
78
THE PARTS OF SPKIvCII
107. Ways of Denoting Gender — Compare the follow-
ing pairs of words : —
Masculine Feminine
waiter waitress
man-servant maid-servant
brother sister
You observe there are three ways of distinguishing
gender : —
I. By a Feminine SuFi'ix, usually "-ess "—In the following
list note the occasional changes in the body of the word: —
Masculine Feminine
abbot abbess
actor actress
administrator administratrix
adventurer adventuress
baron
baroness
benefactor
benefactress
count
countess
czar
czarina
deacon
deaconess
duke
duchess
emperor
enchanter
empress
enchantress
executor
executrix
giant
god
heir
giantess
goddess
heiress
hero
heroine
2. r?Y A Prepix Denoting Gender
ant examples: —
Masculine Feminine
bull-elephant cow-elephant
cock-sparrow hen-sjjarrow
he-bear she-bear
3. By Separate Woros — These are to be learned from conver-
sation and reading. The ft)llowing is a list of some that are often
confounded or otherwise misused: —
Masculine
Feminine
host
hostess
hunter
huntress
idolater
idolatress
lew
Jewess
iad
lass
lion
lioness
marquis
marchioness
master
mistress
patron
patroness
preceiHor
preceptress
I)rince
princess
prophet
I)roi)lietcss
shepherd
shepherdess
sorcerer
sorceress
sultan
sultana
tiger
tigress
waiter
waitress
ER — The following are impor
Masculine
Feminine
he-goat
she-goat
man-servant
maid-servant
ascullne
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
liacholor
si)inster, maid
monk
nun
buck
doe
ram
ewe
bullock
heifer
stag
hind
drake
duck
wizard
witch
gander
goose '
EXERC
ISE 110
To THE Teacher — (i) and (2) should be used as a dictation
exercise. (Xher words may be added from the foregoing lists at
discretion.
OF NOUXS 79
1. Write the feminine word corresponding to: —
abbot bachelor bullock drake earl marquis ram sultan
actor buck czar duke hero monk stag tiger
2. Write the masculine word corresponding to: —
doe duck ewe goose heifer hind spinster witch
3. Construct sentences illustrating the correct use of the
faregoing words, consulting a dictionary for their meaning.
108. Gender and Pronouns — Distinctions of gender
are grammatically important because on them depends
the right use of the pro no tins "he," "his," "him."
"she," "her," "hers," "it," and "its." Examine, for
instance, the italicised nouns and pronotms in the fol-
lowing selection: —
Ktn'g Midas at BrE-\kfast
King Midas took a nice little trout on his plate, and, by way of
experiment, touched its tail with his finger. To his horror, it was
immediately transmuted from an admirably fried brook trout into a
goldfish, though not one of those goldfishes which people often keep
in glass globes, as ornaments for the parlour. Xo : but // was really a
metalUc fish, and it looked as if it had been ver\- cunningly made by
the nicest goldsmith in the world.
■"Well, this is a quandary!" thought he, leaning back in his chair,
and looking quite enviously at little Marygold, who was now eating
her bread and milk with great satisfaction. The poorest labourer,
sitting down to his crust of bread, and cup of water, was far
better off than King Midas, whose delicate food was really worth
its weight in gold.
Obser\-e that the Masculine Nouns, like "King Midas,"
are referred to by "he," "his," or "him;" Feminine
Xouns, Uke "Marygold," by "she," or "her;" Neuter
Nouns, hke "food." by "it," or "its." "Trout." which
is either mascuhne or feminine, is here referred to by
"it" or "its," because the object named is thought of
as a mere thing, without any reference to sex. "Lab-
otu'er," which is also either masculine or feminine, but
which denotes a person instead of a thing, is referred to
as "he," in accordance with an established custom of
our language when there is no desire to emphasise dis-
tinctions of sex. If the "author had thought distinctions
of sex were here important, he would have said, "The
labotner sitting down to his or her crust of bread."
8o THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Sometimes animals are referred to as "he" or "she,"
even when no distinction of sex is intended. Thus, "The
tiger steals silently on his prey;" "A hare popped out
from a furze brake, and ran for her life." In such cases
the speaker uses "he" if he fancies the animal to possess
masculine qualities, such as strength, fierceness; "she"
if he thinks the animal's qualities are rather feminine,
such as timidity, gentleness.
109. Gender in Personification — Examine the follow-
ing sentence: —
Spring hangs Iter infant blossoms on the trees.
You observe that the writer refers to spring, which has
neither life nor sex, by a feminine pronoun. The ex-
planation is that he imagined spring as a gracious goddess,
and spoke accordingly. When we thus speak of an
object without life as if it were a person, we are said to
Personify it. Gender in personification is determined
by the same principle as in speaking of animals without
regard to sex: things remarkable for size, power, strength,
or other manly qualities are referred to as masculine;
things remarkable for beauty, gentleness, grace, or other
womanly qualities are referred to as feminine. Other
examples are : —
(o) The sun now rose upon the right;
Out of the sea came he.
(b) Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl.
EXERCISE 111
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
pronouns: —
I. Can a leopard change — spots? 2. Close in — covert cowered
the doe. 3. The ewe lamb bleated for — mother. 4. The child was
unconscious of — danger. 5. The heifer rubbed — nose against the
bars. 6. The goose had wandered from — companions. 7. The
hind knew the dogs to be — mortal enemies. 8. The duck was
pluming — feathers after — - swim. 9. Even a fool, when — holdeth
— peace, is counted wise. 10. If any person in the class needs a
pencil, I will lend — mine.
OF NOUNS 8i
EXERCISE 113
1. Write sentences in which the following things shall be
personified as masculine: —
time war winter electricity
2. Write sentences in which the following things shall be
personified as feminine: —
a ship the earth night Uberty
III. NU^IBER
110. Number Defined — Examine the difference be-
tween the words in the following pairs : —
book fox ox man
books foxes oxen men
The first word of each pair suggests a single object;
the second word suggests more than one. In the first
three pairs the difference in meaning is brought about
by the addition of a suffix; in the last, by an internal
change in the word.
Definition — A difference in the form of a word to
distinguish objects as one or more than one is called
Number.
Definition — The form of a word that denotes one
object is called the Singular Number.
Definitioyi — The form of a word that denotes more
than one object is called the Plural Number.
Number has an important influence on pronouns,
verbs, and the adjectives "this" and "that." For ex-
ample, we say: —
This bell was ringing, hut it has stopped.
These bells were ringing, but they liave stopped.
111. Formation of the Plural — Most nouns form the
plural by adding "s" to the singular; as, book, books.
The following variations from this regular rule are im-
portant : —
1. "-ES." — When the singular ends in a sound that does not
unite with "s" alone, "es" is added, forming an additional syllable
as, fox, foxes.
2. Plural of Nouns Ending in "o" — If the final "o" is
preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by adding
halo
octavo
solo
junto
piano
stiletto
lasso
proviso
torso
memento
quarto
tyro
Ending in '
'Y"— If the'
■y" is preceded
82 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
"s:" as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded by a consonant,
the tendency of modern usage is to form the plural by adding
"es:" as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. The following common
words, however, still form the plural by adding "s" alone: —
banjo chromo
burro contralto
canto duodecimo
casino dynamo
3. Plur.\ls of Noun
by a vowel, the plural is regular; as, valley, valleys.
If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to "i"
and "es" is added to form the plural; as, lady, ladies; city, cities.
4. Plur.\l of Nouns Ending in " F " — The following nouns
ending with the sound of "f" change "f" or "fe" to "v" and add
"es": —
beef elf knife life self shelf wife
calf half leaf loaf sheaf thief wolf
5. Survivals of Ancient Plur.\ls — In Old English there were
other ways of forming the plural, traces of which survive: —
(i) Plurals in "-en " — These were once in very common use.
The only surviving examples are: oxen, brethren, children. Kine
(cows) is used in poetry.
(2) Plur.\ls BY Inward Change — Of this method the surviving
examples are: foot, jcct; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; man,
men ; mouse, mice ; woman, women.
6. Plur.\l of Proper Nouns — Proper nouns, when made
plural, are not changed internally: as, Henry, Henrys: Nero, Neros.
Proper names preceded by titles, as "Mr. Smith," "Miss Smith,"
"Colonel Smith," are treated in two different ways. We say "the
Mr. Smiths," the "Mrs. Smiths," "the Miss Smiths," "the Colonel
Smiths;" but we also say "the Messrs. Smith," the "Misses Smith,"
and "the Colonels Smith."
7. Plural of Compound Nouns — Most compound nouns form
the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to the fundamental
part of the word, i.e., to the part which is described by the rest of
the phrase : as ox-cart, ox-carts; court-martial, courts-martial; aide-
de-camp, aides-de-camp. When no single word is fundamental, as
in "forget-me-not," the sign of the plural is put at the end: as, forget-
me-nots. Words like "spoonful," the comi)ound nature of which
has been almost forgotten, also take the sign of the plural at tlie
end: as, spoonfuls, cupfuls. "Man-servant," " woman-ser\'ant," and
"knight-templar" often add the plural sign to both words: as, men-
servants.
Caution — "Brahman," "Mussulman," "Ottoman," and "talis-
man" are not compounds of "man." They resemble "German"
and " Norman," and form the plural by adding " s" : as, Mussulmans,
tahsm ns.
S. Letters, Figures, and other Symbols are made plural by
adding an apostrophe and "s" Cs): as, "There are more e's than a's
in this word;" "Dot your i's, and cross your t's."
OF NOUNS 83
9. Unchanged Plurals — Some names of animals are the same
in both singular and plural. The important examples are: cod,
deer, grouse, sheep, salmon, swine, trout.
Some nouns of number and measure may be used in a plural sense
without change of form. Important examples are: "Two brace of
ducks;" "She bought three dozen;" "His years are four score ;"
"Ten head of cattle;" "Two hundredweight of iron;" "Three pairs of
ht)rses;" "Twelve yoke of oxen." In these expressions the plural
meaning is sufficiently indicated by the preceding numeral.
EXERCISE 113
(Dictation Exercise)
Write the plural of the following nouns: —
(i) Deer, trout, grouse.
(2) Apple, peach, rose, box, bush, grass.
(3) Ox, child, tooth, goose, mouse, woman.
(4) Mary, George, Harry, Miss Clark, Mr. Brown, Dr. Young.
(5) German, Dutchman, Frenchman, Brahman, Mormon, Mus-
sulman, Ottoman, talisman.
(6) Ally, chimney, fairy, baby, mystery, turkey, body, journey.
(7) Chief, calf, dwarf, fife, elf, grief, gulf, half, hoof, knife, leaf,
loaf, roof, sheaf, shelf, strife, thief, wife, wolf.
(8) Buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, banjo, dynamo, solo,
memento, mosquito, bamboo, negro, hero, chromo.
(9) Man-of-war, goose-quill, spoonful, commander-in-chief, major-
general, man-servant, court-yard, court-martial, father-in-law, step-
son, forget-me-not, bill-of-fare, looker-on, knight-errant.
112. Two Plurals — We say "There are big fish in
the lake," using fish in a plural, collective sense, and we
also speak of "The story of the three fishes," having in
mind a story about three separate fish. From this it
appears that some nouns have two plurals, which difi"er
in meaning. The following is a list : —
Siugxilar Plural
brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society).
cloth cloths (of different kinds), clothes (garments).
die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play).
fish fishes (separate objects), fish (collective).
genius geniuses (persons of great ability), genii (spirits).
index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra).
penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sums of money).
shot shots (discharges), shot (balls).
EXERCISE 114
Distinguish between: —
1. How many shot (shots) did you count?
2. The story tells of two genii (geniuses).
«4
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence).
4. He showed me some new cloths (clothes).
5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold dust.
6. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren).
7. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets.
8. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill.
9. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in this new
algebra.
11.3. Foreign Plurals — Some nouns of foreign origin
have peculiar foreign plurals. In the following list of
such noims, when two plural forms are given for the same
noun, the English plural is preferable : —
Plural
(formulas
\ formulae
[geniuses (persons
■| of great ability)
(genii (spirits)
genera
hypotheses
(memorandums
(memoranda
oases
parentheses
phenomena
f seraphs
( seraphim
strata
tableaux
theses
Singular
Plural
Singular
alumna
(feminine)
alumnae
formula
alumnus
alumni
(masculine)
genius
analysis
analyses
animalculum
animalcula
genus ("class")
antithesis
antitheses
hypothesis
bacterium
bandit
bacteria
f bandits
t banditti
memorandum
oasis
.
/ beaus
parenthesis
I beaux
phenomenon
cherub
/cherubs
\ cherubim
seraph
crisis
crises
stratum
curriculum
curricula
tableau
datum
data
thesis
EXERCISE 115
(Dictation Exercise)
1. Write the plural of: —
Alumna, analysis, bandit, beau, cherub, crisis, curriculum, datum,
formula, genius, genus, hypothesis, oasis, nebula, parenthesis,
phenomenon, seraph, stratum, synopsis, tableau.
2. Write the singular of: —
Alumni, animalcula, bacteria, cherubim, curricula, data, genera,
oases, phenomena, seraphim, strata, theses.
EXERCISE 116
Construct sentences containing the plural of the following
words, first consulting a dictionary for their meaning: —
OF NOUNS 85
Aide-de-camp, ally, animalculum, antithesis, bacterium, canto,
court-martial, crisis, curriculum, datum, elf, genus, hypothesis,
memento, phenomenon, solo, stratum, taUsman.
114. Divided Usage — Some singular nouns look like
plurals, e.g., "alms;'" and some plural nouns are singular
in sense, e.g., "measles." In regard to such nouns cus-
tom is divided, treating them at one time as singulars
and at another as plurals.
The following are generally treated as singular : amends,
gallovv^s, news, the United States, mathematics, optics,
and other words in "ics," except "athletics," which is
generally plural.
The following are generally treated as plural: ashes,
assets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, oats, pincers, proceeds,
riches, scissors, shears, suds, tongs, trousers, victuals,
vitals.
For further information on cases of doubtful usage a
large dictionary must be consulted.
EXERCISE 117
Construct sentences illustrating the number of the fol-
lowing nouns: —
amends news oats physics pincers shears tongs trousers
IV. CASE
115. Case Defined — In the sentence "John has given
Henry Annie's pencil," each of the four nouns bears a
peculiar relation to other words. Three of them are re-
lated to the verb: "John," as subject, "pencil," as
direct object, "Henry," as indirect object. "Annie's"
is related to "pencil" by showing ownership — a relation
indicated by the suffix "'s."
In Old English these relations were often indicated, as
in Latin and Greek, by special forms of the noun, called
Cases. After the Norman Conquest these forms fell into
disuse, and nouns in modern English retain only one relic
of them, namely, the Possessive. With the single ex-
ception of the "'s" denoting ownership or possession,
the relation of a noun to the other parts of a sentence
is now shown mainly by its position.
86 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
But though most of the forms have disappeared, the
names of some of them have been retained to denote
relations which the forms used to show. For example,
in the sentence "John has given Henry Annie's pencil,"
we still say "John" is in the Nominative case, referring
to its relation as subject ; and some grammarians say that
"Henry" is in the Dative case, and "pencil" in the Accusa-
tive. But since the dative and accusative cases are now
never distinct in form, most grammarians merge them
into one case called the Objective.
Definition — The form of a noun or pronoun that
shows its relation to other words is called Case.
Definition — The form of a noun or pronoun that shows
the relation of subject is called the Nominative Case.
Definition — The form of a noun or pronoun that
shows possession is called the Possessive Case.
Definition — The form of a noun or pronoun that shows
the relation of object is called the Objective Case.
The nominative and objective cases of nouns, being always alike
in modern English, might be merged into one if it were not for the
fact that in pronouns these cases have distinct forms: as, / help him,
and he helps me.
116. Form of the Possessive Case — In the Singular
number the possessive of nouns is formed, as a rule, by
adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s) : as, "The boy's coat."
Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new
syllable. If this additional syllable makes an unpleasant
sound, the "s" is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained:
as, "For goodness' sake." If the "s" is sounded, it is
always written: and if it is written, it should be pro-
nounced in reading. The putting in or the leaving out
of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste.
Whenever there is doubt it is well to add the "s:" as,
"Horace's odes," "Charles's ball," "Dickens' 'David
Copperfield.'"
In the Plural number, when the plural already ends
in "s" (as it usually does), the possessive case is formed
by adding an apostrophe alone ('): as, "Boys' shoes."
The possessive of those few nouns whose plural does not
end in "s" is formed, as in the singular number, by adding
an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "Men's shoes."
OF NOUNS 87
The possessive case of Compound nouns and expressions
used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper
sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as,
"That is my sister-in-law's pony;" "This is the Prince
of Wales's palace."
When two or more persons possess a thing in common,
the sign of the possessive is attached to the last name
only: as, "John and Mary's home."
Separate ownership is indicated by adding the sign
of the possessive to each name: as, "Alice's and Jessie's
dresses."
In forming the possessive of "anybody else" and
"who else" usage is somewhat divided and inconsistent.
The weight of good usage seems to incline to "anybody
else's;" but, on the other hand, we usually say "whose
else."
EXERCISE 118
1. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of the
following nouns: —
Actor, calf, child, countess, day, deer, eagle, elephant, fairy,
farmer, fox, goose, horse, king, lady, lion, man, monkev, mouse,
mouth, ox, prince, princess, thief, wife, witness, wolf, woman, year.
2. Write the possessive case of —
Charles, Dickens, Douglas, Eggleston & Co., father-in-law, Fred-
erick, the Great, Harper & Brothers, Henry the Eighth, his sister
Mary, James, Jones, man-of-war. Miss Austen.
117. Declension — We are now prepared to draw up
a scheme of the inflection of any English noun for num-
ber and case: thus,
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative:
man
men
dog
dogs
Possessive-
man's
men's
dog's
dogs'
Objective:
man
men
dog
dogs
Definition — The inflection of nouns and pronouns
for number and case, arranged in order, is called De-
clension.
When we give the declension of a noun or a pronoun
we are said to Decline it.
88 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXERCISE 119
Decline the following nouns: —
calf deer Henry king monkey ox princess
child fox James lady mouse prince wolf
V. PERSON
118. Person — In the sentence, "I, John, was in the
isle Patmos," John names the speaker; in "John, please
come here," John names the person spoken to; in "John
has come," John names the person spoken of.
Definitio7i — The distinction between nouns or pronouns
as denoting the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken
of, is called Person.
Definition — A noun or pronoun that denotes the
person speaking is in the First Person.
Definition — A noun or pronoun that denotes the
person or thing spoken to is said to be in the Second
Person.
Definition — A noun or pronoun that denotes a per-
son or thing spoken of is in the Third Person.
Nouns do not change in form to denote person; and most nouns
are in the third person. The distinction lias importance only in
connection with pronouns and verbs.
\I. CONSTRUCTIONS
119. Construction Defined — In the study of sentences
the inost important question about a noun, or any other
part of speech, is its relation to the other words of the
sentence.
Definition — The relation of a word to the rest of the
sentence is called its Construction (Latin, "putting to-
gether").
120. Constructions of Nouns Summarised — If we ex-
amine the constructions of the word "day" in the fol-
lowing sentences, we shall find that a noun may be used
in fourteen different ways: —
1. Subject of verb: The day is past and gone.
2. Attribute complement: To-morrow is the appointed day.
3. Object complement: I've lost a day.
OF NOUNS 89
4. Objective complement: God called the light day.
5. Possessive: Another day's work is done.
6. Appositive: Sunday, the day of rest, is precious to the labourer.
7. Adjective modifier: The day star arise in your hearts.
8. Adverbial modifier: We waited a day.
Note — In this construction the noun expresses measure of some kind.
9. Object of preposition: Rome was not built in a day.
10. Indirect object: Give every day its task.
It. Vocative: Come, day, and chase the shadows of the night.
12. Exclamation: O happy day .' The battle's won.
13. Nominative absolute: The day being rainy, we stayed at home.
14. Subject of infinitive: I considered the day to be unfavourable.
Of these constructions the first twelve need no expla-
nation beyond what has been said in preceding pages.
The last two require explanation now.
121. Subject of Infinitive — Compare the following
sentences : —
(a) I think that he is honest,
{b) I think him to be honest.
In (a) the object of "think" is the clause "that he is
honest," in which "he" is the subject of the verb "is;"
in (b) the object of "think" is the phrase "him to be
honest," in which the objective "him" has the same
relation to the infinitive "to be" that the nominative
"he," in the corresponding clause, has to the verb "is."
"Him," therefore, is called the Subject of the Infinitive.
The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective
case.
Other examples are : —
"He ordered me to move on."
"The teacher saw her go. "
"The colonel commanded the bridge to be burned."
"He declared them to be counterfeit."
122. Nominative Absolute — Compare the following
sentences : —
(a) When night came on, we lighted a fire.
(6) Night com,ing on, we lighted a fire.
These sentences are alike in meaning, but differ in
form. In (a) the time of the principal action is shown
by the subordinate clause, "When night came on," in
which "night" is the subject of the verb "came." In
90 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
(b) the connective "when" has been dropped and the
verb "came" has been changed to a participle attached
to "night." "Night" is thus left without any gram-
matical connection with the rest of the sentence, and is
said to be in the Nominative Absolute (Latin, "free").
Other examples of the nominative absolute are: —
The sea being smooth, we went for a sail.
Bruce lay down, his heart [being] heavy with sorrow.
The ceremoyiy [having been] completed, we dispersed.
Caxjtion — The nominative absolute must not be confounded
with constructions in which a participle is loosely attached to the
subject of a sentence (94).
The participle belonging to a nominative absolute may be omitted,
but the nominative itself may not; otherwise the participle will be
left dangling, apparently attached to the nearest substantive. For
example, in the incorrect sentence, "Crossing the ferry, my hat blew
off," "crossing" seems to be attached to "hat," which is not
intended.
EXERCISE 130
Construct sentences illustrating each of the ways in
'which nouns may he used. {It is not necessary to use the
same noun).
133. Uses of the Nominative Case — A noun is said to
be in the nominative case when it is —
1. The subject of a verb.
2. An attribute comj^lement. (Often called a predicate noun or
predicate nominative).
3. A vocative. {i)(ten called nominative of address).
4. An exclamation. (Often called nominative of exclamation).
5. A nominative absolute.
Exception— Xn attribute complement of the infinitive " to be" is in the objective
case if the infinitive has a subject of its own ; because the subject of an infinitive i<
in the objective case, andforms of the verb " to be," which resemble the sign " = ,"
take the same case after tlicm as before them.
124. Uses of the Objective Case — A noun is said to
be in the objective case when it is —
1. A direct object.
2. An objective complement.
3. An indirect object.
4. The object of a jjreposition.
5. An adverbial modifier. (Often called an adverbial objective).
6. The subject of an infinitive.
125. Use of the Possessive Case — It is sometimes a
question whether to use the possessive case or a phrase
OF NOUNS 91
beginning with "of," i.e., whether to say "Arnold's
treason" or "the treason of Arnold." The tendency of
the best modern usage is to confine the possessive case
to nouns denoting living beings, and with them to use
it only in instances of actual or imagined possession: as,
"Arnold's sword," "the treason of Arnold." Yet some
short phrases, like "a week's wages," "a day's march,"
"a dollar's worth," "at death's door," "for pity's sake,"
are supported by the best usage. With pronouns still
greater latitude is allowed. No one hesitates to write
"on our account," "in my absence," "to their credit,"
"for my sake," "in his defense."
The possessive case and a phrase introduced by "of"
are not always exact equivalents. For instance, "John's
story" means a story told by John; but a "story of
John" means a story about John.
EXERCISE 121
Express relation between the nouns in the following pairs
by putting one of them in the possessive case or by using the
preposition ''of," as seems best from what you have learned
in Section 125. Give the reason for your choice: —
Witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the Speaker, public reception;
Delmonico, restaurant ; battleship Victoria, destruction ; Charles the
Second, reign; Henry the Eighth, wives; teacher, advice; Paris, siege;
book, cover; princess, evening gowns; Spain, navy; Napoleon, banish-
ment; Napoleon, camp chest.
EXERCISE 122
Distinguish between the following: —
1. Mother's love. Love of mother.
2. Ethel's drawing. A drawing of Ethel.
3. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys.
4. Lord Roberts's reception. The reception of Lord Roberts.
6. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown. Let me tell you a
story of Doctor Brown's.
126. Double Possessive — The sentence, "Let me tell
you a story of Doctor Brown's," contains a double pos-
sessive ("of Doctor Brown's"), in which we use both the
possessive case, after the manner of Old English, and the
preposition "of," after the manner of Norman-French.
