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CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES
EDITED BY
WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON
THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE
OLD TESTAMENT
WILLIAM R. HARPER
THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN
THE OLD TESTAMENT
AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY
FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE C
WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER
PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
Revised and Enlarged Edition
Constructive Bible Studies
college series
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CHICAGO
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
1905
Copyright IQ02, igos
By The University of Chicago
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is
intended to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the
questions relating to the subject from an historical point of view. The
materials for a preliminary study of the various topics are gathered
together, and arranged with suggestions as to order and method of
procedure.
It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more
mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and
theological students have been kept especially in mind.
The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken
as a basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of his-
tory that these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each
special topic connected with the general subject of the Priestly Ele-
ment furnishes a beautiful illustration of the growth and development
of Israelitish and Jewish thought under the controlling influence of a
conception of God which became more and more pure with the
advancing centuries.
Four methods of treatnient have been employed, each being
deemed best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a sys-
tematic statement of the scope of the Priestly Element; in Chapters
II-IV, an historical statement covering in barest outline the story
of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its progress and development;
in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative examination (indi-
cated by questions and suggestions based upon the material presented)
of the more important special factors which, taken together, con-
stitute the Priestly Element; in Chapters XII-XIX, a critical exam-
ination of the literature produced by the Priests, and of its
essential significance. The appendix on the vocabulary of wor-
ship will be found serviceable to those who wish to enter somewhat
carefully into a consideration of the details. In Appendix B there
will be found a classified list of the most important books, while in
Appendix C the more valuable recent literature (since 1901) has been
indicated.
Some experience in the use of this manual in the class-room seems
to indicate that it furnishes an opportunity whereby both instructor
VI PREFACE
and pupil may work with greatest freedom. It is not a text-book ; nor
is it merely a syllabus. It may be adapted to almost every possible
method of teaching.
An effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the
more accessible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreci-
ation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P.
Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural
references, and the references to the literature on the various topics.
For obvious reasons the latter have been arranged chronologically, the
literature in languages other than English being placed by itself.
In this more complete form (Chapters XII-XIX and the Appen-
dixes, constituting the new matter added to the first edition) it is
hoped that an outline has been prepared which will assist many
students in their desire to gain a reasonable familiarity with a really
large and complex subject.
William R. Harper.
February 22, iQO^.
CONTENTS.
Part I.
THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i
Part II.
THE HISTORY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Chapter II. — The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13
Chapter III. — The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27
Chapter IV. — The history of worship in the later Old Testament period ... 42
Part III.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP.
Chapter V.^The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara-
tively 61
Chapter VI. — The laws and usages concerning the place of worship, con-
sidered comparatively 74
Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara-
tively 83
Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara-
tively 94
Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti-
tutions, considered comparatively 108
Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered
comparatively 119
Chapter XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of
worship, considered comparatively 131
Part IV.
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE LEGAL LITERATURE.
Chapter XII. — The Deuteronomic code of laws 155
Chapter XIII. — Ezekiel's contribution 170
Chapter XIV. — The priestly code of laws 180
vii
Vlll CONTENTS
Part V.
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP — THE HISTORICAL LITERATURE.
Chapter X\^ — The priestly narrative in the Hexateuch 195
Chapter XVI. — The books of Chronicles 208
Chapter XVII. — ^The books of Ezra and Nehemiah 218
Part VI.
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE HYMNAL LITERATURE.
Chapter XVIII. — The priestly element in the Psalter 233
Part VII.
THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
Chapter XIX. — The essential significance of the priestly element 257
Appendixes.
A. The vocabulary of worship; lists of the more important words 273
B. Classified lists of important books 280
C. New literature on the priestly element 282
CHAPTER I.
THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
§1. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli-
gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi-
nence given to one or another of these elements :
(i) Worship, or, more technically, cult, a word which Pss. 103:1 ; 150.
expresses the general attitude of the individual or group
of individuals toward an outside higher world of super-
natural or divine existence, and includes the outward
acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought.
(2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut. 6:4;
John 3 : 36.
expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained
by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer-
tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana-
tion.
ix) Conduct, or, more technically, e'/Zi^Vj, which includes Mic 6:8;
Isa. I :i6, 17;
all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James 1:27.
related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and
to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong.
§2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in
the Old Testament ; through these, separately and
together, there has come down to us a wonderful story
of the interworking of God and man. These are:
(i) The word of the prophet, including the utter- Jer. 18:18;
^ ^ '^ '^ ° Jer. i:ii.
ances through centuries of that unique order established
to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the
"word " of God.
(2) The counsel of the sage, including the wise say- Jer. 18:18:
^ ' O ' & J Pj.(j^_ 1:5,25,
ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14.
riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the
books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.
(3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18;
the subject of consideration in this and the following
studies.
§3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed.
— In ancient times because it seemed to men thai certain
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I Kings 14:23;
I Chron. 21 :2g;
Exod. ig:2,3, 12.
Gen. 12 ;6; 13:18.
Gen. 16: 13, 14.
Gen. 31:44-54;
Gen. 28:18-22.
Exod. 20:24-26;
1 Kings 7:48;
2 Kings 16:10-15;
Exod. 27: 1-8;
I Kings 2: 28-30.
Josh. 4:11;
1 Sam. 4:3-6;
2 Sam. 6:2-17;
Exod. 25:10-21;
Exod. 25:22.
2 Sam. 7: 2-6;
Exod. , chap. 26;
Exod. 33: 7-9;
Numb. 17: 4,12,13
I Kings 6: 1, 2,11-
14, 37, 38;
Ezek. 43:1-12;
Hag. 1:4-14;
Ezra 3:12, 13;
6:13-18.
places were more favored by the gods than were others, in
modern times because men fancy that a certain environ-
ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the
place has always been a subject of greatest importance.
The place was in early days something connected with
nature :
(i) High places, or hills, were especially sought as
being the abode of God.
(2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred
to as connected with worship.
(3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which
angels were thought to dwell.
(4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which
the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food
was placed or libations of oil poured out.
In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres-
ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or
spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22 : 41 it is to
be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among
other nations; cf. also Isa. 16 : 12.)
The place was also often something of a more or less
artificial chdiTdiCier, as is seen in the use of —
(5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose
earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still
others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the
refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven-
geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac-
rifice was laid.
(6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain
sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of
war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and
was designated as a place of communion with God.
(7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the
ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa-
tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and
it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought
and tradition.
(8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization
(the establishment of courts and the building of palaces)
took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3
a tent. There was {a) Solomon's temple, erected at a
significant period of national development; {f) the tem-
ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an
important part in the history of Israel's religious
thought ; and {c) the second temple, erected with some
disappointment, after the return from exile.
It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:2-5;
God is sought and obtained in connection with natural
places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places
constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will
be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men
are scattered, groups living here and there, when the
realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and
the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and
churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still
another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity
for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen
powers.
§ 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second
necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the
priest who conducted the worship.
(i) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8;
minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest i8:'3-6;
, 1 f 1 • 1 . f , , • I'ev. 8:i-io.
times the need of having some such priest was felt, his
presence being thought to be attended with peculiar
blessing.
(2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2;
, . . ,, , , , . , . Exod. 19:6;
the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, 26,
or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other
nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit
on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a
hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact
shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish
history.
(3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and i Kings 18:19-22;
spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's Ezek. 8:15, 16. '
history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to
the service of other gods.
§ 5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship
in ancient times.
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Gen. i8: i-8;
I Sam. 1 : 3-8;
9:23-25;
I Chron. 16: 1-3.
Ps. 51: 18, 19;
Isa. i: 11-17;
Lev., chaps. 1-7;
8-10; 11; 12-15;
etc.
Gen. 8:20;
Lev., chaps. 4, 9.
Lev. 3: 1-6;
Judg. 20: 26.
Gen. 35: 14;
Exod. 29: 40, 41;
Numb. 28: 7.
Exod. 30: 1, 7-9;
Numb. 4: 16.
Lev., chaps. 5, 7,
14;
Numb. 6: 12.
(i) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which
the offerer and his friends participated and to which the
deity was invited. There are frequent references to such
sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of
a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal
was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par-
ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was
a communion of the worshiper and his god.
(2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and
gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. The
prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true
spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a
proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The
book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice,
viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal
and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to
prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history.
(3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice
were distinguished, according as each expressed a par-
ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ;
among these were :
{a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning
of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an
offering to Jehovah.
ip) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri-
fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it
provided for the giving of only the blood and certain
specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being
eaten by the sacrificial guests.
{c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine,
or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings.
{d) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were
burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was
acceptable to Jehovah.
{e) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur-
pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in
which the damage could be estimated and covered by
compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out
to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest
was the perquisite of the priests.
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5
(/) The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4:24-34;
place in the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap. '7;
15:27.
upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature ;
the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com-
plete and detailed.
(r) The wave- offer ins:, coxv^\%Wxi2, of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17;
^ ' ^ ■" ^' ^ .^ Numb. 15:19-21;
of the sacrifice that were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29;
Exod. 29:27, 28.
were waved by them before the altar as a token of the
fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given
over by him to the priests.
(4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24;
29: 40; 30: 1;
might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2:1, 4, 13;
71 12 ' 2^ ' I^
fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough,
salt. Here again important conceptions were associated
with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted
prescribing the exact character and amount of materials
to be used.
§ 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i sam. 9:12, 13
22-24;
these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam.i:3,4-
the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con-
nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec-
tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising,
as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men
whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn
together, and in the act of association there is worship;
lor the more closely they are united, the nearer they may
come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship
him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that
which involves communion with others as well as with
God.
(i) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. 23:14-17.
the springtime, the second in the early summer, the
third in the autum.i. These correspond roughly to
the more modern Kaster, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving
seasons.
(2) There were also special feasts and feast days, Hos. 2:11.
which in early tin.^s seem to have been of a joyous
character.
(3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:29-34.
which were days of affliction rather than of joy.
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Zech. 7:3-5;
Esther 9 : 28-31 .
Gen. 24: 12 ff.;
I Sam. 1 : 10; 8 :6;
I Kings 8:23-53;
Isa. 38:2, 3;
Neh. 1:4-11; 2:4*
Judg. 11-30-39;
I Sam. I :ii;
Judg. 13:3-7;
Numb. 6: 1-12.
I Kings 6: 19;
Exod. 28 : 30;
Gen. 20:3; 28:10,
18.
Isa. 47:9;
Jar. 27:9;
Mai. 3:5;
Dan. 2:2;
Deut. 18:9-13.
Gen. 4:21;
Amos 5: 23;
Isa. 30: 29, 32;
Jer. 48:36;
Numb. 10: 2;
31:6;
Josh. 6: 4ff ;
Pss. 137:2; 33:2;
2 Sam. 16: 14;
Exod. 15: 20;
Pss. 149: 3; 150:4-
(4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days,
celebrating some great calamity.
§ 7. Other Acts of "Worship. — In connection \vith and
forming a part of worship were several specific acts,
such as —
(i) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of
sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of
sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter-
est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to
them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ;
and also when in joy they express appreciation of some
great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer
for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic
of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and
is thoroughly typical of humanity.
(2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in
ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio-
lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift ; at other
times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice
of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite,
it signified setting apart to the service of God.
(3) The oracle and dreatn, as methods of ascertaining
the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In
these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not
differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of
whom they dwelt.
(4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there
were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers ; but acts
of this kind were always forbidden.
(5) Music dSiA dancing were accompaniments of w-or-
ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com-
munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm,
sound and movement. Music has always formed a part
of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied,
not only festival, but worship.
§8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us,
perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work; for,
although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character,
by far the greater part is the high and holy expression
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 7
of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com-
munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may
religious songs of so tender and deep a character be
found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the
Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These
have been variously and quite minutely classified; but
here reference may be limited to —
(i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136.
expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his
praises are gladly sung.
(2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102.
pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of
himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty
and danger, or restoration to divine favor.
(3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; "6; 130.
ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt.
§ 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise,
largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the
priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was
the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or
sages. The priest's work included something more than
the various elements which enter into or are connected
with what we would today call worship. In those days
the religious life and the secular life were the same.
Religion and politics were the same. This means that
it was impossible to draw a line between religious life
and ordinarv life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12;
•' Exod. 21:1-35;
had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27.
ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds,
the building: of a house. There were laws, for example. Lev. 19:9-37;
^ Exod. 23 : 1-9.
concerning the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the
treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These
are a few examples only, taken from the great law-
books. Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be
understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from
time to time formulated, included the teachings of the
prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work
and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci-
ological character there were the laws which regulated
8
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
aChron.s: 2— 7:2;
cf. I Kings,
chap. 8.
I Chron. , chaps.
15. 16;
c/. 2 Sam. 6:12-19,
2 Chron., chaps.
29-32;
c/. 2 Kings, chaps
18-20.
2 Chron. 35: 1-19
cf. 2 Kings
23:21-23.
Exod.23:i8, 19; the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his
Deut. 30: 15-20; . , ,-f . , . . ,
Lev., chap. 21. dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc.,
etc. These more strictly come into consideration in
connection with topics already discussed {cf. §§3, 7).
§ 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or
compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the
priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel,
as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already
been written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared
from a wholly prophetic point of view. It was intended
to teach prophetic lessons, especially those connected
with the idea of the enormity of sin and its disastrous
consequences. At a later date (about 300 B. C.) the
priests undertook to traverse the field of sacred history,
and in so doing used, to some extent, the same original
sources. This priestly history is found in the books of
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In these books the
thought always uppermost is that of the history of worship.
Its purpose was to assist in establishing regular service
in the second temple, and to kindle in the hearts of the
people a national life and spirit, and respect for the insti-
tutions of the national religion. The differences in matter,
tone, and spirit between the prophetic and the priestly
histories is easily seen by a comparison of the treatment
which each gives to the same subject, e. g.:
(i) The dedication of the temple (^/. 2 Chron. 5:2 —
7 :io)-
(2) The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem.
(3) The accession of Solomon.
(4) The account of the plague in David's reign.
(5) The sin of David with Eathsheba, which is not
mentioned in Chronicles.
(6) The organization of the priests and Levites and
temple officials, which is treated in full in Chronicles,
and not mentioned in Samuel and Kings.
It is proposed, after this general view of the work of the priests as a
whole, to undertake to do five things in the following series of studies :
(i) To trace the history of worship from the beginning to the end
of the Old Testament times, through the early, the middle, and the
late periods.
Kings, chap. 8.
1 Chron., chaps.
28, 29;
c/. I Kings 1 : 32-
40.
1 Chron., chap. 21;
c/. 2 Sam . , chap .
24.
2 Sam. II : 2-27.
1 Chron., chaps
23-26.
GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 9
(2) To classify and note the elements of worship in the Hebrew
Psalter, the Christian's Book of Psalms.
(3) To analyze and present the essential points of interest in the
histories which the priests themselves prepared, and which are found
in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.
(4) To determine the great ideas which entered into and controlled
the priest-work.
(5) To explain as far as it may be possible (a) the purpose and
spirit of \.\v\?, priest- element 2,% it appears in its various forms in Israel-
itish history and literature ; {f) the permanent, as distinguished from
the transitory, elements which it contained ; (/) the contribution which
it made to Christianity, or, in other words, its relationship to Chris-
tianity.
Paet Secoi^d
THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP
II. History of Worship in the Earlier Old Testament Period.
III. History of Worship in the Middle Old Testament Period.
IV. History of Worship in the Later Old Testament Period.
CHAPTER II.
HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD.
§11. Worship Alone Constituted Religion in the earliest times. It
was later that greater and greater emphasis came to be placed on con-
duct and belief (see § i). A ceremony or religious rite was associated
(in the various ancient religions) with some fact, or supposed fact, or
legend, or myth. But it was the rite which constituted the religious
element, and not any belief concerning the origin of the rite. "It
made no difference what the worshiper believed concerning the cere-
mony, if only he performed it regularly and accurately." "What was
obligatory or meritorious was the exact performance of sacred acts
prescribed by religious traditions." It was the prophets and sages
who introduced at the same time higher conceptions of God and
higher conceptions of life.
See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 17-22; Menzies, His-
tory of Religion, pp. 6-13, 64 f.; '^'^lA^^KXiSMM, Prolegomena to the History of Israel,
PP- 52-5-
§ 12. A Semitic Period in the Development of Worship preceded the
earliest Hebrew worship, and formed the basis of it. It will be
remembered that the Semitic family (i) gave to the world the two
earliest civilizations of which we have knowledge, the Egyptian and
the old Babylonian, and controlled the world's political history for
forty or fifty centuries ; (2) has been mediary, not only in the field of
commerce and between man and man, but also, in that higher field of
religion, between God and man, in that they have proved to be the
religious teachers of the world, since through them have come the
world's three highest faiths — Judaism, Christianity, and Moham-
medanism.
See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28 £f.; W. R.
Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-83 ; C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient
Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 22-30; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy
and the Monuments, Vol. I, pp. 5-1 1 ; Fritz Hommel, The Civilization of the East,
PP- 25-7.
§ 13. The Most Ancient Form of Semitic Religion, the parent of all
others, was that found in the old mother-home of Arabia. It was a
13
14 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
religion well adapted to the condition of the people, who, at that time,
were still in clans. The Hebrews, together with the Moabites, Ammon-
ites, and Edomites, had " their root in a state of society when there
was no large and orderly community, but only a multitude of small
and restless tribes; when there was no written law, but only custom;
and when there was no central authority to execute justice, but it
was left to a man's fellow-clansmen to avenge his murder." In this
time —
(i) There was a god for each clan, and this god wa§ thought to be a
very remote ancestor. To leave the clan meant to leave the god. This
clan-god was closely connected with every undertaking of the clan,
whether of peace or war ; and his name everywhere was " Lord,"
"King," "Mighty One."
See Menzies, History of Religion, pp. 74-6 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the
Semites (2d ed.), pp. 35-9 ; D'Alviella, Origin and Growth of the Conception of God
(Hibbert Lectures, 1891), pp. 204-7.
(2) The worship of the clan-god was important, because every
detail of life was dependent on his favor. His favor or anger was
shown at certain spots, which thenceforward became sacred places, and
here those who inquired of him would find him. The god could not,
of course, be worshiped anywhere outside of the land which belonged to
him ; and if one left that land and entered another, he must at once
transfer his worship to the god of the new land.
See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 160 f.; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp.
53-5.
(3) 7%^ /r^j^;?/ /z/^ played a larger part than the future life ; for,
while the early Semites believed in the continued existence of the
departed, they regarded them as destitute of energy, as "shades laid
in the ground." "After death, it was held, even religion came to an
end. A man must enjoy the society of his god in this life; after
death he could take part in no sacrifice, and could render to God no
thanks or service."
See Menzies, op. cit., p. 161 ; C. G. Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 454-7; R. H.
Charles, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 51-4.
(4) This explains, in some measure, the rites of worship which
existed in these primitive times, viz.:
{a) The sacrifice ; the man sought a sacred place (/. e., a place
where the god was likely to be found), killed an animal, put the blood
of the animal on a stone; the god touched the blood, the man touched
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD I 5
it, and this act was a renewal of the declaration that the man and the
god were of the same blood, and that the covenant between them was
renewed.
See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 65-8, 162; Schultz, "The Significance of Sacri-
fice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV, pp. 257-61 ;
G. S. GooDSPEED, "The Atonement of Communion," Biblical World, Vol. XVII,
pp. 96-106.
(b) The feast or banquet ; at this the god was supposed to sit with
his people and to receive his share of the animal just slain. In late
times, when the god was thought to live above, his share was burned
and he received the savor or smell of the sacrifice. The feast included
dancing, and even gross kinds of indulgence. All was joyful. Happi-
ness, reaching even to "orgiastic ecstasy," was universal.
See W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 253-8 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol.
I, pp. 188 f.
§ 14. Three Great Periods are seen in the develop- josh. 24:2,3.
ment of this primitive Semitic worship, as it appears in
the Old Testament history. Two opinions exist as to
whether the writing of the Pentateuch (or five books of
the law) was practically finished in the days of Moses, or
in the days of Ezra.
See Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, pp. 31-58;
Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897, PP- 156-62;
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.),
pp. 82-98, 123-6, 135-59; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby,
The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 17-23.
This question does not concern us here ; for all stu-
dents agree that, whatever may have been the date of
writing, the date of adoption of the laws and ceremonies
by the masses of the people is definitely announced in
Scripture, viz.:
(i) The Levitical law in all its fulness diVid. the Leviti- Neh., chap. 8.
cal ritual of worship were not adopted until the times of
Ezra (440 B. C).
(2) The Deuteronomic law, as laid down in Deuter- 2Kings22:8 —
23 : 3.
onomy, did not come into force until Josiah's time (621
B. C). It is clear that there was
(3) An earlier legal code and an earlier form of wor- Exod. 20:23—
23: 19.
ship which served to connect the old Semitic worship
with the Deuteronomic. This earliest of the three
1 6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
periods is first to be considered and presents itself in
three different stages, viz.:
Gen. 47 .1-10. (a) The primitive Hebrew stage — that which existed
during the days of the patriarchs, and while Israel was
still a nomadic people, wandering from place to place.
judg. 1:1-4; ip^ The Cauaanitish stage — that in which the primi-
tive form came into contact with the corrupt and licen-
tious practices of the Canaanitish religion; it was at this
time that Israel was settling down to an agricultural life.
Hos. 11:1-4; (c) The prophetic stage — that in which the prophets
12:10, 11; , , . , , 11,
Amos2:io-i3; made heroic struggle against the corruption and idola-
Isci. 2 : 6-9.
try of Israel, by pointing out a truer conception of God,
the adoption of which affected both the conduct and the
worship of the nation.
Josh. 34:3-7. § 15. In the Primitive Stage of the Early Period the
Worship was, of course, only slightly different from that
common Semitic worship described above. The people
were still wandering about. Leaders had been raised up
by God whose work would in time lead the people
higher and higher toward a proper conception of
God and of his worship. But, as the Old Testament
so clearly shows, the people hung back; refused to
follow the divinely appointed leaders ; and only after
fifteen hundred years of instruction finally acknowledged
Jehovah to be the only God. The facts concerning
worship are these :
Gen. 12:6-8; (i) 7%^ /)/a^^ selected for worship by the patriarchs
26:24f. ;' was the place in which they pitched their tent; e. g.,
32 : 22-32 ;
35:14^- Abraham worshiped at Shechem, and near Bethel; Jacob
at Beersheba, and at Peniel, and at Bethel. Trees,
springs, and stones are also mentioned.
Gen. 31:46. T\\Q. altar must have been something very simple,
consisting only of stones gathered together, or of earth
thrown up.
Gen. 31 : 19, 34 *• TerapMm, or household gods, were found in Jacob's
family. There seems not to have been an ark or chest
in use.
Gen.22:i3;27:25; (2) The priest was the leader, whoever he may have
Exod. 24 : 4-8. been, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or Moses. There was no
class of priests.
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 7
(■!,) The sacrifice was a family meal, or a clan meal, /. e., Gen. 26:28-30;
\Ji J J ' ' ' Gen. 8:20, 21;
a banquet. It consisted of flesh, specially prepared ; its Gen. 18:1-8.
savor was smelled by Jehovah ; it was eaten by repre-
sentatives of the deity.
(4) 27/^ //V^/^i" were irresfular ; sacrifice was offered at c/. references
^ ' given above.
any time. There is no reference to the observance of
dates marked by the moon, or of the sabbath.
(5) Other acts of worship are seen in —
{a\ The prayer of Abraham for the deliverance of Gen. 18:23-33;
24:i2ff.; 32:9-
Lot, of Abraham's servant for guidance in the pursuit of 12.
his mission, and of Jacob for deliverance from Esau.
ib') The vow of Abraham paid to Melchizedek ; and Gen. 14:18-24;
^ 28:20-22.
that of Jacob made on his journey to Laban, the Syrian.
(c) The dreams oi the patriarchs, which as methods Gen. 15:12-21:
r 1 1 u ^^' 10-18; 35:9-
of receiving communications from the deity are to be 13; 37:5-10.
classed with acts of worship.
(d) The cup of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44:1-5-
(see p. 16).
(6) Son^s and hymns, laws, and history -writins: had Gen. 49:1-26;
^ ' ^ -^ ' ' ./ a Exod. 15:1-18;
not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod. 20:1-17.
not come down to us in the form which existed in these
early days. The present literary form of pieces like
the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red
Sea," and the " Decalogue" comes from a time later
than the settlement in Canaan.
§16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the Judg. 2:1-5.
worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the
change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to
contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were
peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the
Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to
see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing
justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible
honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his
neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that
was Canaanitish was now appropriated.
(i) Places and representatives ; here arise —
{a) The high places, all over the land, which soon Judg. 6 : 25-32 ;
, - . , ,. . I Sam. 1:3.
became centers of corruption and licentiousness.
l8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
judg. 3:7; 6:25, (/;) The pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which
30 ; 9; 6 ; 10 : 6.
were to be found at the high places and were taken over into
the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places.
Judg. 2o:27L; {c) The ark or chesty which was thought to represent
the deity, and which the people carried with them when
they w^ent to battle, as in Eli's days.
Cf. Exod. 32:8, {d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was
19-24; 1.1 • f
Numb. 2i:8f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation ot
2 Kings 18: 4.
deity.
I Sam. 14:41; (^) The Urim and Thununim, w^hich were carried in a
^^■^'^- pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of
discovering the divine will with reference to any course
of action.
Judg. 17:7; (2) The /rzV.f/ was sometimes a professional, bearing
20; ■ ' ' the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional
17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recognized as a Levite. He
II : 31 , 39
seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch
or oldest son, who in the past had performed priestly duties.
The priest went about wherever he could find employ-
ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and
sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests.
Judg. 6:19-21,26- (-i) Sacrifice Via.?, the same as before, an act of com-
28; 13:16-23; ^'^'
I Sam. 1:3-5, 9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to
I3-I5-
have occupied a more prominent place.
I Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of
Judg. 9: 27; 21: 19; the moon : the sabbath was also observed, probably as a
I Sam. 1 : 3, i3. , , 1 T^ f TT ^
time of rejoicing; there were also the 1< easts ot Harvest
and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul-
tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for
drunkenness and licentiousness.
(5) Other acts. — We read of the —
i5;'i8;" I'sam. {a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah.
judg.°'ii"3o! 31, (b) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the
35-40; 21:1, 7, tribes of Israel against Benjamin, because of its outrage
I Sam. i: II. ^^^^^ ^j^^ Levite's concubine.
Judg. 13:3 5, {c) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child
iSam.'3:i-i8. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh.
I Sam. 28:7-14. id) Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's
attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the
Philistines.
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9
(e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21;
\ ' ^ ■" -^ 1 Sam. 10:5;
feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16 : 16-22 ; 18 :6,
7, 10 ; 19: 9.
later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of
the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times.
(6) Soncs and hymns are seen in the exodus song, Exod. 15: 1-21;
\ I i^ -^ '=' Judg., chap. 5;
with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of i Sam. 2:1-10.
Hannah.
(7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under
divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what
extent this was true is a matter of dispute between («)
those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it
has come down to us, was the work of one generation,
and of one man, Moses, and {b) those who believe that
this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries
of history, although based upon and growing out of the
work of Moses i^cf. references to literature on § 14).
§ 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5;
. *^ , 1 • f 1 Hos., chap. 4;
influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- isa., chap. i.
tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teac h
a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a
higher type of worship. This period begins roughly
with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before
Josiah's reformation {621 B.C.). The great names of 2Kings23:i-3.
the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and
Jonah ; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last
of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor-
mation came. The details of this reformation belong to
the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23: 4-14.
the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the
prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac-
tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us
first note what they were and then the attitude of the
prophets toward them.
(i) Places of worship.
{a\ The high places were still used in different parts i Sam. 9:12-14,
19, 25 ;
of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom iKings3:3, 4;
f/. 1 1 : 7 ;
Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- 12:31 f.; 14:23;
mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17:9, ",'
29, 32 ; 18 : 4 ;
of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc.
later kings ; and of Ahaz.
20
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 Kings 14 : 23 ;
2 Kings 3:2;
10; 27 ; 17: 10;
Hos. 3:4; 10: 1, 2.
2 Sam., chap. 6;
cf. 1 Chron. ,
chaps. 13,15, 16.
1 Kings, chaps. 5,
6:7: 13-8: 66;
cf. I Chron. ,
chap. 17; 22: 2-
19;
2 Chron., chaps.
a-7.
I Sam. 28 : 1-25.
I Kings 12:25-33;
2Chron. 11 :i4,i5;
Hos. 8:5, 6.
1 Kings 12:31-33;
2 Sam. 6: 13, 14;
I Kings 3: 15;
1 Kings 2:26, 27;
2 Kings 11 : 4, g,
12, 15, 17 ; 12 : 2;
2 Kings 16:12-16.
I Kings 8 : 62-65 ;
Hos. 2: II :
Exod. 23 : i8f. ;
2 Kings 17: 17.
{b^ The pillars and Asherim occupied even a larger
place than before, continuing in general use until the
reign of Josiah.