Though this double possessive cannot be logically justi-
92 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
fied, it is nevertheless recognised by the best writers
as good Enghsh. Moreover, it is often convenient ; as
when it enables us to distinguish between " a story of
Doctor Brown" and "a story of Doctor Brown's."
Other examples are: —
I. That boy of yours. 2. A friend 0] my brotJier's.
127. Case in Apposition — Nouns in apposition are said
to be in the same case. But when the nouns are in the
possessive, the sign of possession is usually attached
only to one of them: as, "Jack the Giant Killer's boots."
128. Substitutes for Nouns — Words or groups of
words that are not commonly to be classed as nouns
•are often used substantively in the construction of nouns,
as follows: —
(i) Pronoun: I see him.
(2) Adjective: I did my best.
(3) Adverb: Now is the accepted time.
(4) Infinitive: To delay is fatal.
(5) Phrase: " Ay, ay, sir !" burst from a thousand throats.
(6) Clause: What you want is not here.
129. How to Parse Nouns — WTien we describe a word
as it stands in a sentence we are said to Parse it. To
parse a word we must give a description of its class,
form and use.
To parse a noun we must give its —
(i) Class. (2) Gender. (3) Number. (4) Construction. (5)
Case.
EXERCISE 123
Parse the nouns in the following selections: —
A Farewell
My fairest child, I have no song to give you;
No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray;
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you
For every day.
*****
Be good, sweet maid, and let who can be clever;
Do lovely things, not dream them, all day long;
And so make life, death, and that forever
One grand sweet song. -Charles Kingsley
OF PRONOUNS 93
CHAPTER IV
OF PRONOUNS
A Pronoun is a word used to stand for a noun (84).
The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its
Antecedent.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
130. Personal Pronouns Defined — Examine the pro-
nouns in the following sentence : —
I have lost my pencil; please lend me yours till you need it yourself.
"I," "my," and "me" stand for the person speak-
ing, and cannot be used to refer to the person spoken
to or spoken of. "You," "yours," and "yourself"
stand only for the person spoken to. "It" is used onlv
for a thing spoken of.
Definition — Pronouns that distinguish between the
person speaking, the person spoken to, and the person
or thing spoken of are called Personal Pronouns.
EXERCISE 134
Point out the personal pronouns in Exercises 20 and 38,
and tell of each whether it stands for the person speaking,
the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
If it stands for the person or thing spoken of, give its ante-
cedent.
131. Personal Pronouns of the First Person — Fill the
blanks with personal pronouns representing (i) a bov
speaking, (2) a girl speaking, and note the differences,
if there are any: —
— know Mary. Mary knows — . Mary is — cousin. The pen
she is using is — .
Fill each of the following blanks with a pronoun
representing the speaker and some others : —
— love Carlo. Carlo loves — . Carlo is — dog. Yes, he is — .
You obser^^e that personal pronouns of the first per-
son are not inflected to denote gender, since the sex of
94 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
the person speaking is always supposed to be known;
but they are inflected to show number and case.
Tabulating the forms used in filling the blanks, we
find that the personal pronoun of the first person is
thus declined : —
Singular Plural
Nominative: I we
' Possessive: my, mine our, ours
Objective: me us
These forms are really fragments of different words, and not true
inflections. But they serve the same i)urpose as inflections.
"I" is always written as a cai)ital letter.
The plural forms represent, not two or more speakers, but the
speaker and others for whom he speaks. Sometimes they are used
by an editor or a sovereign to refer to himself alone: as,
Editor: We are sure ive voice the sentiments of the people.
This is called the ' ' editorial " or " majestic ' ' use of we.
EXERCISE 125
Construct sentences containing the different forms of the
personal pronouns of the first person.
133. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person — In
the following selections examine the pronouns that stand
for the persons spoken to : —
BIBLICAL
Singular. Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth; and let thy heart
cheer thee in the days of thy youth, and walk in the ways of thine
heart, and in the sight of thine eyes: but know thou, that for all these
things God will bring thee into judgment.
Plural. Ye stand this day all of you before the Lord your God.
. . .Blessed are ye poor, for yours is the kingdom of God.
POETIC
Singular. Roll on, fhou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll'
Ten thousand fleets swccj) over thcc in vain;
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control
Stops with the shore; — upon the watery plain
The wrecks are all thy deed.
♦ * * *
Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow, —
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.
Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again.
ORDINARY PROSE
.^inf^ular. Young gentleman, your spirit is too bold for your
years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires greater
strength than yours.
OF PRONOUNS 95
Plural. Come early, girls; and if you feel like it, bring your
mandoUns, I want to hear you play.
These selections show that the pronouns used to repre-
sent the person spoken to dififer according to the charac-
ter of the language employed. In the Biblical and
poetical passages they are, for the singular, "thou,"
"thy," "thine," and "thee," according to the case; for
the plural, "ye," "your," " yours," and "you." In the
ordinary prose passages they are, for both singidar and
plural, "you," "your," and "yours." There is no in-
flection to denote gender, because the sex of the person
spoken to is presumably always known. Tabulating
these forms, we may say that the personal pronoun of
the second person is thus declined: —
Biblical and Poetic Ordinary
Singular
Plural
Singular and Plural
Nominative:
thou
ye
you
Possessive:
thy, thine
your, yours
your, yours
Objective:
thee
you
you
EXERCISE 126
Construct sentences containing those forms of the per-
sonal pronoun of the second person that are used in ordinary
discourse.
133. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person — Fill
the blanks with personal pronouns representing (i) a
boy spoken of, (2) a girl spoken of, (3) a tree spoken of: —
— is ten years old. I do not know — height. I often go to see — .
Fill the blank in the following sentence with a pronoun
referring to (i) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl spoken of: —
This book is — .
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with pro-
nouns representing (i) two or more boys spoken of, (2)
two or more girls spoken of, ( ^) two or more trees spoken
of:—
— are each ten years old. I do not know — heights. I often go
to see — .
Fill the blank in the following sentence with a pro-
noun referring to (i) two or more boys spoken of, (2)
two or more girls spoken of : —
These books are — .
96 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
You observe that personal pronouns standing for
persons or things spoken of vary with gender, number
and case. Tabulating the forms used in filling the
blanks, we find that the personal pronouns of the third
person are thus declined : —
, Singular ^ Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders
Nominative: he she it they
Possessive: his her, hers its tl'.eir, theirs
Objective: him her it them
'Its" is a modem form, found only once in the English Bible of
1611 (Lev. XXV, 5). The old possessive of "it" was "his:" as, The
iron gate "opened to them of his own accord" (Acts xii, 10). Since
"his" was also the possessive of "he," confusion arose, which led
gradually to the formation of a new possessive for "it."
EXERCISE 127
Construct sentences coniainins, the different forms of the
personal pronouns of the third person.
134. Special Uses of "It" — The pronoun "it" has
a variety of special uses : —
(1) As substitute for a group of words: as,
To cross the ocean was once a mighty undertaking; now it is a mere
pleasure trip.
I heard that he was coming, but I didn't believe it.
(2) As impersonal subject (28): as,
Is it well with thee?
// has been raining.
(3) As impersonal object: as.
They roughed it for two weeks.
Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it.
(4) As an expletive (29): as,
What pain it was to drown !
How is it that you come so soon?
EXERCISE 128
Describe the use of the pronoun "it" in each of the fol-
lowing sentences: —
I. I won't go, and that's an end of //. 2. // is excellent to have
a giants' strength, but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant. 3. There
was nothing for it but to return. 4. Come and trip it as you go.
5. He deserA^ed his punishment, and he knew //. 6. Is // far to Lon-
don? 7. Low-bom men like to lord // over their inferiors. 8. It
OF PRONOUNS 97
is I. 9. I will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 10. //
will soon strike ten. 1 1. They footed it through the streets. 12. It
is growing dark fast.
135. Uses of the Possessive Forms — Each of the
personal pronouns except "he" and "it" has two pos-
sess! ves in each number: namely, "my," "mine;" "our,"
"ours;" "thy," "thine;" "your," "yours;" "her,"
"hers;" "their," "theirs."
"My," "our," "thy," "your," "her," and "their"
are always followed by nouns indicating the thing pos-
sessed: as, "A/y new sled."
In Biblical and poetical language "mine" and "thine"
are used before nouns beginning with a vowel sound or
"h:" as,
I. "If thine enemy hunger, feed him." 2. "Stretch forth thine
hand."
In ordinary discourse "mine" and "thine," and the
forms ending in "s" ("ours," "yours," "hers," "theirs")
are never followed by nouns, but are used only as sub-
stantives. They represent both the possessor and the
thing possessed, and are equivalent to a noun in the
nominative or the objective case modified by a pos-
sessive: as, "This book is mine'' (i.e., "my book");
"Yours (i.e., "your book") is on the table." "His"
is often used in a similar manner.
Caution — No apostrophe is used in writing the possessive case
of pronouns.
EXERCISE 129
Construct sentences containing the possessive forms of
each of the personal pronouns, both singular and plural, and
tell how each form is used.
136. Uses of the Nominative Forms — The nomina-
tive forms of personal pronouns — "I," "we," "thou,"
"he," "she," "they" — are used mainly in the following
constructions : —
1. Subject of a verb: as, "I am young;" "We are coming;" "He
fell ;" "She laughed" "They live in New Orleans."
2. Attribute complement : as, "Is it I ?" "It was not we ;" "Was
it he 9" "I think it was she ;" "No, it was they "
Exception— The attribute complement of the infinitive to he is In \\\e qhjective
case if the infinitive has a subject ; as, " He knew it to bem^"il23)
H
98 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3. Vocative: as, "O thou who hearest prayer."
4. Nominative absolute: as, "He being there, we said nothing
about it."
137. Uses of the Objective Forms — The objective
forms of the personal pronouns — "me," "us," "thee,"
"him," "her," "them," — are used mainly in the follow-
ing constructions : —
1. Direct object: as, "Help us, O Lord."
2. Indirect object: as, "Give me your hand."
3. Object of preposition: as, "Show it to them."
4. Subject of infinitive: as, " Did you see him fall?"
Exclamations — In exclamations either the nominative or the
objective is used: as, "O, unhappy I!" "O, wretched me!"
EXERCISE 130
Tell the case and construction of each personal pronoun
in Exercise 20; in Exercise 38; in Exercise 74.
EXERCISE 131
Insert the proper form of pronoxin in each blank, and
give the reason for your choice: —
I. /, me.
I. Who will go? — . 2. He is taller than — . 3. She knew it to
be — . 4. He is not so old as — . 5. Wait for Helen and — . 6.
She knew that it was — . 7. She will come, and — too. 8. You
and — will go together. 9. May Annie and — go home? 10. It
was — that gave the alarm. 11. If you were — , would you go?
12. Will you go with John and — ? 13. Jessie gave Roy and — a
kitten. 14. She let Annie and — come home.
II. We, us.
I. He knew it was — . 2. He knew it to be — . 3. It was —
whom you saw. 4. — boys are going swimming. 5. They play
golf more than — . 6. They know that as well as — . 7. Everybody
was late except — . 8. Our parents are wiser than — . 9. The
Smiths are going, and — too. 10. The Browns, as well as — , are
invited.
III. He, him.
I. I knew it was — . 2. I knew it to be — . 3. Was it — you
saw? 4. It must have been — . 3. — that is idle, rejirovc. 6. His
sister is darker than — . 7. If I were — , I wouldn't go. 8. Whom
can I trust, if not — ? g. — and James played together. 10. Let
— who can answer this question. 1 1. What were you and — talk-
ing about? 12. Was it — who objected to our going?
OF PRONOUNS 99
IV. She, her.
I. I am stronger than — . 2. It was — or her mother. 3. I
wouldn't go if I were — . 4. — and Constance sang a duet. 5. Was
it — that came yesterday? 6. When will you and — come again?
7. Father told you and — to stay here. 8. I invited them all, —
among the rest. 9. With Edith and — I have no trouble. 10.
Grace and — met at a dancing school. 11. Very few girls can play
as well as — . 12. What can you expect from such as — ? 13. I
suppose the tall, stately lady was — . 14. I suppose the tall, stately
lady to be — . 15. What is the trouble between you and — ?
V. They, them.
I. It was — . 2. It must have been — . 3. We are not so poor
as — . 4. I know it to have been — . 5. I never saw Guy and —
together. 6. — that talk must stay after school. 7. — that talk
I will keep after school. 8. It isn't for such as — to dictate to us.
9. None so blind as — that will not see. 10. Let none touch it but
— that are clean.
138. Use of Gender Forms — In the very nature of
things pronouns should be of the same gender and num-
ber as the nouns for which they stand. The following
peculiar uses of gender forms require special mention
(108, 109) :—
1. Words like trout and child, which apply to both male and
female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronouns "it" and "its"
when the object named is thought of as a mere thing, the sex being
unknown or unimportant: as, "King Midas took a nice little trout
on his plate, and touched its tail with his finger; " "The child reached
out its little hands."
2. Words like labourer and person, which apply to both men and
women, are referred to by the mascuhne pronouns "he", "his," and
"him" when there is no desire to emphasise distinctions of sex: as,
"The labourer is worthy of his hire;" "Let every person do as he
likes." In such cases "he," "his," and "him" stand for mankind
in general, and include women as well as men.
EXERCISE 132
1 . Review Exercise 1 1 1 .
2. Fill each blank with a pronoun, and give the reason
for its gender: —
I. Every author has — faults. 2. A writer should be careful
with — pronouns. 3. Venice sat in state, throned on — hundred
isles. 4. A person who is rude in — table manners will be dis-
liked. 5. Winter had bound the lakes and rivers fast in — icy grasp.
6. The mocking-bird shook from — little throat floods of defirious
music. 7. The " Oceanic " is a huge steamer. — is longer than the
"Great Eastern." 8. A calf can distinguish — mother's lowing
from that of a hundred other cows.
loo THE PARTS OF SPEECH
139. Use of Number Forms — Difficulties in the use
of the number forms of personal pronouns arise mainly
in connection with such expressions as "anybody,"
"everybody," "each," "either," "neither," and "no-
body." Such expressions, in spite of the comprehensive
meaning of some of them, are grammatically singular;
and in literary English they are referred to by singular
pronouns: as, "If anybody calls, ask him to wait." If
the writer considered reference to sex worth while, he*
would say, "ask him or her to wait. Ordinarily, how-
ever, he would use "him" only, taking for granted the
application to women.
In colloquial English such expressions as "anybody," "every-
body," "each," "either," etc., are referred to by the genderless
plurals "they," "their," "them:" as, " If anybody calls, ask them
to wait." This usage is partly an attempt to find a pronoun that
will stand for both "he" and "she," and partly a reflection of the
comprehensive meaning of "anybody," "everybody," etc. It is
shunned by those who have an ear for grammatical accuracy.
EXERCISE 133
Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns: —
I. Each must take — turn. 2. Anyone can do this if — tries.
3. Has everyone finished — work? 4. Every girl can do this if —
tries. 5. Each day and each hour brings — - own duty. 6. Either
Mary or Lizzie will lend you — pencil. 7. Each pujjil was requested
to name — favourite colour. 8. Probably everybody is eloquent at
least once in — life. 9. Man after man passed, carrying — golf
clubs with — . 10. Each of the girls married well, at least in — own
opinion. 11. Each of the children married well, at least in — own
opinion. 12. Whoever loves — school should do — best to keep its
school tone high.
140. Compound Personal Pronouns — Examine the
form and uses of the italicised pronouns in the following
sentences : —
(a) She herself told me.
(fc) We saw the Queen herself.
(c) He cut himself.
(d) They think too much of themselves.
You observe that "herself," "himself," and "them-
selves" are formed from personal pronouns by adding
* Note the author's unconscious use oi " he" to refer to " writer," which here
includes in its meaning- women as well as men.
OF PRONOUNS loi
the words "self" or "selves;" and that they are used
(a, b) for emphasis, or (c, d) after a verb or preposition
to refer back to the subject of the verb.
Definition — A pronoun formed from a personal
pronoun by adding "self" or "selves" is called a
Compound Personal Pronoun.
Definition — A compound personal pronoun used after
a verb or a preposition to refer back to the subject
of the verb is called a Reflexive Pronoun.
The compound personal pronouns are myself, ourself
(editorial or majestic), thyself, yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Notice that
in the first and second person the compound is made
from the possessive form of the simple pronoun, and
in the third person from the objective form.
The compound personal pronouns have the same form
for both nominative and objective, and have no pos-
sessive. The place of a possessive is supplied by "my
own," "your own," etc.: as, "He keeps his own horse;"
"He has a house of his own."
In the last sentence the phrase "his own" is used substantively
as the object of the preposition "of," Hke the possessive "mine" in
"He is a friend of mine" (135).
141. Uses of the Compound Personal Pronouns — The
compound personal pronouns are properly used as fol-
lows : —
1. For emphasis: as, "I will do it myself;" "The great globe
itself shall dissolve;" "We saw the king himself."
2. As reflexives: as, "I cut myself;" "We told him to give him-
self plenty of time."
Besides these well-established uses, the compound personal pro-
nouns are sometimes employed as substitutes for simple personal
pronouns: as, "She invited Ethel and myself to go driving." This
usage is avoided by the most careful writers.
Sometimes, especially in poetry, a simple pronoun is used re-
flexively: as, "Now I lay me down to sleep;" "He looked about
him."
EXERCISE 134
I. In the following sentences point out the compound
personal pronouns, and tell whether they are used reflex-
ively or for emphasis: —
I02 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
1. I myself have seen him. 2. I think myself happy. 3. Thou
shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 4. Quit yourselves like men.
5. He will tell you himself. 6. Whosoever shall exalt himself shall
be abased. 7. Sinai itself trembled at the presence of God. 8. You
have yourselves heard the report. 9. Why should you be so cruel
to yourselves? 10. It is usually best to study by ourselves.
2. Construct sentences illustrating the use of each of the
compound personal pronouns for emphasis; as a reflexive.
II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
142. Demonstrative Pronouns Defined — Examine the
italicised pronouns in the following sentences : —
TAt J is my book; tliat is yours.
These are my books; those are yours.
In these sentences "this" (plural "these") and "that"
(plural "those") are used to point out certain objects.
Each is, in a way, equivalent to a gesture.
Definition — A pronoun used to point out is called a
Demonstrative Pronoun.
The only demonstrative pronouns are "this" (plural
"these") and "that" (pliural "those").
"He," "she," "it," "they," are sometimes called the Demon-
■tratlves of the Third Person.
"So" has occasionally demonstrative force: as, "He said so."
143. Uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns — "This"
and "these" are used to indicate persons or things near
in space, time, or thought; "that" and "those" indicate
persons or things farther away : as, " These are my jewels,"
"Our rivers are larger than those of Europe."
When "this" and "that" are followed by nouns they are
Pronominal Adjectives: as, "This book is mine;" "That word
is hard to pronounce."
EXERCISE 135
Construct sentences illustrating the use of the demon-
strative pronouns, singular and plural.
III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
144. Interrogative Pronouns Defined — Examine the
italicised pronouns in the following sentences: —
OF PRONOUNS 103
ir/io is he? ]Vho7n did you see? Which is he?
Who is she? What is that? Which is yours?
l]'ho are they? ]Vhat are these? M'hich are yours?
Whose is this? ^F/^a/ do you want? Which do you prefer?
These pronouns, you observe, are questioning words,
"who," "whose," and "whom" asking for names of
persons, "what" asking for names of things, and "which"
asking for a selection from a group of persons or things.
Each stands for the noun or pronoun that answers the
question.
Definition — A pronoun used to ask questions is called
an Interrogative Pronoun.
Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative sen-
tences, we find that the only interrogative pronoun
which is inflected is "who," and that it is declined as
follows : —
Singular and Plural.
Nominative: who
Possessive: whose
Objective: whom
The interrogative "whether," meaning "which of the two," is no
longer used as a pronoun, though it is found in the EngHsh Bible:
as, "Whether is easier?"
When "which" and "what" are followed by nouns they are Pro-
nominal Adjectives: as, "Which book is yours?" "What new
irick is this?"
EXERCISE 136
Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following
sentences, and tell the construction of each: —
I. Who ran to help me when I fell? 2. What are the wild waves
saying? 3. What care I how fair she be? 4. What do you read,
my lord? 5. What is so rare as a day in June? 6. What did you
ask for? 7. Whose dog is that? 8. Whom did you see? 9. Whom
were you speaking to? 10. Which of the samples have you selected?
II. Who do you think she is? 12. Whom do you take her to be?
145. Interrogative Pronouns Distinguished — Ordinar-
ily "who" asks for names of persons, "what" for names
of things ; but sometimes " what " has a personal reference :
as, ''What is he? — a lawyer?" In such cases "what"
asks for a description, in distinction from "who," which
asks for identity: as, "Who is he? — the new minister?"
"Which" is selective; that is, it impHes that the right
one is to be selected from a number of persons or things :
I04 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
as, "Which is she?" "Which of the pictures do you Hke
best?" "Which have you decided to take?"
EXERCISE 137
Construct sentences illustrating the use of the inter-
rogative pronoun "who;" the ordinary use of the inter-
rogative "what;" the personal use of the interrogative
"what;" the use of the interrogative "which."
146. " Who " or " Whom " — In spoken EngUsh
"whom," as an interrogative form, has been practically
adandoned by most persons as an unnecessary and
cumbersome inflection; but in literary English, and in
the conversation of persons who have a strong feeling
for grammatical consistency, "who" is used only in
nominative relations, and "whom" in objective relations:
as, "Who is that?" "Whom did you see?" "By whom
was this written?" "Whom are you making that sofa-
pillow for?"
EXERCISE 138
Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of pronoun
{"who" or "whom") according to literary usage, and give
the reason for your choice: —
I. — do you mean? 2. — have we here? 3. — will you invite?
4. — did you give it to? 5. — do you think I am? 6. — are you
writing to? 7. — were you talking to? 8. I don't know — to send.
9. — do you take me to be? 10. I don't know — to ask for? 11.
— was that speaking to you? 12. I do not know — he has met.
147. Direct and Indirect Questions Distinguished —
Compare the following sentences : —
(i) Maude asked, "Who is lie 9" (2) Maude asked who he was.
In the first sentence Maud's question is given in her
exact words, and the question is said to be quoted. In
the second sentence the question blends with the princi-
pal clause, and the original words are changed.
Definition — A question expressed in the exact words
of the speaker is called a Direct Question.
Definition — A question used as a dependent clause,
with changes from the original words of the speaker,
is called an Indirect Question.
OF PRONOUNS 105
A direct question may be (i) independent: as, "Who is he?" or
(2) dependent: as, " Maude asked, 'Who is he ?' "
Indirect questions depend on expressions implying inquiry, doubt,
knowledge, ignorance, or the like: as, '" Maude wondered who he was; "
" Maude discovered who he was; " " Maude did not know who he was; "
"Maude told us who he was." (The direct question presented to
Maude's mind was, "Who is he ?")
EXERCISE 139
Construct three direct questions, and then change them
into the indirect form.
IV. RELATI\'E PRONOUNS
148. Relative Pronouns Defined — Compare the fol-
lowing sentences: —
(a) The man thinks the world turns round. The man is giddy.
(b) The man that is giddy thinks the world turns round.
In (a) we have two separate sentences about "the
man," with nothing to show that they are related. In
(b) the two sentences are brought into their proper rela-
tion by the word "that," which takes the place of the
noun "man" as subject of the second sentence, and also
connects this sentence with "man" in the first sentence,
as a modifying clause. In other words, it is both pronoun
and connective.
Definition — A pronoun which attaches to its ante-
cedent a subordinate clause of which it is a part is
called a Relative Pronoun.
A relative pronoun is so called because it relates directly to a
substantive in the principal clause.
EXERCISE 140
Point out the relative pronouns in Exercise 44, and give
their antecedents.
149. Relative Clauses — A clause introduced by a
relative pronoun is called a Relative Clause.
Compare the relative clauses in the following sen-
tences : —
I. Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 2. The water, which
was beautifully clear, gently lapped the side of the boat. 3. She
brought the boy a glass of water, which he drank eagerly.
io5 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
In the first sentence the relative clause, "that is
stagnant," limits or restricts the general meaning of
"water" to the particular sort that is in mind. The
clause cannot be removed without changing the mean-
ing of the sentence.
In the second sentence the relative clause, "which
was beautifully clear," describes the water which the
speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the meaning
of the word "water." The clause might be removed
without injury to the sentence, being in fact paren-
thetical.
In the third sentence the relative clause, "which he
drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the word
"water," but merely carries on the narrative, like the
second member of a compound sentence. "Which" is,
in fact, here equivalent to "and it," and the relative
clause, although subordinate in form, is logically co-
ordinate with the first clause.