{c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity
to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the
nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was
accompanied by music and dancing.
id) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was
full of significance for the future history of worship.
As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his
temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ-
ized ; a basis was furnished for future development ;
priests and singers must be provided for regular service.
While at this central place the worship would henceforth
be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with
luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all
its corruption throughout the country at large.
(<») The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim (/. <?., God),
was thought to have been called forth after death by the
witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request.
(/) The calves set up at Bethel and Gilgal were figures
of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped bv the Israelites of
the north, in order that they might not be induced to go
to Jerusalem for worship.
(2) The priest T\ovf became a more important person-
age; the professional element increased. The bond
between those engaged in the same work was strengthened
by association. The Levite was gaining ground, as over
against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required
professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his
time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation
of the state and church. With the royal sanction the
priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king
maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar-
chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was
judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were
to become law.
(3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great
scale ; the old idea of communion with God continued ;
and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 21
joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened
bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for.
Sometimes human sacrifice was offered.
(4) /"m^j were now more definitely fixed. Exod. 20:8;
'^' ■' Exod. 23: 12;
(a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- ^S?- ^L"'
^ > '2 Kings 4 : 23 ;
ever may have been its origin. le-^'^s^' ^'
(f) The beginnings of a sabbatical year y^exQ made, Exod. 23:10, n.
in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every
seventh year.
(c) Three agricultural feasts, with dates dependent Exod. 23:14-17;
^ ' Exod. 34:22, 23;
upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of i Kings 8:2;
12 : 32 ;
Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the Hos.2:ii.
departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the
first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering,
in the autumn.
(5) Other acts.
(a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of 1 Sam. 7:5, 8,9;
r> , 8:6; 12:23;
Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's 2 Sam. 7:18-28;
^ '^ 12:16;
demand for a king ; of David, after Nathan had made i Kings 8 : 22-54 ;
1 Kings 17: 20-22;
known to him Jehovah s purpose to establish his house 18:36,37;
2 Kings 19: 15-19.
in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's
child; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the
temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the
widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel ; and of Heze-
kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib.
U)) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case ^Sam. 15:7, 8;
^ Amos 2: 12.
of Absalom, and of the Nazirites.
(c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of 2Sam. 2:1; 5:23,
Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle 2Sam. 7:4;
iKingS3:5ff. ;
with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's 22:5-28:
2 Kings 16 115;
message to David through Nathan; in Solomon's dream •A^^os 7:1-9;
at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before ^sa., chap. 6.
advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead ; and in the use made
of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of
Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con-
nection.
(^) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed ^ Sam. 28:3-20;
by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to Mic. 5:12'.
have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later
prophets.
22
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IX THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 Sam. :o: 5;
Amos 5:23; 6:5;
2 Sam. 6: 5, 14,
16;
Isa 30 : 29 :
I Kings 1 : 40.
1 Sam. 18:7;
2 Sam. 1 : 19-27;
2 Sam. 3:33*. ;
18:33;
2 Sam., chap. 23
=Ps. 18.
Amos 7:9;
Hos. 10:8;
Mic. 1:5;
I Kings 14:22,23.
Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1 ;
6:9;
Mic. 3:11;
Zeph. 3:4.
Amos 4:4, 5 : 22 ;
Hos. 4:13. 14;
12 : II ; 13:2;
Amos
6.4-
Hos. 2
5:21
6;
: II ;
'
Isa. I
: 13,
14.
Isa. I :
Mic. 3
15;
:4.
Isa. 8:
19;
19:
3.
(if) Music and dancing ^^x^ greatly developed in con-
nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places,
and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which
contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of
Jehovah.
(6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character,
as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of
Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of
Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at
other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David
sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but
see §19).
§ 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac-
tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests,
was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many
times that —
(i) The high places were an occasion of sin, and
aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed.
They were one of the most effective channels of corrup-
tion to the worshipers of Jehovah.
(2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek-
ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest
extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry-
ing the people down to destruction along with them-
selves.
(3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the
people were multiplying offerings with the thought that
this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless-
ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to
him.
(4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of
orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These
were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship,
and were not yet wholly purified.
(5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and
frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were
evil, and their hands red with blood.
(6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and
regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should
be given to Jehovah.
WORSHIP IH EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PfiRIOD 23
§ 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the
most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study.
Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod-
uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner
as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses;
and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for
gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that mostof
the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a
later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's
times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become
pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of
them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong
side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of
spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have
existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques-
tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the
case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been
the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they
could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of
their spiritual communion with God, until (a) the prophets had preached
long centuries, {b) the priests themselves had united to purge and
purify a corrupt worship, {c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and
the land laid waste, {d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for-
eign country, and {e) the nation was taught, once for all, what had
many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was
one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests'
work will receive further consideration in a later chapter.
See EwALD, Commentary on the Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 60-71 ; Perowne, Book of
Psalms (second edition), Vol.1, pp. I-2I ; Murray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms,
pp. 127-43 ■' Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter, pp. 190-225 ;
KiRKPATRiCK, The Psalms {^Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible and Cheyne's Encyclopcedia Biblica.
The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number
of psalms that may be assigned to David are :
(1) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition.
(2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none.
(3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14.
(4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, II, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, loi, and some fragments.
(5) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30, 32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some
others doubtful.
24
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Ezod. 20:1-17;
Deut. 5:6-21;
Ezod. 34: 10-28;
Ezod. 20: 22 —
23:33-
(6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been
written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi-
vidual" to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly
also Kirkpatrick.
§20. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified
under three heads: the decalogue, in two editions ; the
sniall book of the covenant ; and the larger book of the
covenant. Before considering these separately, a few
points may be suggested concerning them as a whole :
(a) However early or late they may have taken on
their present literary form, they themselves certainly go
back to the period of Israel's earliest history.
{l>) They contain much material which, of course, had
an existence long before the days of Moses ; <?. g., there
had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries
before Moses.
(<r) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed,
primitive stage of society; but this stage is the agricul-
tural, and therefore later than the nomadic.
(d) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five.
(i) T/ie decalogue.
(a) It is said to have had its origin in different ways ;
e. g., as having been (i) spoken by God, (2) given through
angels, (3) written by the finger of God.
(d) It is given different names ; ^. ^., (i) the ten words,
(2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove-
nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi-
mony.
(c) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : i-i 7, and
that in Deut. 5 : 6-21 ; and although both are said to have
been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e. g.,
(i) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the
reason assigned for observance of the fourth command-
ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the
bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other; (3) the two
additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command-
ment; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and
the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment.
(d) It has been suggested that originally all the com-
mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth,
Ezod. 20:1, 22;
Ezod. 24: 12;
Deut. 5:4;
Acts 7:53;
Gal. 3:19;
Heb. 2:2.
Ezod. 34:28, 29;
Deut. 4: 13;
Deut. 5:219: 5;
10:4.
Ezod. 20:8;
c/. Deut. 5:12;
Ezod. 20; 12;
c/. Deut. 5:16;
Ezod. 20: 17;
e/. Deut. 5:31.
WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 2$
of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the
second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time.
{e) It is divided {\) into ten words, but the division is
not clear, since the Lutheran and Romish churches com-
bine the first and second as one and divide the tenth ;
(2) into two tables, but, here again, Jewish and Christian
scholars, ancient and modern, fail to agree, three methods
being advocated, according as the two tables contained,
the first, three commandments, and the second, seven ;
the first, four, and the second, six; the first, five, and the
second, five.
(2) The small book of the covenant, \\\Q laws of which Exod. 34:12-14;
^ ' 34:17; 34:19,20;
may thus be grouped : {a) five on the duty of worship- 34:21,18,22,
ing only Jehovah ; (<5) one on image-worship ; {c) five on
the offering of firstlings; {d) five on feasts ; (^) four on
sacrifices and offerings. These laws seem to have been
written in groups of five or ten, groups (1^) and ie) hav-
ing lost part of their number. They are all directly
concerned with worship.
ix) The lare-e book of the covenant, which contains : (a) Exod. 20:23-26;
\J/ o J ^ ' 11 :2-6; 21: 7-
five enactments on worship, -"^ (b) five on rights of slaves ; n; 21: 12-16;
'^ ^ ' ^ 21: 17; 21: 18-
(c) five on slave concubines; (d) five on acts of violence. 25; 21:26—22:1
^ ' ' \ / 22 :2-6; 22: 7-
Then follows one (a fragment) on the reviling of father and 17; 22: 18-20;
^ ° 22:21-27;
mother. After that (e) five on personal injuries ; (/) and 22:28-30;
^ ^ ^ ■' ^ ^ 22:31; 23:1-3;
(g) ten on injuries in connection with property, slaves, and 23:4-5; 23:6-9;
cattle ; (//) five on theft and damage to property ; (/) and
(j) ten on breaches of trust. Then follow three frag-
ments on sexual crimes, magic, sacrifice to other gods.
After that (k) five on the dealings with the weak and
poor ; (/) five on reveretice and offerings. Then follow
two on purity. After that {m) five on testimony. Then
follow two on kindness. After that («) five on justice,
and {0) and (/) ten on feasts and offerings. In all there
are sixteen groups of five, and eight fragments of groups,
each of which probably consisted of five.
A study of the subjects given above, and a reading
of the enactments, will show the early character of these
laws as contrasted with those given in Deuteronomy and
Leviticus. It is to be noted (i) that the greater part of
* In this classification the laws relating to worship are italicized.
26 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
this code is concerned with subjects which are not today
thought of as religious, but that in early times there was
no distinction between "religious" and "secular" —
everything was religious; (2) that all the enactments
concerning religion, in the narrower sense of the word,
have to do with its objective features — feasts, sacrifices,
offerings, ritual, etc. — all of which is included in tvor-
ship. It is these enactments that lie back of the teach-
ing of the prophets down to about 650 B. C.
In the next study it will appear that great and fundamental changes
are to occur after 650 B. C. in all the regulations which concern the
subject of worship and its allied subjects.
CHAPTER III.
THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD
821. The Middle Old Testament Period (see §14 (2)) ^ Kings 22 8-
*5 \ ^ 23 : 3.
had for its most striking event the discovery and pub-
lication of the book of the law, known in these
later times as Deuteronomy. It is impossible here, as
in the history of any period, to draw sharp lines of
separation.
(i) Just when this middle period began cannot
be fixed definitely. But this much is clear, that the
work of the prophets {cf. §18) in the years preced-
ing 621 B. C. {a) pointed out the evils which had Amos 5:24;^ 9:7;
crept into the worship of the people; {b) presented
such conceptions of God's justice, love, holiness, and isa. ij 12-1^7 ;
unity as would furnish a basis for higher and more spir-
itual forms of worship than those which were already
in existence ; and this {c) prepared the way for some-
thing which, up to this time, the people could not
appreciate.
(2) Just when this middle period ended is likewise
indefinite, but it is evident that after and out of this
period there came a still higher form of worship, des-
tined in God's providence (a) to endure through a period
of great political and religious upheaval, and {b) to
serve as the basis for a worship still higher in its ideals
and in its spiritual character.
§ 22. Three Distinct Stages May be Traced in the his-
tory of the middle or Deuteronomic period. These may
be classified as :
(i) The preexilic stage, which ended with the removal 2 Kings 25 : 8-21.
of the people from their land and with the destruction
of the temple around which the whole system of worship
centered.
(2) The exilic stage, during which the people were in
Babylon, away from all the familiar scenes of worship
27
28
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Ezra, chap, i ;
7: 1-IO.
2 Kings 184;
cf. Isa. 36:7.
Amos 7:9;
Hos. 10 : 1 , 2 ;
Isa. 30:22; 31 : 7.
2 Kings 23: 13.
2 Kings 18: 13;
^/. 18: 33-35-
2 Kings 19:20-37.
Deut. 12 : 2-19.
and under the influence of an entirely new religious
environment.
(3) The post-exilic stage, beginning with the return
from exile, including the building of the second temple,
and ending approximately with the visit of Ezra to
Jerusalem.
§ 23. The Deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiah's Day
(701 B. C.) had exerted a marked influence on worship.
To Hezekiah is ascribed an important work as reformer,
in that he (i) removed the high places, (2) broke the pillars,
(3) cut down the Asherim, (4) broke in pieces the brazen
serpent that Moses had made, which, in his day, was wor-
shiped as a representation of God in Jerusalem. In so far
as these things were accomplished, Hezekiah was acting
in accordance with the commands of the prophets (see
§ 18). But it seems that the work was not as thorough-
going as it might have been, since in Josiah's times,
seventy or eighty years later, the high places erected by
Solomon near Jerusalem were still in existence. Heze-
kiah's reformation, however transient, was closely con-
nected with the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennach-
erib and the Assyrian army in 701 B. C. This invasion
had two results : (i) The outlying villages with their high
places were destroyed and dishonored, and the country
people came to see that the worship as practiced in the
high places was of no avail in times of great distress. (2)
Jerusalem, the temple, and the God whose worship was
conducted in the temple (a worship beyond question
comparatively pure) were delivered, and thereby greatly
honored, for the whole nation had therein a posi-
tive experience of Jehovah's power. This paved the
way for the exaltation of the temple-worship and the
destruction of the worship in the high places, changes
which together form the great characteristic of the mid-
dle period.
See W. R. Smith, 77^1? Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 353-64;
CORNILL, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 67 f.; Driver, Isaiah, His life
and Times, pp. 66-83 ! the article " Hezekiah " in Hastings' Dic-
tionary of the Bible, Vol. H, p. 377 ; and the corresponding article
(§ i) in Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. II.
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 29
§ 24. Manasseh's Reign Brought a Great Reaction. —
This came about because (i) the prophetic party (that is,
the party of reformers) pushed forward more rapidly
than the people could follow, e. g., (a) in destroying the
objects and places of worship held in veneration by the
people for many centuries, and (<5) in holding up con- 2Kingsi8:4;
ceptions of God and of life which the people were still too
ignorant and debased to appreciate; (2) the people were
disappointed in the hope, raised by the prophets, that
with Jerusalem's deliverance Assyria would perish, when,
as a matter of fact, Assyria still remained powerful, sub- 2 chron. 33:".
duing Egypt and taking tribute from Judah ; (3) the
people believed that this failure of their desires and the c/.jer. 44:15-19.
consequent adversity had their origin in the proposed
reforms of the prophets, and that these very reforms
{e. g., the breaking down of the high places) were dis-
pleasing to Jehovah.
The reaction exhibited itself in (i) the murder of the aKings 21:16;
^ ' Jer. 2 : 30.
prophets and their partisans ; (2) setting up again the idols, 2 Kings 21 : 35.
and the Asherim ; (3) giving permission to enchanters 2 Kings 21: 6.
and augurs and witches and wizards to practice their
arts; (4) encouraging human sacrifice; (5) introducing * ^^^s^®.^' ■ ^ '
the worship of other gods even within the temple itself, Mic 6:6, 7-
e. g., the host of heaven — the chariots of the sun being 2 Kings 21 : 3. 4 ;
23 : II, 12.
placed within the temple.
§ 25. The Discovery of the Deuteronomic Law followed
a generation or so of prophetic silence. This silence
was occasioned by persecution, and had for its result
the production of a work which, in itself, summed up
prophecy and furnished the text-book of worship for a
long time to come. While the mouth of the prophet
was closed, his pen worked. In this work the lessons Deut. 4:15-19;
r -K T 11 1 • /• 1 Deut. 6: 14, 15;
of Manasseh s reaction were taken into account ; tor the Deut. 17:14-20.
new order of worship, while revolutionary in some
aspects, was, after all, an evolution from that which pre-
ceded it. The new cult went as far as possible in retain- Deut. 15:19;
,1 111 .1 ■ ^^ ^^ Deut. 16; 16.
ing old usages and old ceremonies, thus avoiding the
difficulties occurring in connection with the earlier
attempts at reformation. Many other things were
learned anew from the experience of the reaction, e. g.,
30 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Deut. 12:2-4. the demoralizing influence of the high places, and the
necessity of purging and purifying the ritual. These
were incorporated in the written document.
See Chy.Y'H'E, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 62-4 ; CoRNiLL,
op. cit., pp. 80-82 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Cotnmentary
on Deuteronomy , pp. xlix-lxii.
No opportunity, however, presented itself under
Manasseh or Amon for the promulgation of this book.
It was put away in the temple. In Josiah's reign, (i)
when the hearts of the people were being turned to
Jehovah by the terror aroused in connection with the
jer.i:i,2; Scythian invasion; (2) when Jeremiah and Zephaniah
were preaching with all the vigor of the older prophets ;
2 Kings 22: 1, 2. (3) when Josiah, a young man, was turning his face in the
2 Kings 22.3-8. direction of the true God ; (4) when the temple was being
cleansed and repaired, in order that Jehovah might be
thereby honored — then this book, the book of Deuter-
onomy, was discovered, brought to the king, read to him,
and read again to the people. The immediate circum-
stances of this discovery are described in some detail \e.g. :
2 Kings 22 : 8-10. (i) The book was found by Hilkiah, the high-priest, and
given by him to Shaphan, the scribe, who read it, took it
2 Kings 22:11-14. to King Josiah, and read it to him. (2) The king was
greatly grieved as he listened and realized how far short
of the demands of this book the religious life of Israel
had fallen. He at once sent a delegation of leading men
to Huldah, a prophetess, to inquire Jehovah's will con-
2 Kings 22 : 15-20. cerning the book. (3) She declared that the judg-
ments it contained would fall upon Israel because of
their desertion of Jehovah and their worship of other
gods, but that Josiah would reign in peace because of
aKings23:i-3. his faithfulness to Jehovah. (4) Upon hearing this,
Josiah called a great meeting of all the people, read the
newly found book to them, and caused them to join him
in a covenant with Jehovah to conform to Jehovah's
requirements as laid down therein. Thereupon the work
of reform was begun throughout the land.
§ 26. The Results of the Finding of Deuteronomy are
very fully given us in the sacred narrative. These results
constituted what is called Josiah's reformation, and
included :
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3 1
(i) The destruction of the high places and altars 2 Kings 23: 8, 12,
13. 15. 19-
throughout the land.
(2) The breaking down of \.\\q. pillars and Asherim. 2 Kings 23:6, 14.
(3) The removal of the teraphirn and other idols. 2 Kings 23: 24.
(4) The destruction of the horses and chariots of the 2 Kings 23:11.
sun.
(5) The deposition and destruction of idolatrous 2 Kings 23:5,8,9,
20.
priests and of the priests of the high places.
(6) ^h.^ z}oo\\\Xon oi hutnan sacrifice. ' 2 Kings 23: 10.
(7) The observance of the Feast of the Passover. 2 Kings 23:21-23.
(8) 'Y^xQ. ■^xo\i\):>\\\on oi sorcerers and wizards. 2 Kings 23: 24.
(9) The purification of worship involved in doing 2 Kings 23: 7.
away with the Sodomites.
Two things may be said : (a) There is nothing essen-
tial commanded in Deuteronomy which Josiah did not
try to do; {f) every single act of the reformation will be
found commanded in Deuteronomy.
§ 27. The Teaching of Deuteronomy on the more
important points of worship may be briefly summarized
as follows : '
(i) Object of worship. — Jehovah only is to be wor- Deut. 6:4; 10:20;
shiped ; all idols and other objects of worship must be 16:21 f.'; 7: 5, 25'
destroyed.
(2) Place of worship. — Worship is permitted only at Deut. 12:2-7, n,
one central sanctuary, viz., the temple at Jerusalem. All
local shrines are to be destroyed.
(3) Priests. — These now become a distinct class, the Deut. 10:8,9.
tribe of Levi being set apart to perform the priestly
function. There are, of course, more Levites than
are needed for priests ; these are to be teachers and
judges. The duties of the Levites at the local sanctua- Deut. 18:1-8.
ries being abolished, many of them are naturally without
means of support, and special provision has to be made
for them in the law.
(a) Sacrifice. — The continuance of sacrifice is taken Deut. 12 : 13 f. ;
for granted, but every sacrifice is to be offered at the
central sanctuary. All firstlings are, as before, especially
designated as sacrifices to Jehovah.
' For an examination of this book as a code of laws, see pp. 155-69.
32
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Deut. 5 : 12-15.
Deut 15: 1-18.
Jer. 34 : 1-20.
Deut. 16:1-15.
Deut. 14: 3-21.
Deut. 23 : 21-23.
Deut. 14: 28 f.;
26: 12.
Deut. 18: 10-12;
23: lyi.; 14: 1.
Deut. 9:20, 26-29.
Deut. 6:4; 4 : 28 ;
10:17.
Deut. 4 : 32-36 ;
c/. Exod. 19 : 6,
Deut. 12 : 2-7.
Deut. 10:8.
(5) Days and seasons. — Set times of worship are
appointed to be observed : {a) The sabbath is preserved
unchanged, (p) The sabbatical year becomes established,
and is extended to the cancellation of all debts owed by
Hebrews to their fellow-countrymen and to the release
of all Hebrew slaves. There was an unsuccessful attempt
to enforce this provision with reference to slaves in the
reign of Zedekiah. {c) Three zxiXiwzX feasts are fixed, as
before, in connection with the agricultural seasons ; but,
like all other acts of worship, they are to be celebrated at
Jerusalem. New elements appear in the fixing of the
duration of the Feast of Tabernacles at seven days, and
of Pentecost at one day, and in the connection of the
Passover with the exodus from Egypt. No reference is
made \o feasts of the moon.
(6) Other acts of worship. — {a) A list of clean and
unclean animals is given ; this classification probably
had a religious basis ; {b) faithfulness in the performance
of vows is enjoined ; {c) a. triennial tithe is imposed which is
to be given to the Levite, the widow, and the poor; {d)
perverted acts of worship, such SL^humafi sacrifice, sorcery,
etc., are prohibited; {e) prayers of Moses are recorded.
See Cheyne, op. cit, pp. 64-7 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on Deuteronomy , ^^. x\:f.-xxx\\ \ article "Deuteronomy"
(§§ 27-32) in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I ; and corresponding article
(§ iv) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. L
§ 28. The Full Significance of the Deuteronomic Prin-
ciples, the Spirit with which These are Presented, and the
Great Changes Wrought by Their Adoption are difficult to
appreciate. Some of these points may be noted :
(i) The fundamental idea is that there is but one
god worthy to be called God; other gods are wood
and stone.
(2) With such a God dealing directly with the nation,
Israel's life must be high and holy; for otherwise it will
be unworthy.
(3) There shall be only one place of worship, and
that the temple in Jerusalem; in this way the licentious
nature-worship can be done away with.
(4) The conduct of worship must be guarded, and
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 33
consequently it is placed under the control of a special
tribe, the Levites.
(5) The method of presentation is a wonderful one,
being twofold, prophetic and priestly; viz., (a) exhorta- Deut. 4:1-13;
6 ' I-2S ' etc
tions of the most "sweetly impressive" character, full of ' '
spiritual strength ; (/^) laws, many of them dating from Deut. 5:6-21.
the earliest times, others from a later period ; some of Deut., chaps,
them apparently arbitrary in their tone, others full of
the reasons which should lead to their observance.
(6) The spirit throughout is the spirit of love, and is 5^"f 7:7-1°;
\ / t^ o t^ Deut. 10: 12-15.
akin to that exhibited in the book of Hosea. " The
primal love of Jehovah to Israel fills the foreground of
each writer's discourse, and all human relationships within
the Israelitish community are rooted in this." ^ But this Eeut. 6 : 17-^ig ;
•' Deut. 10:18.
love is no sentimental love; Israel's God is a God of
justice as well as of love.
(7) The restriction of worship to one place is Deut. 14: 22-27,
" tantamount to a suppression of religion in the whole
country outside of Jerusalem."^ How can the country
people now consult Jehovah? The neighboring altar Deut. 19: 1-13.
to which the fugitive might flee and be safe is done away
with, and distant cities of refuge are only a partial sub-
stitute; while the function of the altar as a place to
which the people might come and receive judgment is
given to the gates of the cities and to the temple at Jeru- Deut. 16: 18;
salem. Israel in the country must now live without God,
with whom before he had lived so closely.
(8) The feasts are beginning to be denaturalized ; that
is, they are losing their agricultural significance, and are
to be more and more closely associated with historical
events — the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the flight
from Egypt; the Feast of Weeks, with the giving of the law
on Sinai ; the Feast of Tabernacles, with the journey in
the desert. Religion is a matter of fixed days and sea-
sons, rather than an everyday affair.
(9) The setting apart of priests, and the placing of
See article "P"easts " (§§9, 10) in EncyclopcEdia Biblica, VoL II;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 91 f.; COR-
NILL, op. cit., p. 86.
*Cheyne, c/. aV.,p. 66. 3C0RNILL, 0/. a'/., p. 85.
34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
all worship in their hands, thus compelling the people
to make use of them, while beforetime the use of a priest
was voluntary, draws the line sharply between laity and
Deut. 18:3; 21:5; clergy. The priest changes his function ; for he is now
Deut. 17:9. 12: preeminently a sacrificer, while before he consulted the
oracle and announced the divine will.
Deut. 14:24 f.; (10) The significance of the sacrifice is greatly
changed. Sacrifice being lawful only at the one central
sanctuary, it was offered for the most part only in con-
nection with the three great yearly festivals when all
Israelites were required to be at Jerusalem. The popular,
joyous aspect of it as a banquet and as an offering of
joy and thanksgiving, made frequently and in connection
with any suitable occasion, now begins to disappear, and
a more and more solemn and expiatory character is given
to all sacrifice.
Deut. 4:40; 6:1- (11) What is it henceforth to be religious ? To do
l':V,'6,\\r " ' the thing laid down in a book. The day that saw Deut-
^°'°' eronomy accepted, its ritual of worship adopted, and its
teaching concerning priest and sacrifice recognized — that
day saw the beginning of the deafk of prophecy. It was,
of course, the prophets' own work ; but they had estab-
lished the agency by which, later, they themselves would
be strangled ; because from this time forward the voice
of the prophet is unnecessary.
See CoRNiLL, op. cit., p. 89.
(12) The adoption of Deuteronomy signified the
separation of church and state. This was necessary, for
the state is soon to die — within thirty-five years. This
separation made it possible for the church to live, after
the death of the state.
See CoRNiLL, op. cit., p. 88.
(13) The act of Josiah and his people in accepting
Deuteronomy was the first step toward the canonization
of Holy Scripture — the first step in a long line of similar
events which have given us the Bible with our modern
conceptions of inspiration.
(14) In a word, worship, whether viewed narrowly or
broadly, is henceforth almost 2, new thing. The Israelitish
religion seems to have been revolutionized. Of course,
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 35
a closer study shows that all this was evolution, not
revolution ; the prophets had prepared the way; the
prophets and priests worked together. A priest found
the book and gave it to the king, and the priests
received through this book privileges they had never
before enjoyed.
See BUDDE, Rehgiofi of Israel to the Exile, pp. 17 1-9.
§ 29. A Second Reaction followed after thirteen years
of successful work on the part of Jeremiah and Josiah.
(i) Jeremiah at the beginning of the reformation had Jer. 11:1-6, 18-23.
preached the contents of this book throughout the vil-
lages of Judah, sometimes incurring the opposition and
persecution of his friends.
(2) The times that followed for thirteen years were
quiet and prosperous ; the king and the people lived
before God and received his blessing.
(3) Perhaps during this time the work of the sages c/. Prov., chaps,
began to flourish. jer. 18:18.
(4) Assyria was losing ground; Necho of Egypt \\^ll^ll^^
(608 B. C.) began to encroach upon the Assyrian terri-
tory. Josiah met him at the battle of Megiddo and was
slain. The reformation failed. The people believed
the king's death was a divine punishment for changing
the forms of worship in their religion. The opposing 2Kings23:36f.;
party gained control, and then followed the series of
events which resulted, in a few years, in the downfall of
the kingdom.
§ 30. The Significance of the Babylonian Exile in its
Relationship to Worship cannot easily be overestimated.
Its effect upon some of the principal ideas and institu-
tions may be noted here :
(i) Object of worship. — The removal to Babylonia 2 Kings 25: 13-17
involved the leaving behind of all idolatrous objects of
worship, or their confiscation or destruction by the con-
queror. The leaders of Israel's religious life looked Ezek. 6: 11-14;
T ° 8:3-18.
upon idolatry as one of the chief causes of the exile.
The removal from the land with which Jehovah had
always been associated to a land which was the dominion
of another srod also involved either an acknowledgment isa. 40 : 12-31 ;
° ^ 44: 9-20; 45:5-7;
of the power of this foreign god, or else the maintenance 46:5-7-
36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
of a belief in Jehovah's supremacy and universality. That
this higher conception of Jehovah prevailed is clear from
the fact that we hear nothing of idolatry after the return
from the exile, and especially from the teachings of Isa.,
chaps. 40-66.
(2) Place of zvorship. — The temple being destroyed,
and all the familiar scenes of worship being left behind,
together with all material and external reminders of
Isa. 45:18-22; Jehovah's presence, the worshipers were necessarily led
isa.5^12,13. to a more spiritual conception of God. Moreover,
absence from the temple developed an ability to do with-
out the temple services which was in part responsible for
the origin of synagogues.
Ezek., chaps. 40- (3) The occupation of the priests was gone, in so far
** ■ as it was dependent upon the temple. The book of
Ezekiel furnishes an illustration of one phase of priestly
Isa. 61:6. activity during these days. The thought of Israel as a
nation of priests appears.
153.43:22-24; (4) Sacrifice could no longer be offered, but it did not
^^ ^' lose any of its importance in the thought of the people.
Isa. 56:2, 4, 6; (5) Times and seasons. — {ci) The sabbath, being an
58. 13 , 66. 23. institution which was independent of the temple, could still
be kept, and it received much emphasis during and after
this period. Sabbaths were also observed by the Baby-
lonians, {p) Feasts, which had always been occasions of
joy, could no longer be observed legally, and emphasis
Isa. 58:3-5. was laid on {c) fasts, which were of an exactly opposite
character and were not dependent upon the temple.
(6) Other acts of worship. — {a) In the absence of all
the regular public means of worship, those who wor-
shiped "in spirit and in truth" naturally had frequent
Isa. 63 : 15-64 : 12 ; recourse to /ro)'.?;-. The future temple is thought of as
a house of prayer, {b) The recognition of the captivity
as a punishment for sin led to an exalted conception of
Jehovah's holiness and to the laying of great emphasis
Isa. 65:1-7, 11; upon ceremoniaW/^a//«<?.r.r. (^) It is probable, however,
' ^' ^' that many became apostates from the Jehovah-worship
and took up the worship of their conquerors,
c/. Ezek. 10: 9-22. (7) The influence of the Babylonian worship on Israel's
ritual is evident in succeeding ritualistic legislation, as
56:7
Isa. 52: 1, II
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3/
also in some of Ezekiel's imagery. Jehovah through the
exile again brought Israel into contact with a great
religion, as he had already done in the case of Baalism.
Just as Israel had learned some truths through Baalism,
and to some extent had enriched the cultus of Jehovah
thereby, so was she to do through the agency of Baby-
lon's worship.
§31. The Priest-Prophet of the Captivity, Ezekiel,
occupied an important place in the further development
of the ritual of worship. His place may only be
touched upon here. With prophetic idealism, legalist
though he was, his vision pictured a future temple, a
future service, and a future priesthood, as follows :
(a) The tetnple. — While the temple of Solomon had
been virtually a part of the royal palace, the new temple
is to be wholly separate from the royal dwellings and
from all other ordinary habitations ; for it is the earthly
habitation of the most holy God, who had abandoned Bzek. 45;i-8.
the former city and temple because of their profanation by
sin and uncleanness. To prevent any such profanation
of Jehovah in future
the sacred "oblation," the domain of the priests, Levites, Ezek. 48 : 7-23.
prince, and city, is placed in the center of the restored tribes,
Judah on one side of it and Benjamin on the other. In the
midst of this oblation is the portion of the priests, that of the
Levites lying on one side, and that of the city on the other.
In the middle of the priests' portion stands the temple. This
is a great complex of buildings, around which on all sides lies
a free space or suburbs. Then comes a great wall surround-
ing the whole buildings, forming a square of five hundred
cubits. Within this wall is an outer court, and within this
an inner court In this inner court stands the altar,
and to the back of it the temple house. The house has also
a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity
inwards — an outer apartment or porch, an inner or holy
place, and an innermost, where the presence of Jehovah
abides.*
{b) The priests. — The sons of Zadok only are to be Ezek. 44 : 4-16.
priests ; all other Levites are to be subordinate ministers,
performing the more menial tasks of the sanctuary.
1 Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel (Cambridge Bible), p. 290.
38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Foreigners are not to be permitted to enter the temple,
as heretofore, to perform any tasks. The distinction
between clergy and laity is clearly marked ; none of the
latter — not even the prince — may enter the inner court
Ezek. 44:17-28. of the temple. The sanctity of the priests as the ones
ministering in the presence of Jehovah is strongly empha-
sized and guarded in many ways, such as the requirement
that they wear special garments while discharging their
Ezek. 44:29,30. sacred functions. They live upon their share of the sac-
rifices of the people.
(c) Sacrifice occupies an important place in the ritual.
Ezek. 43:18-26; The various kinds mentioned are : (i) X\\t sin-offering,
Ezek. 43:27; which is much emphasized; (2) burnt-offerings, which
Ezek. 42:13. are numerous; (3) the trespass-offering, which was a
Ezek. 46:13-15. variety of the sin-offering; (4) the meal-offering; (5) the
Ezek. 46:19-24. peace-offering; (6) the continual burnt-offering vm.dQ evtry
morning. Special places are provided for the cooking
of the offerings that are to be eaten by priests and people.
Ezek. 44:24. {d) Times and seasons. — The old times are all to be
Ezek. 45:17— observed, viz., the sabbath, the new moons, and the three
feasts, the Passover receiving special notice.
§32. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of
These Times appears most strongly. This means that the
priest-work was gaining ground, while the prophetic work
waslosingground. Butitwill benoted that((z)anewsitua-
tion was coming in which the priest-work would be more
greatly needed ; and {t>) the priest-work had taken into
itself all that had been contributed by the prophets. It
is true, therefore, that not the priest-work pure and
simple, but the priest-work as strengthened by, and as
containing, the truth proclaimed through prophets, was
the power that now held the forefront.
This priestly element is seen —
Jer. 1:1. (i) In the priestly birth and character of the prophet
Jeremiah, whose home was at Anathoth, one of the
headquarters of the priests.
Deut., chaps. 12- (2) In the priestly character of a large portion of the
book of Deuteronomy.
Deut. 18:5; (3) In the position now occupied by the priests as
cAJu g- 17- 7-13- compared with their former position.
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 39
(4) In the priestly character and service of Ezekiel. Ezek.i 13; chaps
§33. The Return of the People from the Babylo- Ezra2:64f.
nian Exile introduced an entirely new situation. It was
one, however, in which for eighty years (538-458 B. C.)
the book of Deuteronomy and its regulations were
supreme. It was a time of discouragement ; the high
hopes of the returning exiles were dashed to the ground
in the presence of desolated homes, wasted lands, fail-
ure of crops, loss of political independence, and the cy. Hag. 2 : 15-19.
destruction of Jerusalem. The struggle against these
adverse conditions seems to have absorbed most of their
energies during the first years after the return, the re-
quirements of worship being largely neglected. We
may note the attitude toward some of the principal
institutions.
(a) The temple. — Partly because of opposition on the Ezra 5: 2;
part of certain enemies, but chiefly on account of dis- Ezra 6:15-'
couragement and indifference, the foundation of the
temple was not laid until December, 520 B. C, eighteen
years after the return, and the work was not finished
until 516 B. C. Because of the poverty of the people. Hag. 2:3;
JT y 1 1 ^zx&. 3 : 12.
this new temple fell far short of the splendor of the old.
The religious leaders were convinced that prosperity and Ezra 5; 1,2.
glory could come to Israel only if the temple were first
restored. This shows how large a place it had come to Hag. 1:9. 10.
occupy in religious thought and practice.
{h) The priest ^Nz.^ gaining more and more importance
in the life and worship of the people. Of the returning Ezra 2: 36-39.
exiles a large proportion consisted of priests and other
temple servants. There seems to have been develop-
ing the distinction between priests and Levites which Ezra 6: 18, 20.
was to become fixed later. That the distinction was
not vet clearly made is evident from the fact that the Ezra 8:20; 10:5;
•^ •' Mai. 3 : 3.
two titles appear to be synonymous in some passages,
just as they are in Deuteronomy. One priest had
already achieved prominence as the leader of his breth- zech. 3:1-9;
■^ ^ 6:11-13;
ren, and he appeared side by side with the prince in all Hag. 1:1, 12;
important concerns, and was superior to him in reli-
gious affairs. A high standard was set up for the priests Mai.2:5-9; 3:3.
by Malachi, and their corruption was severely denounced.
40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Mai. 3:8, 9. Tithes for the support of the priests were still in force,
but were reluctantly paid.
Ezra 3: 2. 3- (c) Sacrifice vfdis a.t once renewed at Jerusalem upon
the return from exile, if, indeed, it had ever wholly ceased.
One of the earliest acts was the erection of an altar of
burnt-offering upon the site of the former temple, that
the regular sacrifices might be offered to Jehovah. These
sacrifices were probably those provided for in Deuter-
Mai. 1 : 7, 8, 12-14 ; onom V (cf. 827 (4)) and earlier laws. Malachi denounces
Mai. ') ' 8 J \ •' K> • \^//
those who bring maimed, imperfect, and polluted offer-
ings, and insists upon the best of everything as an offer-
ing to Jehovah.
{d) Titnes and seasons. — These probably continued
the same as they had been under the Deuteronomic law.
Ezra 3 14. 5; Specific mention is made, in the literature that comes
Zech.^y"-?; from these days, only of the Feast of the New Moon, the
zech. 8:18, 19. Feast of Tabernacles, the Passover, and of four fasts
which had been observed every year since the beginning
of the exile.
Ezras: lo, 11. W Other acts of zvorship. — (i) Music and singing are
mentioned in connection with the laying of the founda-
jiai. 1:14. tion stone of the temple. (2) Vows were still made.
Heh!i;4-ii; 2:4; (s) Sorcery was not even yet wholly uprooted. (4) That
^^^' the habit of prayer was not discontinued is clear from
Nehemiah's statements concerning himself at a little later
time.
§ 34. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic "Work of
these later years is seen in —
Hag. 1:8-10; {a) The emphasis laid upon the necessity of bund-
ed: 1*2-15'. '"* ^ ' ing the temple as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of
Jehovah's favor. This is the main theme of Haggai's
prophecy.
Zech. 3:1-10; if) The prominence given to priestly interests in the
7:1-7;' 8: 18,' 19. utterances of Zechariah, who speaks of the temple, the
high-priest, fasts, feasts, etc.
Mai. 1:6-14; (^) ^^^ large place given to matters pertaining to
Mai.'3?i-4; worship in the book of Malachi, which probably comes
Mai.V4.' from the very end of this period. The main interest of
the author seems to be centered in an effort to reform
the ritual and those who have charge of it.
WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4 1
§ 35. The Songs and Hymns of the Middle Period are
very numerous. Their spirit may be gathered from the
following examples :
(i) Songs celebrating the deliverance of Jerusalem, Pss. 46; 48.
as in the days of Hezekiah.
(2) Songs describing the wickedness of the times, Pss. 36 ; 54 ; 64.
as in the days of Manasseh.
(3) Songs depicting the destruction of Jerusalem pss.sojsi.
and the going into captivity.
(4) Songs expressing the sense of loneliness and pss. 137; 22; 69;
wretchedness experienced during the exile.
(5) Songs celebrating the joy and gladness of the pss.i26;ii5.
return from exile.
(6) Songs of the second temple, written particularly Pss. 106; 107.
for congregational worship.
It is to be noted concerning the songs thus classi-
fied—
(a) That those of earlier date were considerably
modified in the later days when the use of songs in
congregational worship was more thoroughly established.
[i) That it is exceedingly difficult to fix exactly the
date of many psalms because of the lack of historical
indications; /. e., references to historical events.
(c) That many psalms which seem to express indi-
vidual experiences and aspirations are really congrega-
tional in their character; i. e., they were written to express
the feelings of a community.
(</) That a fuller treatment of this part of the ele-
ment of worship will be presented later (see chap, xviii).
CHAPTER IV.
THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD.
§36. The Later Old Testament Period in the history of worship is
the story oi Judaism, that is, the Jewish religion, which was the daugh-
ter of the Hebrew religion. The period, rightly considered, (i) begins
with the Babylonian exile (§ 30), for at that time were set in motion
the great ideas, and the modifications of old ideas, which finally made
up Judaism ; but (2) the time in which the distinct establishment and
substantial development of Judaism took place falls within the two
centuries of Persian supremacy (538-332 B. C.) ; while (3) the cen-
tury and a half from 332 B. C. to 165 B. C, the period of Greek
influence, had for its great achievement the final testing and rounding-
out of Judaism.
See Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and
Greek Periods, pp. v-vii ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp.
500 f.
§37. Some of the Most Striking Characteristics of this
period are these :
(i) It is the last division of the Old Testament
period. Is it a climax or an anti-climax? Is it a
step higher in the development of the true religious
conception, or is it a step lower than has hitherto been
taken ?
c/. Ezra 1:5. (2) It is prevailingly /^/>j//v in its character, for {a)
a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; {B) the prophet's
voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past;
Zech. 3:1-7; while {c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of
^•"' supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli-
est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as
king.
(3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which
presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the
history of a church, not that of a state.
Web., chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find
that the great event which characterized this period, the
42
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43
event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial
emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical law by
Ezra. With this we may compare the giving of the
Deuteronomic law, in its relationship to the middle
period (§28).
§ 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of
the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among
other, elements which may be taken as directly grow-
ing out of the exile and leading up to this later
period :
(\) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :29-34;
^ ' ■^ ^ ^ Ezek., chap. 18;
sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut.24:i6.
personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation
to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible
for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance
with God depends upon himself alone.
(2) Ezekiel's teaching of the neiv community, a. nevf Ezek., chaps. 40-
city in which no government will be needed, for there ^ '
will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge.
He will bestow upon the people all that they need.
The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel-
fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16;
Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the "^ Ezek. ^17 -25-30.
slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage
in worship, continual worship. The only object of care
will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will
be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom
of God on earth.
(3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18;
Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was ^^ ' ■^°"^^'
not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any
particular form of government.
(4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. me;
the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their r/joei2:28,29.
utterance were unheeded or rejected.
(5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. 8:1;
for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible c/pslyV: 8.
under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip-
ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna-
gogues.
4 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 20:23- (6) Wjth the book of the Covenant (S 20), and the book
23:33. \o /'
of Deuteronomy (§ 25) which had become the adopted
code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo-
Ezek.. chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all
<r/.isa. 51:17-20. in existence, and all rendered impossible of observance \iy
the circumstances of the people, there is seen to be a
great indefiniteness and uncertainty in the situation,
which, while confusing, signified most clearly that the
"Law" was not yet finished, and prepared the minds of
the people for the more definite and final formulation
still to be made.
c/.Ezra 1:3-4; (7) The broad and generous policy of Cyrus and his
Ezra 6 : i-n ; . 1 -r, • 1 , . ,
Ezra 7: 11-26; successors on the Persian throne, a policy of state and
* -^-''S- religion very different from that of preceding history, as
well as from that of still later times, made possible in
the way of progress and growth what otherwise would
have been impossible.
Jer. 34:1-10. (8) The higher character of the Babylonian Jews,
and the special circumstances of their environment, as
distinguished from that of the Jews who remained in
Judah, forms an important factor in the movement
toward national excliisiveness which is henceforth to be
so prominent.
Hag.a:6-9; (9) The expectations, publicly announced, of Haggai
and Zechariah that in the political upheavals of the day
(/. e., the revolts of the Babylonians in 519 and 515 B. C.
against the Persian rule) deliverance and glory would
come to Israel ; the embassy of four Jews from Babylon,
bringing gifts of silver and gold which are made into a
Zech. 6:9-13. crown for Zerubbabel (not Joshua); and the fact that
Zech. 3:8. Zerubbabel had been given the name Branch or Sprout —
all this points to the suggestion that there were many who
still expected a descendant of David to sit upon Israel's
throne ; but the hope was impossible of realization because
(a) the whole trend of events was toward the priestly rule,
and ip) perhaps the Persian authorities may have interfered
to prevent an act which would certainly have led to treason,
<:/weh.,chap' 6- J^^^ ^^ ^^^X *^'^ ^" ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ building of the walls.
See CHEYNE./^zy/j/^ Religious Life after the Exile, p. 15 ; Kent,
op, cit., DD. 147 f.
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 45
(10) The residence in Babylon brought the Jews into
close touch with an elaborate system of sacrifice, the
most important characteristic of which was the propitia-
tory idea. This is significant in view of the fact that
henceforward the greatest possible emphasis will be
placed upon sacrifice as an atonement, and upon prayer Lev., chap. 16;
f /- . Neh. 1:4-11.
for forgiveness .
See Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitical
Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81;
Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 668.
(11) Because in Babylon there was no chance to offe'r isa. 58:3ff.;
Ezra 8: 21;
sacrifice, such a thinsf beinar utterly inconceivable, /a.y//«^ Neh. 1:4;
. . ,, ., Joel 1:14;
came into great prominence, since "by denying them- Zech.7:3-5.
selves their ordinary food they gave expression to the
intensity of their feelings, and at the same time laid
before Jehovah a gift which could be presented at any
time and at any place."
See Kent, op. cit., p. 43 ; Benzinger, article "Fasting," §6, in
Encyclopedia Biblica; Stanton, article "Fasting," §§ liJ and 3, in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11.
(12) It was, likewise, because in Babylon the great Ezek. 20: 12-44.
feast days could not be properly or regularly observed,
that greater and greater attention was given to the
observance of the sabbath, for this could be done any-
where. The nature of the observance was probably
much influenced by the customs in vogue in Babylon.
(13) The removal to another land, and residence in
that land, took away the narrow conception of a national
god which had always existed among the masses ; and
now the time has come when first the people as such
will accept the great and fundamental doctrine of one isa. 44:6.
god, i. e., monotheism. But Jehovah, in becoming the isa. 40:28.
creator of the world, and the ruler of the universe, will
not seem to be in as close touch as formerly with his
people. He will be holy, in the sense of being sepa-
rated. He will be higher and more majestic; less fami- isa. 40:12-17.
liar and more dignified, because greater.
See MoNTEFiORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (= Hibbert
Lectures, 1892), pp. 228, 268 f.; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 175 f.; Davidson, article "God," §IV, (4), in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible.
40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(14) According to the manner in which the individual
Israelites meet these new and strange conditions they
Neh. 13:15-28. will divide themselves into two classes: («) those who
break away from their old religion because of inability to
adopt a larger faith and a broader conception of God, or
because of personal advantage gained by giving up the
Mai. 3:16-18. old; and {b) those who, in spite of calamity and mis-
apprehension, maintain themselves steadfast and true.
This means a purging of the people, the growing
stronger of those who are strong, and the weeding out of
those who are weak.
See Kent, op. ciL, pp. 221 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 291 ff.
Hag. 2:3; (15) When it was realized quite clearly that the
promises of the prophets were not to be fulfilled at the
time of the return from exile, there was disappointment
Mai. 2:17. 3.nd despair on every side. Some became indifferent to
isa. 59:9-15. God, for they put on him the blame for their disappoint-
ment. Others, the more devout, took the blame upon
themselves. With full faith in God's ability to do the
things which he had promised, they reasoned in their
hearts that this glorious future must have failed of reali-
zation because of Israel's sin ; yes, because of their own
unworthiness this glory was being postponed. They
Cf. the prophet reasoned further: We, who have sinned and have thus
isa.°42?!8''2V° made it impossible for the great day of deliverance to be
ushered in — we must change our ways ; we must become
c/. Ps. 15. more holy; we must increase our piety ; our lives must
be of such purity that God will be compelled to keep his
promises. It was this situation and this interpretation
of it that prepared the way for "the legalism and the
salvation by works of the later Judaism."
See CORNILL, Prophets of Israel, pp. 155-9.
§ 39. A Great Reaction Came after the Building of the
Temple in 516 B.C., which lasted nearly three-quarters of
a century. Concerning this it will be noted —
Neh. 5:1-12; (i) That, in all probability, only a few of the Baby-
Mai!2:io. Ionian Jews had yet returned;' the weak, narrow, and
' The question of dates, always a more or less difficult one, is in this case especially-
difficult. Cf. Kent, op. cit., pp. 196 ff.; H. E. Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge
Bible), pp. xxxviii-xlv; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 36-81 ; C. C. ToRREY, The Composition
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4^
selfish elements were in control ; the rulers were greedy
of gain, oppressing the poor.
(2) There was in the community a strong tendency
toward skepticism. The so-called "scorners" were in
the majority, and included in their number not only rulers
but priests, and these openly expressed doubts as to all
the religious practices and opinions of the times, <?. g.,
(a) weariness of the routine of sacrifice; (d) what real Mai. 1:13.
benefit comes from serving God? (c) why not just as Mai. 3 : 14, 15.
well worship the heathen gods ? (d) what difference does Mai. 2:17.
it make whether a man does right or wrong ?
(3) Under these circumstances the condition of w-or-
ship was greatly degraded. This was seen in —
[a) The complaint of the priests as to the weariness Mai. 1:13.
of their occupation.
(<5) The low character of the high-priests, who were Neh.isM-g, 28.
among the most guilty.
(c) The readiness of the people to cheat Jehovah in Mai. 1:6-14.
their sacrifices.
(d) The attitude of the priests in general toward the Mai. 1:8; 2:8,9.
entire service, including the sacrifice, so that the whole
ceremonial came into contempt.
(e) The failure of the people to pay their tithes, Mai. 3:8-12.
so that the support of the entire system was about
to fail.
(/) The marriage of the priests into families of outside Neh. 13 : 23-28 ;
, Mai. 2 : 10-16.
nations who served other gods.
(4) But there still remained the company of " faithful Mai. 3:16-18;
ones," who feared Jehovah, and were called "the just," ioi:6; 113:7.
"the poor and needy" (c/. above, § 38, ( 14), (15)).
§ 40. Nehemiah's Coming (44 B. C.) Was a Great Event
in the history of Judaism.
(i) His work as a reformer and upbuilder of Jerusa- Neh. 1:1— 7:5;
lem included —
[a) The rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem as a pro- Neh. 2:12— 6:15.
tection against attack, and as a means of separating the
Jews from their heathen neighbors.
and Historical Value of Ezra-Nekemiah, pp. 51-65; W, H. KosTERS and T. K.
Cheyne, article "Ezra" in Encyclopcedia Biblica; L. W. Batten, article "Nehe-
miah" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible.
48 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh.. chap. ii. (p) The repopulating of Jerusalem by bringing in
Jews from the surrounding country to dwell there.
Neh. I3: 1-3*^' W ^^^ prohibition of marriages with heathen peoples
and the driving out of all foreigners from the Jewish
community.
Neh., chap. 5. ^^^ 'pj^g restoration to its original owners of all
property that had been acquired by mortgages and usury,
and the remission of all interest.
Neh. 13:15-22. ^g-^ 'pj^g institution of a stricter observance of the
sabbath, which had heretofore been freely violated.
Neh loiaa-si' ^^^ "^"^ ^" addition to all this he turned his attention
to the temple and its service. Finding that this was
being neglected because the Levites were under the
necessity of working in the fields for their support, he
took steps to secure the regular payment of the tithes,
and appointed faithful officials to distribute them to the
Levites. He also made regulations for the proper
observance of sacrifices, offerings, and feasts.
§41. The Work of Ezra, in all probability, followed
that of Nehemiah, the latter having by his masterful skill
prepared the way {cf. §40). The steps in his eventful
career may be summarily classified as follows :
Ezra 7: 1-9; (i) The journey took place in the seventh vear of
8:21-23. \ > J ^ r J
Artaxerxes, occupied a period of four months, and was
made without military escort, since Ezra refused to
manifest distrust in Jehovah's protection by asking the
aid of Artaxerxes.
Ezra 7: 15-23; (2) The gifts said to have been offered by Artaxerxes
8:34 34. \ / o J J
and his princes for the temple at Jerusalem and its service,
together with the requisition made by the king upon the
governors of the western provinces and the free-will offer-
ings of the Babylonian Jews themselves, were of great
value, and were faithfully guarded and handed over to
the temple officials.
Bzra7:i4-27. (3) The immediate purpose was to establish more
securely and develop more elaborately the facilities for
worship in the temple. Matters relating to the service
and to the temple seem to have occupied the entire
time and attention of the reformers for a couple of
months after their arrival.
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 49
§42. The Formal Adoption of the Law took place at Neh., chaps.
a public assembly of all the people. The method of
procedure was in general the same as that used when the
Deuteronomic law was publicly adopted by the nation
(see § 25). The law was first read aloud in the hearing of
the people. This produced a sense of sin and short-
coming on the part of all, and was followed by public con-
fession. After this a solemn covenant was entered into
by all the people to observe the requirements of the new
law, and this covenant was signed by the representatives
of the people, viz., the princes, priests, and Levites.
§ 43. The Law as Thus Proclaimed and Accepted —
(i) Is described in Nehemiah as —
{a) Prohibiting marriages with the surrounding Neh. 10:30.
heathen.
{b) Providing for a strict observance of the sabbaths Neh. 10:31.
and holy days.
(c) Enforcing the observance of the sabba/ua/ year, Neh. 10:31.
with the accompanying remission of all debts.
(d) Imposing an annual tax of one-third of a shekel Neh. 10:32, 33.
per capita for the support of the services of the temple,
including the offerings.
(e) Arranging for the wood to be furnished for the Neh. 10:34.
burnt-offerings at stated intervals.
(/) Enjoining the bringing of all first-fruits and first- Neh. 10: 35-37.
lings to the priests at the temple.
(^) Requiring that the people give tithes to the Neh. 10:38.
Levites in the various cities, and that the Levites bring a
tithe of these tithes to the temple at Jerusalem.
{K) Calling for a hearty support of the temple and Neh. 10:39.
constant faithfulness to it.
(2) Contains regulations unknown to Deuteronomy, Neh. 10: 313,-
^ ' ° ■' c/.Deut., chap.
e. g., the requirement that the land lie fallow every sab- 15;
batical year ; the tax of one-third of a shekel for the tern- cf. beut. 14':
pie services; the arrangement for the provision of
fire-wood ; and the law concerning tithes, which departs
widely from the Deuteronomic law.
(3) Was substantially the body of regulations found
in Exod., chaps. 25-31 ; 34 : 29 — 40 : 38 ; Leviticus, and
Numbers ; in other words, the so-called Levitical code.
22-29 ; 26 : 12-15.
50 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See Kent, op. cit., p. 212; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 72 f.; Monte-
FIORE, C/. cit., pp. 315 ff.; J. ESTLIN CARPENTER AND G. HaRFORD
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 137-41 ; Wellhausen,
op. cit., pp. 404-10.
§44. The Significance of This Important Event lies in
the following points :
c/.Neh. 10:30, 31 (i) The immediate connection of these new re^ula-
with 13 : 15-34 ;
Ezra 9: 1. tions with the times. They grew out of the effort to
improve the existing moral and religious condition of
the people, and they contain the principles that formed
the basis of the work of reform.
(2) The fact that, although some additions remained
still to be made to this code, it was substantially complete.
(3) The adoption and incorporation into this code
of the important teachings of the prophets. It presented
in the concrete and tangible form of specific precepts
the great general truths that the prophets had long
endeavored to inculcate. It presented truth and duty
objectively, and thus met with a greater immediate suc-
cess than the prophets' work had ever achieved.
C/.,^.^., Lev. 16: 1 (4) The overwhelming preponderance of material in
24:9; '25:11— the code relating to service or worship.
Lev. 14:10-32; (5) The place occupied in it by sacrifice, and the
Exod.'29^^3b-42. emphasis (see §38, (10)) placed upon the idea of pro-
pitiation and forgiveness.
Neh. 10:37, 38. (6) The great advance made by the priests and Levites;
their support is no longer a matter of fitful charity, as it
was under the Deuteronomic law, but is made a standing
obligation upon the people, over the discharge of which
the priests and Levites themselves are given control.
§45. Another Important Headquarters for Worship, the
Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim, grew out of this
2 Kings 17:6, 24- priestly reformation. The Samaritans were a mixed race,
whose ancestors were the poorer Israelites left behind
after the deportation of the more influential classes to
Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria, and the Baby-
lonian colonists who were brought to Israel in place of
the deported captives. Their religion was thus naturally
a corrupt mixture of Israelitish and Babylonian ideas and
practices. They seem to have been influenced by Josiah's
reformation, at least to the extent of regarding Jerusalem
41 ;(/. 25: 11,12.
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 5 1
as the only lawful place of worship. Hence, when the Ezra, chap. 4.
effort to rebuild the temple was begun, the Samaritans
sought to have a part in the work ; but, being denied this
privilege by the stricter Jews, they seem to have used
their influence to obstruct the work. Nehemiah's atti- Neh. 218-20.
tude toward them was one of uncompromising opposition.
They, for their part, opposed and hindered him greatly Neh. 4 : 1-23 ; 6 i-
in his work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. The weh. 13:28.
climax of Nehemiah's hostility to them was reached when
he expelled the grandson of the high-priest from Jerusa-
lem because he had married the daughter of Sanballat,
one of the Samaritan princes. The new law, adopted
when feeling was at such a pitch, of course gave the
Samaritans no part in the worship at Jerusalem. Conse-
quently they withdrew and built a temple for themselves
on Mount Gerizim. In all probability many Jews who
had contracted heathen marriages went over to the
Samaritan community, to which they were so closely
bound by family ties, and thus the community of the
faithful was freed from many troublesome elements.
See MONTEFIORE, op. cit., pp. 351 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 25-35 ;
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 498; GUTHE, article "Israel," §65, in
EncyclopcEdia Biblica.