Definition — A relative clause which limits or restricts
the meaning of the antecedent is called a Restrictive
Relative Clause.
Definition — A relative clause which describes the
antecedent without restricting its meaning is called
a Descriptive Relative Clause.
Definition — A relative clause which neither de-
scribes nor limits, but merely carries on the narrative, is
called a Progressive Relative Clause.
Descriptive and progressive relative clauses, being
either parenthetical or independent in their nature,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas.
Restrictive relative clauses should not be separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas.
EXERCISE 141
1. Point out the relative clauses in Exercises 44 and
52, and tell whether they are restrictive, descriptive, or
progressive.
2. Construct a sentence containing a restrictive relative
clause; a descriptive relative clause; a progressive relative
clause.
OF PRONOUNS 107
150. Relative Pronouns Distinguished — Examine the
forms of the relative pronouns in the following sen-
tences : —
He prayeth best -who loveth best. The lady who went out is my
aunt. They who will not work must starve. The boy whose man-
ners you Hked is my brother. I know the person of whom you speak.
The letter which came this morning was from Ruth. t\'e played
a new game, the name of which I forget. I still have the letter which
Ruth wrote last week.
This is the house that Jack built. Happy is the man that findeth
wisdom.
What (i.e., Tliat which) is done cannot be undone. What (i.e.,
That which) you say is true.
From these examples we see that the ordinary rela-
tive pronouns are "who," "which," "that," and "what."
Tabulating the various forms, we find that only "who"
is inflected, and that it is declined as follows : —
Singular and Plural
Nominative: who
Possessive: whose
Objective: whom
Who, whose and -whom are used chiefly of persons, but
sometimes of animals: as, "He prayeth best who loveth
best;" " The robins have succeeded in driving off the
blue jays who used to build in our pines." " Whose" is
occasionally used of things (153).
Which, as a relative pronoun, is used of animals or
things. Sometimes it refers to an idea or thought ex-
pressed by a preceding phrase or clause: as, "This des-
cription may seem much exaggerated, which it certainly
is not ; " "I relieved his pain, which made him verv grate-
ful."
That is used of either persons or things. It is always
very closely connected with its antecedent in both mean-
ing and position, never being used when there is any
pause between the relative clause and the antecedent.
Hence it is never used to introduce a clause that is merely
descriptive or progressive. We say, "Water that [or,
which] is stagnant is unwholesome;" "The water, which
was beautifully clear, lapped the sides of the boat."
Another peculiarity of that is that it never has a pre-
position before it. We say, "The book of which you
io8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
told me," or, "The book that you told me of," putting
the preposition last when "that" is substituted for
"which."
What is peculiar in that it combines the functions of
both antecedent and relative pronoun: as,
,,T f what "\ T i>
^ "^^^" I that which ) ^ ^^y-
"Who," "which," and "that" introduce adjective
clauses; clauses introduced by "what" are substantive
clauses.
EXERCISE 142
Insert appropriate relative pronouns in the blanks in
the following sentences, and give the reason for your choice: —
I. Man is the only animal — can talk. 2. Time — ^ is lost is never
found again. 3. The dog — bit the child has been killed. 4. That
is the man — spoke to us yesterday. 5. We have a mastiff, — fol-
lows us everywhere. 6. I met the boatman — took me across the
ferry. 7. The crow dropped the cheese, — the fox then ate. 8. I
worked six problems, — was the best I could do. g. Do you know
that man — is just entering the car? 10. Shakespeare was the most
expressive man — ever lived. 1 1. The cat — you despise so much
is a very useful animal.* 12. We have done many things — we
ought not to have done.
EXERCISE 143
Construct sentences illustrating the use of the relatives
"who," "ivhich," "tliat," and "what."
151. Gender, Number and Person of Relative Pro-
nouns— In the nature of things the gender, number
and person of a relative pronoun are the same as those
of its antecedent, but they are never indicated by the
form of the relative. " \\Tio," for example, may be
singular or plural, masculine or feminine, and may refer
to the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of : as,
" I, who am your friend, would not pain yoti needlessly ;"
"You, wJio are my trusted friend, should not deceive
me;" " They who refuse to work must slar\-e." vSince
relatives thus agree in number and person with their
antecedents, it follows that the form of a verb used after
•The punctuation of this sentence, and probably the choice of pronoun, will
vary with the meaning^.
OF PRONOUNS 109
a relative should be the same as that which we should
use after its antecedent.
EXERCISE 144
Tell which of the italicised fonns is right, and give the
reason: —
1. She is one of the best mothers that has (have) ever lived. 2.
My room is one of those that overlook (overlooks) the lake. 3. That
is one of the best books that was (were) ever written. 4. She is one
of the writers who is (are) destined to be immortal. 5. It was one
of the best games that has (have) ever been played on our field.
6. You are not the first man that has (have) been deceived by ap-
pearances. 7. He is one of those restless boys who is (are) always
wanting to do something. 8. One of his many good traits that come
(comes) to my mind was his modesty.
152. Case of Relative Pronouns — The case of a rela-
tive pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent,
but is determined by its use in the clause in which it
stands. It may be —
(i) The subject of a verb: as, "The lady who went out is my aunt."
(2) A possessive modifier: as, "The boy whose manners you liked
is my brother."
(3) A direct object: as, "He whom thou lovest is sick."
(4) The object of a preposition: as, "I know the person of whom,
you speak."
EXERCISE 145
Tell the construction and the case of each relative pronoun
in Exercises 44 and 142.
EXERCISE 146
Insert the proper form of pronoun ("who," "whom") in
each of the following blanks, and give the reason for your
choice : —
I. She is a girl — I know is trustworthy. 2. She is a girl — I
know to be trustworthy. 3. \\'e recommend only those — we can
trust. 4. I met a man — I have no doubt was your uncle. 5. A
lady entered, — , I afterwards learned, was his aunt. 6. He gave
the watch to Norman, — he thinks will take care of it. 7. They
have found the woman — they thought had been murdered. 8. We
like to be with those — we love and — we know love us, let them
be — they may.
153. "Whose" or "Of which "—"WTiose," which
is properly the possessive of the masculine or feminine
no THE PARTS OF SPEECH
"who," is sometimes used of neuter objects as a sub-
stitute for the longer and harsher "of which:" as, "The
undiscovered country from whose bourne no traveller
returns." When this substitution is not required by
euphony it is avoided by careful writers.
EXERCISE 147
Tell which of the italicised expressions yoti consider
preferable, and give your reason: —
I. She asked for a book whose name (the name of which) I had
never heard. 2. The "White Captive" is a woman bound to a tree,
in whose bark (the bark 0} which) arrows are sticking. 3. Another
side of one's education is the scientific — a side whose importance {the
importance of which) is fast being recognised the world over. 4.
Through the heavy door whose bronze network {the bronze network of
which) closes the place of his rest, let us enter the church itself.
5. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious elevations,
on whose tops {the tops of which) the sun kindled all the melodies and
harmonies of hght. 6. Beneath the sluggish waves of the Dead
Sea lay the once proud cities of the plain, whose grave {the grave of
which) was dug by the thunder of the heavens. 7. Men may be
ready to fight to the death for a rehgion whose creed {the creed of
which) they do not understand, and whose precepts {the precepts of
which) they habitually disobey.
154. " As " and " But " as Relatives — After the
words "such" and "same" the word "as" is used as a
relative pronoun: as, "Tears, such as angels weep, burst
forth." After "such" the relative is always "as."
After "same" it is "as" or "that," with a difference in
meaning. "The same as" usually means "of the same
kind:" as, "My trouble is the same as yours." "The
same that" means "one and the same:" as, "He uses
the same books that his brother does." This distinction,
however, does not hold in elliptical sentences, where
"the same that" is never found: as, "He uses the same
books as his brother." Occasionally "who" or "which"
is used instead of "that:" as, "This is the very same
rogue who sold us the spectacles" (Goldsmith); "With
the same minuteness which her predecessor had exhibited "
(Scott).
Occasionally "as" is used as a substitute for "which"
to refer to a preceding idea or thought: as, "The ship
was frozen in, as often happens in polar regions."
OF PRONOUNS III
"But" is sometimes used as a relative pronoun equi-
valent to "that not" or "who not:" as,
There is not a wife in the west country
But has heard of the well of St. Keyne.
EXERCISE 148
1. Construct sentences illustrating the uses of relatives
after ''such" and ''same."
2. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the
proper relative {"as," "that"), and give the reason for
your choice: —
I. Such — I have give I thee. 2. This is the same book — my
father used. 3. I hold the same political opinions — my father.
4. I hold the same pohtical opinions — my father holds. 5. These
are not the same tramps — were here yesterday. 6. She is the
same merry girl since her marriage — she was before it.
155. Relative Pronouns Omitted — The relative " that "
(or its substitute), when it would be the object of a verb
or a preposition, is often omitted: as, "The book [that
or which] I left here is gone;" "The girl [that or whom]
you are looking for has not come yet."
Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative
case is omitted: as, "'Tis distance [that] lends enchant-
ment to the view."
Note — The term CoNjuNCTrvE Pronoun is frequently sub-
stituted for the term "Relative Pronoun," to emphasise the fact
that the conjunctive introduces a clause and joins it in adjectival
relation to its antecedent.
156. Compound Relative Pronouns — Examine the
forms and uses of the relative pronouns in the follow-
ing sentences : —
Whoever (i.e., Any person who) goes must start at once.
Whosoever (i.e., Any person who) exalteth himself shall be abased.
Take whichever (i.e., any which) you want.
Whatever (i.e.. Any thing which) he does he does well.
Sell whatsoever (i.e., anything which) thou hast, and give to the
poor.
With regard to form you observe that the italicised
pronouns are made from "who," "which," and "what"
by adding "ever" or "soever." With regard to use,
(i) they perform the functions of both relative and
antecedent, like "what" (150); and (2) they are very
112 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
indefinite in their meaning, being equivalent to "any
person who," "any which," or "anything which."
Definition — A pronoun formed from "who," "which,"
or "what" by adding the suffix "ever" or "soever" is
called, with reference to its form, a Compound Relative
Pronoun ; with reference to its meaning, an Indefinite
Relative Pronoun.
Other compound relatives, seldom used now, are "whoso" and
"whichsoever."
"Who," "which," and "what" are sometimes used as indefinite
relatives: as, "]]'ho steals my purse steals trash;" "Take uhich you
will;" "Do what you can."
157. "Whoever" or " Whomever "—The only diffi-
culty likely to arise in connection with the use of in-
definite relatives lies in the words "whoever" and
"whomever." One is a nominative form, the other an
objective. "Give it to whoever comes to the door" and
"Give it to whomever you see" are both correct. "Who-
ever" is the subject of "comes;" "whomever" is the
object of "see." In each sentence the object of the
preposition "to" is the relative clause, used substan-
tively.
"Whosoever" and "whomsoever" are used in the same way: as,
"Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be much reciuired;"
"Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased."
EXERCISE 149
Fill the blanks with the proper forms {"whoever,'' "whom-
ever"), and give the reason for your choice: —
I. Ask — you meet. 2. Elect — you wish. 3. I will entertain
— you send. 4. We will give it to — you say. 5. — did it ought
to be ashamed of himself. 6. We will give it to — seems to need it
most.
V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
158. Indefinite Pronouns Defined — Examine the itali-
cised words in the following sentences: —
I. Some have gone. 2. Each took his turn.
You obserA'^e that "some" and "each" are substitutes
for names, but do not refer definitely to any particular
individuals.
OF PRONOUNS *ii3
Definition — A pronoun that does not refer to any
particular individual is called an Indefinite Pronoun.
The indefinite pronouns may be grouped as follows: —
1. Distributives, referring to individuals of a class taken separately:
each, either, neither.
2. Words of number or quantity: all, any, both, few, many, much,
several, some, aught, naught, one, none.
3. Comparatives : such, other, another.
4. Phrasal pronouns: each, other, one another, (called reciprocals) :
a certain one, many a one.
5. Otlier pronouns or parts of speech used indefinitely: a man,
people, you, they, etc. : as, "A man must live," "They say he is rich,"
etc.
When these words accompany nouns, they must be classed as
adjectives: as, "Each boy took his turn;" "Some men are born great."
EXERaSE 150
Construct sentences illustrating the use of each of the in-
definite pronouns.
159. How to Parse Pronouns — To parse a pronoun
one must give its —
(i) Class. (2) Antecedent (if it has one). (3) Gender. (4)
Number. (5) Person. (6) Construction. (7) Case.
EXERCISE 151
Parse the pronouns in the following sentences: —
I. Love thy neighbour as thyself. 2. God helps them that help
themselves. 3. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast him-
self as he that putteth it off. 4. I find the Englishman to be him
of all men who stands ' firmest in his shoes. 5. Ye are the salt of
the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be
salted?
6. I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute.
7. There's a divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them how we will.
8. What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet,
114 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
CHAPTER V
OF ADJECTIVES
An Adjective is a word joined by way of description
or limitation to a noun or a pronoun (85).
160. Classification of Adjectives — Adjectives may be
arranged in two general classes, as follows : —
1. Descriptive Adjectives, denoting qualities or attributes of
objects: as, "A black hat."
2. Limiting Adjectives, denoting which, how many, or how
much: as " \'o>idcr mountains;" " Three kittens ;" "Great jileasure."
Among limiting adjectives we distinguish Numeral Adjectives,
denoting number: as, "Three kittens;" "Second base;" pnd
Pronominal Adjectives, words often used as pronouns: as, "This
(adjective) hat is mine ;" "This (pronoun) is yours." Such words
are i)ronouns when they stand for nouns; adjectives when they
accompany nouns (143, 144, 168).
161. Singular and Plural Adjectives — The only ad-
jectives that have separate forms for singular and plural
are the pronominal adjectives "this" (plural "these")
and "that" (plural "those"). Mistakes in the use of
these forms frequently occur in connection with such
words as "sort" and "kind," which are granmiatically
singular. The following sentences are correct : ' ' Ttiat
kind of house is common in New England;" "How do
you like this sort of horses?"
EXERCISE 152
Insert the proper for7n ("this," "these," "that," "tJiose")
in each of the jollowing blanks: —
1. I do not like — sort of men. 2. We want no more of — .sort
of goods. 3. What do you think of — kind of golf clubs? 4. Young
gentlemen should let — sort of thing alone. 5. I always delight
in overthrowing — sort of schemes.
162. Comparison of Adjectives — Examine the ad-
jectives in the following sentences.
This is a high mountain.
That is a higher mountain.
Yonder is the highest mountain of all.
OF ADJECTIVES 115
"High," "higher," and "highest" are all forms of the
same adjective, and all denote the same quality; but
they denote it in different degrees. "High" merely
denotes a quality; "higher" denotes that the object
described has more of that quality than another object
with which it is compared; "highest " denotes that the
object described has the most of the quality.
Definition — A difference in the form of an adjective
to denote degree is called Comparison.
Definition — The simple form of an adjective is called
the Positive Degree.
Definition — The form of an adjective that represents
an object as having more of a quality than another
object is called the Comparative Degree.
Definition — The form of an adjective that represents
an object as having the most of a quality is called
the Superlative Degree.
Sometimes the superlative degree is used when no
comparison is intended: as, "My dearest mother." In
such cases the superlative inflection has nearly the same
force as the adverb "very."
This form of the Superlative is known as the Absolute
Superlative, whereas the ordinary superlative is called
the Relative Superlative.
163. Methods of Comparison — Examine the italicised
forms in the following sentences : —
T 1 f nobler '\
I never knew a - a; man.
^^ more noble j
TT • ^L f noblest 1 ^
He IS the ■ , ur -man 1 ever saw.
(. most noble )
From this it appears that there are two ways of com-
paring adjectives : —
1. By Inflection, adding "er" and "est" to the positive to form
the comparative and the superlative.
2. By Phrasal Comparison, using the adverbs "more" and
"most."
Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of two
syllables, are usually compared by the addition of "er"
and "est."
Some adjectives of two syllables, and all longer ad-
ii6
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
jectives, are usually compared by using "more" and
"most."
In general the method of comparison is a matter of
taste, determined for the most part by the ear.
EXERCISE 153
Compare the following adjectives: —
Able, happy, honest, fearless, worldly, lively, careful, particular,
unkind, earnest, beautiful, virtuous, proud, ungrateful.
164. Irregular Comparison — The comparison of the
following adjectives is irregular : —
PotltlT'e
bad ~1
evil [
ill J
Compar. Superl.
worst
farther farthest
'<>""« {£r°''
far
fore
[forth, adv.] further furthest
^"°^ } better best
well J
Poiltlve
late
little
many
much
near
old
Compar.
/ later .
\ latter
less
I more
nearer
i older
(.elder
Superl.
latest
last
least
most
I nearest
\next
oldest
eldest
165. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison — Some ad-
jectives denote qualities that do not vary in degree:
as, "straight," "perfect," "circular," "daily," "square,"
"round," "untiring." Strictly speaking, such adjectives
cannot be compared; yet custom sanctions such ex-
pressions as "straighter," "roundest," "more perfect,"
because thev are convenient and their inaccuracy is of
no consequence.
166. Use of the Comparative and Superlative — The
comparative degree properly implies a comparison
of two things or sets of things; the superlative, of more
than two: as, "He is older than I;" "She is the youngest
of the family."
In modern English, however, this distinction is not
always followed, good writers frequently using the super-
lative when only two things are compared: as, "Who
was the first, Ruth or Maude?" "He is the best of the two."
In general, when two things or sets of things are com-
pared, the comparative degree is preferable: as, "Which
is the taller, Ruth or Maude?"
OF ADJECTIVES 117
The words denoting the objects compared are called
the "terms" of the comparison. When two objects are
compared, the latter term must exclude the former; as,
"Iron is more useful than any other metal.'" When more
than two objects are compared, the latter term must
include the former; as, ''Iron is the most useful of
metals."
EXERCISE 154
Construct sentences comparing the following things,
using first a comparative, then a superlative form: —
1. The large population of China; the smaller populations of other
countries.
Example— China has a larg-er population than any other country. China has
the largest population of all countries in the world.
2. John, who is very mischievous; other boys in the school, who
are less mischievous.
3. Mary's recitations; the poorer recitations of her classmates.
4. The population of London; the population of the other cities
in the world.
167. Substitutes for Adjectives — The function of an
adjective may be performed by —
(i) A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case: as, "That is John's
book;" "This is my book."
(2) A prepositional phrase: as, "The path by the lake is shady."
(3) An infinitive phrase: as, "Water to drink was scarce."
(4) A participal phrase: as, "The boy reciting his lesson is my
brother."
(5) A clause: as, "The girl whom you saw is my sister."
(6) An adverb: as, "The then Emperor."
168. How to Parse an Adjective — To parse an adjec-
tive one must tell —
(i) Its class.
(2) Its comparison.
(3) Its use.
EXERCISE 155
Parse the adjectives in Exercise 15.
ii8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
CHAPTER VI
OF ARTICLES
The Articles are the words "the" and "an" or "a."
The articles always limit nouns, and therefore might be classed as
limiting adjectives. But their uses are so peculiar and delicate that
it is best to treat them separately.
169. Origin of the Articles — "The" is a weakened
form of the demonstrative pronoun "that."
"An" (shortened to "a" before consonant sounds) is
a weakened form of the numeral adjective "one," which
was formerly written "an." In general it always im-
plies oneness, but usually in a vague, indefinite sense
that does not belong to the numeral adjective "one."
170. " An " or " A " — The choice between "an" and
"a," which are different forms of the same word, is
determined by sound. Before a vowel sound "an" is
used; before a consonant sound "a" is used.
EXERCISE 156
Put ihc proper jorm oj the article "an" or "a" before
each of the following expressions : —
Article, onion, union, uniform, uninformed, reader, universal be-
lief, useful invention, umpire, unfortunate mistake, eulogy, Euro-
pean, hour, honest man, house, humble dwelling, habitual drunkard,
liotel, heroic people, hereditary disposition.
171. The Articles Distinguished — Compare the itali-
cised expressions in the following sentences: —
I. Man is mortal. 2. The child is dying. 3. A soldier stood on
guard.
"Man," unlimited by an article, applies to all man-
kind. "Child," limited by "the," applies to an indi-
vidual, singled out as already before the mind. "Sol-
dier," limited by "a," applies to an individual, singled
out at random as a representative of his class. "The"
points definitely to a particular object; "a" selects one,
no matter which.
OF ARTICLES 119
Definition — "The" is called the Definite Article; "an"
or "a" is called the Indefinite Article.
172. Uses of the Articles — In general both the defi-
nite and the indefinite article single out individuals from
the rest of a class: the definite, a particular individual;
the indefinite, any individual. Ordinarily, therefore,
they are used, not with proper nouns or names of mater-
ials, but with nouns that apply to many objects of the
same class. Yet no one principle covers all the uses of
articles. These must be learned chiefly through observa-
tion and imitation. It may be helpful, however, to
enumerate some of their special functions.
The Definite Article is used —
(i) To designate objects as already before the mind: as, "One night
a wolf fell in with a dog. The wolf was all skin and bones, while the
dog was as fat as he could be."
(2) To designate objects as near by or prominent in the mind: as,
"I sprang to the window;" "The birds are singing;" "We saw the
queen;" "There is a higher law than the Constitution;" "The
Scriptures tell the story of the Flood."
This use of the article tends to change a common into a proper
noun, as indicated frequently by the use of capitals.
(3) To give to a common noun a representative or collective force:
as, "The reindeer is a native of Norway."
This use of the article — called the Generic (Latin gener, "a
class") — is borrowed from the French. The English article, as re-
marked above, singles out; the generic article collects.
The Indefinite Article is used —
(i) In its original numerical sense of "one:" as, "Not a word was
said;" "Two at a time."
When nouns have the same form for both singular and plural, this
use of the article distinguishes the numbers: as, "He has a sheep;"
"He has sheep."
(2) In the vague sense of "a certain:" as, "One night a wolf fell
in with a dog." (The word "one" in this sentence hardly differs in
function from the articles).
(3) In the sense of "any," to single out an individual as the
representative of a class: as, "A ball is round."
(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as, "A Daniel
come to judgment."
Note — In "many a child," "such a person," and similar ex-
pressions, the article follows the adjective, instead of preceding it.
I20 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXERCISE 157
1. Construct sentences illustrating the common 7tses of
the definite article.
2. Construct sentences illustrating the common ttses of
the indefinite article.
EXERCISE 158
Distinguish between —
I. Give me a (one) pen. 2. I have caught (a) cold. 3. A black
and (a) white cat. 4. Bring me the (that) candle. 5. Grass (Tlie
grass) is green. 6. Earth (The earth) is heavy. 7. I sprang to a
(the) window. 8. Birds (The birds) are singing. 9. Men (The men)
admired him. 10. He has (a) trout in his basket. 11. Bring me
a (the) lighted candle. 12. Trees (The trees) are in blossom.
13. Man (The man) is a strange being. 14. Wanted a cook and (a)
housemaid. 15 Men (The men) ran to give the alarm.
EXERCISE 159
Insert the proper article in each blank, if an article is
needed; if no article is needed, leave the place blank :
I. — lion is — king of beasts. 2. What kind of — bird is that?
3. My favourite flower is — violet. 4. At — present he is out of work.
5. What sort of — pen do you like? 6. Colonel Waring died of —
yellow fever. 7. He well deserves the name of — scholar. 8. Omit
— third and — fourth page (pages). 9. An adjective modifies a
noun or — pronoun. 10. There are two articles, the definite and
— indefinite.
173. Caution — Not every "Ihc" is an article, nor
every "a."
In "The more they get the more they want," and
similar constructions, "the" is an adverb, a survival of
an old adverbial case-form of the pronoun "that."
In "Who goeth a borrowing, goeth a sorrowing," and
similar constructions, "a" is a survival of an old pre-
position.
174. How to Parse Articles — To parse an article one
must tell —
(i) What it limits. (2) Its effect.
EXERCISE 160
Parse the articles in Exercise 8q.
OF VERBS 121
CHAPTER VII
OF VERBS
A Verb is a word used, with or without adjuncts, as
the predicate of a sentence (32).
The verb is the instrument of assertion. Usually it
denotes action ; less often, being or state (34) ; sometimes
it is without meaning, having assertive power only (35).
Sometimes it is a single word, sometimes a phrase (36).
I. CLASSIFICATION
A. ACCORDING TO MEANING
Classified according to meaning, verbs are either
Transitive or Intransitive.