§46. The Last Century of Persian Rule (425-332)
witnessed —
(i) The return of many Jews from the lands in which
they had been scattered ; for this return, like the first
entrance into Canaan, was very gradual.
(2) The growing influence of those who thus returned
as over against that of those who had remained.
(3) Great opportunity at first for free growth and expan-
sion because of the weakness of the government of Persia.
(4) Serious calamity, later, because of the contest
between Egypt and Persia, a contest in which the Jews
were compelled to take part, and in which they suffered
as perhaps never before in their history. From psalms Pss, 74:79.
of this period we learn that the enemy entered Jerusalem
and the temple itself, in which they set up their
heathen standards and committed ruthless acts of van-
dalism, even setting the temple on fire. Not satisfied
52
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 28 : 1-39 ;
Lev. 16: 1-3, 17.
Numb. 18 : 1-7,
with this, they burned all the synagogues of the land
and slaughtered the people mercilessly, so that blood
ran like water in the streets of Jerusalem.
See EWALD, History of Israel, Vol. V, pp. 165-206; Cheyne,
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, pp. 357-63 ; VV. Emory Barnes,
article "History of Israel," §10, in Hastings' Dictionary of the
Bible; Guthe, article " Israel," § 66, in Encyclopaedia Biblica ;
Kent, op. cit., pp. 224-8.
§ 47. The Religio-Political Organization of Judaism,
which had thus become crystallized, considered as to its
outer form, was a. hierarchy, a government by priests ; for —
(i) The chief ruler was the high-priest, who had
despotic authority over the people, was robed in the
royal purple, and alone represented the people before
Jehovah in the holy of holies.
(2) The ruling aristocracy was made up of priests,
many of them related to the high-priest.
(3) The servants of the priests and the sanctuary
were the Levites.
(4) The religious and civil functions are performed
by one class, the priests. There is now no nation ; it is a
church.
(5) The scribes come forward in response to the
need of the times. Since the regulations concerning
life and worship were now fixed and written down, there
arose a demand for copies of the written law for the use
of synagogues and individuals. The scribes who pre-
pared these copies, being naturally better educated than
the great majority of the people and spending most of
their time in the study of the law, soon came to be looked
to as peculiarly well-fitted to interpret the law to those
less conversant with it.''
See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 392-6.
§ 48. The Place and Acts of Worship are Adjusted to
the New Situation.
(i) The temple more and more came to be the center
of the whole religious system. The thought of it as the
place where Jehovah especially manifested his presence
gave it a peculiar sanctity, so that none but the holy
= The scope of the activity of the scribes is well set forth in a saying ascribed to
Simon the Just (300-290 B. C.) : "Our fathers have taught us three things, to be cau-
tious in judging, to train many scholars, and to set a fence about the Law."
Ezra 7:6, 10-12,
21 ;
Eccles. 12:11.
Pss. 76: 1,3
79:1.
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 53
people might enter its precincts. The worst crime of
which an enemy could be capable was desecration of the
temple. But, while emphasis was thus laid upon the
temple, there was growing up alongside of it the synagogue Ps.74:8.
with a function of a different kind. These were organized
wherever there were a few Jews settled who wished to
study the law. They especially supplied the religious
needs of the many Jews scattered in many lands who
were unable to make frequent visits to Jerusalem in
order to participate in the splendid worship of the tem-
ple. While the temple services centered about sacrifices
and offerings, the service of the synagogue centered in
the reading and interpretation of the law.
See MoNTEFiORE, op. cit., pp. 390 f.
{2) Sacrifice now took on more and more a propitia- Lev. 6 : 24-7 : 9 ;
\ r ■> * * 16 : 1-34 ;
tory character, being looked upon chiefly as atonement Numb., chaps. 28;
for sin. The most minute regulations were made as to
the details of every sacrifice, the manner in which the
offering must be laid upon the altar, the disposition to
be made of the fat and the blood, the garments to be
worn by the officiating priest, etc. It seems as though
the temple services must have been a constant succession
of sacrifices.
(3) Times and seasons received more attention than Lev. 19:3;
ever before. The sabbath was particularly insisted upon
as a sign of the covenant between Jehovah and his
people. The penalty for performing any work on the
sabbath was death.
(4) The sabbatical year was now made wider in scope. Lev. 25:1-7.
so as to include the land itself which was to be allowed
to lie fallow. Furthermore, every fifty years an addi-
tional year of jubilee was to be celebrated, thus making Lev. 25:8-55.
two sabbatical years in succession. At this time all
Hebrew slaves were to be released, and all land bought
during the preceding forty-nine years was to revert to
its original owners.
(q) The feasts provided for were the Passover and Lev. 23:4-8,
33-36,39-44;
Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Tabernacles, the Numb. 28:11 ff.,
■' 26 ff.;
New Moon, the Feast of Weeks, the New Year's Feast, Lev. 23:15 ff.;
Numb. 29: 1-6;
and the Day of Atonement. They were all definitely dated Lev., chap. 16.
54 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
by month and day, and thus were still farther removed
from their agricultural origin. The Feast of Taber-
nacles was now celebrated in remembrance of the fact that
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their journey in the
wilderness. There was little difference in the manner of
celebrating the various feasts — the most characteristic
feature of them all is the endless sacrifices that accom-
panied them. They were all to a large extent of an expia-
tory nature ; nevertheless it was felt necessary to devote
one day per year to the special work of expiation, viz.,
the Day of Atonement.
(6) The public /dij/i- which had been observed during
the exile in commemoration of the exile and of the
disasters connected with it were not incorporated into
the new law, but seem to have come to an end in Zecha-
riah's time. That fasting in general was highly esteemed
as a means of propitiating Jehovah, and frequently prac-
Lev. 33:32; ticed when occasion seemed to demand it, is clear in view
Joel 1:14;' ' of the place given to it in the regulations for the Day of
Neh."':4^'9:i. Atonement, and the references to it in Joel and Nehemiah.
Ezra, chap. 9; (7) Other acts of worship. — Constant recourse was
2:4V5^:i9; had to prayer on the part of pious Jews. The chief
x^.'iiV^^^ ' objects of prayer seem to have been deliverance from
dangers, help in trouble, and forgiveness of sin with
resulting bestowal of blessings.
Keh. 7:1; 11:23; That singing and music occupied a large place in
45-47- ' worship is clear from the allusions to the singers in con-
nection with the dedicatory exercises held when the wall
of Jerusalem was completed, and from the large number
of psalms that come from this period (see § 50).
Lev. 19:26, 31; Soothsaying and ma s'ic seem to have been still prac-
Lev. 20:6, 27. J' i> A f
ticed, but were prohibited by the law, as was also necro-
mancy.
Lev. 22: 18,21,23; Vows were recos^nized and provided for by the law.
27:1-8. * ^ ■' ,
Ps. 84:1,2. §49- The Full Significance of This New Regime is
hard to grasp. The comfort afforded by it to the people
cannot be questioned. This strange system, which seems
to us, in our love of freedom, so distasteful, was, after
all, the highest result yet achieved in the development
of Israel's religion. It was based upon the doctrines
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 55
of the prophet-priests, viz., individualism and solidarity.
Its keynote was monotheism. Its God was a God whose Lev. 19:1-4;
■' 20: 26; 22: 15,
supreme attribute was holiness, and who expected in 16,31-33-
every individual of the sacred community a holiness like
his own. The underlying thought was the overwhelm-
ing sense of sin. Now, for the first time, the preaching
of the prophets through all the centuries has found its
place in the hearts of the people. The prayers are pss. 106:6-47;
prayers of confession. God has grown greater, and man
more humble in the sight of God. God is the God of
the whole world. Israel is a company of individuals in
a sacred community. Every act of life must be holy.
The religious feeling is deeper than ever before and
more universal. Men are anxious. The people, bur-
dened as they are with their anxiety, smitten as they
are in their consciousness of sin, humbled by their
ideal of God, take upon themselves the severest yoke
ever placed by religion upon the neck of man. A serv-
ice worthy of this supreme God must be regulated in its
most minute details. The service everywhere presents
the thought of sin. Sacrifice is now the great act, and
is no longer accompanied by gladness and joy. It rep- Lev. 4:1— 6:7.
resents purification from sin. It is "the chief symbol,
and the great mystery of their faith." To be holy one Lev., chap. 15;
must wash ; one must touch no unclean thing; one must Exod. 31 : 12-17.
not eat what is unclean; one must observe the sabbath,
the day of God ; and all these acts of worship cultivated
the spirit of exclusiveness. Then followed that haughty
spirit. "Man who would go up to the hill of Jehovah Lev. 21:1-24.
must now be the one who has not eaten shellfish or
pork, nor opened his shop on the sabbath, nor touched
a dead body, nor used a spoon handed him by a gentile
without washing it." We know the outcome of all this,
as it is shown us in the New Testament, but "it kept the
people separate from the world and constant to their
faith, and made them endure the greatest temptations
and the severest persecutions, and so enabled them to
preserve the precious treasure committed to them until
the time should come when the world was to receive it
from their hands."
56 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 73-81; Kent, op. cit., pp. 213 f.,
249 ff.; MoNTEFiORE, Op. cit., pp. 465-552; Wellhausen, op. cit.,
p. 497.
§ 50. The Psalms of the Second Temple are now Written,
and one fails to see the deeper meaning of all this if he
forgets that in this period the greatest number of the
Pss. 118; 121; 67. psalms were written. The old prophetic ideas, which the
people in the times of the prophet had refused to accept,
are now a part of the people's creed and are sung by
Pss. 95; 46. them with joyous hearts in the congregation. Sacred
Pss. 122; 138; 145; song becomes preeminently an act of worship. The
worship of Jehovah in this act is as joyous and as delight-
ful as it maybe sad and grewsome in the act of sacrifice.
Pss. 143:10; 139; In these very days, when such emphasis is laid upon the
125.
letter of the law, the service of song teaches that to obey
Jehovah and to trust in him, to surrender one's self
absolutely to him, is the end of all religion. Whatever
may be the experience of life, it finds expression in these
psalms ; whether it be " penitence, intellectual perplexity,
Pss. 102; 91; 130; domestic sorrow, feebleness, loneliness, the approach
Pss. 109; 116; 123.
of death, the excitement of great events, the agony of
persecution, or the quiet contemplation of nature."
For each experience there is expression, and the heart-
utterances which formed a part of the worship of this
period, sung, to be sure, in the midst of the bleating of the
lambs which are being slaughtered for the sacrifice, have
proven to be the most satisfying utterances for the soul,
in its deepest communion with God, which have ever
reached the heart of man. The ritual may have been
narrow, but the heart of every Jew was free. He was
restrained outwardly, but no such restraint hindered him
in the working of his mind and heart. Here was con-
tradiction, to be sure, but contradiction no greater than
is found in the tendency to substitute the synagogue for
the temple, which now exhibits itself in spite of the
exclusiveness that was the end and the result of the
Levitical system.
§51. The Greek Period of Influence, 332-165 B. C, added nothing
essential to the content or form of service. It furnished the test of
Judaism for which the work of Ezra and Nehemiah had been an uncon-
scious preparation. In the crisis through which the true religion was
WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 57
to pass the form given to it by these men was of inestimable value.
In the words of Cornill :''
That the development of Judaism took this special direction was a neces-
sity of the history of religion.
For the heaviest struggle of Judaism still awaited it ; the struggle against
Hellenism. One hundred and twenty-five years after Ezra, Alexander the
Great destroyed the Persian empire and made the Greeks the sovereign peo-
ple of the eastern world. Through this a profound transformation was begun,
which spread with startling rapidity and irresistible might, and led finally to
the denationalizing of the East. That which the Assyrian had undertaken
by brute force the Hellenes surmounted by the superior power of mind and
culture. Greece destroyed the nationalities of the East by amalgamating
them with itself and conquering them inwardly. Only one eastern nation
withstood the process of dissolution, yea, more, absorbed into itself the good
of Hellenism, and thus enriched and strengthened its own existence ; and that
was the Jewish. If it were able to do this, it was because Ezra and Nehe-
miah had rendered it hard as steel and strong as iron. In this impenetrable
armor it was insured against all attacks, and thus saved religion against
Hellenism. And, therefore, it behooves us to bless the prickly rind to which
alone we owe it that the noble core remamed preserved.
With this we may close our rapid survey of the history of the
development of Israel's worship. In the light of this survey we
shall next consider the more important special divisions included
in it, viz., the laws, the histories, and the psalms.
* Op. cit., pp. 162 f.
Paet Tried
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES
OF WORSHIP
V. Laws and Usages Concerning the Priest.
VL Laws and Usages Concerning the Place of Worship.
Vn. Laws and Usages Concerning Sacrifice.
VIII. Laws and Usages Concerning Feasts.
IX. Laws and Usages Concerning the Sabbath.
X. Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean.
XL Laws and Usages Concerning Prayer and Related Forms
OF Worship.
CHAPTER V.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST, CONSIDERED COMPARA-
TIVELY.
§ 52. To Speak of the History of Worship, as It is Presented in the
Old Testament, is to take for granted (1) that there were periods, (2)
that these periods differed from each other to a greater or less extent,
and (3) that there was either growth or decay, or perhaps both. The
brief survey, just finished, distinguished three such periods, each with
its peculiar characteristics, and presented what seemed to be a striking
case of development, /. e., growth from a lower and less complicated
form of worship to one higher and more complicated. These periods
were called early, middle, and later.
§ 53. Each Period Had a Lawbook or Code of Legislation Peculiar to
Itself, viz.: (i) the Covenant Code (§14, (3)) for the early period,
(2) the Deuteronotnic Code (§27) for the middle period, and (3) the
Levitical Code (§ 43) for the later period. Injunctions concerning
nearly every topic relating to worship are found in each of these codes.
These injunctions are sometimes couched in language almost the same ;
in other cases there are to be noted differences (additions or varia-
tions) of an important character ; in still other cases they are quite
contradictory. These differences, it is clear, exist because through
succeeding centuries the people (<?) changed their place of abode,
e. g., from the desert to Canaan, from Canaan to Babylon, and back
again ; (b) changed also their form of life, passing from the nomadic to
the agricultural, and from the agricultural to the more centralized or city
life ; {c) changed their form of government, passing from a tribal form
to the monarchical, and from that to a theocratic or hierarchical form;
{d) came into contact with different nations, from whom much was
learned, e. g., the Canaanites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the
Persians, and the Greeks ; (e) were given great leaders, lawgivers, kings,
and prophets, through whom, from time to time, new and better ideas
of God and worship were taught.
Now, the different codes named above, as they severally appear and
are adopted by the nation, reflect the onward and upward movement
of the people toward the great goal of the nation's history, the time
when Jesus Christ shall come and teach as men had never taught
61
62 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
before. These codes, then, are different expressions of the usage and
law of successive epochs. To understand any special topic connected
with worship, one must examine systematically what each code con-
tains on that topic. This is the comparative study of the laws relating
to worship.
§ 54. The Constructive Study of a Subject is Possible Only on the
Basis of the Comparative Study. — It is not the earliest usage in a par-
ticular case, e. g.,7s. distinction between the priest and the laity, nor the
latest, that gives us a true idea of Israelitish thought and custom ; it
is, rather, the latest as growing out of and including, not only the
earliest, but all the intervening steps between the two. At no one
time did growth or decay stop ; and it is only when we have the whole
process before us that we begin to understand its significance.
§ 55. Side by Side with the Codes We Find in the Hexateuch Also His-
tories which refer frequently to customs of worship. It is interesting
to note that each code is imbedded in a separate history; e. g., (a) the
Covenant Code is a part of a gx&zX prophetic history beginning with the
creation and continuing down to the times of the Judges; (^) the Deu-
teronomic Code (Deut., chaps. 12-26) is a part of a history which is
found, not only in the earlier part of Deuteronomy, but also in some
places in Joshua, and elsewhere ; while {c) the Priest Code is also closely
connected with a history which begins with Gen. i : i and continues
through Numbers. In studying the subject of worship, it is of interest
to note what is said in these histories concerning each subject considered.
§56. The Later Histories contained in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles give especial attention to the subject of worship. Just
as the history in the books of Samuel and Kings is written from the
prophetic point of view, that in these later books is written from the
priestly point of view (see § 10), and hence gives much information con-
cerning the institutions of worship as they existed at the time these
books were written.
§57. The Prophets Were Always Deeply Interested in Matters of
Worship ; sometimes, as opponents of the ideas and practices existing
in their day, they were trying to introduce new and better ideas; at
other times, as allies of the priesthood, they were strivmg to awaken the
zeal of the nation in behalf of the worship of Jehovah. In either case
their writings contain much that is of value in a study of the develop-
ment of Israel's ideas concerning worship.
§ 58. The Priest Code, Manifestly, Is the Great Source of Informa-
tion upon the subject of worship, because {a) it contains the fullest
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 63
presentation of each subject ; (/^) it is from the hands of the priests
themselves, who were most deeply interested ; and {c) it presents the
latest stage of growth. But this Priest Code is itself a growth, and
contains at least four strata of material, each of which represents a
different age and stage of development. These are :
1. The Holiness Code, contained in Lev., chaps. 17-26, a body of
laws which, as the name implies, lays especial emphasis upon the
thought of the holiness of God and the necessity of corresponding
holiness on the part of his people.
2. A collection of priestly teachings in reference to various sacri-
ficial and ritualistic matters.
3. A set of miscellaneous materials, such as genealogical lists,
elaborations of laws, and illustrative narratives.
4. A historical narrative from the creation up to the settlement in
Canaan, which forms the basis of the P document, the three preceding
elements having been incorporated into it.
See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 6th ed., pp.
126-59; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch,Vo\. II, pp. 169-91 ; J. E. Car-
penter AND G. Harford-Battersbv, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 121-57.
§ 59. The Priest of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the
Covenant Code ; {V) the historical material of J and E ; {c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and {d) the
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances.'
I. The only allusion in the Covenant Code.*
Exod. 20 : 26.
'On the date, character, contents, and limits of these various documents see
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament; also J. E. Carpenter
and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch; W. E. Addis, The Documents of the
Hexateuch; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch; HOhZlNGER, £inleitung
in den Hexateuch ; Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexateuch" in Encyclopedia
Biblica; F. H. Woods, article "Hexateuch" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible;
Kuenen, An Historico- Critical Inquiry into the Origin of the Hexateuch ; Well-
YikXi^YM, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 228-391; Steuernagel, Allgemeine
Einleitung in den Hexateuch {=^Handkommentar zum Alt. Test., I. Abtheilung, 3. Band,
pp. 249-86); W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, "The Pentateuchal Question," in
Hebraica,No\.Y, pp. 18-73, 137-89, 243-91 ; Vol. VI, pp. I-48, 109-38, i6l-2tl
241-95; Vol. VII, pp. 1-38, 104-42; Vol. VIII, pp. 15-64, 174-243.
For a discussion of these questions from a different point of view see especially
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts; cf. also Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and
Structure; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch and Moses and the
Prophets.
" The following references are from the J document : Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12:8; 22 : 13
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 19 : 22 ; 32 : 25-29 ; 4 : 14-17 ; 32 : 1 ff.; and the following from the E
document: Exod. 20 : 26 ; 24:4-8; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1; 10:6; Josh. 24:33.
64 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
2. Non-priests frequently do priestly work.
Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12 : 8 ; 22 : 13 ; Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 24 : 4-8 ; Judg. 13:19;
I Sam. 7:1; 13 : 8-14 ; 2 Sam. 6: 14-18 ; i Kings 18 : 30-38.
3. The story of Micah's priest.
Judg., chaps. 17 and 18.
4. The consecration of the priest.
Exod. 1 9 : 22 ; Judg. 17:5,12; i Sam. 7:1.
5. The service rendered by the priest.
I Sam. 4:4; 7:1; I Kings i : 34 ; i Sam. 21 : 1-9 ; Hos. 4:6; Mic.
3:11; Isa. 28 : 7.
6. Priests were consulted as soothsayers.
Judg. 18:5,6; I Sam. 23 : 6-13 ; 30 : 7 ff.
7. The tribe of Levi.
Exod. 32 : 25-29 ; Deut. 33:8-11.
8. Aaron and his descendants.
Exod. 4 : 14-17 ; 32: iff.; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 24:33.
9. The sons of Eli and their behavior.
I Sam. 1:3; 2 : 22-25 '> 4^4; i Kings 2 : 27.
10. Elijah and the priests of Baal.
I Kings 18 : 19-40.
11. The prophets' estimate of the priest.
Hos. 4 : 6-9 ; 5:1; 6:9; Amos 7 : lo-i 7 ; Mic. 3:11; Isa. 28 : 7.
12. The priest's dress and equipment.
1 Sam. 2:18; Judg. 17:5; 18:14,20; i Sam. 23 : 6, 9-12 ; 30:7,8.
13. The priest's maintenance.
Judg. 17:10; 18:4; I Sam. 2 : 12-17 I 2 Kings 12 : 16.
14. The high-priest.
2 Kings 12 : 10 (?).
§ 60. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What is the significance of the lack of any reference X.0 priest in
the Covenant Code (see § 15, (2))?
2. What connection is there between this lack of reference and the
fact that laymen in early times acted as their own priests ? Is there
evidence that in cases where non-priests offered sacrifice they were doing
so {a) through regularly appointed priests, or {p) by special divine
authority ?
3. Consider from the story of Micah's priest {a) the character of
the times, {p) the existence of idolatry, {c) the place of the priest
('/.§i6,(2)).
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 65
4. How early and in what way were priests set apart or consecrated ?
5. Formulate a list of the various functions performed by the priest
in those days.
6. To what extent did people consult the priest about the ordinary
affairs of life ? Cf. the case of Samuel (i Sam. 9:6 ff., ig f.).
7. With what events and in what connection do the references to
the tribe of Levi in this period appear ?
8. Trace the line of Aaron as it is indicated down to later times.
What, according to the tradition, was Aaron's ofificial relation to Moses ?
9. From the story of Eli's sons, point out {a) the basis of their
right to be priests, (^) their functions as priests, {c) the various ways in
which they abused their office.
10. Consider, in the story of Elijah and the priest-prophets of
Baal, {a) the significance of the large number of prophets of Baal, {b)
the non-priestly character of Elijah.
11. Enumerate, one by one, the shortcomings of the priests which
are criticised by the prophets, and consider whether this state of things
owed its existence {a) to a growing formality and emptiness of the
Israelitish religion, or (^) to the influence exerted on the Israelitish
religion by the neighboring religion, which was very sensual in its
character, or {c) to the fact that now for the first time the prophets are
holding up these high ideals, the priest-practice in Israel, as among
other nations, having always been upon a low plane.
12. Consider the references to the priests' dress and equipment,
and explain particularly the ephod, the Urim, and Thummim.^
13. What evidence is there that the priest in this period had any
special perquisites or any regular maintenance ?
14. How much may fairly be inferred as to the functions and
authority of the high-priest in this period ?
3 See the article " Ephod," by G. F. Moore, in Encyclopedia Biblica; the article
"Ephod," by S. R. Driver, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; van Hoonacker,
Le Sacerdoce levitique, pp. 370 ff.; KONIG, Religious History of Israel, pp. 107 ff.; G. F.
}AoOK^, Judges, p. 381 ; KoNiG, Hauptprobleme, pp. 59-63; Foote, "The Biblical
Ephod," \xi Johns Hopkins University Circulars, May, 1900. On "Urim and Thum-
mim" see Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {\%^i); Kirkpatrick, The First Book of
Sawz^f/ (Cambridge Bible Series), pp. 217 f.; Kalisch, Exodus, p. 544; Wellhau-
SEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 394 f.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament
in the Jewish Church, 2d ed., p. 292, note I; T. Witton Tit^WY.?,, Magic, Divina-
tion and Demonology, p. 75 ; Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series),
p. 33 ; NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger,
Hebraische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 f.; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestament-
lichen Priesterthiims untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Geschichte des Vvlkes Israel, Vol. I,
pp. 156,471-3, 505 f-, 517 f-
66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§6 1. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid-
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History,"
observing the following suggestions: (i) include only what can be
corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above);
(2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of
few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what
did not exist.
§62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a)
in the laws of Deuteronomy, {f) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deuter-
onomic period/
1. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class.
Deut. 10:8; 18 ; I ; i Sam. 2 : 28 ; Jer. 1:18; 8:1; 13:13; 23 :"33f.;
26:7 f., II, 16 ; 28 : I, 5 ; 33 :2i ; 34 : 19.
2. The service rendered by " the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10 :8 ; 21 : 5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 £f. ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8,
9, 12 ; 19 : 17 ; 20 : 2 ; 24 :8 ; Jer. 18 : 18.
3. The prophets' estimate of the priest.
Jer. 2:8; 5:31 ; 6: 13 ; 14:18; 23 : 1 1 ; 32:32; Zeph. 3:4.
4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons,
1 Sam. 2 : 27-36.
5. The relative authority of priest and prophet.
Jer. 29: 25 f.; 5 : 31 ; 20 : I ff. ; 11 : 18-23 ; cf. i ; i.
6. Differences of rank within the priestly order.
2 Kings 23 : 4, 8, 9 ; Jer. 52 : 24 ; 29 : 25 f.; 19:1; Deut. 18:6 f.
7. Maintenance of "the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10:9; 12 : 12 ; 18 : 1-8 ; 14 : 27, 29.
8. Residence of priests.
Deut. 18 : 6, 7 ; Jer. i : i ; c^ 1 1 : 21, 22 ; 32 : 6 £f.; Jer. 29 : i .
9. Priests consulted as soothsayers.
Deut. 33 : 8.
§63. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider the circumstances which, ordinarily, would encourage
the building up of a special priest class. What connection existed
between the centralization of worship in Jerusalem (§27, (2); cf. Deut.,
chap. 12) and the growth of a special class of priests? What is
implied in the constantly recurring phrase " the priests the Levites"
* References printed in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in
Deuteronomy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 6/
{cf. Deut. 17 : i8 ; i8 : I ; 21 : 5 ; 27 : 9 ; 31 : 9) ? Does it mean (^/. Deut.
10:8) that all priests were Levites and all Levites priests ?
2. Formulate the different functions which together made up the
service of " the priest the Levite," distinguishing between regular and
special functions. Consider the difference between the work of the
prophet, the wise (man), and the priest (Deut. 18 : 18; Jer. 18 : 18).
3. What, according to the prophets, is the priest's attitude toward
Jehovah and the true religion ?
4. Compare the later view (i Sam. 2 : 27-36) of the wickedness of
Eli's sons with the former (i Sam. 2 : 12-17, 22-25), note the points of
change, and consider to what extent this is in harmony with Deuter-
onomic representations.
5. Recall the authority of the prophet {a) in the days of Saul,
David, Solomon ; {J)) in the days of Elijah and Isaiah ; and {c) consider
to what extent, in the days of Jeremiah, the prophet had lost authority,
while the priest had gained it.
6. Indicate the extent to which differences of rank had come to
exist among the priests, and the significance of this fact.
7. Enumerate very accurately the sources of income and main-
tenance which were enjoyed by " the priests the Levites."
8. Were there special places of residence assigned to " the priests
the Levites"? Did priests own property?
9. Is there anything additional to be said about the use of Urim
and Thummim ?
§64. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid-
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in the Middle Period of Israelitish
History" — that is, the so-called Deuteronomic period — discussing par-
ticularly {ii) the class system, {B) the higher position now occupied,
{c) the functions, {d) the maintenance provided by law.
§65. The Priest as Described by EzekieL
1. Ezekiel himself was a priest.
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14.
2. Priesthood was limited to the sons of Zadok.
Ezek. 44 : 15 f.; 40 : 46 ; 43 : 19, 24-27 ; 44 : 6-31 ; 48 : 1 1.
3. The priest's dress.
Ezek. 42 : 14 ; 44 : 17-19.
4. Special "holiness" was required of priests.
Ezek. 4 : 14; 44 : 20-22, 25-27, 31.
5. Service rendered by priests.
Ezek. 44 : II, 14, 15, 16, 23 f. ; 40:46; 43 : 21, 24, 27.
68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. Residence of priests.
Ezek. 48 : 10-14 ; 42 : 13 f.; 46 : 19-24.
7. Maintenance of priests.
Ezek. 42 : 13 f.; 44 "• 28-30.
§ 66. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider the significance of the fact that Ezekiel, and also Jere-
miah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi — all the later prophets — were
priests. Note that Ezekiel preached his visions of Israel's glorious
future after the fall of Jerusalem. Consider the circumstances which
led him to foresee and proclaim a system so exclusively ecclesiastical.
2. What limitation of the priesthood does he introduce, and why?
In what respect is this an advance upon the Deuteronomic usage ?
3. Consider the regulations made concerning the priest's dress;
what was their purpose ?
4. Enumerate the particular requirements made of the priests which
were intended to mark their holiness, and show, in each case, how this
was to be secured. In what sense is the word " holy " to be understood ?
5. Indicate in what particulars the service required of the priest in
Ezekiel's code differs from that of the Deuteronomic Code (§62, (2) );
and show the principles underlying these changes.
6. What was to be the place of the priests' residence, and its
extent ? The meaning of the word " oblation " ?
7. Prepare in detail a list of the items mentioned which should
serve as the maintenance of the priest. Is there any variation from
those mentioned in Deuteronomy ?
^567. Constructive Work. — Prepare a paper showing how the priest,
as seen in Ezekiel's vision, differed from the priest of the Deutero-
nomic times.
§ 68. The Priest of the Later Period, that is, as described {a) in the
laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.^
1. Distinction between priests and Levites everywhere presupposed.
Numb. 4: 1-15, 19; 8:14-26; 18:1-7; 17:1-11; 25:10-13; I Chron.
6:49-53-
2. Special holiness required of priestly class.
Lev. 21 : 1-9, 17-23; 22:1-8; 10:6; Exod. 30:19.
3. Service rendered by priests.
Lev. 10:8-11; Numb. 4: 4-14, 16; Lev. 16:32; 6:20-22; Hag. 2 : 1 1-13;
Mai. 2 :4-7 ; Numb. 18: 1-7; 27:21; 2 Chron. 19: 8, 11.
s References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 69
4. Service rendered by Levites.
Numb. 4:1-3, 15, 21-33; 2:17; 3:23-26, 29-32, 35-38; 18:1-7;
3:5-10; Ezra 6: 20; Neh. 1 1 : 15-18, 22 ; i Chron.6 :3i-48; 15:2;
23 : 27-32 ; 26 : 20-32; 2 Chron. 5 : 4 f.; 19:8, 11.
5. Influence and numbers of priestly class.
Lev. 16:32; Numb. 4:19, 271, 33; 3:1-4; 4:34-49; 35:25-34; Hag.
1:1,12,14; Zech. 3:1-10; 6: q &..(?); Ezra 1:5; 2:61-63,70;
3:2, 8-13; 5:2; 6:16; 7:7, 13, 16; 8:15-20, 29 f.; Neh.
II : 15-18, 22 ; 12 : 1-26 ; 3 : 20, 22, 28 ; 5:12; i Chron. 6 : 1-47 ;
9:10-34 ; 23: 1-24.
6. Place and work of the high-priest.
Numb. 35 : 25-34 ; Lev. 16 : 4-32 ; 6 : 22 ; Exod. 29 : 9 ; Numb. 27 : 21 ;
Zech. 3 : i-io ; 6 : 9 ff . (?); Neh. 13:4, 28-30.
7. Consecration of high-priest.
Lev. 21 : 10-15 ; 6 : 20-22 ; 8 : 12, 14-36 ; Exod., chap. 29 ; Lev., chap.
9 ; Numb. 20 : 23-29.
8. Dress of priests.
Neh. 7 : 70-73 ; Lev. 6:10 1; 8:1-9,13,30; Exod., chap. 28; 39:1-31;
40:13 f.
g. Residence of priests.
I Chron. 6:54-81; Josh. 21:1-42; Numb. 35:2-8; Neh. 11:3;
Numb. 2:17; 3 : 23-26, 29-32, 35-38.
10. Maintenance of priests.
Lev. 27 : 30-33 ; chap. 7 ; Numb. 3 :4648 ; Ezra 7 : 24 ; Neh. 12 : 44-47;
13:10-14; Numb. 18: 20 f., 24-31.
1 1. Courses of priests and Levites.
Ezra 6:18; I Chron. 24 : l — 26: 19 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 11 f.; 8 : 12-15.
12. Prophets' estimate of the priests.
Hag. 2 : 1 1-13 ; Zech. 3 : i-io ; 6 : 9 ff. ; Mai. i : 6-10 ; 2 : 4-9 ; 3 : 3 ;
Isa. 61:6; 66 : 21 ; Joel 1:9, 13 ; 2:17.
§ 69. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Is there anywhere {c/. Neh. 11 : 20) in the post-exilic literature a
passage in which the wcrds ''priest" and "Levite" are synonymous?
C/. Ueut. (§62, (i)), and consider (a) the circumstances which have
led to this differentiation, (d) its significance, and (c) the great change
which has taken place since the time when everyone might be his own
priest {c:/. §§58, (2); 15, (2)).
2. What special limitations were imposed upon the priests (Aaron's
sons) to secure their holiness ?
3. Enumerate carefully the kinds of service expected of the priests
yO PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(Aaron's sons), and note how it differs from that required in Deuter-
onomy of "the priests the Levites."
4. Enumerate the kinds of service required of the Levites, and note
the extent to which this service was in older times the work of "the
priest the Levite."
5. What are the facts concerning the numbers of the priestly classes
in this later period ? Are they larger or smaller ? Is their influence
greater or less ? What is the full significance of these facts ?
6. What part has the high-priest played in the priestly work of
earlier times ? What is his place and work at this time ?
7. What are the details of the consecration of the high-priest, and
their interpretation ?
8. Is more care now given to the peculiar dress of the high-priest ?
If so, in what details, and for what reason ?
9. What special places are set apart for the residence of priests ?
Consider from various points of view the cities of refuge, noting espe-
cially the absence of any reference to them as Levitical cities in Deu-
teronomy (19 : 1-13).
10. What additions appear to the sources of income of the priests
and Levites ? Can the priests any longer be classed with the father-
less and widow as in Deut. 14 : 28, 29 ?
11. What is to be understood by the classification of the priests
and Levites into courses and divisions ?
12. How did the prophet, although himself a priest, estimate the
priests of his times ?
§ 70. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of material in §69 write
a paper on the priest in later Israelitish history, noting especially
such points as indicate changes in comparison with preceding periods.
§71. Literature to be Consulted.
Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXXVI (1865);
S. I. CuRTiss, The Levitical Priests (1877); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel (1878), pp. 1 21-51; Y^VY.^'S.^, National Religions and Universal Religions
(Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 314-17; Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883), pp.
78-83, 127-31; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part I, pp. 559-659; Schurer,
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ {1SS6), Second Division, Vol. I,
pp. 207-305; W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyclopcedia Britannica (1889);
MoNTEFiORE, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp.
65-70, 1 16-18, etc.; SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology {l^g2),stt Index; KiTTEL,
History of the Hebrews (1892), see Index; E. H. Plumptre, article "Priest" in
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 2d ed. (1892); Driver, Deuteronomy {lnteTnsitiona.1
Critical Commentary, 1895), see Index; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 70,
183; 'Rkigg?,, Higher Criticism of the //l?j-a/^«fy4 (1897), p. 1 04; Pick, " The Jewish
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 7 1
High Priests Subsequent to the Return from Babylon," in Lutheran Church Review,
1898, pp. 127-42, 370-75, 655-64; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria
(1898), see Itidex; Toy, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Polychrome Bible, 1899),
pp. 193 f.; W. R. Harper, "The Priestly Element in the Old Testament as Seen in
the Laws," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 258-66; Duff, Old Testament The-
ology (1891-1900), see Index; G. A. Cooke, article "Levi" in Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible (1900); McCuRDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901),
see Index; Walker, " The Levitical Priesthood," Journal of Biblical Literature,
1900, pp. 124-37; Berlin, "Notes on Genealogies of the Tribe of Levi in i Chron.
23-26," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. XH (1900), pp. 291-8 ; Laidlaw, "The Priest
and the Prophet," Expository Times, 1900; H. M. Chadwicke, "Ancient Teutonic
Priesthood," Folk-Lore, Vol. XI (1900), pp. 268-309 ; Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle:
Studies in the Priesthood and the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901).
Graf, " Zur Geschichte des Stammes Levi," in Merx, Archiv fiir wissenschaft-
liche Erforschung des Alten Testamentes, Vol. I (1867), pp. 68-106, 208-36 ; Maybaum,
Die Entzvicklung des altisraelitischen Priesterthutns (1880); Smend, Der Prophet
Ezechiel {i^?io), pp. 360-62; KiTTEL, "Die Priester und Leviten," in Theologische
Studien aus Wiirtemberg, Vol. II (1881), pp. 147-69; Vol. Ill, pp. 278-314; Kuenen,
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testaments (188$), Vol. I, pp.
281 ff.; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887), Vol. I, pp. 152 ff., 468 ff.; Baudis-
SIN, Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889); H. VOGELSTEIN,
Der Kampf zwischen Priestern und Leviten seit de7t Tagen Ezechiels. Eine historisch-
kritische Untersuchung (1889); KuENEN, "Die Geschichte des Jahwepriesterthums
und das Alter des Priestergesetzes " (1889), in Gesammelte Abhandlungen,-^^. 465-
500; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d
ed. 1899), see Index; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 405-28;
Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 87-130 ; Marti,
Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 44 ff., 50, 72, etc.- H. Boury, Z^j
Pretres d^ Israel {i 898) ; Hummelauer, Das vormosaische Priesterthum in Israel { 1 899);
VAN Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce levitique (1899), and " Les Pretres et les Ldvites dans
le livre d'Ezekiel," Revue biblique, 1899, pp. 177-205.
See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Ilolzinger, and Gunkel on
Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and
Baentsch on Leviticus; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy; and of
Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel.
§72. Supplementary Topics .
1. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and
from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ;
no: 4; 115 :io, 12; 118:3; 132:9.16; 133:2; 134:1-3; I35:i9f.
formulate the thought relating to \\it priest ^\\\c\i is found in the Psalter.
2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of \S\q. priest
occur in the Wisdom Literature, /. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
and Song of Songs ?
3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament
writings, e. g.. Matt. 2:4;8:4; 12:4 f. ; 16:21; 20:18; 21:15; 26 :3;
27:1; Mark 2 : 26 ; Luke i : 5, 8, 9 ; 10:31; 17 : 14; John i : 19;
72 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Acts 4 : i, 36 ; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4 : M f- ; 5 : i. 5 f-. 10 ; 6 : 20 ;
chap. 7; 8 : I, 3 f.; 9 :6 f., 11, 25 ; 10 : 11, 21 ; 13 :ii; i Peter 2 : 5, 9;
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20 :6; etc., and indicate such points of difference,
as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa-
ment, as seem most important.
4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ-
ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews.
See VV. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Briiannica ; the articles
"Pontifex" and "Sacerdos" in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and
Antiquities; Martha, Les Sacerdoces athiniens.
5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words
for priest, in Hebrew "iHlD, Greek i(.pi.vi,\->2i\\xi sacerdos.
Cf. W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyc. Brit., Vol. XIX, p. 746; Nowack,
Hebr. Arch., Vol. II, pp. 89 f, ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill,
pp. 130 f.
6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs,
and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note
points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among
the Hebrews.
See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index) ; W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites {Index) ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments
{Index); Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life atid Cus-
toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.
7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that
their nation was a kingdom of priests (cf. Exod. 19 : 6), the basis of this
conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it
exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, c. g., with the
idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con-
ception of their relation to the world.
8. Consider, in general, what may be called the outside functiovs of
the priest,/.*?., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g.,
his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; i Sam. 4:4, 11; in
education. Lev. 10 : 11 ; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13 ; in administration of justice,
Deut. i7:8f., I2;i9:i7;2i:5;in prophecy, Deut. 33:8; Jer. 1:1;
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14-
9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement
showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence,
the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of the priesthood
about 165 B. C.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73
See, <?. ^., I Mace, chap . 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 ff.^
20-25, 33-38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27, 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ff., 42;
14 : 20, 23, 27-49 ; 15 : I f., 6, 21, 24 ; 16: 11 £f„ 24 ; 2 Mace, i : 15 ff., 19-36 ;
2:17; 3:1, 9, 15 f., 21, 32-36; 4:7ff- 24. 29; 11:3; 14 : 3. 7. 13 : 15:12.
10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to
the prophet ; e. g., (a) Was there an early time and a later time when
the two offices were not clearly distinguished ? (d) What were the
circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction ?
(c) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in
struggle with the prophet ? (d) What was the relation of each to the
other (i) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ?
11. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between
God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class
of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ?
What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi-
ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ?
CHAPTER VI.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID-
ERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described
in (a) the Covenant Code, {/>) the historical material of J and E, (c)
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, a.nd{d)
the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note 1).
1. The only reference in the Covenant Code.'
Exod. 20 :24ff.
2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to
convenience.
Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24f.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg.
20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21 : 4.
3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God.
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; Numb. 11 : 16 f., 24 f.; 12 : 4-10 ; i Kings 2 : 28-30.
4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic
of the divine presence.
Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27,
5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made.
Exod. 3 : I ; 20 :24; Numb. 23:1-6, 14-17 ; Judg. 6 : 18-26 ; 13:15-
23 ; 20 : 18, 26 £f.; 21:4; i Sam. i : 3, 21 ; 2:14; 3 ; 1-2 1 , 10:8;
14:35; I Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7.
6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah.
2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; I Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16;
15:35^/ 18: 15 f.
7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred.
I Kings 2 : 28-30.
8. The prophets make reference to places of worship.
Amos 2:8;3:i4;4:4; 5:5; 7:9, 13; 8:14; 9:1; Isa. i: 12 ; 6: i, 4;
8:14; Hos. 4:13, 15; 8:1; 9: 4, 8, 15; 10: 8 ; 12:11; Mic. 3:12.
§ 74. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, (a) the meaning of
the emphasis laid on ear//i as the material for the altar ; (3) the reason
'The following are J-references: Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 2b:2^{.; 35:14;
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 (?); Numb, ii: 16 f., 24 f.; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6,
14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 28 : 17, 24; Exod. 20:24 £f.; Numb.
12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod. 3:1; Deut. 27:5-7.
74
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75
for objection to stone as a material ; (c) the reason for objection to
steps ; and [d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation.
2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the
altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they
pitched their tents ? (Cf. § 15 (i) .)
3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent
of meeting, and note the uses made of it.
4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel,
or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ?
5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should
be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the
use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro-
duced ? (C/:§i8(i).)
6. What were the political and social factors that were connected
with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor-
ship might be expected to follow? {Cf. § 17 (i) (d) .)
7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place
of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ?'
8. What impression does one gather from the references made by
the prophets to places of worship ?
§ 75. Place of "Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in
(a) the laws of Deuteronomy, (d) the utterances of the Deuteronomic
prophets, and (c) the Deuteronomic histories.
1. All local sanctuaries are prohibited.^
Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20.
2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship.
Deut. 12:5-8, II, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; i5:i9f.; 16:2, 5-7,
II, 15 f.; 26: 2 ; I Kings 12 : 25 — 13 : 6 ; 21:7; 22 : 3-8.
3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice.
Deut. 17 : 8ff.
4. The ark is the receptacle of the two stone tables of the law.
Deut. 10: 1-5, 8.
5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple.
Jer. 7 : 1-5, 10-15 ; 12:7; 17 : 12, 26; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2 : 20.
^ Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article
"Asylum "in Encydopcedia Biblica; J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism and
Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, A^rW, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" in Realen-
cydopddie der dassischen Alterthumswissenschaft; Barth, De Asylis Graecis.
3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron-
omy.
76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The destruction of Solomon's temple.
2 Kings 25 :9, 13-16.
§ 76. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider the circutnstatices which, in the course of centuries, led
to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this
revolution in practice ? {Cf. § 28 (3).)
2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed
the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ;
on the general intelligence of the people; on the relative position of
men and women ; on habits of life ? {Cf. § 28 (7).)
3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the
relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the
effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life?
4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use
to which it was put.
5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in
the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened.
6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of
Solomon's temple.
§ 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel.
1. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars.
Ezek. 6 : 3, 4, 6, 13.
2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful
sanctuary.
Ezek, 20 : 40.
3. The temple is desecrated by those who profane its use.
Ezek. 8; 3-18; 23:38 £.; 44:6-8.
4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the
temple.
Ezek. 25: 3.
5. The future temple.
Ezek. 37:26-28; 40:5 — 43:17; 44:9; 45 :3; 46 : 1-3; 46:19-24;
48:8 f., 21.
§ 78. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider the fact that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there
still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact.
2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in
the future {cf. § 31 {a)).
3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple
in his times ?
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP ']']
4. Consider the relation of Ezekiel's temple (/. e., the temple of
his vision) to that of Solomon, {a) architecturally, (J)) in the promi-
nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship.
§ 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described
(«) in the laws of the Levitical Code, {p) by the priestly prophets, and
{c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
1. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary.'*
Lev. 17:1-9; Exod. 29 : 42-45 ; 2 Chron. 11:16; Neh, 8:16; cf.
Isa. 19:19.
2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned.
Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : 9-34 ; Isa. 27 : 9; i Chron. 21 : 28 f.; 2
Chron. i : 1-5 ; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17.
3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings.
Exod. 25:8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb, 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f.;
Lev. 24 : 1-4 ; Numb. 7: 1-83.
4. Description of the ark.
Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. i : 1-5.
5. The building of Solomon's temple.
1 Chron. 17 : I ff.; 2i:i5£f.; 2i:28f.; 22:6ff.; 23: iff.; 28:1-3
1 1-2 1 ; 2 Chron. 2:1 — 5:1; chaps. 6 and 7.
6. The building of the second temple.
Ezra I :2ff.; 2 :68 ; 3 :8-i3 : 5 : 2-5 ; 5 :6ff.; 6: 3ff.,i4 ff.; 7 : 19-23
7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life.
Numb. 9 : 15-23.
8. Later views of the place of Solomon's temple in Israel's wor-
ship.
2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 27:2f.; chap. 29.
9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation.
Exod, 25 : 22 ; 29 : 43 ; Numb. 16:41 ff.; Mai. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89.
10. The altar of burnt-offering.
Lev. 1:10 ff.; 6:9-13; Numb. 16 : 36-40 ; 7:84-88.
11. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary.
Isa. 56:7; 60 : 7 ; Hag. i : 2-4, 7 f . ; 2:3,9; Zech. i ; 1 6 ; 4:9;
6: 12-15 ; 8:9; 14 : 16 ff.; Mai. 3:1; Mic. 4 : 1-4 ; Joel i : 9, 13 f,
16; Dan, 8 : 1 1 ; 9:17; 11:31.
12. Holiness of the sanctuary.
Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb, 3:31 f.; 4:4-15; Neh, 6:10 f.;
13 : 4 ff.; 2 Chron. 33 : 4, 7. 15 ; 36 : 17 ; Dan. 8 : 1 1 ; 9 : 17 ; 11:31.
* References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.
78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 80. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the
middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central
sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for
granted.
2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc-
tuaries which had existed in earlier times.
3. Note (a) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described;
(d) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of
view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (i) literally,
a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a
piece of splendid idealization, similar in some respects to Ezekiel's
vision. What is involved in each of these propositions?
4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the
purpose it was intended to serve?
5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo-
mon's temple with those in Kings (§73(6)), and classify the results of
the comparison.
6. Consider in the case of the second temple (a) the date of its
erection ; (d) its relative size and character in comparison with the
fiist ; (c) the special circumstances under which it was built.
7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's
religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23?
8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in
Israel's worship.
9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary
as a place for manifesting his presence?
10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function?
1 1. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service?
12. What is meant by the holiness of the sanctuary, and in what
did this consist ?
§81. Literature to be Consulted.
James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) ;
EWAI.D, The Antiquities of Israel {l^ ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 1 17-30; KUENEN,
The Religion of Israel {\^tq f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 96-100, 241 f., 256-60, 305
f., 328 ff., 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehler, Old Testafuent Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp.
250-58 ; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the
Time of Jesus Christ (1874); Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v.
"Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel {1^"]%),
pp. 1 7-5 1; CONDER, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 75
ff.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel {ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 79
"Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, " The High Place," The Hebrew Student, 1883, pp.
225-34 ; CoNDER, Heth and Moab (1883), chaps, vii, viii ; Perrot and Chipiez, His-
tory of Artin Phanicia (1885) ; E. C. Robins, The Temple of Solomon (1887); Conder,
Syrian Stone Z<7r^ (1887), pp. 42 f., 70; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews {i888-g2,
transl. 1 895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " ROBERTSON, Early Religion
of Israel {i8?>g) , s&G Index, s. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W.
R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 140-212 ; H. Sully, The Tetn-
ple of EzekieVs Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Jttdcra
(1890); J. Pollard, "On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria,"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; Duff, Old Testa-
ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s, t*. " Altar," "Place," " Sanctuary," etc.;
ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle,"
"Temple," etc.; C. BAi.l.\tiG, Jerusalem's Tetnple (1892); M.O'iiTUVlO'RTS., Religion of
the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " J. Strong,
"The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History
of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the
Monuments, Vols. I-HI (1895-1901), see Index, s. v. " Temple ; " Driver, Deuteron-
omy (1895), pp. xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic Institutions (1S96),
pp. 31-90; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant {i8g6), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann,
Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; PL B. Greene, " Hebrew
Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. Buchler, "The Fore-
Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly
Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran
Church Review, 1898, pp. 27 1-93 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {i8gS),
see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " G. C. M. Douglas, " Ezekiel's Temple," Expository
Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff., 420 ff., 468 ff., 515-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar"
in Hastings* Dictionary of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, "Remarks on the Taber-
nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statet/ient, 1898, pp. 241-3;
Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 164-7 1;
A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), pp. 246 ff.; W. E.
Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); W. C. Allen, article "High
Place" in Hastings' Z'zV/wwary of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The
Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ?"
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8; Th. G. Soares, "Ezekiel's Temple,"
Biblical World, VoL XIV (1899), pp. 93-103 ; S. I. Curtiss, "The High Place and
Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1 900, pp. 351-5 ; L.
W. Batten, "The Sanctuary at ShWoh,'' Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX
(1900), pp. 29-33; G. Allen, "Sacred Stones," Fortnightly Review, ]z.nm.vy, 1900;
Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review,
January, 1 900; John Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: Studies in the Priesthood and
the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901); G. F. Moore, article "High Place" in Encyclo-
padia Biblica (1901).
Bahr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhdltnisses zur
hebrdischen Architektur iiberhaupt{\'ii,8); Merz, article " Tempel " in Real-Encyklopddie
fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (ist ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer-
RiNCK, Z'^j Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel {18^8) ; Kamphausen, "Bemer-
kungen uber die Stiftshiitte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. 97-121;
80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen liber die Stiftshiitte,"
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Popper, Der biblische Bericht
iiber die Stiftshutte {\%b2); RiGGENBACH, " Die mosaische Stiftshiitte: Selbstanzeige,"
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1 863, pp. 361-8 ; H. PlERSON, De heilige steenen
in Israel {\%b/s^ £f.); H. OoRT,"De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor
Jerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1867, PP- 285-306; Duhm, Z>iV Theologie der
Propheten (1875), PP- 312-20; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 143-269; KiJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollen-
dungszeil," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge,
Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber
Salomos Bauten, I Ko. 5-7," Zeitschrift fiir die altlestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1883,
pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der
alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien uftd Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740 ;
SCHURER, article "Tempel Salome's" in KlEUU's, Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alter-
thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographie du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel {1SS7 i,), Vol. I, pp. 325-43,446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff.,
113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, Peste des arabischen Heidenthums (1887), pp. 42-60,
98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos u. s. w. (1887); O.
Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. SCHOUTEN, De
tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez ET G. Perrot, le temple de
Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restitues d'aprh Ezechiel et le livre des Rois
(1889); F. V. Andrian, ZJifr Hbhenkult asiatischer und europdischer Volker (1891);
PiEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Vhis-
toire des religions. Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. de Broglie, "La loi de
I'unit^ de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congris scientijique international
des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Reli-
gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte {\sitA. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie
(1894), pp. 243-9, 364-404; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894),
Vol.11, pp. 1-86; 'Di'L'LyiKtiti, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (iSgs), see
Index, s.v. "Tempel;" H. A. PoEhs, Le sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jearim (1895); S. A.
Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) ; E. SCHURE, Sanctuaires d'Orient,
£gypte, Grice, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult-
statten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen
Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furvi^re a
r^poque romaine," VUniversite catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92; Basset, "Les sanctu-
aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves
(1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde
nach dem babylonischen Exil, Vol. II (1901), pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen
des salomonischen Tempels, i K6. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche IVis-
sensckaft,\o\.XX\ (1901), pp. 145-90 ; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung
der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901).
§82. Supplementary Topics.
I. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms : 5 : 7;
11:4; 20 : 2 ; 22:25; 24:3; 26 : 6-8, 12 ; 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 29 : 9 ;
36 : 8 ; 40 : 9; 42 : 4 ; 43 = 3 f-; 46 : 4 i 48: i f-, 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ;
55 : 14 ; 61 : 4; 63 : 2 ; 65 : i, 4 ; 66: 13; 68 : 1 5-1 7, 24, 29 ; 69 : 9 ;
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1
73:17; 74:2 ff.; 76:2; 77:13; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13;
84; 87; 92: 13; 93 : 5 ; 96:6-8; 99:9; 100 : 4; 102: 13 ff.; 114: 2;
122 ; 125 : I ; 127: i (?) ; 132 ; 134 ; 135 : i f.; 138 : 2 ; and formulate
a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the
idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter.
2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc-
ryphal books, e. g., I Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : i, 68 ; 6 : 7, 18, 26, 51, 54 ;
7:33-38 ; 9:54-57 ; 10:41-44; II :37; ^l--2>^^\ M: 15, 48; 16 : 20;
2 Mace. I : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : i ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3:2, 12, 14 ff.;
4:14; 5:15-21; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23;
14:4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem
to have been made.
3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New
Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2,6; 9:35; 12: 4-6, 9 ; 13:54;
21:12-14, 23; 23: 16-22, 35;24:iff., 15; 26:61; 27:5; Mark
1 : 21-29; 3:1; 5 : 22, 35 ff.; 6 : 2 ff.; 11 : 15 ff., 27; 12 : 41 ff.; 13 : i
ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke i : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38,
44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 : 45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f.
John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24 ; 7:14, 28; ii:55ff.; 16:2; Acts i : 13 f.
2 : I ff., 46 ; 3 : I ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : i f., 20 ; 13 : 14 f., 43 ; 14:1
16:16; 17:1 ff., 10, 17; 18:4, 8, 19; 19:8 f.; 2o:7ff.; 2i:26ff.
22 : 19 ; 25:8; 28 : 30 f.; i Cor. 8:10; 16:19; Eph. 2 : 19-22 ; i
Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. i ; Heb. 8 : i f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f.;
12:18 ff.; 13:10 ff.; Rev. 8:3; 9:13; ii:if., 19; 14:15, 18;
15:5-8; 21 : 3, 22; and formulate the points of difference which
appear.
4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting {a)
its relation to the temple, {b) the different character of its services as
compared with those of the temple, {c) its origin in response to a great
religious need, and {d) its historical significance as the forerunner of
the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1;
20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35 ; 6 : i ff.; Acts
9 : I ff . ; 1 3 : 1 3 ff . ; 14:1; 17:1, etc.^
5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan
5 See article " Synagogue" in Encyclopedia Britannica; E. H. Plumptre, article
"Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v.
" Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div.
II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp.
430-50 ; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Time of Christ; Kent, A History
of the Jewish People (see Index).
82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength
or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem ? What was the
attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple ? See, e. g., Ezra, chap.
4; Neh. 2 : 18-20; 4:1-23; 6: 1-19; 13:28; John 4:19-24 {cf. §45).
6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to
the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a
temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is
regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers.
7. Make a special study of Hezekiah's reform (see 2 Kings 18: 3-7,
22; cf. 2 Chron. 29:3 — 31:20; 32:12), considering (i) the question
concerning the age of the narratives; (2) the preparation for such a
reform prior to Hezekiah's time; (3) the suggestion that the reform
followed, rather than preceded, Sennacherib's invasion ; (4) the prob-
able relation of Isaiah to the reform movement; (5) the influence of
such an attempt in preparing the way for a later reform.
See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 363 ; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,
Vol. I, pp. 607 f., 623; Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. II, p. 518 ; Cheyne,
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, p. 365 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel, p. 23; Stade, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill,
pp. 8 ff.; VI, pp. 170 ff.; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews,Yo\. II, pp. 355 ff.; Cheyne,
article "Hezekiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; McClymont, article " Heze-
kiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica; and the commentaries on Kings by Kittel, Benzinger,
and Skinner.
CHAPTER VII.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA-
TIVELY.
§ 83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in (a) the
Covenant Code, (d) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and (^) the pre-
Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).
1. Kinds of offerings.'
Gen. 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14; Exod, 8 : 20 f.; 10 : 24 ff.; 18 : 12 ; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ;
Judg. 6:26; I Sam. 10:8; 21:6; i Kings 3:4; 12: 26-33 ; 2 Kings
16:12 £.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4:13; 9:4; 11:2.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Gen. 4:3; 15 : 9 ff.; 8 : 20 ff.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 20 : 24;
Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; i Sam. 7:9 f.;
21:6; I Kings 8 : 5.
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Exod. 34 : 25 ; 23 : 18; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; i Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam.
6:13; I Kings 18:30-38; 2 Kings 16:12 f.
4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Gen. 46:1(5/ Exod. 23:i5<r,- 34:20^/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg,
6:18-24; 13:16-19; I Sam. i:3ff.; 6:15; 7:9f.; 11:15; 20:29;
2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-215 ; i Kings 8 : 5 ; 18:30-38.
5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal.
Gen. 18 : 1-8 ; 31 : 54 ; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 : 6d, 7 ;
I Sam. I : 3 ff.; 9 : 12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20 : 29.