175. Transitive Verbs — A transitive verb denotes
action that passes over from the doer of the action to
an object on which it falls: as, "A hunter shot a deer"
(40)-
The action expressed by a transitive verb involves two
persons or things, either of which may be made the
subject of the sentence. In one case we represent the
action as passing from the subject; in the other, as pass-
ing to it. In other words, we may represent the subject
either as performing the action, or as receiving or suf-
fering it. Thus : —
Subject Action Object Subject Action Agent
A man shot a deer. A deer was shot by a man.
Sometimes, when the subject of the verb names the
receiver of the action, the agent or doer of the action
is not mentioned; but this does not change the nature
of the verb, which remains transitive. Thus: —
Subject Action
A deer was shot
For such verbs as "have," "own," "possess" "inherit," etc.,
see 40
122 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
176. Intransitive Verbs — An intransitive verb de-
notes action, being, or state that involves only the
subject: as, "The rainbow comes and goes;" "Enough
is as good as a feast." (40).
Intransitive verbs are of two kinds: (i) Verbs of Complete Pre-
dication, wiiich can be used by themselves as complete ])redicates:
as, "The rainbow comes and goes;" (2) \'erbs oj Incomplete Predi-
cation, which cannot by themselves be used as complete predicates:
as, "Enough is as good as a feast" (43, 44).
177. Some Verbs Either Transitive or Intransitive —
The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs
is based solely on meaning and use, and if the meaning
and use of a verb change, its classification changes too.
Hence it happens that some verbs are at one time tran-
sitive, at another intransitive : as,
Transitive: She wore a wreath of roses
The night that first we met.
Intransitive: Never morning uore
To evening, but some heart did break.
A peculiar instance of change from one class to another occurs
when a verb usually intransitive becomes transitive through the
addition of a preposition used as an inseparable adjunct: as, "They
laughed;" "They laughed at me." That the words "laughed at" in
the last sentence are to be taken together as a transitive verb is
shown by the fact that if the sentence is thrown into the passive
form, "at" remains attached to the verb: as, "I was laughed at by
them."
Sometimes the preposition is prefixed to the verb: as, "Caesar
overccimc the enemy."
Causative Verbs — Another way for an intransitive verb to
become transitive is by being employed in a Causal sense: e.g.,
Intransitive Causal (or Causative)
Water boils. He boils the water,
(i.e., he causes the
water to boil).
The causative verbs are frequently formed from intransitive verbs
by vowel change (see Section 178).
Cognate Object — Intransitive verbs cannot be followed by
an ordinary outside object. They may, however, be followed by a
noun which repeats the meaning of the verb (Cognate means "akin")
e.g.,
I. To fight a good fight. 2. To fight a hard battle. 3. To laugh
a hearty laugh.
An adjective may represent this cognate object: as, "He fought
his best" ("fight," understood). Such an adjective may of course
be parsed as an adverb.
OF VERBS 123
A cognate object-noun must be abstract, as it represents merely
the noun idea implied in the verb.
Eeflexive Verbs — So called because the action of the verb is
as it were rellected back upon the subject, instead of passing over to
a different object. These verbs may be transitive or intransitive.
When the reflexive object is expressed, as in "He hurt himself," the
verb is Transitive Reflexive. But when the object is suppressed,
as in "He kept out of the way," the verb is really an Intransitive
Reflexive verb. *
Reciprocal Verbs — In these the action denoted by the verb
is reciprocated by the objects whether these are expressed or im-
plied. These verbs likewise may be transitive or intransitive. In
the sentence "These kittens scratch each other," the verb is tran-
sitive with a reciprocal object. In the sentence "These kittens
always scratch v.hen they meet," the verb "scratch" is reciprocal
and intransitive.
Passival or Middle Verbs — In the sentence "Newspapers sold
well during the war," the transitive verb sold is used without
an object. If we examine the construction carefully we shall see
that the grammatical subject is logically the direct object, for the
meaning is that " news- venders sold papers well during the war."
Such a verb is called Passival or Middle.
Note — In sentences hke "He ran a mile," "It rained a day,"
"It rained cats and dogs," the nouns must not be considered as
objects of an intransitive verb, which would be impossible. They
must be treated as adverbial modifiers of the verb.
EXERCISE 161
1. Review Exercises 24 and 25.
2. Tell whether the verbs in Exercises 17 and 37 are
transitive or intransitive.
3. In the following sentences state the kind of verb, and
the nature of the object or objects, if any: —
I. He ran a mile. 2. She dresses well. 3. He died a soldier.
4. Beauty is a snare. 5. Lemons taste sour. 6. He ran over the
hill. 7. She dresses the doll. 8. He was named John. 9. He
overran the mark. 10. He stayed two hours. 11. The tree stayed
his fall. 12. He was paid his wages. 13. He died a soldier's death.
14.. He walked over the links. 14. He went home to Toronto. 16.
They accused him of theft. 17. He looks every inch a king. 18.
The day broke over the sea. 19. He proved to be incorrigible. 20.
I never forgave him the insult.
178. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished by Form
— A few verbs in common use are distinguished as tran-
sitive or intransitive by their spelHng, the transitive
being causative forms of the corresponding intransitive
verbs. They are : —
124
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Intransitive
Fall: as, "Divided we fall."
Past, fell: as, "Great Caesar
fell."
Past Participle * fallen: as,
"She has fallen asleep."
Lie: as, "Lie still."
Past, lay: as, "Behold, Sisera
lay dead."
Past Participle, \ain: as, "Had
he lain there long?"
Rise: as, "Rise with the lark."
Past, rose: as, "Then up he
rose."
Past Participle, risen: as, "The
lark has risen."
Sit. as, let us sit down."
Past, sat: as, "We sat on the
piazza."
Past Participle, sat: as, "He
has sat there all day."
Transitive
Fell ("cause to fall"): as, "Wood-
men fell trees."
Past, felled: as, "They felled
all the good trees."
Past Participle,* felled: as,
"This tree was felled yes-
terday."
Lay ("cause to^ie"): as, "Lay
the book down."
Past, laid: as, "He laid the
book down."
Past Participle, laid: as, "He
has laid the book down."
Raise ("cause to rise"): as,
"Raise your head."
Past, raised: as, "He raised his
head."
Past Participle, raised: as, "He
has raised his head."
Set ("cause to sit"): as, "Set the
lamp on the table."
Past, set: as, "She set the lamp
on the table."
Past Participle, set: as, "She
has set the lamp on the
table."
EXERCISE 162
Insert the proper word in each blank in the following
sentences: —
I. Lie, lay, lying, laying, lain, laid.
I. Let him — there. 2. It has never — smooth. 7,. I found
it — on the floor. 4. Now I — me down to sleep. 5. Ireland — s
west of England. 6. Slowly and sadly we — him down. 7. You
had better — down for a while. X. Hush, my dear, — still and
slumber. 9. During the storm the sh'p — at anchor. 10. He told
me to — down, and I — down.
II. Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised
I. — up, you lazy fellow. 2. The price of com has — . 3. Let
them — up and help you. 4. She cannot get her bread to — . 5.
Cain — up against Abel, his brother. 6. Many are tliey that — up
against me. 7. Abraham — up early in the morning. 8. He —
himself up before I could reach him.
* Eng^llsh verbs have two simple participles : the Presrnt PaHiciftle, ending in
"inp," and the Past Participle, used in word-phrases after forms of "be" and
" have."
OF VERBS 125
III. Sit, sat, set
I. Where do you — ? 2. Have you — there long? 3. — down
and talk a while. 4. Let us — a good example. 5. She had to —
up all night. 6. The calamity — heavy on us. 7. Let us — here
and listen to the music. 8. Yesterday we — round the fire telling
stories.
B. ACCORDING TO FORM.
Classified according to form, verbs are either Strong
or Weak.
179. Strong Verbs — Examine the forms of the verb
"give" in the following sentences: —
Present Past Past Participle
They give liberally. They gave liberally. They have given liberally.
You observe that the past is formed from the present
by changing the vowel "i" to "a," and the past parti-
ciple has the suffix "-en."
Definition — A verb that forms its past tense* bv an
internal vowel change, without anv suffix, is called
a Strong Verb.
All strong verbs originally had the ending "n"- or "-en" in the
past participle; but this ending has been lost in many verbs, as
"fight," " fought[en] ; " therefore no mention of it is made in the
definition. An added "-n" or "-en" in the past participle is, how-
ever, always a sign of a strong verb.
Strong verbs are among the oldest verbs in our language; there-
fore their mode of forming the past tense is sometimes called the
Old Conjugation.
180. Weak Verbs — Examine the forms of the verbs
"obey," "hope," and "mean" in the following sen-
tences : —
Present Past Past Participle
I obey you. I obeyed you. I have obeyed you.
We hope for the best. We hoped for the best. We have hoped for
the best.
They mean well. They meant well. They have meant
well.
You observe that both the past tense and the past
participle are formed by adding "-ed," "-d," or "-t."
Definition. — A verb that forms its past tense by adding
"-ed," "-d," or "-t," is called a Weak Verb.
The past participle of a weak verb is always like the past tense.
•See Section 189.
126 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Many weak verbs undergo an internal vowel change, like strong
verbs; but they differ from strong verbs in having an added "-d"
or "-t" in the past tense; as, tell, told; teach, tawgh^- buy, hought.
In such strong verbs as "find," "found," "fight," foj<ght," the
"-d" or "-t" of the past tense is not a suffix, but belongs to the
present form also.
Some weak verbs change "d" of the present to "t" in the past:
as, build, bull/; send, sen/; spend, spen/.
In general, the test of a weak verb is the presence in the past tense
of a "d" or a "t" that is not in the present.
The following verbs, in which the past tense is like the present,
or merely shortens tiie vowel sound, have lost their suffix and are
known to be weak only from a study of Old English: bet, bleed,
breed, cast, cost, cut, feed, hit, hurt, lead, let, meet, put, read, rid,
set, shed, shoot, shut, sht, speed, spit, split, spread, thrust, wet.
Most weak verbs are of later origin than strong verbs. Hence
this mode of forming the past tense is sometimes called the New
Conjugation.
181. Mixed Verbs — Sime strong verbs have adopted
the method of the new conjugation while retaining also
that of the old: as, crow, crew or crowed; dig, dug or
digged; hang, hung or hanged; thrive, throve or thrived.
A few verbs form their past tense according to one
conjugation, and their past participle according to an-
other: as, hew, hewed, hewn; show, showed, shown; sow,
sowed, sown; swell, swelled, swollen; wake, woke, waked.
182. Principal Parts of a Verb — The present, the
past and the past participle are commonly called the
Principal Parts of a verb, because from them we can
determine all the other forms or parts.
The principal parts of a verb are the forms used in
filling the blanks in the following sentences : —
Present Past Past Participle
I — now. I — yesterday. I have — .
EXERCISE 163
Give the principal parts oj the following verbs, tell whether
the verbs are strong or weak, and give the reason for the
classification : —
arise
blow
come
fight
hope
seek
bake
break
cost
find
keep
send
beat
bring
dream
freeze
laugli
set
begin
build
eat
have
lav
sing
bend
buy
fall
hear
lead
sit
beseech
catch
feed
hide
lend
teach
bind
choose
feel
hold
make
tell
OF VERBS 127
C. ACCORDING TO USE
Classified according to use, verbs are either Notional
or Aimliary.
183. Notional and Auxiliary Verbs Defined — Com-
pare the uses of the verb "have" in the following sen-
tences : —
I. I have a ball. 2. I have lost my ball.
In the first sentence "have" expresses a distinct idea
or notion of its own, namely, the idea of possession.
In the second sentence it has laid aside this meaning
and merely helps to express the meaning of another
verb, "lost."
Definition — A verb that expresses a distinct idea or
notion of its own is called a Notional Verb.
Definition — A verb that merely helps to express the
meaning of another verb is called an Auxiliary Verb.
The verb that follows an auxiliary is always an infinitive or a
participle, and is sometimes called the Principal Verb in the
verb-phrase.
To THE Teacher —There is 'much divergence among gram-
marians in the treatment of can, let, may, micst, ought, should, and
would. These verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are always
followed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore they are all
often classed as auxiliaries. On the other hand, can, must, and
ought always have meanings of their own; therefore many object to
calling them auxiliaries. According to the latter view, which is
adopted in this book, let, may, should, and would, are sometimes
notional, sometimes auxiliary (218-222),
EXERCISE 164
Tell whether the italicised verbs are notional or aux-
iliary:—
I. She does her work well. 2. She does not see me. 3. Do you
know where my book is? 4. Have you a sled? 5. Have you read
"Ben-Hur?" 6. I am reading it now. 7. It 15 an interesting story.
8. May I leave the room? 9. I hope you may succeed. 10. You
mn,y come to see me whenever you can find time. 1 1 . She was
afraid we might lose the way. 12. You should be punctual.
184. Verbal Inflections — Verbs undergo many modi-
fications in form, which add to their root meanings
certain ideas of time, completion, uncertainty, number,
person, etc. These accessory ideas are attached partly
by inflections and partly by auxiliaries.
128 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
II. NUMBER AND PERSON
185. Inflection for Number and Person — In some
languages the form of the verb changes with the number
and person of the subject, and the verb is said to agree
with its subject in number and person. In Old English
such number and person forms were numerous; and in
the case of the verb "be" we still say: "I am;" "Thou
art;" "He is;" "We are;" "I was;" "You were," etc.
Other verbs in modern English have lost all their in-
flections for number and person, except in the second
and third persons of the singular number, as follows: —
First Person: I make.
Second Person: Tliou Tnakc5/.
Third Person: He maker (makc//i).
The termination "-st" (subject "thou") is used only in Biblical
and poetical language (132).
The termination "-th" or "-eth," which was once used instead
of "-S," survives only in Biblical language and in poetry: as, "He
that maketh haste to be rich shall not be innocent;" "He prayeth
well who loveth well."
Therefore, except in the verb "be," the only inflection for num-
ber and person in common use is "-s" in the third person singular.
186. Construction of Number Forms — Examine the
verbs and their subjects in the following sentences: —
A sense of duty pursues us ever. (Singular subject ; singular verb.)
Troubles never come singly. (Plural subject; i)lural verb.)
Ilalj of them are gone. (Subject singular in form but plural in
sense; plural verb.)
"Gulliver's Travels" was written by Swift. (Subject plural in
form but singular in sense; singular verb.)
Tom and his sister were tliere. (Two singular subjects together
forming a plural; plural verb.)
Bread and butter is good enough for me. (Two singular subjects
taken together as one thing; singular verb.)
Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular subjects con-
sidered separately; singular verb.)
You observe that, in general, a singular form of the
verb is used when the subject is singular or regarded as
singular; a plural form, when the subject is plural or
regarded as plural.
The principle that a verb agrees with its subject in
number is in most cases followed unconsciously. A few
constructions, however, require special notice: —
OF VERBS 129
1. The pronoun "you" takes a plural verb even when the mean-
ing is singular: as, "Tom, you were late."
2. A collective noun in the singular number takes a singular verb
when the collection is viewed as a whole; a plural verb when the
members of the collection are thought of as individuals: as, "The
committee was discharged." (Here the committee is thought of as
a body.) "The committee were eating dinner." (The committee
ate, not as a body, but as separate individuals.)
3. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural sense from the
presence of two or more distinguishing adjectives: as, "Mental,
moral, and physical education here go hand in hand."
4. When subjects connected by "or" or "nor" are of different
numbers, the verb usually agrees with the nearest: as, "One or two
were there."
EXERCISE 165
Construct sentences illustrating each of the special cases
of agreement mentioned in Section 186.
EXERCISE 166
Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of the verb
"be," and give the reason for your choice: —
I. I know you — there. 2. One of you — mistaken. 3. One or
two — ready now. 4. Two years — a long time. 5. Books — a
common noun. 6. Five years' interest — due. 7. A hundred
yards — not far. 8. There — many things to do. 9. Bread and
milk — • good diet. 10. The public — cordially invited. 11. Each
of the sisters — beautiful. 12. Neither of the girls — very much at
ease. 13. A number of the boys — waiting outside. 14. Manual
and physical training — necessary. 15. Either the master or his
servants — to blame.
187. "Don't*' — "Don't," which is a contraction of
"do not," and which is proper enough in its place, should
not be misused for "doesn't" when the subject is in the
third person singular. The following sentences are
correct: "Why doesn't she come?" "Why don't you
speak?"
EXERCISE 167
Insert the proper contraction (don't, doesn't) in each
blank, and give the reason for your choice: —
I. Why — he write? 2. It — seem possible. 3. She — like
croquet. 4. I — know what it is to be afraid. 5. The captain says
he — know what it is to be afraid.
K
I30 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
188. Construction of Person Forms — A practical
difficulty in using correctly the personal forms of verbs
arises when the subject consists of two or more sub-
stantives of different persons connected by either — or,
or neither — nor. Shall we say, for example, "Either he
or I is mistaken," or "Hither he or I am mistaken?" If
driven to a choice, we usually, but by no means always,
let the verb agree with the nearest subject ; or, we give
the preference to the first person over the second or third.
But it is far better to avoid such difficulties ( i) by using
some verb that has the same form for all persons: as,
"Either he or I must be mistaken;" or (2) by rearranging
the sentence: as, "Either you are mistaken, or I am;"
"One of us is mistaken," etc.
Occasionally mistakes in person are made in relative
clauses, the speaker forgetting that the verb should have
the same person as the antecedent of the relative pro-
noun (151).
III. TENSE
189. Tense Defined — Compare the verbs in the fol-
lowing sentences: —
I see the Victoria Bridge.
I saw the Victoria Bridge.
I shall see the Victoria Bridge.
Here we have three different forms of the same verb,
denoting the same action, but referring it to different
times — the present, the past, and the future.
Definitions — A difference in the form of a verb to denote
time is called Tense (Old I-Vench, "time").
A verb that denotes present action is in the Present
Tense.
A verb that denotes past action is in the Past Tense.
A verb that denotes future action is in the Future
Tense.
190. Simple Tenses — The English verb has only two
simple tense forms: the Present Tense, which is the same
as the root-form of the verb: as, "I write," "I hope;"
and the Past Ten.se which is formed from the present by
inflection: as, "I wrote," "I hoped." To denote future
OF VERBS 131
action the present tense was at first employed, as it still
is occasionally: as, "We begin practice to-morrow."
The methods of forming the past tense are described in 179-180.
191. Phrasal Tenses — In course of time the two
simple tenses were found insufficient; and to denote
further distinctions of time, verb-phrases were employed,
formed by means of auxiliary verbs. By combining the
present and past tenses of will, shall, have, he, or do with
infinitives and participles, a system of Phrasal Tenses was
built up, by which we are able to express the time of
the action with great accuracy.
The infinitive used in forming verb-phrases is the root
infinitive, without "to" (93).
The participles used in forming verb-phrases are the
present participle and the past participle.
The present participle ends in "-ing."
The past participle of a weak verb is the same as the
past tense and ends in "-ed," "-d," or "-t" (180). The
past participle of a strong verb changes the vowel of
the present tense, and often ends in "-en" or "-n" (179).
193. Phrasal Tenses : Future — To form a Future
Tense we use "shall" or "will" as an auxiliary, followed
by the root infinitive without "to:" as, "I shall write
to him;" "He will write to me."
The distinction between shall and will as future auxiUaries is
given in 199.
EXERCISE 168
Construct sentences containing the present, past and
future tenses of ''fight" and "stand."
193. Phrasal Tenses : Perfect — To represent an action
as ended or complete at a given time we use the present,
past, or future of "have" as an auxiliary, followed by
the past participle: as, "There, I have written my exer-
cise;" "Yesterday, when the clock struck nine, I had
written two pages;" "To-morrow, by dinner time, I shall
have written all my letters." Since these phrasal tenses
denote action as completed or perfect in present, past,
or future time, they are called the Perfect Tenses.
T32 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
The Present Perfect Tense denotes action completed
at the time of speaking. It is formed by putting "have"
("hast," "has") before the past participle.
The Past Perfect Tense denotes action completed at
some point in past time. It is formed by putting "had"
("hadst") before the past participle.
The Future Perfect Tense denotes action that will be
completed at some point in future time. It is formed
by putting "shall have" or "will have" before the past
participle.
EXERCISE 169
Construct sentences containing the perfect tenses of "fight*'
and ''stand."
194. Phrasal Tenses: Progressive — Compare the verbs
in the following sentences: —
I write my letters carefully.
I am writing my letters carefully.
Both of these sentences refer to present time, but
with a difference. In the first sentence the simple pre-
sent "write" does not necessarily mean that the writing
is going on at the present moment ; it merely asserts a
present custom. In order to represent an action as
going on or progressing, we usually put a form of "be"
before the present participle, as in the second sentence.
Since such phrasal tenses denote action as progressing
in present, past, or future tiiue, they are called Pro-
gressive Tenses.
The Present Progressive Tense represents an action as
going on at the time of speaking. It is formed by put-
ting "am" ("art," "is," "are") before the present
participle.
The Past Progressive Tense represents an action as
going on at some point in past time. It is formed by
putting "was" ("wast," "were") before the present
participle.
The Future Progressive Tense represents an action as
going on at some point in future time. It is formed by
putting "shall be" or "will be" before the present
participle.
OF VERBS 133
Now compare the verbs in the following sentences: —
I. I have written my letters. 2. I have been writing my letters.
In the sentence "I have written my letters" the verb
"have written" merely represents the action as com-
pleted. If we wish to add to the idea of completion
the idea of previous duration or progress, we combine the
perfect tenses of "be" with the present participle: as,
' ' I have been writing a composition ; " " Yesterday evening
my hand was cramped, for I had been writing all day;"
"When the clock strikes ten I shall have been writing
twenty minutes." Since these phrasal tenses denote
action as completed in present, past, or future time,
after continuance or progression, they are called res-
pectively the Present Perfect Progressive Tense, the
Past Perfect Progressive Tense, and the Future Perfect
Progressive Tense.
EXERCISE 170
Construct sentences illustrating each of the six pto-
gressive tenses of "fight" and ''stand."
195. Phrasal Tenses: Emphatic, Interrogative, and
Negative — In the sentences "I write my letters care-
fully" and "I wrote to her yesterday" "write" and
"wrote" merely assert action. If we wish to make the
same assertions emphatically, in the face of doubt or denial
we substitute for the simple tenses certain phrasal tenses
formed by putting the present or the past of "do"
before the root infinitive of the principal verb: as, "I
do write my letters carefully;" "I did write to her yester-
day." These phrasal tenses are appropriately called the
Present Emphatic Tense and the Past Empliatic Tense.
Other tenses are made emphatic by laying emphasis on
the auxiliary that is already present: as, "I have written
my letters."
In Negative and Interrogative sentences the same
phrasal t-enses formed with "do" and "did" are sub-
stituted for the simple present and past tenses, without
the effect of emphasis: as, "Do you write to her often?"
''Did you write to her to-day?" "You do not write well;"
"You did not write carefully."
134 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXERCISE 171
Ordinary
Pres.
write
Past
wrote
Fut.
will write
Pres. Perf
have written
Past Perf.
had written
Fut. Perf.
will have written
Construct sentences illustrating the present and past
emphatic, negative, and interrogative tense forms — six kinds
in all.
196. Summary of Tense Forms — Gathering together
the different tense forms described in the preceding
sections, we may tabulate the tenses of the EngHsh verb
as follows : —
Emphatic, etc. Progressive
do write am writing
did write was writing
will be writing
have been writing
had been writing
will have been writing
Note — Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ a sort
of future tense phrase formed by combining the progressive tenses of
"go" with the root infinitive of the principal verb: as, "I am going to
write a composition;" " I liave been going to write to him for a week."
It is best to resolve such phrases into their parts, rather than to
classify them as parts of the tense system. The same is true of such
phrases as "I used to write" and "I am about to write."
EXERCISE 172
Give the tense of each verb in Exercises 23 and 38.
197. Uses of the Simple Present — The simple present
tense has the following uses : —
1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that includes
the present: as, "He goes to town every Saturday;" "Two and two
make four."
2. As an occasional substitute for tlie present progressive, to
denote action going on at the present moment: as, "I see a robin;"
" I hear the bell."
3. As an occasional substitute for the future: as, "We sail for
Europe next Saturday."
4. In vivid narrative as a substitute for the past: as, "At this
news Caesar hurries to Gaul." This is called the Historical Present.
198. Uses of the Present Perfect — The present per-
fect tense, which ordinarily represents something as
completed at the time of speaking, is also used, instead
of a past tense, to represent a past action ( i) as continuing
to the present, at least in its consequences, or (2) as
belonging to a period of time not yet ended : as,
OF VERBS 135
(i) "I have lost my book" (so that now I am without it),
(i) "We have lived here five years" (we live here now).
(2) "I have seen him three times to-day."