6. Human sacrifice was not unknown.
Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?).
7. Sacrifice to idols was common.
Exod. 32:6; I Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:i7(?); 10:19, 24 f.;
Hos. 4:13; 11:2.
8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice.
I Sam. 2 : 13-17.
'The following are J-references : Gen. 4 : 3 ; 8:20 ff.; 18:1-8; 35:14; Exod.
8:20 f.; 34:20^,25; Numb. 23 : 1-4, I4(?); Deut. 27 : 6i^, 7 (?). The following are
E-references : Gen. 15:9 ff.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31:54; 46 : i3 .• E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.;
18 :I2; 20 :24 ; 23: 15^, 18; 24 : 5 ; 32 : 6 ; Numb. 22 : 40.
83
84 PRIKSTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Amos 4:4^-; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13,19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4;
11:2; 13:2; Isa. I : 11-13 ; 34 : 6.
§ 84. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ?
What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the
meaning of the burnt-offering? of the peace-offering? of the pass-
over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period
was equivalent to a social meal ; (d) the eating of meat was a sacrificial
act ; (c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act.
2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the
flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine,
meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds
of material ?
3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a
sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the
morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice
maybe noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23 : 1-4,
14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and
what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on Gilgal, and note the
bearing of the details on the subject.
4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri-
fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What
was sought for in the act ?
5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the
religious element? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the
meal ? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ?
What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy
which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice ?
6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac,
and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the
custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong
ideas did it rest upon ?
7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to
idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that
of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to
have been expected ?
8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of
support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice.
9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85
attitude toward sacrifice ; and consider whether the prophet was
opposing (a) the act of sacrifice itself; or {/>) a cold, indifferent, hypo-
critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed
to offer sacrifice; or (c) the feeling, which had become quite general,
that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all
that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con-
stituted religion.
§85. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the
early period, embodying the material presented above.
§ 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws
of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter-
onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings.
1. Kinds of offerings.''
Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 ff.; i Sam. 2 : 27.
3. Manner of offering.
Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18; i Sam. 2 : 27.
4. Occasion and purpose of offerings.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; i Sam, 3:14; Jer. 33 : 1 1.
5. Social element in sacrifice.
Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; i Kings 3:15.
6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms.
Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28.
7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice.
Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; i Sam. 2 : 28, 36.
8. Human sacrifice still existed.
Mic. 6:6-8.
9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Zeph. I :7, 8 ; Mic. 6:6-8 ; Jer. 6: 20; 7:21 f., 29; 17:26; 33 : 11,18 ;
46 : 10 ; Isa. 43 : 23 f.
§87. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 (^) the kinds of offerings mentioned
(including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit
of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in
Mic. 6 : 6-8 (a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own
child), {b) the purpose of sacrifice, and {c) the requirement of Jehovah.
2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages
* References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy.
86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in
the earlier age.
3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ;
{d) the roasting of the flesh ; (^) the eating of the flesh ; (</) the employ-
ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice."
4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of
Israel out of Egypt, (a) in relation to time (was there not a spring
feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus?); [d) in
relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in
relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to
purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an
expression of gratitude for some favor already received ?
5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does
the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute
a sacrifice ?
6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani-
mals and the act of sacrifice? Wherein does the distinction consist?
What led to the making of the distinction? What, naturally, will
follow as a result of making this distinction ?
7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which
are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his njaintenance ;
(d) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine,
and meal ; and (c) the ground for these gifts.
8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still
used for sacrifice ?
9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac-
rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude.
§88. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain,
in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period
in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period.
§89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel.
1. Kinds of offerings.
Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40,
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Ezek. 44 : 15 ; 46:4-7.
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Ezek. 40:38-43; 44 : II, 15 ; 46 : 4-1 5, 24.
4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Ezek. 46:4-15; 43:18-27; 45:13-25.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 8/
5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet.
Ezek. 39 : 17-20 ; 46:24.
6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols.
Ezek. 20 : 28-3 1.
7. Human sacrifice.
Ezek. 16 :20 f.; 23 :39.
8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice.
Ezek. 42 : 13.
§90. Constructive Work. — Consider the various allusions to sacri-
fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a
statement covering (a) the points of resemblance and difference in
comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; (d) the more
formal and official character with which sacrifice seems to be invested
by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided
for, <?. g., in 46:4-15 ; (d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the
earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24).
§91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in (a) the
laws of the Levitical Code, {^) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the
priestly histories, <?. g., Ezra, Neheraiah, Chronicles.
1. Kinds of offerings.^
Lev. 7:1,11; 6 : 9, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: iO(^, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ;
Numb. 15 : 19 ; 5 : 11-31.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Lev. 1 : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2:1,4 f., 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3:1,31,6 f., 9 f., 12, 14 f .,
16 f.; 5 :6 f., II ; 6 : 1-7, 15, igf.; 7 : 3-5, 11 ff.; 9 : 1-4 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14: 10,
49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb.,
chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 101^-14.
3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred.
Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f. ; 9 : 19-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc.
4. Manner of sacrifice.
Lev. I : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : I f., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 f., 12 ;
6:1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23,24-30; 7 : I ff., 11-21 ; 8:14-30; 9:8-11,
12-14, 15-24 ; 14 : 10-32, 49-53 ; 16 : 3-28 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31 ;
19 : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 f.; 19 : 5-8.
5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5: 1-6, 13-15, 17-19 ; 6 ; 1-7, 30 ;
9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15, 28-30 ; 23 : io<5i-2i ; Numb.
5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10.
3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.
88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The priests' share of the sacrifice.
Lev. 2 : 3, lo ; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : 12-
20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20.
7. All slaughter is sacrificial.
Lev. 17: 1-9.
8. Few references to idolatrous sacrifices.
Lev. 17:7.
g. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice.
Isa. 19 : 21 ; 56 : 7 ; 66 : 3 ; Mai. i : 7-9 ; 3 : 3-5 ; Joel 1:9, 13 ; 2:14;
Dan. 9 : 27.
10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories.
I Chron. 15 : 26 ; 16:1; 21 : 26ff,; 29 : 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5; 2:4; 5:6;
7:4ff.;8:i2f. ; ii:i6; 13:11; 15:11; 24:14; 29: 20-36 ; 30 : 15 ff.;
3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19; Neh.
io:33f.; I2:43f.
1 1. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice.
Lev. 4:35; chap. i6 ; 9:3; io:i6ff.; Numb. 15: 22-31; 19:1-9.
§92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various
topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be
determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any
case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as
well as their religious, bearing :
1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering,
peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved
in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ-
ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible,
in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and
determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider,
now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : {a) Are they,
in each case, voluntary or obligatory? (^) Are they, in each case,
self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible
bases for classification.
2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac-
rifice, noting, (a) in reference to animal offerings: (i) the particular
animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of
the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether
the distinction between clean and unclean animals'* was in any way
connected with the choice for sacrifice ; (<^) in reference to vegetable
^ Cf. Lev., chap. 11 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and
Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. x.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89
offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or
reasons for this selection ; (c) the character of offerings worthy of being
accepted ; (d) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables,
e. g., one's hair,^ one's virginity/ one's blood ;^ (<?) objects connected
more or less closely with sacrifice, e. g., wine, incense, salt, oil, blood,
fat, leaven, honey ; (/) the meaning or significance of each kind of
material as employed in sacrifice.
3. Note the particularly important emphasis placed upon the use of
the blood and fat, and consider what was involved in this, and the
principle underlying it.
4. Study, in detail, the method of sacrifice, viz., {a) the ceremonial
of the animal sacrifice which included (i) the circumstances connected
with the presentation of the victim, e. g., the laying on of hands, the
time, the place, (2) the slaughter, (3) the use made of the blood, (4)
the flaying of the animal and its dissection, (5) the burning, (6) the
washing, (7) the waving and heaving, (8) the sacrificial meal; (d) the
ceremonial, in similar fashion, of the vegetable offering ; (c) the cere-
monial of the drink-offering ; (d) the distinction involved between
burning the offering and eating it ; {e) the distinction involved
between consuming all and only a portion.
5. Study the occasion and purpose of sacrifice as it appears in the
later period, considering (a) how far it is 7iational, i. e., offered for the
nation as a whole {cf. Exod. 29:38-42; Numb. 28:9—29:6); (h)
how far it is official, i. e., offered for certain officers of the state, the
priest, or the ruler (cf. Numb. 4: 22-26); {c) how far it is individual,
i. e., offered for the ordinary man as an individual ; (^) how far it
is festal, i. e., associated with feasts, e. g., the Passover, the Feast of
Harvest; {e) how far it is extraordinary, i. e., connected with special
rather than regularly recurring events; (/) how far it is local or
centralized, i. e., offered where one chanced to be, or at some place
selected from all other places, and authorized as the proper and only
proper place; {g) how far it is, in this period, a gift or offering, rather
than the payment of a demand or of something due.
6. Put together the various elements which made up the priest's
5 See Lev. 19:27; 21:5; cf. Jer. 7:29, and W. R. Smith, Religion of the
Semites, 2d ed., pp. 323-35.
'' Cf 1 Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:47; 2 Kings 23:7; Nowack, Hebrdische
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 132 £.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, pp. 454 ff.;
Frazer, Golden Bough, Vol. II, pp. 225 ff.
' Cf. Ps. 50 : 13 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (see Index, s. v. "Blood");
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant.
go PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
due, and consider whether [a) upon the whole he was properly repaid
for his services, (^) he deserved any longer to be classed with the
widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy.
7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is
sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the
appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those
who do not recognize this fact.
8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse.
9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice; are
they hostile? or indifferent?
ID. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with
which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) how large a place sacrifice is
given ; (d) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the
act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; (<r)
the significance of this in connection with the greater importance
attached to sacrifice in this later period.
ri. Consider (a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or
implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of si'/i; {b)
the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the
conception of God which had come to exist in this period ; {c) the
suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the
appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there
should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub-
jectively and spiritually the same idea.
§93. Constructive "Work. — -Prepare a statement which will present
in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later
and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including [a) the
chief points of practice, and {b) the essential principles involved.
§ 94. Literature to be Consulted.
J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry,
articles "Sacrifice," "Sin-Offering," " Meat-0£fering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in
Smith's ZJiV/ifwarj/ of the Bible (1863); Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel {2,d ed. 1866,
transl. 1876), pp. 23-1 ii; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp.
1-416; Part II, pp. 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; Kuenk^, /Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl.
1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp.
261-323; TvLOR, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" Sayce,
"On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions of the Society of Biblical
^rf/zf^ij/o^j/. Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31 ; E. Park, "On the Question of the Divine
Institution of Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural
Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement (iStj) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel { I SyS), pp. 52-82; R. CoLLiNS, "An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com-
mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv ; Alfred Cave. "The Levitical Sacrifices
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 9 1
Literally Considered," in The Pulpit Commentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxxi;
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (i8Ss), see Index, s. v. " Sacrifice ;" Leighton,
The Jewish Altar {1SS6); A. HoVEY, *' Shel^kar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings,"
Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. Crosby, "The Sacrifices," Old Testament
Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice" in Encyclopcedia Britannica
(1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp.
77-82 ; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Sacri-
fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1888, pp. 146-50 ;
W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Human
Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xxx;
KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;"
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-340 ;
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {iS8g), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. A.
NoRDELL, "Old Testament Word-Studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testament
Student, Vol. VIII (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. RoDWELL, The Mosaic Sacrifices in
Lev. /-///( 1890); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Sacri-
fice;" Duff, Old Testament Theology (1891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and II;
Th. E. Schmauck, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Review, 1891, pp.
127-63; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. 1: Human Sacrifices,"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archcrology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-53;
MoNTEFlORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristram,
"Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Times, 1894, No. i ; H. C.
Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (iSg^), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" A.
Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K. Cheyne,
"The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Sca.pegO!it," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- '53-6; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonement
Money," The Thinker, 1895 "> A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice,"
Bibliotheca Sacra, 1 895, pp. 342-6 ; Menzies, History of Religion {\%g^),%ee Index,
s. V. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant {iSgb), see Index, s. v. "Sacri-
fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v.
"Offerings;" Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v.
"Sacrifices;" A. Fairbanks, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems,"
The IVew World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering and Sacrifice: An
Essay in Comparative Custotns and Religious Development (1899); TRUMBULL, The
Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religion
and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 1900 ;
S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
(1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," i^^rw^'o'
Church Review, ]2in\x3^ry, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice
in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-3x3;
Davis, " The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900 ; Edward Day, The Social
Life of the Hebrews (1901), pp. 39-46; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monu-
ments (1895-1901), §§ 738, 1006 f., 1014 ; D. McKenzie, Exposition of Old Testament
Sacrifice (1901).
V. Thalhofer, Z)?if unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus {1848); Heng-
stenberg. Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1852) ; Riehm, " Ueber das Schuldopfer,"
Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121 ; S. W. RiNCK, "Ueber das Schuldop-
fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855, pp. 369-8 1; A. Stoeckl, Das Opfer, nach
g2 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
seinem Wesen und seiner Geschichte (i860); Oehler, revised by von Orelli, article
"Opferkultus des A. T.'s" Real-Encyklopddie fiir protestantiscke Theol. und Kirche
(2d ed., 1883); Menant, "Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chaldeens," Gazette
archeologique, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's
Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen
Heident/iums {i%^-j), pp. 110-28; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (i%%-] f.), Vol. I,
pp. 492-8; Vol. II, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammellestamentlige
Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp. 281-3 (1889); Friedr. Nitzsch, Die Idee
und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C. PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culle
et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de V histoire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86;
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et V expiation (1891); A. Schmoller, "Das
Wesen der Siihne in der alttestl. Opferthora," Theol. Sttidien und Kritiken, 1891, pp.
205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899),
pp. 138-45; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 203-
75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), PP- 431^64 ; P. Schanz, "Der Opfer-
begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, 1894, pp. 179-222; G. A. ?>\^G^\ST, V idee du sacrifice
danslA. 7'.(l894); T)ll.-LMA-S^,Handbuch der alttestl. Theologie (iSgS), see Index, s. v.
" Opfer ; " Stade, " Die Eiferopferthora," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestl. IVissenschaft, 1 895,
pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli-
gion (1896) ; Marti, Geschichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-31 ; Levi,
La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmdnas (1898); G. DE Alviella, "La theorie du
sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Vuniversite de Bruxelles,
April, 1898; M. Lambert, " Le mot 's^^;' Journal asiatique,Vo\. XI (1898), pp.
326 f.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestametttlichen Opferidee (1899); A.
Loisv, "Notes sur la Genese. VI: Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22:1-19," Revue de
Phistoire et de la litterature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. VOLZ, "Die Handauf-
legung beim Opfer," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1901 ; Lefebure,
■" Le sacrifice humain d'apr&s les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill,
No. 2; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, (1856), Vol. II, pp. 142-55.
§95. Supplementary Topics.
1. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter,
€. g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5,8-14, 23; 5i:i6f., 19; 54:6;
56 : 12 ; 66 : 13, 15 ; 96 : 8 ; 106 : 28, 37 f.; 107 : 22 ; 1 16 : i 7 ; 1 18 : 27 ;
and consider (a) the attitude in general of these song-writers; {l>) how
far they have spiritualized the subject ; {c) the relationship between
the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms.
2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5;
22:27; 42 : 8 f.; Prov. 7:14; 15:8; 21:27; Eccles. 9:2.
3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees — -e. g., i Mace.
5 : 54; 7 :33; 1 1 : 34 ; 12:11; 2 Mace, i : 8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :9ff.;
3 : 3, 6,32 ; 4: 14 ; 6:7; 9:16; 12 : 43 ; 13: 23; 14 : 31— determine
the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period,
and note any changes that present themselves.
4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 93
the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5 : 1-3 ; 7 : 26 f.; 9:6; 10 : 18, 26 ; 11:17;
13 : 10-16.
5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of the
various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., 1127 ; nriD12 ; tlbiy ; D''72bl2J ;
niDi^; pnp; rm^r\; min; nmD; ?iDD;'nm"; nmn; ns^in;
T T It :'t t - T T t: 1 v •/ :■ ' t : t :
yb3.
• T
Cf. S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible.
6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference as
compared with the usages of the Hebrews.
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica.
7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians,
the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif-
ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews.
See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual,"
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria {Index, s. v. " Sacrifice "); VV. R. SMITH, Religion of the Semites; L. W.
King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and
Assyrians, pp. 245-9.
8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice.
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopctdia Britannica; A. F. ScoT,
Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development.
9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical.
10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether these
teachings (a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service,
or {I)) pointed to something beyond and above.
11. (-onsider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in the
Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA-
TIVELY.
§ 96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the
Covenant Code; (d) the historical material of J and E; (c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and {d) the
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note i).'
1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread.''
Exod. 34:18; 23:15; 13:3-10.
2. The Feast of Weeks.
Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : i6a.
3. The Feast of Tabernacles.
Exod. 34:22(^,- 23:161^/ i Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27;
21 : 19 ff.
4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by
law.
Exod. 34 : 23 f.; 23 : 14-17 ; i Kings 9:25; i Sam. i : 3.
5. The feasts were connected with agriculture.
Exod. 23: 15 f.; 34:22 ; Judg. 21 . 19 £f.
6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character.
Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 ff.; i Sam. i : 3, 7, 13 £f.
7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine.
Exod. 10:9; Judg. II : 40 (?) ; I Sam. i : 3, 7 ; 2:19.
8. The Passover.
Exod. 34 : 25; 12:21-27.
9. The Feast of the New Moon.
Hos. 5 :7 (?); I Sam. 20:5 f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23.
10. Special feasts were held, ^. ^. .• the Feast of Sheep-Shearing;
the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter.
I Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 13:23; Judg. 1 1 : 40.
11. Idolatrous feasts.
Exod. 32 : 5 ; i Kings 12 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 : 20.
12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts.
Amos 5:21; 8:10; Hos. 2:11; 5:7(?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. i : 13 f.
'The following references are from J : Exod. 34 : 18-25 ; 12:21-27; 13:3-10;
10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 ; 32 : 5.
'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
94
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 95
§97. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread,
(a) the duration ; {i>) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor-
respond?); (c) the nature and significance of " unleavened bread;" (d)
the meaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;" (e)
the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point
of connection ; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different
things, viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened
Bread.
2. Consider, in connection with the F«ast of Weeks, (a) other
names for the same feast, viz.. Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, c/. Acts
2:1; 20 : 16; I Cor. 16 : 8); {d) the duration {ef. Deut. 16: 9-12) ; (c)
the date ; (d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain
harvest; {e) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old
Testament of its observance (but e/. 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New
Testament passages indicated above).
3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, (a) other
names, viz.. Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; (d) the duration (cf.
Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; (e) the date, late in the autumn ; (d) the connection
of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine;
(e) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/)
the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the
three great feasts (i Sam. i : i ff.; i Kings 12:32; 6:38); (g) the
fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan-
ites (Judg. 9 : 27); (A) the important religious significance involved in
the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of
its fruits.
4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, (a)
the number; (b) the distribution of these throughout the year; (c) the
class of persons who were expected to be present; (d) the meaning of
the phrase "appear before the Lord ; " (<?) the guarantee given of safety
upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in
Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ?
5. To what extent were these feasts of an agricultural character, that
is, connected with agricultural pursuits, e. g., harvest, ingathering of
fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with
certain seasons of the year? What was the usual time for harvest in
Palestine ? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what
feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at
Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics
96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts?
Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date?
Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in
which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the
ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among
people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural
life? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have
observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before
settling in Canaan ?
6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy?
Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments
of a feast? How far did the idea that the deity was sharing in the
festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the
eating, etc., contribute to this end? Was not the very purpose a
joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as
would interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any
feeling of the need of an atonement?
7. (i) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social
element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which
many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily
involve a pilgrimage? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like
Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi-
cal influence of such pilgrimages?
8. Consider (i) whether the Passover, although forming a part of
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that
feast ; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not pastoral (that is, of
nomadic origin), rather than agricultural; (3) the meaning of the name
"Passover;"^ (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the
evidence in Exod. 7:16; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring
festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses ; (6)
the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in
which those who partook united themselves more closely and came
into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security;
(7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time {a) with the
historical event of the exodus, and {b) with the Feast of Mazzoth.
^Cf. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri-
tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfestes ; NOWACK, Hebrdische
Arckdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 ff.; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 470 ff.;
RiEUEL, Zeitschrift fiir die altteslamentliche IVissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32;
Stade, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of nOB," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97
9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi-
cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (i) its wide
observance among Semitic peoples;" (2) its association with ancient
family sacrifices; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible
use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by
the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity.
10. Consider the Feast of Sheep- Shearing: (i) Was not this, like
the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural
feast ? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed
elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country ? (4)
How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5)
Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in
general, did it celebrate ? Consider the mourning-feast in connec-
tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual
virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history. ^
11. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those
which became authorized, as in the case of (i) Aaron and the calf, (2)
Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal.
12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these
feasts, and their influence: (i) To what extent did the feasts consti-
tute the religion of the people ? (2) How far would men postpone
religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store
did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts? Would the threat of
their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts
serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the
people ? to encourage the spirit of unity ? (5) To what extent would
these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ?
(6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole
{cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the
custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say
of the religious value of the feasts ? To what did he make objection ?
(a) the lack of heart manifested ? {b) or the fact that they were held
in honor of other gods ? or {c) the fact that the people thought the
holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and
neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ?
^ Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v.
Moon," "Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. See also Hommel, Aufsdtze und Abhandlungen
(1900), pp. 149-65.
^Cf. GOLDZIHER, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade, G^^-
schichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. Moore, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f.
gS PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will
present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier
period, as follows: (i) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5)
characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance.
§ 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described (a) in
the laws of Deuteronomy, {i>) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and (<r) by the prophets of the Deutero-
nomic period.*
1. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined.
Deut. i6 : 1-8.
2. Feast of Weeks.
Deut. 16 : 9-12,
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f.
4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary.
Deut. 16 : 5-7, II, 16 ; 31:11.
5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts.
Deut. 16 : 16 f .
6. Feasts are still occasions of joy.
Deut. 12:8; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f.; 24:11; Isa. 9 : 3.
7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis.
Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16 : i.
8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Nah. 1:15; Jer. 51 : 39 ; Lam. 1:4, 15; 2 : 6 £., 22.
9. Josiah's Passover.
2 Kings 23 : 21-23.
§ 100. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread,
consider (i) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed
together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the
connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15 : 19 ff.); (4)
the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ;
(6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec-
tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which
this feast shall be observed; (9) the change in ritual and conception
which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for
this; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two
feasts.
^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book
of Deuteronomy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99
2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed
in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven
weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be
invited to the feast; (4) the place; (5) the joyous character; (6) the
historical reminiscence suggested.
3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (i) the name and
its origin {cf. i Sam. i : 8); (2) the time (no particular day designated);
(3) the persons who are to participate; (4) the duration ; (5) the place ;
(6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character.
4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the
place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell
there ; " is it (i) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in
another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several
places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time,
viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would
follow such centralization ; <?. g.: (a) Would the feast thus transferred
to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? (/') If a
particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected
with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred
at widely separated dates ? (c) Would the historical be likely to sup-
plant the natural interpretation of the feast? (d) Would the original
ritual also lose its significance ? (<?) Could the firstlings actually be
taken to Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family
take the entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (g) Would he
sell his own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut.
14 : 24-26)? Would this affect commerce? (/i) Could a man, in this
case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and
friends with him, as in the village or country? (/) Would not this lead
to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of
the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less
individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ?
5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it
possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people
could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three
times in a year ? Would this have the effect of depriving these people
of religious privileges?
6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their
joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the
new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and family, lost
as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ?
100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
7. Although feasts are still nominally on an agricultural basis
{cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be
possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view
of (i) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time
being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at
different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his-
torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com-
memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the
purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ?
8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do
with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in
view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may
we understand to have been their general position on the subject of
these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an
essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them
modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined
with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in
the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that
the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison
with a pure and simple life?
9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and
his people in 621 B. C, (i) what attitude was taken by the king
toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time
(</. Deut. 23 : 4-20) ? (2) What was the command issued as to the
observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into
disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the
character of the Passover observed on this occasion ?
§ loi. Constructive "Work. — Write a statement covering three points :
(i) the feasts which now no longer seem to be observed, and the rea-
sons ; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts
transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these
modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the
adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts)
to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a
better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with
the changes which had now come about ?
§102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17, 18-21,
22-25 ; 46 : I, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (i) whether, in general, Ezekiel has
much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies
along other lines, or because the development has already reached its
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS lOI
highest point ? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what ?) that the Deutero-
nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite
dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig-
nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to
that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be
found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character. (6) Is the
centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel
proposes ?
§ 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the
laws of the Levitical code, (d) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.^
1. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread.
Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 ; 9 : i-i4 ; Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2
Chron. 8:13; 30 : 13-27 ; 35 : 1-19 ; Ezra 6; lg-22.
2. Feast of Weeks.
Lev. 23 ; 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13.
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Lev. 23:34-36, 39-44; Numb. 29:12-38; 2 Chron. 5:3ff.; 7:8-10;
8:13; Ezra 3:4; Neb. 8 : 13-18.
4. Feast of the New Moon.
Numb. 28 : 1 1-15 ; i Chron. 23:31; 2 Chron. 8:13; 31:3; Ezra 3:5;
Neh. 10:33.
5. Feast of Trumpets.
Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10.
6. Definite dates are fixed.
Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther g:2i.
7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost.
Lev. 23 : 42 f .
8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted.
Zech. 14 : 16-19 ; i Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19.
9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts.
Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9.
10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Zech. 14:1 6-1 9 ; Joel 1:14; 2:15.
11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts.
Lev. 23:19; chap. 16; Numb. 28:15, 22, 30; 29:5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25,
28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10.
12. Day of Atonement.
Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-11 ; Exod. 30: 10.
7 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical code of laws.
102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
13. Feast of Purim.
Esther 8:17; 9 : 15-32.
§ 104. Questions and Suggestions.
1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of
the -Passover and Unleavened Bread, note (i) the new phrases, "set
feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness
with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work;" (4)
the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering
which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering;
(5) that in time (cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that
the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that
Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared
them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover
(Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2
Chron. 30: 13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's
times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover;
(10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character;
\\2) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of
voluntary gifts.
2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (i) that the same
general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened
Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a
feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer
considered a nature feast.
3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (i) the same
points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts,
viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each
day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's
observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark
(2 Chron. 5:3ff.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con-
nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in
connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3:4); (5)
the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8 : 13-18).
4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of
the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (i) that a regular
ceremonial is instituted; (2) that frequent merttion is made of it in
connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger
emphasis.
5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Trumpets, (1) its connec-
tion with the sabbatical system;' (2) the provisions given for its
^See chap. ix.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3
observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets
with various feasts.
6. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that now the
exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact,
as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations.
7. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that the agri-
cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case
of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment),
a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted; (3) the signifi-
cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the
general character of the feasts.
8. Consider (i) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in
the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken
for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa-
lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets
and historians of the period.
9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (i) whether the largest
emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice ; (2) whether, in fact,
with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac-
tically ignored; (3) the influence of this upon the people; (4) the
explanation of it.
10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets
toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre-
ciation, or hostility? Why has this change of attitude come about?
Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new
policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's
religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really
priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ?
Had prophecy now died ?
11. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi-
nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea ? that, therefore,
confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the
fact, how is it to be explained ?
12. Concerning the Day of Atonemetit, one may undertake to
answer the following questions: (i) Was it observed in the early or
middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period ?
(2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement
(45: 18-20) ? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration
of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7:35; 8:19? (4) Or with
the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in
104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance?
Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of
the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What
evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What
is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your
souls" (Lev. 16: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the
idea of sin involved in this institution ?
13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (i) its origin and
occasion; (2) its date; (3) the question of its connection (^z) with a
Persian feast, (^) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the
name; (5) the method of observance.'
§ 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show
the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between
the usage of the middle period and that of the later period.
§ 106. Literature to Be Consulted.
A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix
i\\'=^The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; ScHULTZ, Old Testatnent Theology (ist ed. 1869,
5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; KuENEN, Religion
of Israel {i?:t)g {., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 242-5, 262-7 ; H. PP- 28-30, 89-94, 253 f.,
271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testatnent Theology (ist ed. 1873, transl. 1883),
§§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services
(1874), pp. 144-300 ; W. R. Smith, article "Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread,"
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel
(1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 240, 269; Iti'S-M, Prophets of Israel (ist ed.