(2) "We Jiave had a great deal of rain this year."
The use of a past tense in any of these sentences would
cut away the action from all connection with present
time : as,
"I lost my book" (it may have since been found).
"We lived here five years" (we have moved away).
"I saw him three times yesterday."
"We had a great deal of rain last year"
EXERCISE 173
Distinguish between: —
I. He studies (is studying) now. 2. I came (have come) to see
you. 3. I read (am reading) Thackeray. 4. She always goes (is
going) to church. 5. He lived (has lived) here a good many years.
6. We expected (were expecting) you yesterday. 7. You did not
tie (have not tied) it fast enough. 8. I have written (have been
writing) letters all day. 9. What have you done (have you been
doing) to-day? 10. I have received (have been receiving) letters
from him.
EXERCISE 174
Tell which of the italicised forms is preferable, and give
the reason for your answer: —
I. I was (have been) here yesterday. 2. Shakespeare says (said)
that love is blind. 3. I knew (have known) him since he was a child.
4. How far did you say it is (was) from here to Chicago? 5. The
earth is a ball that always tur?is (is turning) round. 6. When we
saw (had seen) everything in Geneva we went on to Paris. 7. As
soon as the ships were within range the Admiral opens (opened) fire.
8. By this time to-morrow I shall pass (shall have passed) my ex-
aminations.
199. Shall or Will — There is an important distinction
between the auxiliaries used in forming the future tenses.
At first "shall" and "will" were notional verbs, "shall"
meaning "to be obliged," and "will" meaning "to wish."
At present they often retain some trace of their original
meanings, "will" implying a reference to the will of the
subject, and "shall" implying obligation or compulsion:
as, "I will never forsake you;" "He shall be brotight to
justice." Just as often, however, "shall" and "will"
136 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original mean-
ing: as, "The bell will soon ring, and I shall be late."
Modern usage may be exhibited as follows: —
, _ . Future, with added
Simple Future mea ol determination
I (we) shall I (we) will
You will* Vou shallf
He (they) will He (they) shallf
In claxises introduced by the conjunction "that," ex-
pressed or understood, the same auxiliary is used that
would be used if the clause were an independent sentence:
as, "I fear that we shall miss the train." (Independent:
"We shall miss the train.")
Such clauses are common after say, declare, think, helieT.'e, hope,
fear, and words of similar meaning.
In all other subordinate clauses "shall" in all persons
denotes simple futurity; "will" in all persons implies
an exercise of will: as, "When He shall appear (simple
futurity) we shall be like Him;" "If you will come (i.e.,
are willing to come), we will give you a good time."
In questions "shall" is the proper auxiliary in the first
person ; in the second and third persons the same auxiliary
is used that is expected in the answer: as, "Shall we go
to-morrow?" "IVill you go?" (Answer: "I will go.")
"Shall you be glad when to-morrow comes?" (Answer:
"I shall be glad.")
"Should" and "would" are the past tenses of "shall"
and "will" and in general follow the same rules. See,
however, 220 and 221.
EXERCISE 175
Distinguish between: —
I. He will (shall) not go. 2. Shall (will) you be there? 3. I
shall (will) not hear you. 4. She will (shall) not see me. 5. He
thought I would (should) go. 6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow.
7. What shall (will) the admission be? 8. If he would (should) help,
we could do it.
EXERCISE 17(5
Insert the proper auxiliary ("shall," "will") in each
blank in the following sentences: —
* Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer,
t Also used in speakingf of what is destined to take place.
OF VERBS
137
I. — we go to-morrow? 2. We — have rain soon. 3. I — be
glad to see you. 4. — you be able to come? 5. — we ask her to
come too? 6. I — be twelve in December. 7. How • — I send the
package? 8. If I do not hurry, I — be late. 9. I hope you — be
able to come. 10. — I bring a chair for the lady? 11. He thinks
we — soon have rain. 12. I am afraid we — miss the train. 13.
She says she — be glad to see us. 14. We — never forget this kind-
ness. 15. — we have time to get our tickets?
EXERCISE 177
Insert the proper auxiliary ("would," "should") in each
blank in the following sentences: —
1. He thought I — be hurt. 2. We — be sorry to be late. 3.
He thought he — be hurt. 4. He thought she — be hurt. 5. He
thought you — be hurt. 6. I — like to see a yacht race. 7. What
— we do without cooks? 8. At first I didn't think I — like Latin.
9. If I tried to walk a tight-rope, I — fall. 10. I asked him whether
he — come again.
200. Misused Forms — The past tense and the past
participle of the verbs in the following list are often
confounded or incorrectly formed : —
Present
Past
Past Participle
begin
began
begun
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
burst
burst
burst
come
came
come
dive
dived
dived
do
did
done
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fly
flew
flown
flow
flowed
flowed
freeze
froze
frozen
forget
forgot
forgotten
get
got
got
go
went
gone
lay ("to cause to lie")
laid
laid
lie ("to recUne")
lay
lain
prove
proved
proved
ride
rode
ridden
rise
rose
risen
raise ("to cause to rise")
raised
raised
run
ran
run
see
saw
seen
set ("to put;" of the sun,
set
set
moon, etc., "to sink")
Past
Past Participle
sat
sat
shook
shaken
showed
shown
spoke
spoken
slew
slain
stole
stolen
took
taken
threw
thrown
woke
waked
wrote
written
138 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Present
sit
shake
show
speak
slay
steal
take
throw
wake
write
In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, ting, sink, sf)ring, .nr/w, it is
better to confine the forms in "a " to the past tense and the forms
in "u" to the past participle : as, "The bell rang five minutes
ago;" " Yes, the bell has rung."
EXERCISE 178
Change the italicised verbs in these sentences to the past
tense: —
I. I do it myself. 2. Tom swims very well. 3. Harr}' sees me
coming. 4. The sun wakes me early. 5. The wind blows furiously.
6. The guests begin to go home. 7. They sit in the third pew from
the front. 8. The Suscjuehanna River oTcr/Fou'.f its banks, q. Helen
comes in and lays her coat on a chair. 10. Both short-stop and
pitcher run for the ball. 11. The wild goose flies southward in the
autumn. 12. They ea/ their supper as if they were half starved.
EXERCISE 179
Change the italicised verbs in these sentences to the per-
fect tense: —
I. He writes home. 2. I /orgr/ his name. t,. The sleeper aT/n]tr.f.
4. He stole my watch. 5. Ethel broke her arm. 6. They go by
steamer. 7. Some one takes my hat. 8. I see the Premier often.
9. He gcii^ along fairly well. 10. They .f/av their ])risoners. 11. The
enemy cotne in force. 12. The boys dive three times. 13. I set the
lamp on the table. 14. A mist rises before my eyes. 15. The
water in my pitcher jroze. 16. He speaks his declamation well
17. The boys are eating their supper. 18. He throws cold water on
my plan. 19. The Ohio River overflows its banks. 20. He sits by
the hour talking politics.
IV. MODE*
201. Mode Defined — Compare the verbs in the fol
lowing sentences: —
* In recognising only three modes the author h.T<5 followed the best modern
philolofjists. The forms often calleJ " potential " (all easily within either the indica-
tive or the subjunctive.
OF VERBS 139
He is here.
Would he were here.
Be here at dayUght.
In these sentences we have three different forms of
the verb "be," indicating different ways in which the
thought is presented to the mind. "Is" shows that it
is presented as a fact; "were" shows that it is presented
as a mere thought (he is not here) ; "be" shows that it is
presented as a command.
Definition — A difference in the form of a verb to show
how the thought is presented to the mind is called Mode.
Definition — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a fact is called the Indicative 3Iode.
Definition — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a mere thought, uncertain or contrary to
fact, is called the Subjunctive Mode.
Definition — The form of a verb used to present a
thought as a command or entreaty is called the
Imperative Mode.
202. The Indicative Mode — The indicative mode is
the most common, being used in expressing a fact, or
what is assumed to be a fact, and in asking questions of
fact.
Caution — The indicative is often used in sentences that ex-
press what is uncertain or contrary to fact; but in such cases the
uncertainty or untruth is expressed by some other word: as, "Per-
haps it will rain;" "He is not here." The subjunctive, on the other
hand, often expresses uncertainty or untruth by its own form with-
out the help of other words: as, " Were he here, he would go with us."
203. The Subjunctive Mode : Form — In form the
subjunctive differs from the indicative in the following
ways : —
I. In the single case of the verb "be" the subjunctive
has distinct forms for the present and past tenses,
namely : —
, Present — ^
Indicative Subjunctive
Indicative
!t .
Subjunctive
I am
I be
I was
I were
Thou art
Thou be
Thou wast
Thou wert
He 25
He be
He was
He were
We are
We be
We were
^\'e were
You are
You be
You were
You were
They are
They be
They were
They were
I40 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Examples of the Subjunctive of "Be " — "Judge not, that ye
be not judged;" "Hallowed be Thy name;" "If I were you, I would
not say that;" "Would that Alice were here!"
2. In other verbs the subjunctive has the same form
as the indicative, except that in the second and third
persons singular there are no personal endings: as,
^ . — Present ^ , Past ,
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
I write I write I wrote I wrote
Thou writest Thou write Thou wrotest Thou wrote
He writes He write He wrote He wrote
Examples of the Subjuncthte of Other Verbs than "Be " —
"It is better he die;" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise
thee;" "Long lire the King/" "If thy hand ofjend thee, cut it off."
3. Sometimes the subjunctive is phrasal, being formed
by means of the auxiliaries "may" (past, "might"),
"had," "would," and "should."
Examples of the Phrasal Subjuncth^e — "Bring me a light,
that I may sec what this is;" "I hope you may succeed;" "May you
live long and happily;" "We were afraid we might miss the train;"
"It is better he should die;" "Let us start early, lest we should be
late;" "It would be better if we should start now;" "If my sister had
seen that mouse, she would have screamed."
Caution — ^It does not follow that the verbs "may," "would,"
"should," and "had" are always subjunctive. In the following
sentences, for example, they make simple statements of fact, and
are therefore indicative: "You may (i.e., are permitted to) go
now;" "You should (i.e., ought to) start earlier;" "Annie would
not (i.e., was unwilling to) sing." (218-222).
204. The Subjunctive Mode : Uses — The subjunctive
mode expresses action, being, or state, not as a fact,
but as something merely conceived of in the mind. It
is the thought-mode as distinguished from the fact-
mode, and indicates some uncertainty or disbelief in
the speaker's mind. It is most frequently used to ex-
press—
1. A wish: as, "God forbid!" "O, that I were a man."
2. A purpose: as, "Judge not, that ye be not judged;" "Bring me
a light, that I may see what this is."
T,. A possibility: as, "We were afraid we might miss the train;"
"Strike ere it be too late."
4. A supposition regarded as untrue or unlikely: as, "If I were you,
I would go."
5. A conclusion regarded as untrue or unlikely: as, " If I were you,
I would go;" "If my sister had seen that mouse, she would have
screamed "
OF VERBS 141
The subjunctive is much less used than it was formerly ;
but it is still common in the writings of authors who are
artistic and exact in expression.*
205. The Subjunctive Mode: Tenses — The use of the
tenses of the subjunctive is peculiar, the time referred to
not always corresponding to the name of the tense.
Frequently the present subjunctive refers to future time,
and the past subjunctive to present time: as, "Strike
ere it be too late;" "O, that I were a man." (307.)
206. The Imperative Mode — The imperative mode
expresses commands, entreaties, or advice addressed to
the person spoken to. It is used only in the second person ;
and it has the same form for both singular and plural,
namely, the root-form of the verb: as, "5e just, and fear
not;" "Have mercy on us." It is usually distinguished
from the present indicative by the omission of the sub-
ject.
Caution— Commands or entreaties addressed to the person
spoken to must not be confounded with wishes concerning a person
or thing spoken of: as, "Long Uve the Queen!" "Thy kingdom
come." In these sentences the verbs are in the subjunctive (204).
For "let" as an imperative auxiUary see 218.
EXERCISE 180
Tell the mode of each verb in the following sentences, and
give the reason for your opinion: —
I. God forbid. 2. Love me, love my dog. 3. I could cry my
eyes out. 4. Thy money perish with thee. 5. The law is good if
a man use it lawfully. 6. He serves his party best who serves
the country best. 7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that
nothing be lost. 8. Take heed that ye do not your alms before
men, to be seen of them. 9. If it be possible, as much as lieth in
you, live peaceably with all men. 10. Boast not thyself of to-
morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth.
207. Modes in Conditional Sentences — A sentence
containing a supposition or condition is called a Con-
ditional Sentence. Now, a supposition may refer to
present, past, or future time. If it refers to present or
* " Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it
is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were gfenerally appreci-
ated, it might even now be saved. ... If we lose the subjunctive verb, it will
certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for
its value in giving variation to diction — and I make bold to assert that the writer who
helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude,"— yoAn Earle : '"English Prose, Its
Elements, History, and Usage." p, 17a.
142 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true,
untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied
as to its truth ; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed
as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is
assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint
of its incorrectness, is expressed by the indicative: as,
"If it is raining, we cannot go." A supposition which is
viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is properly
expressed by the subjunctive. When the character of
the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely,
the conclusion also is expressed by the subjunctive: as,
"If I were you, I would not go."
In clauses that express conditions, the Present Sub-
junctive refers to either present or juture time, and sug-
gests doubt.
The Past Subjunctive refers to present time and im-
plies that the supposition is not a fact.
The Past Perfect Subjunctive refers to past titnc, and
implies that the supposition was not a fact.
Note i. When "if" is equivalent to "whenever," the condition
is called "general," to distinguish it from "particular" conditions,
which refer to some particular act at some particular time. Gen-
eral conditions properly take the indicative; as, "If (i.e., whenever)
it rains, I stay at home."
Note 2. Sometimes there is no "if," and then the verb or a part
of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I should be
sorry;" "Had it been raining, I should have been sorry."
Note 3. Clauses introduced by "though," "although," and
"unless" lake the same forms as clauses introduced by "if."
EXERCISE 181
Tell the difference in meaning between the sentences
in each of the following groups, and tell the mode of each
verb : —
1. (a) If she goes, I will go. (b) If she should go, I would go.
(c) If she were going, I would go. (d) If she had gone, I would go.
(e) If she had gone, I would have gone.
2. (a) If he follows my advice, he will succeed, (b) If he fol-
lowed my advice, he would succeed. (c) Had he followed my
advice, he would have succeeded, (d) If he should follow my
advice, he would succeed.
3. (a) If she speaks French, she does not need an interpreter.
(b) If she speaks French, she will not need an interpreter, (c) If
she spoke French, she would not need an interpreter
4. (a) If he is faithful, he will be promoted, {b) If he should
OF VERBS 143
be faithful, he would be promoted, (c) If he were faithful, he
would be promoted, (d) If he had been faithful, he would have
been promoted.
5. (a) O, that he may be truthful! (b) O, that he were truthful!
(c) O, that he had been truthful!
6. (a) Even though it is raining, I will go. (b) Even though it
rain, I will go. (c) Even though it should rain, I would go. (d)
Even though it rained, I went, (e) Even though it rains, I will go.
(/) Even though it rained, I would go. (g) Even though it has
rained, I will go. (h) Even though it had rained, I would go. (t)
Even though it had rained, I would have gone.
EXERCISE 183
Tell which of the italicised forms is preferable, and give
the reason: —
T. I wish I was (were) a man. 2. I wish she was (were) at home.
3. If I was (were) you, I would stay at home. 4. The train could
go faster if it was (were) necessary. 5. Though a har speaks (speak)
the truth, he will not be believed. 6. Though gold is (be) more
precious than iron, it is not so useful.
V. VOICE
208. Voice Defined — We have already seen (42, 175)
that a transitive verb may represent the subject as doing
the action expressed by the verb or as receiving it : as,
" John frightened Helen;" "Helen was frightened by John."
Definition — A difference in the form of a verb to
show whether the subject acts or is acted upon is
called Voice.
Definition — The form of a verb that represents the
subject as doing an action is called the Active Voice.
Definition — The form of a verb that represents the sub-
ject as receiving an action is called the Passive Voice.
209. Form of the Passive Voice — Compare the fol-
lowing sentences : —
(Active) Grocers sell butter.
(Passive) Butter is sold by grocers.
(Active) The Queen appointed Lord Aberdeen.
(Passive) Lord Aberdeen was appointed by the Queen.
You observe that the passive voice of a verb is formed
by putting a form of the verb "be" before the past
participle.
You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed
144 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
from the active to the passive form, the object of the
active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb.
The subject of the active verb becomes an agent after
the passive verb — a relation expressed by the preposi-
tion "by."
An objective complement becomes an attribute com-
plement (49).
An indirect object usually remains an indirect object.
Sometimes, however, it is made the subject of the passive
verb, the direct object then becoming a "retained ob-
ject" (58).
EXERCISE 183
1. Review Exercises 27, 34, and 48.
2. Change the following sentences into the passive form: —
I. Sculptors make statues. 2. Maisonneuve founded Montreal
in 181 7. Many United Empire Loyalists abandoned their homes.
4. Manners reveal character. 5. A sense of duty pursues
us ever. 6. Gentle deeds make known a gentle mind. 7. Little
strokes fell great oaks. 8. Public amusements keep people from
vice. 9. No one ever achieved anything great without enthusiasm.
10. Garrick's death eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impover-
ished the public stock of harmless pleasure. 11. God had sifted
three kingdoms to find the wheat for this planting. 12. Before
man made us citizens great Nature made us men. 1 3. A crumb of
bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the historian, blind for life.
14. They saw the storm approaching. 15. They found her lying
in the snow frozen to death. 16. All believed him to be an honest
man. 17. She told me to stand up. 18. We dropped the subject,
and have not referred to it since. 19. The sly agent imposed upon
us both. 20. The wounded man's wife took care of him.
3. Change the following sentences into the active form: —
I. The corn has been badly damaged by the late storm. 2. Forty
thousand persons were killed in 18K3 by the eruption of the volcano
of Krakatoa. 3. It will be said by the newspapers that congratu-
lations are showered on you by your friends. 4. In 1453 Constan-
tinople was captured by the Turks and made the capital of their
empire.
210. Caution — Sometimes the past participle of a
verb is used as an attribute complement, to denote the
condition of the subject: as, "Our revels now are ended;"
"He is gone." Such constructions must not be confound
ed with the passive voice, which denotes action received
by the subject.
OF VERBS 145
Beware, also, of confounding the passive voice, which
consists of "be" and a past participle, with progressive
tenses, which consist of "be" and a present participle:
as, (Passive) "Birds are shot for their feathers;" (Pro-
gressive) "The birds are singing.''
EXERCISE 184
1. Review Exercise 22.
2. Tell whether the italicised words in the following
sentences are attribute complements or parts of passive
verb-phrases : —
I. The melancholy days are come. 2. Our little life is routided
with a sleep. 3. The school bell is rung at nine o'clock. 4. The
quality of mercy is not strained. 5. It is enthroned in the hearts
of kings. 6. The apples were picked yesterday. 7. The spectacle
was well adapted to excite wonder. 8. Man is born unto trouble,
as the sparks fly upward.
3. Tell the voice of each verb in the following sentences: —
I. Annie is studying her lesson. 2. Tom has been mending his
kite. 3. The Hon and the unicorn were fighting for the crown. 4.
The lawn is being watered by the gardener. 5. The stars are shining
brightly. 6. The grammar class is taught by Miss H. 7. By whom
was this ink spilled ? 8. Is it raining?
VI. INFINITIVES
An Infinitive is a form of the verb that partakes of
the nature of both verb and noun (93).
211. Nature of Infinitives — Infinitives are intermed-
iate between verbs on the one hand and nouns on the
other. They express action, being, or state, and take
the same adjuncts or modifiers as the verbs from which
they are formed; but they have the constructions of
nouns. They differ from verbs in not being instruments
of assertion; they differ from nouns in having the ad-
juncts of verbs. An infinitive is "a verb in a substanti-
val aspect."
The name "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers to the fact
that the action, being, or state expressed by an infinitive is usually
not limited to a particular subject or time: as, " To climb steep hills
requires strength and endurance."
The indicative, subjunctive and imperative forms of the verb,
which take the person and number of their subject, are often called
Finite ("limited") verbs.
146 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
213. Form of Infinitives — With regard to form,
infinitives are of three principal kinds.
1. The Root-Infinitive, which always has the same
form as the root or simple form of the verb: as, "Better
wear out than rust out;'' "You need not wait." This
simple Root- Infinitive is used as follows: —
(a) After verbs of perception — hear, see, feci, observe, perceive, know,
etc.; "I heard him sing." "I saw him run." Vet some verbs
of perception take the "to" form: as, "I felt him to be honest."
(6) After the Auxiliaries — shall, will, may, do: "Do not . interrupt
me."
(c) After may, slmll, will, used as Principal verbs: "He may coyne
if he wishes to."
((i) After certain verbs — bid, let, make, etc. : "We made him answer."
(e) After certain expressions — had better, had (would) rather: "You
had better go."
(/) After the conjunction than: "Rather than do that I would die."
2. The Root-Infinitive with "to:" as, "It is better
to wear out than to rust out;" "I prefer to wait." The
Infinitive with "to" is frequentl)' called the Gerundial
Infinitive from a supposed connection with what we
now call the "Gerund."
3. The Infinitive in " -ing," or Gerund: as, "She
understands boiling an egg better than anybody else."
The gerund is usually active: as,
Present: Loving.
Perfect: Having loved.
The passive gerund is occasionally found: as,
Present: Being loved.
Perfect: Having been loved.
A gerund is in function a noun-verbal. In the last
example given above it takes a direct object like any
transitive verb. But in the sentence, "He is fond of
walking," it is used solely with the force of a noun. The
present participle (which bears the same form as the
gerund) is an adjective-verbal (see 315-217), and should
not be difficult to distinguish. There is one construction,
however, which might give rise to some difficulty, as in
these two examples: —
"We did not like his coming so often " (Gerund.)
"We did not like him coming so often. (Participle.)
OF VERBS 147
When a possessive noun or pronoun precedes the form
in "-ing," the latter must be parsed as a gerund.
In function it is often difhcuh to detect a difference
between the gerund and the infinitive with "to," al-
though the forms are so different. In the following
examples they have both the value of abstract nouns:
"To see is to believe;" and "Seeing is believing." Yet
in Hamlet's soliloquy, "To be or not to be," we feel
that a substitution of the gerund forms, "Being or not
being," would impair the force of the passage. Again
there are many constructions in which only the gerund
is permissible: as, "He was punished for not coming in
time," and conversely many constructions in which
only the infinitive with "to" may be employed: as,
"He was advised to come in time."
The gerund is not identical in form with the participle
only. It also resembles in its present tense the verbal
noun in "-ing."
" He praised him for the handling of his men." (Verbal-noun.)
"He praised him for handling his men so well." (Gerund.)
This gerund form is really the old verbal noun broken
down and disguised by the omission of the article and
the preposition following.
Note — There is an infinitive construction in English which has
occasioned much discussion among purists. Opinion is divided as
to whether what is termed "the split infinitive" should be counte-
nanced as correct EngUsh. Mr. Brander Matthews, in a recent
essay in which he makes a plea for greater flexibiUty of speech, con-
siders the construction to be justified on the score of usage.
Examples of the "split infinitive" placed beside the regular con-
struction are as follows: —
Split Infinitive: "I wish to clearly point out."
"I wish to point out clearly."
Split Infinitive: "1 hope to soon go and see you."
"I hope soon to go and see you."
EXERCISE 185
Review Exercise 97. When the root-infinitive is pre-
ceded by "to," tell whether or not "to" has the force of a
preposition.
313. Tenses of the Infinitive — With the infinitives
of "be" and "have" as auxiliaries we form certain
148
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Present Progressive-
Perfect:
Perfect Progressive:
Present:
Phrasal Infinitives, corresponding to some tense forms
of the indicative, active and passive: as,
Active
"I expect to be writing letters."
"I am sorry to have written so poorly."
" He was reproved for fmving written it."
"I ought to have been writing my exercise."
"His arm was cramped from his fiaving been
writing all morning."
Passive
"The exercise must be written."
"She disliked being called* proud."
" The exercises ought to have been written."
"She is angry at liaving been called* proud."
The infinitive forms may be tabulated as follows :
Boot-Inflnitlves and Genindlals
Active
,. Ordinary ^ .■ ProKressive ^
[to] write. [to] be writing,
[to] have written. [to] have been writing.
Passive
[to] be written. Perfect: [to] have l)een written.
Inflnltlvei In "-Ing," or Gerunds
Active
^ Ordinary
writing,
having written.
Passive*
being called. Perfect:
A Present Infinitive denotes action which is incomplete
at the time expressed by the principal verb: as, "He
tries to write; " " He tried to write; " " He will try to write. ' '
A Perfect Infinitive is properly used to denote action
which is completed at the time expressed by the principal
verb: as, "Alfred is said to Jiave drawn up a body of
laws;" "I felt glad to have seen Niagara Falls;" "I shall
be glad to have finished my task."
Exception — "Ought," "must," "need," and "should" (in the
sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past time;
and with these verbs distinctions of time are denoted by changes in
the form of the following infinitive, the present forms denoting pres-
ent time, and the perfect forms past time: as, "You ought to go,"
"You ought to liave gone;" "He should be careful," "He should
Perfect:
Present:
Perfect:
Present:
Present:
Perfect:
Present:
, Progres.iive
having been writing.
having been called.
' Passive infinitives in " -ing- " are rare, occurring only with certain verbs.
OF VERBS 149
have been careful." A similar use of the infinitive forms to denote
time is found after "could" and "might" in some of their uses:
as, "I could go," "1 could have gone;" "You might answer," "You
might have answered."
EXERCISE 186
1. Construct sentences illustrating the use of the different
tenses of the infinitive.
2. Tell which of the italicised forms is right, and give
the reason: —
1. Wolfe intended to attack (to have attacked) at daybreak.
2. We meant to start {to have started) long ago.
3. It was his business to prevent {to have prevented) such an
accident.
4. He is said to lose {to have lost) ten dollars.
5. It would have been better to wait {to have waited).
6. He could not fail {have failed) to arouse {to have aroused)
suspicion.
314. Constructions of the Infinitive — The infinitive,
with or without adjuncts, is common in the following
constructions : —
1. Subject of a verb: as, "To find fault is easy;" "Being able
to play the piano is not knowing music."
2. Attribute Complement: as, "Her greatest pleasure is to raise
flowers;" "His chief difficulty is learning to spell."
3. Object Complement: as, "He likes to read history;" "I hate
travelling alone."
Here belong, historically, infinitives used after "ought," "must,"
"dare," "need," "can," and in verb-phrases after auxiliaries
(183, 191).
4. Object of a Preposition: as, "He had no choice but (i.e.,
except) to obey;" "Gladstone was fond of chopping down trees."
This construction properly includes root-infinitives used as the
object of "to" in infinitive phrases that have the force of adjectives
or adverbs: as, "Boats to let;" "He came to see me."
5. With a subject in the Objective Case, after verbs of Telling,
Thinking, Perceiving, and Knowing: as, "I saw him go;" "We
heard her cry" (121).
EXERCISE 187
Construct sentences illustrating the uses of the root-
infinitive, the gerundial infinitive and the gerund {or
infinitive in ' ' -ing ").
I50 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
VII. PARTICIPLES
A Participle is a form of the verb that partakes of the
nature of both verb and adjective.
215. Nature of Participles — Participles are intermediate
between verbs on the one hand and adjectives on the
other. They express action, being, or state, and take the
same adjuncts or modifiers as the verbs from which they
are formed ; but they have the constructions of adjectives.
They differ from verbs in not being instruments of asser-
tion; they differ from adjectives in having the adjuncts
of verbs. A participle is "a verb in an adjectival aspect."
216. Form of the Participles — With regard to form,
participles are of two principal kinds: —
1. The Present Participle, formed from the root of the
verb by adding "-ing:" as, "The girl reading a book is
my cousin."
The present participle describes an action as going on
at some particular time.
2. The Past Participle, usually formed from the root
of the verb by adding "-ed," "-d," "-t," "-en," or "-n"
(179, 180) : as, "The plant called Nightshade is poisonous;"
"The book taken from my desk has been returned."
The past participle describes an action as past or
completed at some particular time.
With the participles of "be" and "have" as auxiliaries
we form certain Phrasal Participles: as,
ACTIVB
Perfect: "Having written my letters, I went to bed."
Perfect Progressive: "Having been writing all day, I am tired."
Passivb
Present: Being written in ink, the name was hard to
erase.
Perfect: Having been written hastily, the letter con-
tained tnany mistakes.
The participles may be tabulated as follows: —
ACTIVR
Present: writing. Perfect: having written.
Past: written. Perfect Progressive: having been writing.
Passive
Present: being written. Past: written. Perfect: having been
written.
OF VERBS 151
EXERCISE 188
1. Review Exercise 99.
2. Point out the participles in Parts III and IV of
Exercise 15, and tell the tense of each.
217. Constructions of Participles — Participles have
all the ordinary uses of adjectives, and the following
special uses in addition : —
1. Loosely attached to the Subject of a Sentence, to express some
attendant action or condition: as, "Hearing a noise in the street,
I sprang to the window;" "Morn, waked by the circUng hours,
unbarred the gates of light."
2. Attached to a Nominative Absolute (122): as, "Night coming
on, we lighted a fire."
3. With Auxiliaries in Verb-Phrases: as, "Mother is looking
for you;" "He lias written a letter."
4. Gerundive use of Participles, as in the sentence "I insist on
the work being done thoroughly." Here we must parse "being
done" as a participle, and yet it does more than qualify the noun
"work." The sentence does not mean "I insist on the work which
is being [or 'was being'] done thoroughly," but on the work-being-
done thoroughly; that is, on the thorough doing of the work. Such
a participle, therefore, has the force of a gerund or verbal noun,
and may be said to be used "gerundively."
EXERCISE 189
In the following sentences examine the forms in "-ing,"
and determine whether they are verbal nouns, participles
or gerunds.
1. It is hardly worth bothering about.
2. It is not worth the asking.
3. The weeping woman stood wringing her hands.
4. We gain wisdom by living.
5. He was engaged in the building of a house.
6. The miser goes on accumulating w^ealth.
7. He went out hunting.
8. Do you like sketching f
9. Do you like sketching trees.
ID. They went out sketching together.
11. I have no time for sketching.
12. His father objected to his sketching for a living.
13. I can see him sketching every day.
14. He made a losing bargain in buying that horse.
15. I did not feel like losing any time.
16. Losing their way the children went along weeping ^
17. We were hoping to see you.
18. He could not speak for laughing.
19. Laughing is good ^or the digestion.
152 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
\1II. PECULIAR ^T:RB-PmiASES
Some verb-phrases are difficult to classify, because
they have several meanings, according to the connection
in which they are used.
218. Let — "Let," followed by the root-infinitive
without "to," has in modern English two common uses: —
1. As a notional verb meaning "to permit:" as, "At last Pha-
raoh let the Israelites go."
2. As an auxiliary, to form a verb-phrase expressing an exhorta-
tion in the first or third person: as, "Let us be merry;" "Let us do
or die;" "Let thy words be few;" "Let him that thinketh he
standeth take heed lest he fall."
219. May, Might — "May" (past, "might"), followed
by the root-infinitive without "to," has in modem Eng-
lish the following common uses: —
1. As a notional verb denoting permission: as, "You may go
now;" "She may come in;" "Mother said we m^ight go."
2. As a notional verb denoting possibility: as, "It may rain;"
"She may be at home;" "It might have been."
3. As an auxiliary, to form a subjunctive verb-phrase: as, "I
hope you may succeed;" "May you live long and happily;" "He
said he hoped that we might succeed."
220. Should — "vShould," followed by the root-infini-
tive without "to," has the following common uses: —
1. As a notional verb denoting duty or obligation: as, "You
should speak more slowly."
2. As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of
past time: as, "He said he should go."
3. As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase: as, "If
he should come, I should have no more fear;" "It is better he should
die."
221. Would —"Would," followed by the root-infini-
tive without "to," has the following common uses: —
1. As a notional verb denoting determination: as, "He would
not lie."
2. As a notional verb denoting custom, as, "He would sit there
by the hour."
3. As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of
past time: as, "She said he would come."
4. As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase: as, "It
would be better if we should start now."
222. Can, Must, Ought — Can, meaning "to be able;"
must, meaning "to be obliged," and ought, meaning "to
OF VERBS 153
be in duty bound," are sometimes classed as auxiliary
verbs, because they are usually followed by an infinitive.
But since they always retain their regular meanings, it
seems better to class them as notional verbs, with the
infinitive as complement.
IX. CONJUGATION
223. Conjug:ation Defined — It is often convenient to
have the different forms of the verb arranged together
in regular order.
Definition — The regular arrangement of the forms
of a verb in a table or scheme is called its Conjugation.
224. Conjugation of " Be " — The irregular verb "be"
is conjugated as follows : —
Indicatl7e Mode
Present
I am
We are
You are (Thou art)
You are
He is
Past
They are
I was
We were
You were (Thou wast
, or wert)
You were
He was
Future
They were
I shall be
We shall be
You will be (Thou wilt be)
You will be
He will be
They will be
Present Pcrfe
:ct
I have been
We have been
You have been (Thou
hast been)
You have been
He has been
Past Perfect
They have been
I had been
We had been
You had been (Thou hadst been)
You had been
He had been
Future Perfecl
They had been
I shall have been
We shall have been
You will have been
You will have been
(Thou wilt have been)
He will have been
They will have been
Subjunctive Mode •
(Often preceded by
"if"
Present
I be
We be
You be (Thou be)
You be
Hebe
•phrases formed with
They be
* For subjunctive verb-
"may," "might," " should," and
" would " see 219-221.
154
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Past
I were
We were
You were (Thou wert)
You were
He were
They were
Present Perfect
I have been
We have been
You have been (Thou '.
have been) You have been
He have been
They have been
Past Perfect
I had been
We had been
You had been (Thou h
ad been) You had been
He had been
They had been
Imperative Mode
Present
Be, do be
Infinitives
Root-Infinitives
Present
Perfect
[To] be
[To] have been
Infinitives in "-ing "
Present
Perfect
Being
Having been
Participles
Present
Past Perfect
Being
Been Having been
335. Conjugation of " Call " — The conjugation of the
verb "call," which may be taken as a type of all regular
verbs, is given below. For the sake of brevity, only the
third person singular is given in the indicative and sub-
junctive, since the other forms may be easily supplied : —
Present
He calls
Pa<!t
He called
Future
He will call
Present Perfect
He has called
Past Perfect
He had called
Future Perfect
He will have called
Active Voice
Indicative Mode
Present Emphatic
He does call
Past Emphatic
He did call
Present ProRTCSsive
He is calling
Past Progressive
He was calling
Future Progressive
He will be calling
Present Perfect Progressive
He has been calling
Past Prefect Progressive
He had been calling
Future Perfect Progressive
He will have been calling
OF VERBS
155
Subjunctive Mode
*
(Often preceded by "if
')
Present
He call
Present Emphatic
He do call
Present Progressive
He be calling
Past
He called
Past Emphatic
He did call
Past Progressive
He were calling
Pre-^ent Perfect
He have called
Present Perfect Progressive
He have been calling
Past Perfect
He had called
Imperative Mode
Past Perfect Progressive
He had been calling
Present
Call
Present Emphatic
Do call
Infinitives
Present Progressive
Be calling, do be calling
Present
[To] call
Root hijinitives
Present Progressive
[To] be calhng
Perfect
[To] have called
Infinitives in ""-ing "
Perfect Progressive
[To] have been calhng
Present
CalUng
Perfect
Having called
Perfect Progressive
Having been calhng
Present
CaUing
Participles
Past
Called
Perfect
Having called
Passive Voice
Perfect Progressive
Having been calhng
Present
He is called
Indicative Mode
Present Progressive
He is being called
Past
He was called
Past Progressive
He was being called
Present
He be called
Past
He were called
Future
He will be called
Present Perfect
He has been called
Past Perfect
He had been called
Future Perfect
He will have been called
Subjunctive Mode t
(Often preceded by "if.")
Past Progressive
He were being called
* For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "may," "might," "should," and
'would" see 219-221.
t For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "may," "might," "should," and
'would" see 219-221.
156
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Present Perfect
He have been called
Past Perfect
He had been called
Present
Be called
Present
[To] be called
Present
Being called
Imperative
Infinitives
Participles
Pa-=t
Called
Present Emphatic
Do be called
Perfect
[To] have been called
Perfect
Having been called
finite verb
parse a
236. How to Parse Verbs — To
(211), we must give its —
(i) Class: whether transitive or intransitive, strong or weak.
(2) Principal parts.
(3) Voice.
(4) Mode.
(5) Tense.
(6) Person.
(7) Number.
(8) Construction.
To parse an infinitive or a participle we must give its —
(i) Class: whether transitive or intransitive, strong or weak.
(2) Voice.
(3X Tense.
(4) Construction.
EXERCISE 190
Parse the verbs and verb-phrases in the following sen-
tences ; also the infinitives and participles that are not used
with auxiliaries to form verb- phrases: —
1. She watches him as a cat would watch a mouse.
2. What is read twice is commonly better remembered than
what is transcribed.
3. A man may write at any time if he will set himself doggedly
to it.
4. I am satisfied that the vast majority of the people of Can-
ada are in favour of the continuance and perpetuation of the con-
nection between the Dominion and tlic Motlier Country. There
is nothing to gain and everything to lose by separation. I believe
that if any party or i)erson were to announce or declare sucli a
thing, wliether by annexation with tlie neighbouring country, tlie
great Repubhc to the south of us. or by declaring for independence,
I believe that the people of Canada would say "No."
— Sir John A. Macdonald
OF ADVERBS 157
CHAPTER VIII
OF ADVERBS
An Adverb is a word joined by way of limitation to a
verb, adjective, or other adverb (88).
Most adverbs are used only with verbs; hence the
name "adverb." The adverbs that are joined to ad-
jectives or other adverbs are few in number.
227. Adverbs Clas.sifled According to Meaning — Clas-
sified according to meaning, adverbs are of six kinds: —
(i) Adverbs of time: as, "Let us go now."
(2) Adverbs of place: as, "Come here."
(3) Adverbs of manner: as, "He fought bravely."
(4) Adverbs of degree: as, "He talks little."
(5) Adverbs of cause: as, "Why did you come?"
(6) Adverbs of assertion: as, " Perhaps 1 can help you;" "No;
you can not help me."
"No" and "yes," which are used by themselves as the equiva-
lents of sentences, are classed as adverbs for historical reasons.
EXERCISE 191
Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of
adverbs, classified according to meaning.
228. Adverbs Classified According to Use — Classified
according to use, adverbs are of three kinds ; —
1. Limiting Adverbs, used to modify the meaning of a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb: as, "He walked rapidly;" "She is very
pretty, and talks exceedingly well."
2. Interrogative Adverbs, used to ask questions: as, "When did
you arrive?" Indirect: "He asked when we arrived."
3. Conjunctive Adverbs, used to introduce clauses: as, "We
went on to Paris, where we stayed a week."
Conjunctive adverbs shade off into conjunctions, from which
they frequently cannot be distinguished.
EXERCISE 192
Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of
adverbs, classified according to use.
229. Adverbs Classified According to Form — Classi-
fied according to form, adverbs are of three kinds: —
158 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
1. Simple Adverbs, which express their meaning without the
aid of an adverbial termination: as, "Come here;" "That is too
bad." This class includes nouns and adjectives that are made
into adverbs by being set in an adverbial position: as, "He was
stone dead;" "Pull hard."
2. Flexional Adverbs, which have distinctive adverbial termina-
tions: as, "You acted wisely."
3. Phrasal Adverbs, which are idiomatic adverbial phrases that
cannot easily be separated into parts. The following are common
examples : —
arm-in-arm; as yet; at all; at best; at large; at last; at least; at
length; at most; at once; at worst; by all means; by far; face to
face; for good; ere long; in general; in short; in vain; now-a-days;
of course ; of late ; of old ; on high ; one by one ; two by two.
The most common form of adverb in literary English
is the flexional form in "-ly." It is made freely from
all kinds of adjectives except those that already end in
"-ly." Adjectives that already end in "-ly," as "lively"
and "friendly," usually have no corresponding adverb.
We use instead some adverbial phrase: as, "in a friendly
way;" "in a lively manner."
Adjectives used as adverbs are frequent in the literature of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: as, "Tlien was the king
exceeding glad" (Dan. vi, 23); "The sea went dreadjul high" (Rob-
inson Crusoe). They also occur somewhat freely in modern poetry.
In modern literary prose they are seldom used, good writers pre-
ferring the adverbial forms in "ly," except in a few cases which
may be learned by observation: "Pitch dark;" "He ran fast;"
"Come quick;" "Stand right;" "1 bought it cheap."
EXERCISE 193
Tell which of the italicised words is correct according to
the best usage, and give the reason: —
1. She gets her lessons easy (easily) enough.
2. Are you coming with us? Sure (surely).
3. Speak slow (slowly) and distinct (distinctly).
4. He could scarce (scarcely) control his feelings.
5. A person should dress suitable (suitably) to his station.
230. Comparison of Adverbs — Many adverbs denote
ideas that vary in degree, and therefore they admit of
comparison, like adjectives (162).
Monosyllabic adverbs (and a few others) usually form
their comparative and superlative degrees by adding
"-er" and "-est:" as, "Pull harder."
OF ADVERBS 159
Adverbs in "-ly" usually form the comparative and
superlative by prefixing "more" and "most:" as, "He
felt it most keenly."
In other respects the comparison of adverbs resembles
in form and meaning the comparison of adjectives.
EXERCISE 194
Tell which of the italicised expressions is preferable, and
give the reason: —
1. I can study easiest (most easily) in the morning.
2. He writes plainer {more plainly) than he used to.
3. You ought to value your privileges higher (more highly).
4. Which can run the faster (fastest), Conner or Boardman?
5. Which is the farther (farthest) north, Halifax, Quebec or
Vancouver ?
231. Adjective or Adverb — It is sometimes a ques-
tion whether to use an adjective or an adverb after such
verbs as "grow," "look," "sound," "smell," "taste."
If the added word applies to the subject of the verb,
it should be an adjective, if to the verb it should
be an adverb. We say, "We feel warm," when we
mean that we are warm; we say, "We feel warmly
on this subject," when we mean that our feelings are
stirred up. In the first sentence "warm" is an attribute
complement; in the second, "warmly" is a modifier of
the verb. As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective
whenever the verb resembles in meaning some form of
the verb "be" or "seem;" otherwise we use an adverb.
Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb, with
no difference in meaning: as, "We arrived safe {safely)."
EXERCISE 195
I. Distinguish between: —
1. That looks good (well).
2. We found the way easy (easily).
3. The potatoes are boiling soft (softly).
4. The new bell-boy appeared prompt (promptly).
2. Tell which of the italicised words is correct, and give
the reason: —
1. She plays very good (well).
2. The door shut easy (easily).
i6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3. Deal gentle (gently) with them.
4. How sweet (sweetly) those blossoms smell!
5. He stood finn (firmly) in spite of opposition.
6. He felt awkward (awkwardly) in her presence.
7. She looks beautiful (beautifully) in a pink gown.
232. Position of Adverbs — Adverbs, like other modi-
fiers, should be placed next to the word or words that
they modify.
The word "only" requires special care, as will appear
from observing how changes in its position affect the
meaning of the following sentences : —
(a) Only he lost his hat. (b) He only lost his hat. (c) He lost
only his hat. (d) He lost his only hat. (e) He lost his hat only.
As a general rule, "only" should be placed immed-
iately before what it is intended to modify. Occasion-
ally, when no ambiguity would arise (as at the end of
sentences), it may be placed after the word it modifies,
with an emphatic, almost disparaging effect: as, "He
lost his hat only."
233. Double Negatives — Formerly two or more nega-
tive adverbs were frequently used to strengthen one
another.
In modern literary English two negatives destroy
each other, and are equivalent to an affirmative: as,
"I can't do nothing"="I can (and must) do something."
234. Substitutes for Adverbs — The adverbial function
may be performed by —
(i) A noun: as, "The book cost a dollar:" "We studied an
hour.
(2) A pronoun: as, "This much we may affirm."
(3) An adverbial phrase: as, " He came on foot."
(4) An adverbial clause: "They started when tlie sun rose."
235. How to Parse Adverbs — To parse an adverb
we must give its —
(i) Class according to (a) meaning, (b) use, and (c) form.
(2) Comparison.
(3) Construction.
EXERCISE 196
Parse the adverbs in Exercise 190.
OF PREPOSITIONS i6i
CHAPTER IX
OF PREPOSITIONS
A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a
pronoun to show its relation to some other word (89).
The function of a preposition is to bring a noun or a
pronoun into a modifying relation with a noun, a pronoun,
an adjective, a verb, or an adverb: as, "The book on
the table;" "What in the world was that?" "I am sorry
for them;" "We travelled through England;" "He stayed
out in the cold."
336. Prepositions Classified — The following is a clas-
sified list* of the prepositions in common use: —
Simple Prepositions
After; at; but; by; down; ere; for; from; in; of; off; on; over;
since; through; till; to; under; up; with.
Compound Prepositions
Aboard; about; above; across; against; along; amidst, amid;
among, amongst; around, round; aslant; athwart; before; behind;
below; beneath; beside, besides; between; betwixt; beyond; despite;
into; throughout; toward, towards; underneath; until; unto; upon;
within; without.
Prepositions Derived from Verbs
Barring; concerning; during; excepting, except; past; pending;
notwithstanding; regarding; respecting; saving, save; touching.
Phrasal Prepositions
According to; apart from; as for; as regards; as to; because of;
by means of; by reason of; by way of; for the sake of; in accordance
with; in addition to; in case of; in compliance with; in consequence
of; in front of; in opposition to; in place of; in preference to; in
spite of; instead of; on account of; out of; with regard to.
EXERCISE 197
Construct sentences illustrating the use of such prepo-
sitions as the teacher may select.
237. Objects of Prepositions — The substantive fol-
lowing a preposition is called its Object, and is in the
objective case. It is commonly a noun or a pronoun;
but it may be any word or group of words used as a
noun : as.
* To the Teacher This list is for reference, not for memorising.
i62 THE PARTS OF vSPEECH
(i) Noun: Come into the garden.
(2) Pronoun: I stood behind him.
(3) Adverb: I never felt it till now.
(4) Adjective: Lift up your eyes on high.
(5) Prepositional phrase: He stepi)ed from behind the tree.
(6) Infinitive phrase: None knew thee but to love thee.
(7) Substantive clause: Listen to what I say.
Used before clauses, prepositions often become indistinguish-
able from conjunctions: as, "He came before I did."
EXERCISE 198
Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of
object that a preposition may have.
238. Prepositional Phrases — A phrase consisting of
a preposition and its object, with or without modifiers,
is called a Prepositional Phrase. If it modifies a noun
or a pronoun, it is an Adjective Phrase: as, "The wages
of sin is death." If it modifies a verb, an adjective,
or an adverb, it is an Adverbial Phrase: as, "Man shall
not live by bread alone."
Occasionally a prepositional phrase is used substantively: as,
"Over the fence is out." In such cases there is really an ellipsis
of some word which the prepositional phrase modifies.
EXERCISE 199 •
Consirxict two sentences containing adjective prepositional
phrases; two containing adverbial prepositional phrases.
239. Position of Prepositions — Ordinarily a prepo-
sition, as its name implies, is placed before its object:
as, "I sprang to the window." Sometimes, however,
it is put after its object: as, "117/ti/ are we coming to?"
240. Prepositions Used as Adverbs — Some of the
simplest prepositions, such as "in," "on," "off," "up,"
"to," were originally adverbs; and in modern English
many of them are used adverbially.
I. Sometimes a preposition is used adverbially as an insepa-
rable adjunct of the verb: as, "She carried off the prize;" "The
people laughed at Fulton's steamboat." The adverbial force of
such prepositions is shown by the fact that they stay with the verb
when the sentences are changed into the passive form: as, "Ful-
ton's steamboat was laughed at by the people." From this last
sentence it is clear that in the former sentence, "Tlie people
OF PREPOSITIONS 163
laughed at Fulton's steamboat," "steamboat" is the object, not
of the preposition "at," but of the transitive verb "laughed at."
2. Sometimes a preposition becomes an adverb through the
omission of its object : as,
It was nothing to joke about. (Omission of "which.")
That is all I ask for. (Omission of "that.")
241. Special Use of Some Prepositions — Prepositions
play a very important part in our language, and have
many idiomatic uses. Most of these can be learned
only by observing the custom of good speakers and
writers. The follov^dng notes on some special uses of
a few prepositions may prove helpful : —
At, in: — Before names of places to denote "where," at is used
when the place is viewed as a mere point; in is used when the
speaker desires to make prominent the idea "within the bounds
of;" as, "He arrived at Liverpool in the morning and remained m
that city two days."
Compare to, compare with: — We compare one thing to another
to show similarity: as, "Burke compared the parks of a city to the
lungs of the body." We compare one thing with another to show
either similarity or difference, especially difference: as, "Compare
our comfort with their poverty."