1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus
the Messiah (ist ed. 1883), see Index, s. v. " Dedication," " Feasts," "Passover," etc. ;
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
Concerning the Pentatetich (1885); E. ScHiJRER, History of the Jewish People in the
Time of Christ {1%%^^, transl. 1890), passim; PiepenbriNG, Theology of the Old Tes-
tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli-
gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty,
Travels in Arabia Deserta,Yo\. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. SwiTa, Reli-
gion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8; Robertson, Early Religion
of Israel (iSSg), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Boscawen, "The
9 Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.;
ZlU'Sl'E.KN, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De
Lagarde, Purim — Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of
the Society of Biblical ArchcEology, Vol. XIX, pp. 280; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift filr
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. VI, p. 70 ; C. H. Toy, " Esther as a Babylonian
Goddess," A'ifw World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO5
Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol. IV (1890), pp.
34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article " Festivals," S.mith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) ;
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant {lig;^), see Index, s. v. "Feasting;" idem.
Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem. The Threshold
Covenant {i?>gb), pp. 203-12, 266; H. B. Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands,
(1894), pp. 69-86; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol.
XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E. Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of
Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic
Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Critically Illustrated," American
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV (1898), pp. 182-94 {cf. Revue
des etudes juives,Yo\.XX.YV , pp. 256-71); Morris ]astro\\,]r.. Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of
nO^," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger
AND T. K. Cheyne, article " Day oi Atonement," Bncyclopcedia Biblica (i8gg); W.
W. Fowler, The Roman festivals of the Period of the Republic {\%gg); Warren,
" Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly
Statement, October, 1900; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical
Review, November, 1900; Frazer, "The Saturnalia and Kindred Yest\vz\%" Fort-
nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol.
II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "New Moon," Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopcedia Biblica
(1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Cambridge
Companion to the Bible, pp. 411-17 ; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. II,
pp. 648 f. ; McCuRDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see Index,
s. V. " Feasts."
J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686), III, Diss, viii ; J.
Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, " Ueber die urspriingliche Bedeu-
tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," Tiibinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I,
40-124; lDEM,"Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus,"
ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp.
492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die dlteren jiidischen Feste{\%'i)'^); H. EwALD, in Gottingischer
Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. EWALD, in Jahrbiicher
der biblischen Wissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p. 223; IX, pp. 257 f.; F. HiTZiG,
Ostern und Pfingsten (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. II,
pp. 664 ff.; H. EwALD, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes,Yo\. Ill (1840), pp. 4 1 0-4 1; H. HuPFELD, De primi-
tiva et vera festorum apiid Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65);
Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier [li'^b);
W. Schultz, "Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Yeste," Deutsche Zeit-
schrift fiir christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben, 1857, pp. 23-30 ; JOH.
Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch aufs neue kritisch untersucht (1858);
Dillmann, article "Feste," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. OoRT, "De groote
Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Y oL X {li^b), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in
Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i ff. ; Ih-ktsI, Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch-
Gesetze, Vol. I (1878) ; Idem, in Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1879, pp.
99 ff. ; Franz Delitzsch, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches
Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff.; KuENEN, in Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\.
I06 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
XVII (1883), pp. 207-12; "SiiJ'L'LTt.K, Kritischer Versuck iiber den Urspriing des Pesach-
Mazzothfestes (1883); Adler, " Der Versbhnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und
seine Bedeutung," Zdlschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883)
pp. 178-85 ; Orelli, articles " Passah," " Pfingstfest," Realencyklopddie fiir protestan-
tische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,'
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); RiEHM, article 'Teste,'
RiEHM's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Oreli.i, article "Ver-
sohnungstag," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2A ed. 1885);
De Lagarde, " Purim ; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II
(1887), pp. 378 ff.; IV, p. 147, note i; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentiims
{—Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. ^ikDY., Geschichte des
Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, " Das
Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestament-
liche IVissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie
(1889), pp. 121-3; H. ZiMMERN, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 189 1, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuch
der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v.
"Feste;" W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp.
138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans,
" Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,
Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f. ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyrio-
logie," Revue semitique. Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51; DiLLMANN, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Feste," "Passah;" K. Marti, Geschichte der
israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v."Ye?,lt,'" " Pesach," "Laubhiittenfest.'
etc.; F. Buhl, " Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie fiir
protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Mazzoth Fest
(1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel (1900); MossA, " Bedeutung des Passahfestes,"
Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No. 2; RiEDEL, "Miscellen 5. 6.: npE, HjCn nSSQ,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B.
Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle : DCS ," ibid., pp. 333-7; C.
Brockelmann, "Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidis," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-
Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 ff.
§107. Supplementary Topics.
1. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast
days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the
so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship. ■"
2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees,
viz.: I Mace, i : 39, 45 ; 4 : 52-59 ; 7 : 49 ; 1° : 34 ; 13 : 50-52 J 2 Mace.
I : 9, 18; 2:9, 16; 6: 6f.; 7 :42; 8 : 33 ; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36 ;
and make such a statement as the material thus examined will warrant.
3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa-
ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14: if., 12, 14, 16;
■°C/. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms — A New English Translation, p.
210; Kirkpatrick, The Psalms, Books II, III (" Camhndge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur-
ray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms, Vol. I,
pp.86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10/
15:6; Luke 2:4if.; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4:45;
5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; ii:55f.; 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29;
18 : 28, 39 ; 19:14; I Cor. 5:7; Heb. 11 : 28.
4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to
designate the feasts, viz.: HCS , jH, ^11^3123 '\n , ^I'^lSpH jm ; jH
-f C>5n ; niDCn jH ; iznn ; T\^T'2 \ nn^S ; etc.
5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts
among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points
of similarity and difference."
6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing
especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity
existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew
feasts, e. g., the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con-
nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag-
muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of
the Feast of Purim."'
7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to {a) the Arabic feasts
or pilgrimages, (b) the Canaanite agricultural feasts.'^
8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into
and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element
involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and
that in a city life.
9. Consider (i) the conception of God which had come to be
supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., holiness ; (2) the relation of
this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same
period ; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel-
opment of the feast system.
"See W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, Fair-
banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, lio\&mh&r, 1900; Frazer,
" The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fortnightly Review, October and Novem-
ber, 1900 ; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v.
"Festivals."
^''Cf. especially Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see
Index, s. v. " Festivals."
'3 See Snouck Hurgronje, Bet Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Travels in Arabia
Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums ; and other literature cited
in § 106.
CHAPTER IX.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED
INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY.
§io8. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period,
i. e., as described in {a) the Covenant Code, {b) the historical material
of J and E, (<r) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, and {d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59,
note i).'
1. The law of the sabbath.^
Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-1 1 ; 23 : 12.
2. Customs connected with the sabbath.
2 Kings 4:23; II -.5, 7, 9.
3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13.
4. The law of the sabbatical year.
Exod. 23 : lof. ; 21 : 2-1 1.
§ 109. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the
sabbath, (i) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men-
tioned in the decalogue; (2) the first word, remember, and compare
the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any
sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for" ?
(4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the
third, second, and first ? Does this consist in its having originally
had to do with the deity, as do the preceding ? (5) Are there other
variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod.,
chap. 20, and Deut., chap. 5 ? What are the variations ? How shall
we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that
Exod. 20:9-11 and Deut. 5 : 13-15 are later additions made at differ-
ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh,
and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words,
' The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23:10-12; 21:2-11;
the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21.
'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
108
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I O9
"Observe (or remember) the sabbath day to keep it holy"?^ (6) What
was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said
of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the
Hebrews in Egypt? (8) Was it originally connected with the new
moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it
was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, /. e., a day
on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more
easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor-
able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not
doing certain things P"* (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be
understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the
word observe? (11) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed
upon the idea of cessation from labor ?
2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the
sabbath, consider (i) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab-.
bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came
in or went out on the sabbath; (3) other early (?) customs, codified
in later times, e. g., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16:29), kindling
no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15:32-
36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4)80 far as the ifar/y
records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa-
tion from labor and of humanitarian motive?
3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath
made by the prophets ? (i) What are the people desiring to make of
the sabbath, according to Amos ? What restraint is evidently upon
them? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the
same category with days of rejoicing and mirth? (3) What is the
significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. i : i3)of the sabbath
with the new moon ?
4. Consider (i) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew
servants after six years of labor; did this imply a regularly recurring
seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any-
thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing
that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and
the beasts ; does the regulation say that all land was to lie fallow in the
3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ;
DiLLMANN, £;fO(/«j, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; Driver, Introduction,
etc., p. 34; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 181-7; Marti, Ge-
schichte der israelitischen Religion; et al.
*Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52.
no PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The
niotives underlying these regulations.
§ 1 10. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will indicate
the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab-
bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period.
§111. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period,
/. ^., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic
prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel
and Kings.s
1. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue.
Deut. 5 : 12-15.
2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Jer. 17 : 19-27 ; Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6 ; 58 : 13, 14 ; 66 : 23 ; Lam, 1:7; 2:6.
3. The law of the sabbatical year.
Deut. 15 : 1-18 ; 31 : 10.
4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah.
Jer. 34:8-17.
§112. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath
law, including (i) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's
former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants,
(4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv-
erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the
sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to
be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect
upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at
Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and
emphasize the humanitarian idea?
2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to
the observance of the sabbath, consider (i) the small number of such
references ; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said
by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., {a) as to bur-
dens, {b^ as to work, (c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of
the people (Jer. 17 :23); (4) the promises and threats in reference to
its observance (Jer. 1 7 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath
in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56: 2, 4, 6);
(6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the
sabbath a delight {ls2i. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath
5 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron-
omy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I I
as a time, like ttie new moon, for worship (Isa. 66 : 23); (8) the forget-
ting of the sabbath in the exile.
3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above
(§§108, 4 ; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (i) the
year of release of debts : (a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; (d)
does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become
outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ;
or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that
year? (c) the reward promised; (d) the motive for this law; (<f) does
it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a
fixed seventh year? (^) would it encourage or discourage business?
(2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, noting the
slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron-
omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land (cf. Exod.
23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab-
ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years.
4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves
in Jeremiah's time.
§113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the
nature gf the changes which are being made, and the general trend.
§ 114. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel.
1. The purpose of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 12, 20.
2. The sabbath a /w/y day.
Ezek. 44 : 24.
3. General profanation of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38.
4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath.
Ezek. 45 : 17 ; 46 : 1-5, 12.
5. The year of liberty.
Ezek. 46 : 17.
§ 115. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the
sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes
(Ezek. 20: £i), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had
been treated by Israel.
2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy
the sabbath ?
112 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. What was meant by profanirig and hiding the eyes from the
sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally
do that which brought it into disrepute?
4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's
scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? Con-
sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon.
5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year
of release or liberty.
§ 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and
indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen-
eral place in prophecy.
§ 117. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, /. e., as
described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly
prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah,
Chronicles.
1. The law of the sabbath.^
Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 : i-3-
2. Special days observed as sabbaths.
Lev. 23 : 7 f., 24-32, 39 ; 16:29-31; Numb. 28 : 11-15, 18, 25 f. ; 29:1,7,
12, 35-
3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath.
Gen. 2 : 2 f . ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31 : 12 f., 17.
4. Special offerings made on the sabbath.
Lev. 23 : 38; Numb. 28:9!; i Chron. 23 : 31; 2 Chron. 2:4;8:i3;3i:3;
Neh. 10: 33.
5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath.
Lev. 19 : 2fi, 30a/ 26 : 7.a ; Exod. 16 : 22-30 ; 31 : 14-16 ; 35 : 2 ; Numb.
15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10:31; 13:1 5-22.
6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time.
Lev. 23 : 15 f.; 24 : 8 ; i Chron. 9 : 32 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8.
7. Sabbath made known on Sinai.
Neh, 9:14.
8. Law of the sabbatical year.
Lev. 25: 1-7 ; 26:34, 35-
9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land.
Lev. 26 : 34 f . ; 2 Chron. 36:21.
10. Law of year of jubilee.
Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4.
* References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3
§ 118. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Consider (i) the form of the sabbath observance which must
have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu-
alistic ; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this
period, and the distinctive character which it must have given the
Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol-
emn rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the
purpose of the sabbath {cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser-
vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The
reason assigned for its establishment {cf. Exod. 20: 11)? (5) Why
should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular ?
2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz.,
first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and
eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement.
3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance: (i)
because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection
between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as
Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods ?
(2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this
mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not
observe it ?
4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on
the sabbath.
5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be
enforced : (i) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother,
and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed
for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on
the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a
double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna
on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal-
ings on the sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of
those violating the law.
6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh
day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts.
7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbath was
(first ?) made known on Sinai.
8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year: (i) Is all
agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the
fruit and grain that grows of itself? (3) Was Palestine a land subject
to severe famines? If so, could such a law have been observed?
114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri-
culturists, /. e., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would
the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any
evidence that it was observed before the exile? or that it was not {cf.
Lev. 26:34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause
great distress (i Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there
between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the
year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ 1 11, 3; 112, 3)?
9. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a
period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved.
10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (i) the meaning of the
name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh
sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of
rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year? (3) the procedure;
was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation
concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration
of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses
in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern-
ing Hebrew and non- Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to
Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh-
ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur-
ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the
law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12)
What led to the choice of the fiftieth year? (13) Is there any evidence
that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year
of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law?
(16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ?
§ 119. Constructive Work.
Prepare a statement including {a) an explanation of the fact that
such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system
in the legislation and thought of this period; (b') an enumeration of
the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this
period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and [c) a brief study of
the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history.
§ 120. Literature to be Consulted.
lENNlNGS./dfwzVi Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; EwALD, History of Israel {ist ed.
1843-59, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 f.; II, pp. 209 f.; V, pp. 166 f., 343, 400, 416;
Idem, Antiquities 0/ Israel {i8S4, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on
Exodus (185s), in loc. 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture,"
i860, 3d ed. 1866); GiLFlLLAN, On the Sabbath (1862); KuRTZ, Sacrificial Worship
of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp. 342 £f.; Johnstone, Sunday and the
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II5
Sabbath (1863); R. S. PooLE, article " Chronology," see section on " Sabbatical and
Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox,
Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed.
1869, transl. 1892), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;"
KUENEN, The Religion of Israel (i86g f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286 f.; II, pp.
278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), pp. 164 f.; Oehler, Theology of
the Old Testament (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce,
Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the
History of Israel {!%"]%), ■^^. 112-20; J. Y'KVIO'!^, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6,
29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc.," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1880, pp. 153-78,
355-89,419-39, 661-85; 1881, pp. 254-85,524-52, Schrader, Cuneiform Inscrip-
tions and the Old Testament {2A ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff.; W. R.
'^MXtYi., Prophets of Israel (isi ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown,
"The Sabbath in the Cuneiform V^ecorAs,'" Presbyteriatt Review, 1882, pp. 688-700;
DiLLMANN, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), on Gen., chap, i;
Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Chrisf{i886, transl. 1891),
Div. II, Vol. II, pp. 96-105 ; W. R. Smith, articles "Jubilee," " Sabbath," Encyclopcedia
Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (" Hibbert Lectures,"
1887), pp. 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366;
II, pp. 225, 306 ; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia of Biblical, Theological and
Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical
Year ; " Jensen, " The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath,"
Sunday School Zi'w^5, January 16, 1892; Alice M. Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan
New England {']\.\\. ed. 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," Smith's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article
"Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Documents of
the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," "Sabbath," etc.; Sayce,
Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), pp. 74-7; MONTEFIORE,
77/1? Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1893), see Index, s. v.
"Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Semitic Tradition (1894), pp. 23-35; Driver, A
Critical atid Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy ( 1 895), pp. 1 74~8 1 ; HiRSCHFELD,
" Remarks on the Etymology of ?>2ihhdiih," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp.
354 f.; Abrahams, /fww/^ Life in the Middle Ages (iSgy), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath; "
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " The Original Character of the Hebrew^ Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 312-52 ; (Z\\.y.Y^y., Jewish Religious Life after
the Exile (1898), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus —
a New English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100 ; E. A. W. BuDGE,
Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and
Customs (1899), p. 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian,
Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Lndex, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and
Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa-
teuch (1900), Vol. II, p. 112 ; T. F. Wright, "Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu-
ary, 1900; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger, article "Jubilee," Encyclopa-dia Biblica
(1901); McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Afonuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.;
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrev/ and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish
Quarterly Review, Yo\. XIII (1901), pp. 648-50; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the
Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F. K-Et^r, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII
(1901), pp. 344-8.
Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
J. Spencer, ZJf legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686); Wagenseil, De anno
iubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H. Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et
jubilaei {iTo'i); Van der YiKKTiT, De jubilaeo Mosis {iT2?)); Reineccws, De origine
jubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato
ante leges Mosis existente (1748); Meyer, De lemporibus et diebus Hebraeorum (i755)t
pp. 341-60; MiCHAELis, Cotmn. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke,
Novum systema chronologiae fundamentalis (1778); HuG, " Ueber das mosaische
Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fiir das Erzbisthum, I, l; De Wette, Lehrbuch der
hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 211 f.; Baur, "Der
hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tiibinger Zeit-
schrift, 1832, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Alten Testamentes (1835), Vol. I,
pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G- Wolde, De anno
Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp.
572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realworterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles
"Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Aforgenldndischen Gesellschaft,
Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; Brugsch, ibid^NoX. Ill (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon,
De la celebration du Dimanche ( 1850); OsCHWALD, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier (1850);
LlEBETRUT, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saalschutz, Archdologie der
Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und
Jubelperiode (1857); Hupfeld, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis, Part III (1858);
Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§77
ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; KuBEL,
" Die sociale und volksvvirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo-
logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Der babylonische Ursprung
der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.;
Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,
Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), pp. 431 ff.;
Klostermann, "tjber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; Dillmann, Die Biicher Exodus und
Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die biblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 493
ff.; LoTZ, Quaestiones de historia sabbatki (li^T,); Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler,
articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by von Orelli, in TP^a/-
encyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche {2A ed. 1884); RiEHM, articles
"Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr " in ¥.lls.YiU''s Handworterbuch des biblischen
Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f.); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I
(1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.;
'iE'HS'E.ti, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,\o\. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Z>,fr
Mischnatraktat ^^ Sabbath " herausgegeben und erkldrt (iSgo); Baentsch, Das Bundes-
buch — Ex. XX. 22 — XXIII. 33 (1892), pp. 115 f.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament-
lichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath'
and "Jubeljahr;" Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I
pp. 217, 333; II, pp. 138-44, 159-72; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie {i?igi,),pY>
201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; GUNKEL, Sckopfung und Chaos (1895), PP- l3f-» II4~I7 ; Dill
MAtif^, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (lig^), see Index, s. z^. "Jobeljahr'
and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7
"Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr;" Holzinger, Exodus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zutn
Alten Testament^, see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus {Kurzer
Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat,"
(1901).
See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees,"
chap. 50.
§ 121. Supplementary Topics.
1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its
usage.
2. Examine the following texts in which the root Td^ occurs, with
a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22;
Exod. 16:30; 12: 15; 23: 12; 34:21 ; Josh. 5 : 12; Isa. 13: 11; 14:5;
30 : 7 ; Ps. 8:3; Prov. 20 : 3.
3. Study the passages in which the word "pt^mu (ordinarily trans-
lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31;
25:4; Exod. 16:23; 35:2; 31:15, with a view to determining its
meaning.
■4. Examine the words b^"^ (" jubilee"), tllT ("liberty").
5. From an examination of i Mace. 1:39, 43, 45; 2:32-41;
6:49; 9:43^-; 10: 34; 2 Mace. 5: 24-26; 6:6, 11; 12 :38; 15:1-5,
prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times.
6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the
Psalms {cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not?
7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa-
ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament
writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : i f., 5, 8, 10 ff. ; 24:20; 28:1;
Mark 1:21; 2:23f., 27f.; 3:2, 4; 6:2; 15:42; 16:1; Luke 4:16,
31 ; 6 : I ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : i, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f.,
16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; 9 : 14, 16 ; 19:31; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44;
15:21; 18:4; 21:27; 28:14; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. i : 10.
8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is
any possible connection between these days and the sabbath.'
9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians,
"< Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poesies au Papyrus Harris, No. joo, pp. 38 f. 41 ;
Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Vannee egyptienne; Wiedemann,
Religion of the Egyptians, ■^^. 263 f. ; Jastrow, "Original Character of the Hebrew
Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, No\.\\,^.'i^O, ViO\.& 116; '^iXi'DGY., Egyptian
Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff.
(in English translation = 7%f Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. COHEN,
"Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Z?zV^(?w^ (Milwaukee, Wis.),
1881, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel,
Il8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether
there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.®
10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show
(a) its origin, (d) its various stages of development, {c) its social bear-
ings, (d) its religious significance, (<?) its idealism, (/) its practical
character.
11. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new-
moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf.
§§97 (9). 104 (4).
12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number
seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in
the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew
verb "to swear, take oath" (literally^ "to seven oneself" or "be sev-
ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc.
13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the
"Lord's day" of the New Testament, {a) as to the day observed, {b) as
to the spirit characteristic of the observance ?
Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Ckronologie der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 ff.;
Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutscheti Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. Ill, p. 27 1;
NOWACK, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141 f.
' Cf. Morris Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life
and Customs, p. 245 ; SCHRADER, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53;
Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review,
1882, pp. 688-700; C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Docutnents,\ o\, II, pp. 40 f.
(See also § 120.)
CHAPTER X.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED
COMPARATIVELY.
§ 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, /. <?., as described
in (a) the Covenant Code ; (f) the historical material of J and E ; (c)
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and
(d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).'
1. Traces of totemism.
Gen. 43:32; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26.
2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient.
Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Gen, 35:2; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30 : 22.
4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9 : 3.
5. Forbidden food.
Exod. 23 : iQiJ,- 34 : 26(J/ 22 : 31.^
6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Gen. 35:2; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; i Sam. 20 : 26 ; Judg. 13:4, 7, 14 ;
Isa. 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 6:14.
7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. i : 16 ; 6:5; 30:22.
§ 123. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider (i) the meaning of "every shepherd is an abomination
unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement ; (2) the
meaning of "sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians;" (3) whether
that which is called an " abomination " may have been something sacred
or holy, /. e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether,
as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association
between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns;'
* The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod.
8 : 26 ; 34 : 263. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : 3l3,- 23 : igiJ.
^ These references are from the Covenant Code.
3(7; Nun (Fish), Exod. 33 : 11 ; Terah (Ibex), Gen. 11 :27; Leah (Wild Cow),
Gen. 29 : 16 ; and see R. G. Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Bzi/ua/
World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff.
119
120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(5) whether there are not cases in which animals are regarded as
having superhuman power;* (6) whether the second commandment
does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship ;
(7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of
the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent
(Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of
totemism.^
2. Note (i) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made
in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words
unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not
the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in
connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind "
was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point
of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be
closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and
called taboo.^
3. Consider the source of uncleanness in the case of (i) Jacob's
household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven
images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will (a) classify
these sources and {b) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case.
4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his
own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests.
5. Note the prohibition of eating (i) a kid boiled in its mother's
milk,^ (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the
usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi-
tions concerning the eating of food ?
6. Explain (i)the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19 : 10 ; (2) the
reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (i Sam. 20:26); (3)
the connection of "eating no unclean thing" with the Nazirite (Judg.
13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the
putting off of shoes (Exod. 3 : 5); (6) the use of the vestments (2
Kings 10: 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6 : 14).
7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean
t Cf. Gen. 3 : I ff.; Numb. 21 : 8 f.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f.
s See especially J. G. Frazer, Toteinism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites
(2d ed.), pp. 125 £f. ; and other literature cited in § 134.
*See especially I. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," Encyclopedia Britannica ; W. R.
Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 ff., 446 ff.
7 See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23:i9(J, and W. R. Smith, Religion of
the Semites (2d ed.), p. 221.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 121
accepted by the prophets? Consider, for example, (i) the view held
concerning foreign lands; (2) the exhortation to wash and become
clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6 : 5); (4)
the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30: 22).
§124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a
general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the
earliest period.
§125. The Usages and Laws Concerning Clean and Unclean in the
Middle Perioi, i. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the
Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings.^
1. Traces of totemism.
Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jar. 36:10; cf. 2 Kings 18:4 and
Ezek, 8 : 7-12.
2. Forbidden food.
Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Deut. 21 : 22 f.; 23 : 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 ; 7 ^ 25 f.; Jer. 16:18; Lam. 4 : 14 f.
4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Deut. 12 : 15 ; 15 : 21 f.; 26 : 13 f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11.
5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean.
Jer. 2 : 7, 23 ; 13 : 27 ; 16:18; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52:1, 1 1.
§ 126. Questions and Suggestions.
1. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of
animals, e.g., Shaphan (=Rock Badger), Achbor (= Mouse). What is
the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days
of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and
that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to
the exile ?
2. Consider (i) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and
the ground on which it rests; (2) whether in this case the principle of
taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat-
ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten,
and their general characteristics ; (5) the animals which might not be
eaten, and their general characteristics ; (6) the general principles
which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection
"arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds
is ten; (9) whether this distinction was something objective imposed
* References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose (a) to train the
people in obedience, or (d) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or (<r) to
teach important religious truth by an allegorical method, or (d) to
separate the Israelites from other nations, or (e) to prevent the wor-
ship of certain animals ?); or, rather, something subjective, of gradual
growth, and expressive of certain instinctive feelings (for example, (a)
that of aversion, or (d) appreciation of utility or beauty, or (<r) expe-
rience of the use of this or that kind of flesh) ; or whether the origin
is to be connected with some form or other of totemism ; (lo) the
absence of any list of clean and unclean animals in the Covenant Code,
and the significance of so fully developed a list in the Deuteronomic
Code.
3. Consider (i) some of the sources of uncleanness as cited, <?. g.,
the body of a man who has been hanged; issues of the body; graven
images; "carcasses of detestable things;" contagion; and (2) the
method suggested for purification.
4. Note the necessity of cleanness on the part of one who is to
engage in a religious exercise, and in this connection (i) the fact that
the flesh of certain animals may be eaten alike by those who are clean
and by those who are unclean ; (2) the prohibition of the lame, the
blind, or the blemished in sacrifice; (3) the synonymous use of the
words "uncircumcised " and "unclean."'
5. Study the prophetic attitude toward infringement of the regu-
lations concerning "clean and unclean," and the punishment which
is to follow this infringement. How far do the prophets of this period
seem to have shared the ideas of their times on this subject ? Does
their attitude relate to the minute particulars of the system, or to the
general question of loyalty or obedience ?
§ 127. Constructive Work. — Compare, in general, the minuteness
of the regulations of this period in contrast with those of the earlier
period ; characterize these regulations as a whole ; and consider whether
they are (i) really new usages which had their origin after the formu-
lation of the book of the covenant, or (2) old usages, for the most
part, which are now codified for the first time ; (3) in the former case,
whence may they be supposed to have come ? (4) in the latter case,
to what influence are we to ascribe their codification ?
§ 128. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in Ezekiel.
I. Traces of totemism.
Ezek. 8 :7-i2.
'For a further study of the subject of circumcision see §§ 164 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCEKmNG CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 123
2. Forbidden foods.
Ezek. 4:14=
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Ezek. 4:14; 22:24; 36: 17, 25, 29, 33; 37:23; 39: 12, 14, 16, 24;
43:7-9; 44:25.
4. Instruction concerning clean and unclean is an important part
of the priestly function.
Ezek. 22:26 ; 44 : 23.
5. Everything connected with religion must be clean.
Ezek. 22:26; 43:20-26; 44:25; 46:19-24.
6. Methods of purification.
Ezek. 36: 25 ; 43 : 18-26; 44 : 26 f.
§129. Questions and Suggestions. — Ezekiel's intermediate position
and the peculiar situation to which his work is addressed make the
material of his sermons especially interesting.
1. Consider the significance of the fact (i) that seventy elders are
present, and that the idols (/. <?., likenesses of reptiles and abominable
beasts) are being worshiped ; (2) that the presiding priest was^the head
of one of the animal clans (viz., the Cony). Does this indicate that
even in this late period animal-worship prevails ?
2. Note Ezekiel's contention concerning his own cleanness, and
the formulation of his idea of uncleanness.
3. Consider the representations made by Ezekiel of uncleanness,
including that of the land, and note the various occasions which give
rise to uncleanness.
4. Observe the part which the priest is to play in giving instruc-
tion upon the subject of cleanness and uncleanness.
5. (i) Note that "clean" now means "holy," "unclean" means
"common;" to fail to make the proper distinction is to "profane"
Jehovah; and (2) consider how this later and more developed idea has
arisen out of the earlier. (3) Observe, also, that every act connected
with a religious observance must be ceremonially clean. (4) Consider
the bearing on this idea of the establishment of boiling-houses.
6. Consider the methods by which purification from uncleanness
might be secured.
§ 130. Constructive "Work. — Formulate the new phases and details
of the idea of "clean and unclean" which appear in Ezekiel, and dis-
cuss the relation of all this to Ezekiel's idea of God.
§131. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in the
Later Period, that is, as described in (a) the laws of the Levitical Code,
124 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{/>) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra,
Nehemiah, Chronicles."
1. Traces of totemism.
Isa. 65 : 4 f.; 66 : 17 ; Lev. 19 : 28.