Confide in, confide to: — Confide in means "trust in:" as, "In
thy protection I confide." Confide to means "intrust to:" as,
"He confided the secret to his mother."
Differ from, differ with: — We use differ from when we refer
to unlikeness between objects; when we refer to disagreement in
opinion we use either differ from or differ with: as, "These two
books differ entirely from each other;" "I differ from or with the
honourable gentleman on that point."
Different from: — According to the best usage the proper prepo-
sition after "different" and "differently" is from: as, "He is very
different from his brother."
Like: — Like, which is historically an adjective or an adverb,
is in some of its uses frequently called a preposition, because it
resembles a preposition in function: as, "Quit yourselves like
men;" "She looks like him." Since, however, it admits of com-
parison, some grammarians prefer to call it, even in these sentences,
an adjective or an adverb governing the objective case. Similar
remarks apply to some of the uses of near.
Of: — 0/ is often used to denote identity; and then the prepo-
sitional phrase has the force of an appositive: as, "the city of St.
John," "the Province of Ontario," "the island of Newfoundland."
Wait for, wait on: — Wait for means "await:" as, "We will wait
for you at the corner." Wait on means "attend;" as, "At dinner
the women waited on the men."
1 64 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
EXERCISE 200
Fill the following blanks with appropriate prepositions: —
1. The king confided — his ministers.
2. We stayed — London two weeks — the Victoria Hotel.
3. The marriage customs of the Russians are very different —
ours.
4. He says that he shall he l^ack in an hour; but we cannot
wait — him.
5. He reflected — the conduct — the Government — not sup-
porting him.
6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot — the
youngest of their number.
242. How to Parse Prepositions — To parse a prepo-
sition one must give —
(i) Its object.
(2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces
EXERCISE 201
Parse the prepositions in Exercise 196.
OF CONJUxNCTlONS 165
CHAPTER X
OF CONJUNCTIONS
A Conjunction is a word used to connect sentences,
phrases, or words (90).
Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from prepositions
and relative pronouns, which are also connecting words. A prepo-
sition introduces a modifying phrase; a relative pronoun stands
for a noun with which it connects a modifying clause; a conjunc-
tion merely connects sentences, phrases, or words that have the
same grammatical construction.
Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning of a para-
graph to connect it with what precedes.
The most important conjunctions are: "and," "as," "although,"
"though," "because," "but," "for," "however," "if," "lest,"
"nevertheless," "nor," "or," "since," "still," "than," "that,"
"therefore," "wherefore," "whether," "unless," "yet."
343. Classification of Conjunctions — Conjunctions may
be arranged in two general classes : —
(i) Coordinating Conjunctions, which connect words, phrases,
or independent sentences: as, "Sink or swim;" "By the people
and for the people;" "I ran fast, but I missed the train."
(2) Subordinating Conjunctions, which introduce dependent
clauses: as, "I came because you called me;" "Guy is older than
Lewis [is];" "Galileo taught that the earth moves;" "Unless it
rains, we shall all go."
244. Correlative Conjunctions — Conjunctions are
sometimes used in pairs, the first of the pair indicating
that something will presently be added: as, "His con-
duct was neither wise nor just;" ''Both John and Henry
may go with you."
Definition — Conjunctions used in pairs are called
Correlative Conjunctions.
The most common correlative conjunctions are: "both
— and," "either — or," "neither — nor," "whether — or,"
"not only — but also."
When conjunctions are used as correlatives, as "both
— and," "either — or," each of the correlated words
should be so placed as to indicate clearly what ideas are
to be connected in thought. This principle is violated
i66 THE PARTS OF SPEECH
in "He not only visited Paris, but Berlin also." In this
sentence the position of "not only" before the verb
"visited" leads one to expect some corresponding verb
in the second part of the sentence; in fact, however, the
two connected words are "Paris" and "Berlin;" "visited"
applies to both. This meaning is clearly indicated by
putting "not only" before "Paris:" thus, "He visited
not only Paris, but Berlin also." As a rule, the word
after the first correlative should be the same part of
speech as the word after the second correlative.
245. Phrasal Conjunctions — The following expres-
sions are best parsed as Phrasal Conjunctions: —
as if as though as long as as soon as
as sure as except that in case that in order that
for as much as provided that
246. How to Parse Conjunctions — To parse a con-
junction we must tell —
(i) Its class.
(2) What it connects.
EXERCISE 202
1 . Review Exercises 90 and 9 1 .
2. Parse the conjunctions in Exercise 190.
OF INTERJECTIONS 167
CHAPTER XI
OF INTERJECTIONS
An Interjection is a word used as a sudden expression
of feeling, but not forming part of a sentence (91).
247. Classification of Interjections — Interjections may
be arranged in three general classes : —
1. Simple Interjections, which- are never anything else than
interjections: as, "Oh!" "eh!" "hurrah!" "pooh!" "psha!"
"tut!"
2. Secondary Interjections, which are other parts of speech
used as interjections: as, "Mercy!" "farewell!" "nonsense!"
3. Phrasal Interjections, which are groups of words used as
single interjections: as, "Goodness gracious!"
EXERCISE 203
Point out the interjections in Exercise 67.
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS
1. We all feel, I suppose, the pathos of that mythic situation
in Homer, where the Greeks at the last throb of battle around the
body of Patrocles find the horror of supernatural darkness added
to their other foes; feel it through some touch of truth to our own
experience how the malignancy of the forces against us may be
doubled by their uncertainty and the resultant confusion of one's
own mind — bHndfold night there too, at the moment when daylight
and self-possession are indispensable. (Pater: "Gaston de La-
tour").
2. Dramatic writers, when the fabulous hero of their play, after
having been educated under some poor shepherd ignorant of his
true parent, is discovered to be of royal Uneage, or the offspring,
perhaps, of some celestial divinity, always think it necessary to
exhibit the noble youth as still retaining a grateful affection for the
honest rustic to whom he had so long supposed himself indebted
for his birth; but how much more are these sentiments due to him
who has a legitimate claim to his filial tenderness and respect !
(Cicero : ' ' Friend shi p " ) .
3. Suspicions, founded on such circumstances, rushed on But-
ler's mind, unprepared as it was by any previous course of reason-
ing to deny that which all of his time, country, and profession
believed; but common sense rejected these vain ideas as incon-
sistent, if not with possibility, at least with the general rules by
which the universe is governed, — a deviation from which, as
Butler well argued with himself, ought not to be admitted as prob-
able upon any but the plainest and most incontrovertible evidence.
(Sir Walter Scott : "The Heart of Midlothian").
4. That is a doctrine for a misanthrope; to those who like their
fellow creatures it must always be meaningless; and, for my part,
I can see few things more desirable, after the possession of such
radical qualities as honour and humour and pathos, than to have a
lively and not a stolid countenance; to have looks to correspond
with every feeling; to be elegant and delightful in person, so that
we shall please even in the intervals of active pleasing, and may
never discredit speech with uncouth manners or become uncon-
sciously our own iDurlesques. (Stevenson .• " Virginibus Puerisque").
5. But now we must admit the shortcomings, the failures, the
defects, as no less essential elements in forming a sound judgment
as to whether the seer and artist were so united in him as to justify
the claim, first put in by himself and afterwards maintained by his
sect, to a place beside the few great poets who exalt men's minds,
and give a right direction and safe outlet to their passions through
the imagination, while insensibly helping them towards balance of
I70 EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS
chiracter and serenity of judgment by stimulating their sense of
I)roportion, form, and nice adjustment ot means to ends. (Lowell :
"Among my Books").
6. Observance, loyal concurrence in some high purpose for him,
j)assive waiting on tha hand one might miss in the darkness, with
the gift of gifts therein of which he had the presentiment, and upon
the due acceptance of which the true fortune of life would turn ;
these were the hereditary traits alert in Gaston, as he lay awake
in the absolute, moon-lit stillness, his outward ear attentive for the
wandering footsteps which, through that wide, lightly accentuated
country, often came and went about the house, with weird sug-
gestion of a dim passage to and fro, and of an infinite distance.
{Pater : "Gaston de Latour").
7. As it is not unusual (for I am still speaking of common friend-
ships) that dissensions arise from some extraordinary change
of manners or sentiments, or from some contrariety of opinions
with respect to jjublic affairs, the parties at variance should be
much upon their guard, lest their behaviour toward each other
should give the world occasion to remark that they have not only
ceased to be cordial friends, but are become inveterate enemies;
for nothing is more indecent than to appear in open war with a
man with whom one has formerly lived upon terms of familiarity
and good fellowship. (Cicero ."Friendship").
8. If you look long enough across the sands, while a voice in
your ear is telling you of half buried cities, old as time, and wholly
unvisited by Sahibs, of districts where the white man is unknown,
and of the wonders of far-away Jeysulmir ruled by a half-dis-
traught king, sand-locked and now smitten by a terrible food
and water famine, you will, if it happen that you are of a sedent-
ary and civilised nature, experience a new emotion — will be con-
scious of a great desire to take one of the lobbing camels and get
away into the desert, away from the last touch of To-day, to meet
the Past face to face. (Kipling : "From Sea to Sea").
9. In pursuing her solitary journey, our heroine, soon after
passing the house of Dumbiedikes, gained a little eminence, from
which, on looking to the eastward, down a prattling brook, whose
meanders were shaded with straggUng willows and alder-trees, she
could see the cottages of Woodend and Beersheba, the haunts and
habitation of her early life, and could distinguish the common on
which she had so often herded sheep, and the recesses of the rivu-
let where she had pulled rushes with Butler, to plait crowns and
sceptres for her sister Eflfie, then a beautiful, but spoiled child,
of about three years old. (Sir Walter Scotl : "The Heart of Mid-
lothian.")
10. Railways, which bring together, easily and often, people who
used to spend the greater portion of their lives apart; cheap pos-
tage, which relieves a man from any serious responsibility for
what he writes, — the most insignificant scrawl seems worth the
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS 171
stamp he puts on it; the hurried, restless pace at which we hve,
each day filled to the brim with things which are hardly so impor-
tant as we think them, and which have cost us the old rich hours of
leisurely thought and inaction, — these are the forces which have
conspired to destroy the letter, and to crown into its place that
usurping and unprofitable httle upstart called the note. {Repplier :
"Essays in Idleness").
1 1 . When you have given yourself the titles of a man of goodness
and modesty, of truth and prudence, of resignation and magnani-
mity, take care that your practice answers to your character, and if
any of those glorious names are lost in your mismanagement,
recover them as soon as you can : remembering withal, that pru-
dence impUes consideration, care, and discriminating enquiry ;
that to be resigned signifies a cheerful compliance with the allot-
ments of universal nature; that magnanimity imports a superiority
of the reasoning part to the pleasure and pain of the body, to glory
and death, and all those things which people are either fond or
afraid of. (Marcus Aiirelius).
12. Until we are able to beUeve, with that enthusiastic Greek
scholar, Mr. Butcher, that 'intellectual training is an end in itself,
and not a mere preparation for a trade or a profession'; until we
begin to understand that there is a leisure which does not mean an
easy sauntering through Ufe, but a special form of activity, employ-
ing all our faculties, and training us to the adequate reception of
whatever is most valuable in literature and art; until we learn to
estimate the fruits of self-culture at their proper worth, we are
still far from reaping the harvest of three centuries of toil and
struggle; we are still as remote as ever from the serenity of intel-
lectual accomplishment. (Repplier ; "Essays in Idleness").
13. You may safely go to school with hope; but ere you marry,
should have learned the mingled lesson of the world: that dolls
are stuffed with sawdust, and yet are excellent playthings; that
hope and love address themselves to a perfection never realised,
and yet, firmly held, become the salt and staff of life; that you
yourself are compacted of infirmities, perfect, you might say, in
imperfection, and yet you have a something in you lovable and
worth preserving; and that, while the mass of mankind lies under
this scurvy condemnation, you will scarce find one but, by some
generous reading, will become to you a lesson, a model, and a
noble spouse through life. (Stevetison : " Virginibus Puerisque").
14. Though we have heard a great deal, Athenians! in almost
every assembly, of those acts of violence which Philip hath been
committing, ever since his treaty, not against ours only, but the
other states of Greece; though all (I am confident) are ready to
acknowledge, even they who fail in the performance, that we
should every one of us exert our efforts, in council and in action,
to oppose and to chastise his insolence; yet to such circumstances
are you reduced by your supineness that I fear (shocking as it is to
172 EXTRACTS FOR ANALYvSLS
say,) that, had we all agreed to propose, and you to embrace such
measures, as would most effectually ruin our affairs, they could not
have been more distressed than at present. (Demostlienes : ' ' The
Third Philippic").
15. Jeanic could not help comparing the irregular yet extensive
and commodious pile of building before us, to the "Manses," in her
own country, where a set of penurious inheritors, professing all the
while the devotion of their lives and fortunes to the Presbyterian
establishment, strain their inventions to discover what may be
nipped, and clipped, and pared from a building which forms but a
poor accommodation even from the present incumbent, and, despite
the superior advantage of stone masonry, must, in the course of
forty or fifty years, again burthen their descendants with an ex-
pense, which, once lil>erally and handsomely employed, ought
to have freed their estates from a recurrence of it for more than
a century at least. (Sir Walter Scott: "The Heart of Midlothian").
16. We appeal to anyone who is acquainted with the common
run of Lanes' novels — as they existed some twenty or thirty years
back — those scanty intellectual viands of the whole female reading
public, till a happier genius arose, and expelled for ever the in-
nutritious phantoms — whether he has not found his brain more
'betossed,' his memory more puzzled, his sense of when and where
more confounded, among the improbable events, the incoherent
incidents, the inconsistent characters, or no characters, of some
third-rate love intrigue, where the persons shall be a Lord Glen-
damour and a Miss Rivers, and the scene only alternate between
Bath and Bond Street — a more bewildering dreaminess induced
upon him than he has felt wandering over all the fairy grounds of
Spencer. {Charles Lamb : "Last Essays of Elia").
17. So far as the sight and knowledge of the human form, of the
purest race, exercised from infancy constantly, but not excessively,
in all exercises of dignity, not in twists and straining dexterities,
but in natural exercises of running, casting, or riding; practised
in endurance, not of extraordinary hardship, for that hardens and
degrades the body, but of natural hardshij), vicissitudes of winter
and summer, and cold and licat, yet in a climate where none of
these are severe ; surrounded also by a certain degree of right
luxury, so as to soften and refine the forms of strength; so far as
the sight of this could render the mental intelligence of what is
right in human form so acute as to be able to abstract and combine
from the best examples so produced that which was most perfect
in each, so far the Greek conceived and attained the ideal of bodily
form. (/?u.y^in ."Sculpture").
18. It is also their blessing that my children were neither stupid
nor misshapen; that I made no farther advances in rhetoric, poetry
and such other amusements, whicli possibly might have engaged
my fancy too far, had I found myself a considerable proficient;
that, without asking, I gave my governors that share of lionour
which they seemed to desire, and did not put them off from time
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS 173
to time with promises and excuses, because they were yet but
young; that I had the happiness of being acquainted with Ap-
pollonius, Rusticus, and Maximus; that I have a clear idea of
the life in accordance with nature, and the impression frequently
refreshed: so that, considering the extraordinary assistance and
directions of the gods, it is impossible for me to miss the road of
nature unless by refusing to be guided by the dictates and almost
sensible inspirations of heaven. (Marcus Aurelius).
19. My companion saw my embarrassment, and, the alms houses
beyond Shoreditch just coming in view, with great good-nature
and dexterity shifted his conversation to the subject of public
charities, which led to the comparative merits of provision for the
poor in past and present times, with observations on the old mon-
astic institutions and charitable orders; but finding me rather
dimly impressed with some glimmering notions from old poetic
associations, than strongly fortified with any speculations reducible
to calculation on the subject, he gave the matter up; and the country
beginning to open more and more upon us, as we approached the
turnpike at Kingsland (the destined termination of his journey), he
put a home-thrust upon me, in the most unfortunate position he
could have chosen, by advancing some queries relative to the North
Pole Expedition. (Charles Lamb:"The Essays of Elia").
20. Then let us pass further towards the north, until we see the
orient colours change gradually into a vast belt of rainy green, where
the pastures of Switzerland, and poplar valleys of France, and dark
forests of the Danube and Carpathians stretch from the mouths of
the Loire to those of the Volga, seen through clefts in gray swirls of
rain-cloud and flaky veils of the mist of the brooks, spreading low
along the pasture lands, and then, farther north still, to see the earth
heave into mighty masses of leaden rock and heathy moor, border-
ing with a broad waste of gloomy purple that belt of field and wood,
and splintering into irregular and grisly islands amidst the northern
seas, beaten by storm, and chilled by ice-drift, and tormented by
furious pulses of contending tide, until the roots of the last forests
fail from among the hill ravines, and the hunger of the north wind
bites their peaks into barrenness, and, at last, the wall of ice durable
like iron, sets, death-like, its white teeth against us out of the polar
twilight. (Ruskin: ' ' Architecture ")•
21. The powers of sudden destruction lurking in the woods and
waters, in the rocks and clouds; kelpie and gnome, Lurlei and Hartz
spirits; the wraith and foreboding phantom; the spectra of second
sight; the various conceptions of avenging or tormented ghost, haunt-
ing the perpetrator of crime, or expiating its commission; and the
half fictitious and contemplative, half visionary and believed images
of the presence of death itself, doing its daily work in the chambers
of sickness and sin, and waiting for its hour in the fortalices of
strength and the high places of pleasures; these partly degrading us
by the instinctive and paralysing terror with which they are attend-
ed, and partly ennobling us by leading our thoughts to dwell in the
174 EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS
eternal world, fill the last and the most important circle in that great
kingdom of dark and distorted power, of which we all must he in
some sort the subjects until mortahty shall be swallowed uj) of life;
until the waters of the last fordless river cease to roll their untrans-
parent volume between us and the hght of heaven, and neither death
stand between us and our brethren, nor symbols between us and our
God. (Ruskm : ' ' Architecture ").
22. Stand for half an hour beside the fall of Schafi'hausen, on the
north side where the rapids are long, and watch how the vault of
water first bends, unbroken, in pure, pohshed velocity, over the arch-
ing rocks at the brow of the cataract, covering them with a dome of
crystal twenty feet thick — so swift that its motion is unseen except
when a foam globe from above darts over it like a falling star; and
how the trees are lighted above it under their leaves at the instant
that it breaks into foam ; and how all the hollows of that foam burn
with green fire like so much shattering chrysoprasc; and how, ever
and anon, startling you with its white flash, a jet of spray leaps his-
sing out of the fall like a rocket, bursting in the wind and driven
away in dust, filling the air with light; and how, through the cur-
ling wreaths of the restless, crashing abyss below, the blue of the
water, paled by the foam in its body, shows purer than the sky
through white rain-cloud; while the shuddering iris stoops in tremu-
lous stillness over all, fading and flushing alternately through the
choking spray and shattered sunshine, hiding itself at last among
the thick golden leaves which toss to and fro in sympathy with the
wild water; their dripping masses lighted at intervals, like sheaves
of loaded corn, by some stronger gust from the cataract, and
bowed again upon the mossy rocks as its roar dies away; the dew
gushing from their thick branches through drooping clusters of em-
erald herbage, and sparkling in white threads along the dark rocks
of the shore, feeding the lichens which chase and checker them with
purple and silver. (Ruskin: ' ' Water")
23. But so far as the higher education has a tendency to narrow
the sympathies and harden the heart, diminishing the interests of
all beautiful things by familiarity, until even what is best can hardly
please, and what is brightest hardly entertain; — so far as it fosters
pride, and leads men to found the pleasure they take in anything,
not on the worthiness of the thing, but on the degree in which it
indicates some greatness of their own (as people build marble porti-
coes, and inlay marble floors, not so much because they like the
colours of marble, or find it pleasant to the foot, as because such
porches and floors are costly, and separated in all human eyes from
plain entrances of stone and timber); — so far as it leads people to
prefer gracefulness of dress, manner, and asjject, to value of substance
and heart, liking a well said thing better than a true thing, and a well
trained manner better than a sincere one, and a delicately formed
face better than a good-natured one, and in all other ways and things
setting custom and semblance above everlasting truth; — so far,
finally, as it induces a sense of inherent distinction between class
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS 175
and class, and causes everything to be more or less despised which
has no social rank, so that the affection, pleasure, or grief of a clown
are looked upon as of no interest compared with the affection and
grief of a well-bred man; — just so far, in all these several ways, the
feeling induced by what is called a "liberal education" is utterly
adverse to the understanding of noble art; and the name which is
given to the feeling, — taste, goCit, gusto, — in all languages, indicates
the baseness of it, for it implies that art gives only a kind of pleasure
analogous to that derived from eating by the palate. (Ruskin:
"Sculpture").
24. I will not, therefore, admit the inference or the argument, that
because a people, bred under a proud, insolent, and grinding despot-
ism, maddened by the recollection of former injuries, and made
savage by the observation of former cruelties; a people in whose
minds no respect for property or law ever could have existed, be-
cause property never had been secured to them, and law had never
protected them; a people separated and divided into classes by the
strongest and harshest lines of distinction, generating envy and
smothered malice in the lower ranks, and pride and insolence in the
higher; that the actions of such a people at any time, much less in
the hour of frenzy and fury, provoked and goaded by the arms and
menaces of the surrounding despots that assailed them, should
furnish an inference or ground on which to estimate the temper,
character, or feelings of the people of Great Britain; of a people
who though sensible of many abuses which disfigure the constitution,
were yet not insensible to its many and invaluable blessings; a peo-
ple who reverenced the laws of their country, because those laws
shielded and protected all alike ; a people among whom all that was
advantageous in private acquisition, all that was honourable in public
ambition, was equally open to the efforts, the industry and the
abilities of all; among whom progress and rise in society and public
estimation was an ascending slope, as it were, without a break or
landing-place, among whom no sullen line of demarcation separated
and cut off the several orders from each other, but all was one
blended tint, from the deepest shade that veiled the meanest occu-
pations of laborious industry to the brightest hue that glittered in
the luxurious pageantry of title, wealth and power. {Richard
Brinsley Sheridan : ' ' Contrast between the French and English
Nations").
25. Beyond the dusky cornfields, towards the west.
Dotted with farms, beyond the shallow stream.
Through drifts of elm with quiet peep and gleam,
Curved white and slender as a lady's wrist,
Faint and far off out of the autumn mist,
Even as a pointed jewel softly set
In clouds of colour warmer, deeper yet.
Crimson and gold and rose and amethyst
Towards dayset, where the journeying sun grown old
Hangs lowly westward darker now than gold
With the soft sun- touch of the yellowing hours
176 EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS
Made lovelier, I see with dreaming eyes,
Even as a dream out of a dream, arise
The bell-tongued city with its glorious towers.
(LampTnan : ' "The City").
26. Against that time, if ever that time come,
When I shall see thee frown on my defects,
When as thy love hath cast his utmost sum,
Call'd to that audit by advised respects;
Against that time when thou shalt strangely pass.
And scarcely greet me with that sun, thine eye,
When love, converted from the thing it was,
Shall reasons find of settled gravity;
Against that time do I ensconce me here
Within "the knowledge of mine own desert,
And this my hand against myself uprear.
To guard the lawful reasons on thy part:
To leave poor me thou hast the strength of laws,
Since why to love I can allege no cause.
(Shakespeare: "Sonnet 49")-
27. Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought Death into the world, and all our woe.
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing Heavenly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed,
In the beginning how the Heav'ns and Earth
Rose out of Chaos: or if Sion hill
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flow'd
Fast by the oracle of God; I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above th' Aonian mount, while it pursues
Things unattempted yet in prose or rime.
(Milton: "Paradise Lost," Bk. I).
28. Tho' all men else their nobler dreams forget.
Confused by brainless mobs and lawless Powers,
Thank Him who isled us here, and roughly set
His Briton in blown seas and storming showers.
We have a voice, with which to pay the debt
Of boundless love and reverence and regret
To those great men who fought, and kept it ours,
And keep it ours, O God, from brute control!
O Statesmen, guard us, guard the eye, the soul
Of Europe, keep our noble England whole.
And save the one true seed of freedom sown
Betwixt a people and their ancient throne.
That sober freedom out of which there springs
Our loyal passion for our temperate kings;
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS 177
For, saving that, ye help to save mankind
Till public wrong be crumbled into dust.
And drill the raw world for the march of mind,
Till crowds at length be sane and crowns be just.
(Tennyson: "Ode on the Death
of the Duke of Wellington").
29. Cedars, that high upon the untrodden slopes
Of Lebanon stretch out their stubborn arms.
Through all the tempests of seven hundred years
Fast in their ancient place, where they look down
Over the Syrian plains and faint blue sea.
Where snow for three days and three nights hath fall'n
Continually, and heaped those terraced boughs
To massy whiteness, still in fortitude
Maintain their aged strength, although they groan;
In such a wintriness of majesty,
O'ersnowed by his uncounted years, and scarce
Supporting that hard load, yet not o'ercome.
Was Adam : aU his knotted thews were shrunk.
Hollow his massy thighs, toward which his beard.
Pale as the stream of far-seen waterfalls.
Hung motionless; betwixt the shoulders grand
Bowed was the head, and dim the gaze; and both
His heavy hands lay on his marble knees.
{Laurence Binyon: "The Death of Adam."
From "The Monthly Review").
30- And even in saying this,
Her memory from old habit of the mind
Went slipping back upon the golden days
In which she saw him first, when Lancelot came,
Reputed the best knight and goodliest man,
Ambassador, to yield her to his Lord
Arthur, and led her forth, and far ahead
Of his and her retinue moving, they,
Rapt in sweet talk or lively, all on love
And sport and tilts and pleasure, (for the time
Was Maytime, and as yet no sin was dream'd,)
Rode under groves that look'd a paradise
Of blossom, over sheets of hyacinth
That seem'd the heavens unbreaking thro' the earth.
And on from hill to hill, and every day
Beheld at noon in some delicious dale
The silk pavihons of King Arthur raised
For brief repast or afternoon repose
By courtiers gone before; and on again,
Till yet once more ere set of sun they saw
The Dragon of the great Pendragonship
That crown'd the state pavihon of the King,
Blaze by the rushing brook or silent well.
{Tennyson: "Idylls of the King").
INDEX
The numerals refer to pages.
A, preposition, 120.
A or an, articles, choice be-
tween, 118; meaning of, 118,
119.
About to, 134.
Absolute nominative, 89, 98.
Abstract nouns, 76.
Active voice, 26, 27, 121, 143.
Address, nominative of, 90.
Adjectives, defined, 59; as nouns,
92; classified, 114; singular
and plural, 114; comparison,
1 14-116; use of compara-
tive and superlative, 116, 117;
substitutes for, 117; parsing,
117; adjective or adverb, 159.
Adjuncts, defined, 20.
Adverbial objective, 90.
Adverbs, defined, 61, 62; nouns
as, 90, 92, 234 ; classified
according to meaning, 157;
according to use, 157; ac-
cording to form, 157, 158; com-
parison, 158, 159; adjective
or adverb, 159; position, 160;
double negatives, 160; sub-
stitutes, 160; how to parse,
160.
Agent w^th passive verbs, 121.
Although, verb with, 142.
Analysis, defined, 40, 41.
Angles, 2.
Anglo-Saxon, origin of name, 2 ;
relation to modern English, 3.
Antecedent, defined, 58.
Anybody, number and gender of,
100.
Anybody else's, 87.
Appositives, 39, 40 ; clauses
used as, 46; case of, 92.
Articles, defined, 60; origin of,
118; choice between an or a,
118; definite and indefinite
distinguished, 118, 119; uses
of the, 119; uses of a or an,
119; not every the or a an
article, 120; how to parse,
120.
As, relative, no, in.
Assertive sentences, defined, 12;
punctuation of, 12.
At, in, distinguished, 162, 163.
Attribute, complements defined,
29, 30; case of, 90, 97.
Auxiliary verbs, defined, 127.
B.
Bare subject, 21.
Be, copula, 22; complement of,
when infinitive, 90, 97 ; in-
flection for person, 128; as
progressive auxiliary, 132, 133;
forms in the subjunctive, 139,
140; as passive auxiliary, 143,
144; conjugation, 153, 154;
Biblical language, pronouns
in, 94. 95-
British words, 4.
But, relative, no, in.
C.
Call, conjugation, 154, 155.
Can, 127, 152.
Case, defined, 85, 86; nomina-
tive, possessive and objective,
defined, 86; form of posses-
sive, 86, 87 ; uses of nomi-
native, 90; uses of objective,
90; use of the possessive, 90,
91; in exclamations, 90, 98;
double possessive, 91, 92; in
apposition, 92; of personal
pronouns, 97, 98; of inter-
rogative pronouns, 102, 103;
of relative pronouns, 109, in,
1 12.
r8o
INDEX
Causative verbs, 122; forma-
tion of, 121, 124.
Changes in our language, 67;
how they came about, 7; still
going on, 7, 8.
Clauses, defined, 35, 36; as modi-
fiers, 35, 36; modifying, classi-
fied, 37; as subjects, 45; as
complements, 45; as apposi-
tives, 46; subordinate, 52;
relative, 105, 106.
Collective nouns, 76.
Common gender, 77.
Common nouns, 75, 76.
Compare to, compare with, dis-
tinguished, 163.
Comparison of adjectives, 114-
116; of adverbs, 158, 159.
Complements, defined, 28; at-
tribute, 29; object, 29, 30;
objective, 30, 31 ; with passive
forms, 32; several with one
verb, 32; phrases used as, 44;
clauses used as, 45; case of,
90, 97-
Complete predication, verbs of,
28.
Complete subject, 21.
Complex sentences, defined, 51,
52.
Compound personal pronouns,
100-102 ; relative pronouns,
III, 112.
Compound sentences, defined,
52, 53; classified, 53, 54; im-
proper, 54.
Compound subject, 15; predi-
cate, 1 6.
Compound words, formation of,
74; plural of, 82; possessive
of, 87.
Conditional sentences, 141, 142.
Confide in, confide to, distin-
guished, 163.
Conjugation, defined, 152, 153;
be, 153, 154; call, 154. 155-
Conjunctions defined, 65; posi-
tion, 65, 165; distinguished
from prepositions and relative
pronouns, 165; classification,
165; correlative, 165; phrasal,
166; parsing, 166.
Conjunctive adverbs, 157.
Connecting words, 53, 54, 165,
166.
Construction, defined, 88; of
nouns, 88, 89; of pronouns,
97, 98; of verbs, 129, 130; of
infinitives, 149; of i)articiples,
151.
Coordinate clauses, 77; con-
junctions, 165.
Copula, 22, 23.
Correlative conjunctions, 165,
166.
D.
Danish words, 4, 5.
Declension, defined, 87 ; of nouns,
87; of pronouns of the first
person, 93, 94; of pronouns
of the second person, 94, 95;
of pronouns of the third per-
son, 95, 96; of interrogative
pronouns, 102, 103; of relative
pronouns, 105.
Definite article, iiS, 119.
Demonstrative jironouns, 102.
Dei^endent clause, defined, 52.
Derivation, defined, 74.
Descriptive adjectives, 114; re-
lative clause, 105, 106.
Diagrams, 40, 42.
Differ from, differ with, distin-
guished, 163.
Different from, 163.
Direct object, defined, 29; case
of, 90, 98.
Direct questions, 104, 105.
Do, auxiliary, 133.
Don't, doesn't, 129.
Double possessive, 91; nega-
tives, 160.
E.
Each, numlx?r and gender of,
100.
Editorial use of we, 94; ourself,
101.
INDEX
i8i
Either, number and gender of,
lOO.
Either — or, verbs with, 130;
position of, 165, 166.
Elliptical sentences, defined, 55.
Emphatic tense forms, 133.
English, origin of name, i, 2;
early home of, 2; spread of,
2, 3; changes in, 3, 6-8; growth
off 3-6 ; good, defined, 8, 9.
Everybody, number and gender
of, 100.
Exclamations, defined, 48; case
of, 90, 98.
Exclamatory sentences, defined,
12.
Expletive use of it, 17; of there,
Fall, jell, distinguished, 124.
Feminine gender, defined, 77;
forms, 78; in personification,
80; in pronouns, 95, 96, 99.
Finite verbs, defined, 145.
Foreign plurals, 84.
Foreign words, proportion of,
in English, 6.
Future perfect tense, 132; pro-
gressive, 132, 133.
Future tense defined, 130; for-
mation, 131; sliall or will,
135. 136; conjugation, 152 fi^.
G.
Gender defined, 77; of nouns,
78-81; ways of denoting, 78;
relation to pronouns, 79, 80;
in personification, 80; per-
sonal pronouns, 95, 96, 99;
relative pronouns, 108, 109.
Generic article, 119.
Going to, 134.
Good English, defined, 8, 9.
Grammar, defined, 9; uses of,
9; grammars old and new, 9;
grammar vs. logic, 20.
Grammatical and logical terms
distinguished, 21.
H.
Had, subjunctive auxiliary, 140.
Have, transitive, 26; as auxil-
liary of perfect, 131.
He, declined, 96; gender, 97,
construction, 96, 99.
Her, declined, 96; gender, 96,
99; construction as possessive,
97; as objective, 98.
Hers, case, 96; gender, 96, 99;
construction, 97.
Herself, 100, loi.
Him, case, 96; gender, 96, 99;
construction, 97.
Himself, 100, 10 1.
His, case, 96; gender, 96, 99;
construction, 97.
I.
/, classified, 93; declined, 94;
how written, 94; use, 97.
Idea, defined, 10.
//, verbs with, 141-143.
Imperative mode, defined, 139;
use, 141; let, 151, 152.
Imperative sentences, defined,
12; punctuation of, 12; pre-
dicate ia, 14.
Impersonal subject, 16, 96; ob-
ject, 96.
Imported words, 6.
Improper compound sentences,
54-
In, at, distinguished, 163.
Incomplete predication, verbs
of, 28.
Indefinite pronouns, 112, 113;
articles, 118, 119.
Independent elements, defined,
47; vocatives, 47, 48; excla-
mations, 48 ; parenthetical,
48; pleonastic, 49; punctua-
tion of, 49; nominative abso-
lute, 89, 90 ; case of, 90.
Indicative mode, defined, 139;
use, 139; in conditional sen-
tences, 141, 142.
Indirect object, defined, 38; as
subject of passive verb, 39,
143, 144; case of, 90, 97.
l82
INDEX
Indirect questions, 104, 105.
Infinitives, defined, 67, 145;
form of, 67, 146; subject of,
89, 97 ; attribute complement
of to be, 90, 97 ; kinds, 145, 147 ;
with to, 146; tenses, 147, 148;
constructions, 149.
Inflection, defined, 73; of nouns,
87; of f>ersonal pronouns, 93,
96; of demonstrative pronouns,
102 ; of interrogative pronouns,
102, 103; of relative pronouns,
105; of adjectives, 114, 115;
of verbs, 153, 156.
"-ing," words in, 69, 70.
Interjections, 66, 167.
Interrogative adverbs, 157.
Interrogative pronouns, defin-
ed, 102, 103; declined, 103;
distinguished, 103, io4;u7ioor
■whom, 104; in indirect ques-
tions, 104, 105.
Interrogative sentences, defined,
12; punctuation of, 12; pre-
dicate in, 14.
Interrogative tense forms, 133.
Intransitive verbs, 25, 26, 121-
124.
Irregular comparison, 116.
//, expletive, 17, 96.
//, pronoun, classified, 93; de-
clined, 95, 96; gender, 96, 99;
special uses, 96; constructions
97, 98.
J^^> 93, 94. history, 96.
Itself, 100, 10 1.
Jutes, 2.
Language, defined, i ; changes
in, 3, 6, 7.
Latin words found in Britain, 4;
from books, 5, 6.
Laugh at, 122.
Lay, lie, distinguished, 124.
Let, 127, 152.
Lie, lay, distinguished, 124.
Like, 163.
Limiting adjectives, 114; ad-
verbs, 157.
Logic vs. grammar, 20.
M.
Majestic use of we, 94; ourselj,
100, lOI.
Masculine gender, defined, 77;
forms, 78; in |)ersonification,
80; pronouns, 95, 96, 99.
May, 127, 140, 152.
Me, classified, 93; case, 93;
constructions, 98.
Might, 140 152,
Mine, 94- use 97.
Missionary words, 4.
Mixed verbs, i 26.
Mode, defined, 138, 139; in-
dicative, 139; subjunctive,
139, imperative, 141; in con-
ditional sentences, 141, 142.
Modifiers, defined, 33, 34; dis-
tinguished from complements,
34 35; phrases and clauses
used as, 35 ; themselves modi-
fied, 40.
Must, 127, 148, 149, 152, 153.
My, classified, 93; case, 93, 94;
construction, 97.
Myself, 100, loi.
N.
Need, 149.
Negative tense forms, 133.
Negatives, double, 160.
Neither, number and gender of,
100.
Neither — nor, verbs with, 130;
position of, 165.
Neuter gender, defined, 77; in
pronouns, 95, 96, 99.
New conjugation, 125, 126.
No, adverb, 157.
Nobody, number and gender of,
100.
Nominative, defined, 86; abso-
lute, 89, 90; uses of, 90; of
personal pronouns, 97 ; of in-
INDEX
183
terrogative pronouns, 102,
103; of relative pronouns,
109, 112.
Nor, verbs with, 130
Norman-French words, 5.
Notional verbs, 127.
Nouns, defined, 57; proper, 75;
common, 75; collective, 76;
abstract, 76; gender, 77, 78;
personified, 80; singular and
plural, 81-83 ; two plurals,
83; foreign plurals, 84; case,
85-87; declension, 87 ; person,
88; constructions, 88-92; sub-
stitutes for, 92; how to parse,
92.
Number, defined, 81; formation
of plural, 81-83; two plurals,
83; divided usage, 85; per-
sonal pronouns, 93, 94, 95, 100;
relative pronouns, 108, 109;
adjectives, 114; verbs, 128,
129.
Numeral adjectives, 114.
O.
Object, direct, 29; retained, 39;
case of, 90, 98, 109.
Object, indirect, defined, 37, 38;
in passive sentences, 39, 143,
144; case of, 90, 98.
Object of preposition, defined,
63; case of, 90, 98, 109; kinds,
161, 162.
Objective, adverbial, 90.
Objective, attribute comple-
ments, defined, 30, 31; case
of, 90.
Objective case, defined, 86; sub-
ject of infinitive, 89; uses of,
90, 98; of personal pronouns,
103; of interrogative pronouns,
C03, 104; of relative pronouns,
109, III, 112.
Of, 161, 163.
Old conjugation, 125.
Old English, 3.
Omission of subject, 14, m, 141 ;
of words, 55, 56.
Only, position of, 160.
Or, verbs with, 130.
Ought, 127, 148, 149, 152, 153.
Our, ours, 94; use, 97.
Our self, ourselves, 100, 10 1.
Own, loi.
P.
Parenthetical expressions, 48.
Parsing nouns, 92; pronouns,
113; adjectives, 117; articles,
120; verbs, 156; adverbs,
160; prepositions, 164; con-
junctions, 166.
Participles, defined, 69, 150;
constructions, 144, 145, 151;
form, 150.
Parts of speech, distinguished,
57, 70, 71; summarised, 72.
Parts of verb, principal, 126.
Passive voice, 26, 27, 121, 122,
143-145; complements with,
32, 144-
Past f)erfect tense, 131, 132;
progressive, 132, 133.
Past tense, simple form, 125, 126,
130; defined, 130; progressive,
132, 133; emphatic, interro-
gative, and negative, 133 ;
misused forms, 137, 138; con-
jugation, 153-156.
Peculiar verb phrases, 152, 153.
Perfect tenses, 131, 132; uses of
the present perfect, 133; mis-
used forms, 137, 138.
Person of nouns, 88; of pro-
nouns, 93, 108, 109; of verbs,
128, 130.
Personal pronouns, defined, 93;
first person, 93, 94; second
person, 94, 95; third person,
95, 96; special uses of it, 96;
uses of possessive forms, 97;
uses of nominative forms, 97;
uses of objective forms, 98;
use of gender forms, 99 ; use of
number forms, 100; com-
pound, 100, 101 ; as reflexives,
lOI.
Personification, gender in, 80.
Phrase, defined, 10; distinguish-
184
INDEX
ed from sentence, 10, 11; from
clause, 35, 36; as modifier, 35,
36; as subject, 43; as com-
plement, 44; prepositional,
63, 64, 162.
Pleonasm, 49.
Plural number, defined, 81;
formation of, 81-83 I two
plurals, 83; foreign plurals,
84; divided usage, 85; pro-
nouns, 93, 94, 95, 100; adjec-
tives, 114; verbs, 128, 129.
Poetical language, pronouns in,
95-
Position of subject, 14, 15; of
adjectives, 59 ; of prepositions,
63,64, 162; of conjunctions, 64,
65, 165, 166; of adverbs, 160.
Positive degree, defined, 115.
Possessive case, defined, 86;
form of, 86, 87, 97; use of, 90,
91, 97; double, 91; in appo-
sition, 92; of personal pro-
nouns, 97; of interrogative
pronouns, 103; of relative
pronouns, 109, 1 10.
Predicate, defined, 14; in inter-
rogative and imperative sen-
tences, 14; position of, 15;
compound, 16; distinguished
from verb, 20, 21.
Predicate nominative, 90.
Predication, verbs of complete
and incomplete, 28.
Prepositional phrase, defined, 63 ;
classified, 161.
Prepositions, defined, 63; ob-
ject of, 63, 90, 98, 109, 162 ;
classified, 161; position, 162;
as adverbs, 162, 163; special
uses of some, 163; parsing, 164.
Present perfect tense, 131, 132;
progressive, 132, 133; em-
phatic, interrogative, and ne-
gative, 133; uses, 134, 135;
conjugation, 153-156.
Principal parts of verb, 125.
Progressive relative clause, 106.
Progressive tenses, 132, 133.
Pronominal adjectives, 102, 103,
112, 114.
Pronouns defined, 58; antece-
dent, 58; j)ersonal, 93-100;
compound personal or re-
flexive, 100, 101 ; demonstra-
tive, 102; interrogative, 102-
104; relative, 105-112; com-
pound relative, iii, 112; in-
definite, 112, 113; how to
parse, 113.
Proper nouns, defined, 75; plu-
ral of, 82.
Punctuation, of sentences, 12;
of appositives, 39; of inde-
pendent elements, 49; of
relative clauses, 106.
Q-
Questions, direct and indirect,
104, 105.
R.
Raise, rise, distinguished, 124.
Reflexive pronouns, 10 1, 102.
Relative clauses, 105, 106.
Relative pronouns, defined, 105;
distinguished, 107,108; gender,
number and person, 108, 109;
case, 109; whose, or of which,
109, 1 10; as and but 1 10, in;
omitted, 1 1 1 ; compound, 1 1 1 ,
112; indefinite, 112.
Retained object, 39.
Rise, raise, distinguished, 124.
Root, defined, 74.
Root, infinitive, 67, 146, 147.
Same as, same that, distinguished,
no, II I.
Saxons, 2.
Sentences, defined, 10; distin-
guished from phrases, 10, 11;
assertive, interrogative, im-
perative, and exclamatory,
II, 12, 14; how written, 12;
assertive, most common, 12;
origin of, 13; essential parts of,
13, 14 ; impersonal, 17; types
of, summarised, 33; parts of.
INDEX
185
summarised, 49, 50; simple,
defined, 51; complex, defined,
51, 52; compound, defined,
52, 53; compound, classified,
53, 54; improper compound,
54, 55; elliptical, 55, 56; con-
ditional, 141, 142.
Set, sit, distinguished, 124.
Shall or will, 131, 135, 136.
She, declined, 95, 96; gender,
96, 99; constructions, 97, 98.
Should, classification, 127; dis-
tinguished from would, 136;
subjunctive, 140, 141; tense
of infinitive with, 148, 149;
meanings, 152.
Simple sentence, defined, 51.
Simple subject, defined, 21.
Singular number, defined, 81 ;
divided usage, 85; personal
pronouns, 94, 95, 100; ad-
jectives, 114; verbs, 128, 129.
Sit, set, distinguished, 124 ;
strong verbs, 125.
Subject, defined, 14; omitted,
14, 77; position of, 14, 15;
compound, 15; impersonal,
16, 17; simple, distinguished
from complete, 21; of passive
verb, 26, 27, 121, 143, 144;
phrase used as, 43; clause
used as, 45; of verb, 86, 90, 97,
109; of infinitive, 89, 90, 98.
Subjunctive mode, defined, 139;
form, 139, 140; uses, 140, 141;
tenses, 141; in conditional
sentences, 141, 142.
Subordinate clauses, 51, 52;
conjunctions, 165.
Substantive, defined, 20, 21.
Substantive clauses, as subjects,
45, as complements, 45; as
appositives, 46.
Substantive phrases, as subjects,
43, 162; as complements, 44.
Substitutes for nouns, 92; for
adjectives, 117; for adverbs,
160.
Summary of sentence types, 33;
of sentence structure, 49, 50;
of parts of speech, 72; of
tense forms, 134.
Superlative degree, 115, 116,
117.
T.
Tense, defined, 130; simple,
present and past, 1 30, 131;
perfect tenses, 131, 132; fu-
ture, 131; progressive tenses,
132, 133; emphatic, interroga-
tive, and negative, 133; sum-
mary of tense forms, 1 34 ; uses
of the simple present, 1 34 ; uses
of the present perfect, 1 34 ; of
shall or will, 135, 136; mis-
used forms, 137, 138; tenses of
infinitive, 149; of participles,
151-
That, demonstrative, 102, 103.
relative, 107, 108.
The, adverb, 120.
The, article, 118.
Thee, case, 94; distinguished
from you, 95; constructions,
97. 98.
Their, theirs, case, 95, 96; con-
struction, 97; as genderless
plurals, 100.
Them, case, 95; constructions,
98; as genderless plural, 100.
Themselves, 100, 101.
There, expletive, 17, 18.
These, 102, 114.
They, declined, 96; construc-
tions, 97; as genderless plural,
100.
Thine, case, 94, 95; distin-
guished from yours, 95; con-
struction, 97.
This, 102, 1 14.
Those, 102, 114.
Thou, declined, 94, 95; distin-
guished from you, 95; con-
structions, 97.
Though, verbs with, 142.
Thought, a, defined, 10.
Thy, case, 94, 95; distinguished
from your, 95; construction,
97.
1 86
INDEX
Thyself, lOO, loi.
To, before the root infinitive, 67.
Transitive verbs, 25, 26, 121,
124.
U.
Unless, verbs with, 142.
^•y. 93. 94; constructions, 98.
Used to, 134.
Verb-phrases, separated, 15, 25;
defined, 23, 24; interrogative,
negative, and emphatic, 24,
133; future, 131; perfect, 131,
132 ; progressive, 132, 133;
emphatic, interrogative, and
negative, 133; subjunctive,
140; pecuHar, 152, 153.
Verbals, 66, 67.
Verbs, defined, 20; distin-
guished from predicate, 21;
of action, being, or state, 21;
transitive and intransitive,
25, 26, 1 2 1- 1 23; active and
passive, 26, 27, 121, 143, 144;
of complete predication, 28;
of incomplete predication, 28;
infinitives, 67, 145-150; parti-
ciples, 66, 67, 68, 69, 150, 151 ;
subject of, 88, 89, 97, 109;
strong and weak, 125, 126;
principal parts, 126; notional
and auxiliary, 127; number
and person, 128-130; tense,
130-138; mode, 138-143; pecul-
iar verb phrases, 152, 153;
conjunction, 153-156; how to
parse, 156.
Vocatives, defined, 47, 48; case
of, 90, 97.
Voice, 26, 27, 121, 143-145.
W.
Wait for, wait on, 164.
We, declined, 93, 94; editorial or
majestic, 94; constructions,
97-
Weak verbs, 125, 126.
]Vhat, interrogative, 102-104;
relative, 107, 108, 109.
Whatever, iii, 112.
Whatsoever, 1 1 1 , 112.
Which, interrogative, 102-104;
relative, 107, 108; of which
or whose, 109, 1 10.
Whichever, 1 1 1, 112.
Who, interrogative, 102-104; re-
lative, 107, 108, 109.
Whoever, iii, 112.
Whom, interrogative, 8, 102-104,
relative, 107, 108, 109.
Whomever, 1 1 1, 112.
Whose, interrogative, 102-104 '.
relative, 107-109; whose or of
which, 109, 110.
Whose else, 86, 87.
Whosoever, 1 1 1, 112.
Will or shall, 131, 135, 136.
Would, 127, 136, 140, 141, 152.
Ye, classified, 94, 95; case, 95;
constructions, 95, 97, 98.
Yes, 157.
You, classified, 93; case, 95;
construction, 95, 97, 98; num-
ber, 95, 129.
Your, yours, classified, 93;
case, 95; construction, 97.
Yourself, yourselves, 90, 91, 100,
loi.
u
K>
?
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