2. Forbidden food.
Lev. 17 : 10 16 ; 19 126 ; 11 : 1-23, 29 f., 41-47 ; 7 : 16-19 ; 19 : 7 ;
7 : 22-27 ; 3 • 14-17 I Gen. q : 3 f.; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. i ; 8.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Lev., chaps. 13 and 15 ; 20 : 20 f.; chap. 12 ; 18 : 19 ; 19 : 11-13 ; Numb.
5 : 19, 28 ; 31 : 13 ff.; 35 : 33 f-i 5 : i-4 ; 2 Chron. 34 : 5 ; Ezra 9:11;
Neh. 13 : 9, 30 ; Josh. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 65 : 4 f. ; Dan. i : 8.
4. Uncleanness is contagious.
Lev. 13:45!; i4:46f.; 15:4-12, 19-23, 26 f.; 11:8, 24-28, 31-40;
22 : 4-6 ; 5 : 2 f .; 7:19; 6 : 10 f., 27-30 ; 19 : 7-16, 22 ; Hag. 2 : 10-14.
5. Methods of purification.
Lev., chaps. 14, 15 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 6 : 27 f.; 16 :i9 ; Numb., chap. 19 ; 6 : 10-21 ;
35 :33 f-; 8 : 1-21 ; 31 : 13-24.
6. Everything connected vvith religious acts must be clean.
Lev. 10 : 14 ; 27 : 11, 27 ; chap. 21 ; 22 : 1-25 ; 7 : xgb-2i ; 4:11 f.;
6 : 10 f.; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : 11, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ;
2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30 : 17-20 ; 29 : 15 f., 18 f.; Neh. 13 : 9, 22 ; Isa.
66 : 20.
7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the
case of the Passover.
2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14.
8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean.
Josh. 22 : 19 ; Ezra 9:11; Numb. 35 : 33 f.; Zech. 13:1 f.
9. All foreigners are unclean.
Isa. 35 : 8 ; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30.
10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of
priestly functions.
Lev. 10 : 10 f. ; 20 : 25 f.
11. Traces of ancestor-worship.
Lev. 19 : 28, 32.
§ 132. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Observe (i) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the
sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did
they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating
the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues
'° References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 12$
of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the
old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these
associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor-
worship connected with totemism ?
2. (i) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of
food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean
animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2,
and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his
companions.
3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi-
cated in the writings of this period.
4. Consider (i) the various cases of uncleanness (<?. g., leprosy,
plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or
object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became
unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its
practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought
into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ?
5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for
securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general
with the methods of the middle period.
6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean-
ness : (i ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3)
the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the
ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days
and other peoples; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere-
monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of
the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful-
filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety
and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ;
(6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element
found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7)
the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which,
indeed, permeated the ceremonial.
7. Consider (i) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in
the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the
historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20.
8. Observe that (i) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish
land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has
become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ?
9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that
126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by
this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel-
lenism.
ID- Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the
priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con-
sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in
this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved; and
(3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of
their time and attention.
II. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor-
worship in (i) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is
prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ?
§133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show
the new points which characterize the later period in the development
of the idea of the clean and unclean.
§134. Literature to be Consulted.
Henry Hayman, articles " Unclean Meats " and " Uncleanness," Smith's Dic'
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869,
transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.;
KuENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f-)> Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch,
Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (1871), pp. I-163 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology
(isted. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§142!.; E. ^.'Y^'LO^, Primitive Culture
(1871, 2d ed. 1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of
Mankind {'id ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I,
p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, "Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the
Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, Vol. IX (1880), pp. 75 ff.;
Idem, Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem,
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; Schurer, A History of the
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean
and Unclean;" Joseph Jacobs, " Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. VIII (1885), pp. 39-41 ; Andrew
Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; ANDREW Lang, Myth, Ritual and
Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce^
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the
Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean,"
"Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G.
Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature ; 1887); Idem, articles
"Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopcedia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article
"Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed.
1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A, B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden
Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. W. Davies, "Bible
Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25;
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 12/
McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias-
tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and "Uncleanness" (1891); J. Lubbock,
Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260; MoNTEFiORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews
(Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp.
5S> 7 If 13 1 > 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy
(1895), pp. 70, 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896),
pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101;
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. z/. "Animals,"
etc.; J. Hastings, article "Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898);
Morris Jastrow, Jr., ^^//g-zow of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f-. 662 f.;
J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1899 ;
'Qxi-DG^, Egyptian Magic (i^gg), pp. 232 ff.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic
Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A.
SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica (1899); F.J. ScHAMBERG,
"The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XIH (1899), pp.
162-9 ; Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib-
lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note 113 ; McCurdy, article " Animal-
Worship," /fww/i Encyclopcedia (1901); ANDREW Lang, Magic and Religion (1901),
pp. 257-69 ; R. G. Murison, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol.
XVin (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f.
Spencer, De le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibusix'jz']); Hebenstreit, De cura sanit.
publ. (1783), Vol. H, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, De kaet?iorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792);
Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien
und Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. H,
pp. 159 ff., 462 ff.; SOMMER, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz,
Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed. 1846, 1848;
2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19
zur Tilgung der Todesunremigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traite de la Spedalskhed [Nor-
wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847);
Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. Wolff,
"Die Lepra Arabum," in ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomie und Physiologie,
Vol. XXVI (1861); S. Finaly, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der
Bibel," Archiv fur Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); Schenkel, article
"Reinigkeit," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), pp. 409-19 ; L. Kotelmann, Die Geburtshilfe bei
den alien Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur setnitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol. II (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus,"
Zeitschrifl fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-10;
E. K5nig, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und
Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen,"
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Franz Delitzsch,
article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage
in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL
(1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,Yo\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.;
Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums {— Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, Ist
ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp.52, 106, 156, 176 ff.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber
Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 34-4°
128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode {iSgi), see Index,
s.v. " Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Z'aj i9««(/^j(^«f/i (1892), pp. 105 f.; G.N.
MiJNCH, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Aussatz,
in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestat/ientlichen
Religionsgeschickte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu,"
" Totemismus ;" H. Schurtz, ZJzV Speiseverbote (1893); A. Einsler, " Beobachtungen
iiber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol.
XVI (1893), Heft 4; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I,
pp. 116 £f.; II, pp. 275-99; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152, 297,
478-89; Yil'LlMA.ti'S, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {l?>()^), see Index, s. v.
"Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der
Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895),
pp. 41-4; A.\\iK^'E.R,Die jiidischen Speisegesetze (i2,:)S)\ A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraath
der hebrdischen Bibel? (ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic, Band
144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No. i, col.
10; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremdett (1896),
see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen
Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und
Seelenkult im alteti Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. CoHN, Die Vorschrift betreffs
die Zar'ath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MtJLLER, Siidarabische Altertiimer im
kunsthistorischen Museum zu Wien (1899); J. Pikler and F. Somlo, Dtr Ursprung
dt's Totemismus (1899); J. C. Matthes, " De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude
Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy,
Kevue semitique. Vol. VII (1899), pp. 267 ff.; Gruneisen, Ahnenkultus und Urre-
ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Medizin im Alten Testament (1901).
See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim,
Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. 11-15, especially those
of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and
White {^Polychrome Bible, 1898).
§135. Supplementary Topics.
1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the
Psalter: 73 : i> ^3 ; I9:9'i2; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9;
and summarize their teachings.
2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and
Proverbs: Job 1 1 : 4 ; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; 15 : M ff-; 25 :4; 9 : 30 ; 37 : 21;
36 : 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20 : 9 ; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize
their teachings.
3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the
Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : i Mace, i : 37,
46 ff., 54, 62 f.; 2 : 12; 3: 51 ; 4:38, 43 f., 48 f., 54; 13 : 47 f.; 2 Mace.
I : 18, 33, 36; 2:8, 16, 19; 3:12; 4: 14; 5 : 27 ; 6 : 2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.;
7:1 ff.; 10:3, 5; II : 24; 12 :4o; 13:8; 14: 36-
4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers
toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29
of the principal allusions: Matt. 8 : 2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43
23 : 25-27 ; Mark i : 23, 26 f., 40-44; 3 : n. 3°; 5 : 2, 8, 13; 6:7
7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4:33. 3^
9 : 42; II : 24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, i? ; John 15:3; Acts 5 : 16; 8:7
10:14 f., 28; ii:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; i Cor. 7:14
2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4 : 19 ; 5:3,5,26
Col. 3:5;! Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 10
I John I : 7, 9 ?
5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., IZJIlp,
nin^ , "13 , I^T , and " unclean," viz., J^'^t^ ; cf. r\'2T\T\ , ypTT, 'ppiT ,
etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian
and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and
their exact significance in Hebrew literature.
See especially Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II,
pp. 1-40; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and UucXedin,''^ Encyclopedia Biblica ; ZlM-
MERN, Beitrdge zur Assy riologie. Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52;
and the various lexicons.
6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with
clean and unclean and those connected with the ^«//=:Din. How
may these be most satisfactorily explained ?
See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban," Encyclopc^dia Biblica.
7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew " clean and unclean "
found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians
against eating swine; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments
while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc-
tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of
widowhood ; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all
Semites; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor-
ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ?
See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 441-56 ; W. Max
MiJLLER, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopcedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo"
and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica.
8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and
unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ?
Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive
feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases ? Does the pro-
hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or
non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a
belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons? Can
130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and
unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ?
See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the
Jewish Church, pp. 365 f. and note; G. A. SiMCOX, article "Clean and Unclean,"
Encyclopcedia Biblica; NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp.
116-19.
9. Study the idea of "holiness" carefully in the light of the teach-
ing concerning " clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally
as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What
is the history of the conception from this point of view ?
10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and
unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two
ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso-
ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later
period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by
a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel
development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's
history.
CHAPTER XL
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF
WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 136. With prayer, offered at times to secure deliverance from
trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity
and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica-
tion, (i) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the
granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for
good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to
destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath,
which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the
name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly
connected with prayer, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression
upon the deity, and thus securing favor; (6) consultation through
oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were
various means of ascertaining the divine will ; (7) practice in connec-
tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which
was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to
secure knowledge of the divine will; (8) mourning customs, many of
which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had
power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro-
pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act
of dedication to the deity.
It might be said that every act of worship was x^d\\^ prayer ; that
is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer.
§137. Prayer.
I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions/
(a) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer.
Gen. 18 : 22-33; 19 '• 18-22 ; 20 : 7, 17(E); 25 :2i; 30:6, 17(E), 22 ;
32 :9-i2 ; 35 : 3(E); Exod. 3 : 7, 9 ; 5 : 22 f.; 8 : 8, 12, 29 ff.; 9 : 28 ff.;
io:i7£f.; 14:10, 15(E); 15:25; 17 : 4, 8-1 5(E); 32:11-14; 32:30-32
(E); Numb. II : 1-3 (E), 10-15,18; l2:i3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7
(E); 23 : 10(E); Josh. 7 :6-9; 10: 12-14; 24 :7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.;
15 : 18; 16:28 ; I Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sam. 15:31 ; 24 :io, 17; 2 Kings
4:33; 6:17-20; 19:1,4. 14-20.
'All the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
131
132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con-
sider (i) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature
of the petitions offered, e. g., requests for healing, for children, for
relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance
of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed ;
(3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the
basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which
seem to be lacking in these cases; (6) the indications of a primitive
stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele-
ments of prayer which are involved.
{b) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer.
Gen. 24 : 12-14 ; Exod. 33 : 7-1 i(E); 34 : 9 ; Numb. 10 : 35 f.; 1 Sam.
8 : 6, 18, 21; 12 : 17 £.; 2 Sam. 7 : 18-29; i Kings 3 16-9 ; 18 : 24-40;
2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-19.
Study, from the same <points of view, another class of prayers, in
which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its
guidance.
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
Deut. 9 : 18-20, 25-29 ; 10 : 10 ; 26 : 15 ; 2 Kings 22:19; Jer. 3:21;
10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 ; 15:15-18; 18: 19-23 ; 20 : 12 ; 42 : 1-6 ;
Judg. 3 :9, 15 ; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20 : 3 ; i Kings 8 : 22-61.
Consider (i) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the
people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of
confession, the naive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make
of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose; (2) the reasons given by the
prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz.,
humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's
prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and
passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, ig-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints
(15 : 15-18; 18 : 19-23 ; 20 : 12); (6) the request of the people that Jere-
miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the
crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress; (8) the basis of Heze-
kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's
prayer (i Kings 8 : 20-53) ^^ the dedication of the temple (as expanded
and presented by the Deuteronoraic editor) — its form, its contents, its
spirit, its presuppositions.
^References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33
3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions.^
Gen. 17: 18; Exod. 2:23 f.; 6:5; Numb. 16 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20 : 18,
23 ; 21:2 f.; Ezra 8 : 21 ff.; 9 :5 — 10: i ; Neh. 1:4-11; 2:4; 4 : 4 f •
4:9; 5:19; 6:9, 14; 9:5-38 ; 13: 14, 22, 30; Isa. 63: 7—64:12.
Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under
oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought of the prayer
ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) ; (3) the various prayers
recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the
spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding
periods ; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone
consists.
§138. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i)
the general content of scriptural prayers ; (2) the peculiarities of form ;
(3) the essential elements which make up such prayers; (4) any differ-
ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods;
(5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer (^2) in the
Psalms,* {b) in the wisdom literature,^ {c) in the apocryphal books,* {d)
in the New Testament,^ («?) among Assyro-Babylonians, Egyptians, etc.^
§ 139. Literature to be Consulted.
Alfred Barry, article " Prayer," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863,
2d ed. 1893) ; EWALD, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), see Index, s.v.
"Prayer," etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl.
1892), Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; H. Fox Talbot, "A Prayer and a Vision," Transac-
tions of the Society of Biblical Arch<2ology, Vol. I (1872), pp. 346 ff., and Records of the
Past,\o\. VII (1876), pp. 65 ff.; ^.^.Tw.OK, Primitive Culture {1S7 4), see Index,
s. V. " Prayer," "Oracles ; " H. Fox Talbot, "Assyrian Sacred Poetry," Records of the
Past, Vol. Ill (1874), pp. 131-8 ; A. II. Sayce, " Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after
a Bad Dream," Records of the Past, Vol. IX (1877), pp. 149-52; B. T. A. EvETTS,
"An Assyrian Religious Text," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol.
X(i888), pp. 478 f.; D. G. Lyon, "Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers," Pro-
ceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888, pp. xciii, xciv ; S. A. Strong, "A
Prayer of Assurbanipal," Records of the Past, new series, Vol. VI (1892), pp. 102-6 ;
MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 505 f.; J. A. Craig,
"Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), PP- 75-^7 ;
Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer ; " J. L. Nevius, Demon
Possession and Allied Themes {i?>()^), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; Jastrow, Religion
3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document.
*See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69.
SSee, e. g.. Job 22 : 27; 33 :26 ; 41:3; 42 : 8, 10 ; Prov. 15:8; 28 : 9.
6See,f. g-., I Mace. 3:44-54; 4:10,30-34,38-40; 5 = 31-34; 2 Mace. 1:5 f., 8.
23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18 : 23; chap. 51.
7 Matt. 6 :9 ff.; 17:21; 21 : 13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17.
'See literature cited in § 139.
134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne,
Jewish Religious Life after the Exile {\Zf)Z), p. 25 1; DuFF, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews
(1901), pp. 215 f-
Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. 11 (1869); Stade,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; Riehm's Handworterbuch des
biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 f.), Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische
Gebete an den Sonnengott fiir Staat und konigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons
und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrd-
ische Archdologie {iSg4), pp. 462 S.; NoVfACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie,
Vol. II (1894), pp. 259 ff.; DiLLMANN, Handbiich der alttestamentlichen Theologie
(1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Geschichte der israelilischen Religion (1897), see Index,
J. z/. "Gebet," etc.; F. BuHL, article "Gebet im Alten Testament," ^ifa/if«0''^^i5'/<i'^2'
fiir prot. Theologie und Kircke, Vol. VI (1899).
§ 1 40. The Vow.
1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.
Gen. 1 4 : 2 1 £f. ; 28 : 20 ff . (E) ; 31:13 (E) ; Judg. 1 1 : 29 ff., 39 ; 1 3 : 4 f.,
7, 14 ; I Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 15:7 f.; Numb. 21:1-3 (J) ; Isa.
19:21.
Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob,
Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with
Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case (i) the implica-
tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity;
(2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow ; (3) the form
of expression employed.
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Deut. 12 : 6, 11, 17, 26 ; 23 : 18, 22 f.; Nah. 1:15; Jer. 44 : 25.
Examine the references to vows and note (i) the characteristics of
each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free-
will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4)
the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow,
wholly voluntary; (6) the prophetic point of view.
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
Numb. 6:1-21; 15:3,8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mai. 1:14; Jon. i:i6;
2:9; Lev. 7 : 16 ; 27 : 2, 8 ; 22 : 18, 21, 23 ; 23 : 38.
Examine the references cited and note (i) the special cases cited;
(2) the increase in complexity of arrangement; (3) the details of the
law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a
9 References in bold-face type are from the P document.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 35
woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between
the vow and the free-will offering.
§ 141. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which
will take up (i) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2)
the various kinds of motives which are seen to have exerted influence ;
(3) the words employed and their significance; (4) the relationship of
the vow to the free-will offering; (5) the relation to the oath; (6) the
modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference
in principle between vows of devotion and vows of abstinence; (8) the
place of the Nazirite order" in Old Testament history; (9) the making
of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the
prophets; (11) the representations in the Psalms ;" (12) the representa-
tions in wisdom literature;'^ (13) the representations in apocryphal
literature;'* (14) the representations in the New Testament ;'5 (15) the
relation to prayer and sacrifice.
§ 142. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article "Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz,
op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 191 f., 371 f.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow,"
Encyclopedia Britannica (1875) ; Idem, Rel. of Sent., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza-
rite," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74 ; G. F. Moore, Judges (" International Criti-
cal Commentary," 1895), PP- 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and
Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), pp. 152 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray,
"The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton,
article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III.
ViLMAR, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische
Siudien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; Schrader, article " Geliibde," Schenkel's
Bibel-Lexikon; DiLLMANN, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article
" Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie (2d ed.) ; Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des
Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff.; Maybaum, Die
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums (1883) pp. 147-53; ^^^^^i, Hand-
w'drterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhammedanische
Studien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;"
NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann,"
"Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl,
article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed.. Vol. VI.
"See article "Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III.
"See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol.
Ill, p. 117 ; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f.
"See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56:12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11;
116 : 14, 18; 132 : 2.
•3See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7:14; 20 : 25 ; 31 : 2.
'*See, ^. ^., 2 Mace. 3 :35 ; 9 : 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 :22.
'5 See, e. g.. Acts 18: 18; 21 :23f.
136 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 143. Blessings and Cursings.
1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.'*
Gen. 3 : 14, 17; 4 : II ; 9:25 f.; 12 : 3; 27 : 27-29, 35 (E), 39 f. (E);
48 : 15 f.; 49 : 1-27 ; Exod. 12 : 32 ; 21 :i7(E);'7 23 : 21 (E), 25-31 (E);
Numb. 22:6; 24:9; I Sam. 2 : 20 ; 1 4 : 24, 28 ; 1 7 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.;
19: 39; Deut. 33: 1-29 (E); Judg. 9:57; 21 : 18.
Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol-
lows : (i) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres-
sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; i Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3)
important cases of blessings or cursings, ^. ^., (a;) Jacob's last words
(Gen., chap. 49), (6) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), {c) David's curse
on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element
in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation,
e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22 : 6), by Goliath (i Sam. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con-
nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in
connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23 : 21, 25-31).
2. The middle period: readings, questions, and suggestions.'^
Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21;
30:1, 7, 19 ; Josh. 8 :34 ; Jer. 29 : 18 ; Ezek. 34 :26 ; i Kings 8 : 14 f.,
55 f.; cf. Ps. 68:1-3.
Make a similar classification of the material coming from the
middle period, noting as cases of special interest (i) the arrangement
for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and
Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the
curses (Josh. 8 :34); (3) the old xoy A form of blessing (i Kings 8 : 14 f.,
55 f.); (4) diform of national blessing [cf. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic
use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings
and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code
(Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68).
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions."
Gen. 28:3 f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5:12-31; 6:22-26;
Neh. 10:29; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34 :24 ; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5:3; Mai. 2:2;
3:9; Pss. 109 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Dan. 9:11.
Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of
'^ All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
'7 This reference is from the Covenant Code.
'^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
"References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 137
special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 13 f.); (2) the
priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6:22-26); (3) the forms of doxology
used in later worship {cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses
announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12,
16-45); (5) the thought even in later times that "it was worth while to
curse a bad man" {cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the
good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were
of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2).
§144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and
cursings, including the following points: (i) the words translated
blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped
formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under-
lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per-
son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery {cf. the
curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings
— were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica-
tion : {a) one nation by another, {b) one individual by another, {c) as
attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison
of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with
the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code;
(9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the
modifications which are made; (10) a comparison of the New Testa-
ment representations on this subject ='° — are blessings and curses found
in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11)
this usage among the Arabians;" (12) this usage among the Assyri-
ans;" (13) the relation of this usage to prayer.
§ 145. Literature to be Consulted.
EwALD, Op. cit., pp. 76-9 ; ScHULTZ, op. cif., Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs,
Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 1 1 5-20; VV. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in
Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., p. 164; L. W. King,
Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (1896); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' ZJzV-
tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. Cheyne,
article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman, " The
Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan-
guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106.
"See, e. g., Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14:19; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Luke 2 : 28, 34 ; 9:16;
24 : 50 f.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12:14; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Mark 7 : 10 ; 11 : 2i;
Matt. 15 :4 ; 25 :4I.
"Cy. GOLDZIHER, Muhammedanische Studien.
" Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim.
138 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Merx, articles " Fluch " and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II
(1869); SCHENKEL, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article
" Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Riehm, article
"Fluch," Handworterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126;
SCHWALLY, "Miscellen," Zeitschrift ficr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI
(1891), pp. 170 ff.; NowACK, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit.,
p. 146; Marti, op. cit., pp. 91, 116.
§146. The Ban.
1. The early period.
Exod. 22:19; (E);»3 Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17;
21:11; I Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20.
2. The middle period.'*
Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; II: II f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa,
43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; i3:i7f.; 20:17; Jer. 25:9;
50 :2i, 26 ; 51:3.
3. The late period. ""^
Isa. 34 : 2, 5 ; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 :2i, 28 f.; Numb. 18 : 14 ; Isa. 11:15 ;
Zech. 14:11; I Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Dan.
11:44.
Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the
material thus gathered as follows: (i) words used to mean ban or
destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub-
ject to ban, e. g., (a) idols, (b) individuals regarded as enemies of the
nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d)
individuals personally objectionable, (a) metals; (3) the regulations at
various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made
from period to period, e. g., Josh. 6 : 24 ; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29.
§ 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking
up (i) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship {a) to the vow, [b) to
the idea of clean and unclean, {c) to taboo; (3) a classification of per-
sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later
times; (5) the attitude of the prophets; (6) the non-appearance of the
term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa-
ment development of the idea {cf. i Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the
idea in other Semitic nations {cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).'*
*3This reference is from the Covenant Code.
"♦References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of
Deuteronomy.
*5 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
'^ Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; vON TORNAUW, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen-
Idndischen Geselbchaft, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff.; W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., Index, s. v.
"Ban;" Stade, Gesch., Vol. I, pp. 490 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39
§ 148. Literature to be Consulted.
EWALD, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; ScHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R.
Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 150,371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew. Text of the
Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCURDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments
(1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, Wo\.1; W.
H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib.,No\. I; Day, <?/. cit., pp. 180, 212 f.
Merx, article " Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,Wo\. I (1869); Weber, Die
Lehren des Tatmud (iSSo), pp. 138 ff.; von Tornauw, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor-
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I
(1887), p. 490; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 f., 288 ; NOWACK, op. czA, Vol. I, pp.
371 f.; II, pp. 266-9 ; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126,
149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896),
pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898).
§ 149. Oaths.
1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions. "'
Gen. 14:22; 15:8-11, i/f.; 21:22-24 (E); 22:i5(JE); 24:1-3, 27;
25 : 33(E); 26:3 (JE), 26-31 ; 31: 53(E); 42: 15(E); 47:29; 50:25
(E); Exod. 13 : 19 (E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; i Sam,
14:24-30, 39, 44f-; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:9f.; 19:23;
21 : I f., 7 ; I Kings i : 13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 : 23 f., 36-46.
Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each
case, (i) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man,
or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example,
accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the
thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or
prescribed in case of the violation of the oath ; (4) any specially inter-
esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's
oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15: 10), the
treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies
(Josh. 2 : 12-14), Saul's adjuration (i Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's
oath concerning Solomon (i Kings i : 13), Shimei and Solomon
(i Kings 2 : 42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20: 7, thou shalt not
take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro-
fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)?
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Jer. 4:2; 22:5; 31:33; 34:i8f.; 38:16; Ezek. 17:16-19; Deut.
19: igff.^*
Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special
interest in connection with (i) false swearing (Deut. I9:i9ff.); (2)
^7 AH references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and
Gen. 14 : 22, which is from an independent source.
^^ This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy.
140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34:i8f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer.
31:33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38:16); (5) breaking the covenant
(Ezek. 17 : 16-19).
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.^'
Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, 19 f.; Judg. 21 :5,7; Zech.
5 : I ff.; Ezra 10:5; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7.
Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest
in connection with (i) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse
(Numb. 5:iiff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the
Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f. ); (4) the oath concern-
ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing
(Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7).
§150. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of
the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points: (i) the
significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under
the influence of seven things;" (2) the ritual; (3) the various forms of
the path ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ;
(5) its sociological basis; (6) the significance of an oath made by the
deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes
in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti-
tude of the prophets ; '° (10) the representations concerning swearing
in the wisdom literature ;^' (i i) the representations in the apocryphal
literature ; ^^ (12) the attitude of the New Testament;" (13) the use
of the oath among the Arabs ; ^'' (14) its use among the Assyrians and
Babylonians; (15) its relation to prayer. ^^
§151. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d
ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit., \o\. II,
p. 70; E. B. Tylor, article "Oath," i5«o'<f. ^rzV. (1875); W. R. Smith, i^^/.tj/^d-w., pp.
180 ff., 480 ; F. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment, "yi9«r«a/ of Biblical Literature.
^' References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
3° See, e. g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10: 4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8; 8 : 7, 14 ; Isa. 14 :24 ; 19:18;
45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23.
3' See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2.
3=" See, tf. g-., I Mace. 6 : 61 f.; 7:18,35; 2 Mace. 14 : 33-36 ; Ecclus. 44 : 21.
33 See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:i6ff.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73;
Acts 2 : 30 ; 23 : 21 ; Jas. 5 : 12.
3^ C/. Wellhausen, J?este arab. Heidenthums, p. 122; W. R. SMITH, Religion
of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath."
3S Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I
Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88; Duff, op. cit., Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Oath;"
G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op.
cit., p. 184.
Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht {i^<^b), pp. 615 ff.; Bruch, article " Eid,"
SCHENKEL's j9f<Jf/-Zfx/',^c»«, Vol. II (1869); RiEHM, article "Eid," Handworterbuch ;
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 122; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s, v. "Schwur;" NoWACK,
op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod,
Seeleng/aube und See/enku/t (iSgS), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den
Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898).
§ 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the
Divine Mercy and Help.
1. The early period.
Exod. 34:28(J), </ 24: 18(E); i Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam.
I : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23 ; i Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 8:3; 9:9, 18-20, 25-29 ; 10:10; Jar. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9.
3. The late period.
Judg. i8:i7(?); 20:26 ff.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11;
9:1,31; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16 ; Zech 7 : 1-7, 18-23 ; 8 : 19 ; Isa. 58 : 3 ff.;
I Chron. 10: 12; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel 1:14; 2 : 12, 15 ; Jon. 3:5;
Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16:29, 31 .^^
§153. Questions and Suggestions.
Consider (i) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for
fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on
Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act,
the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (i Kings 19 : 8 ff.) as a
preparation for communion with God; (4) the fasting of the men of
Jabesh for Saul (i Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. i : 12),
that is, in mourning for the dead {cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine
the original meaning of the act, /. e., an explanation with which these
various cases may be connected; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or
in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? ^^
Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (i) the motive
or purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra; (2)
whether they were private or public {cf., in earlier and middle periods, i
Kings 21:9 ff.; Isa. i : x^b (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period,
Joel I : 13 f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes
spiritualized {cf. Ahab's case, i Kings 21:29); (4) the connection
between fasting and penitence {cf. i Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the
3* This reference is from the Priestly Code.
37 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434,
142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting,
and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came
in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious
work," and the prophets' attitude toward this(Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 : 5 f.).
Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public
fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (i) in the
fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth
month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52 : 12 f.); (3) in
the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1 ff.); (4) in the
tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7,
18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev,, chap. 16), noting (a) that this
is the only fast required by the laws, ip) that there is no allusion to its
observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, {c)
the purpose of the day, {d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit
of the later times; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman.
Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (i) in the Psalms ; ^^
(2) in the apocryphal literature;^ (3) in the New Testament;"" (4)
among other Semitic nations.-"
§ 154. Literature to be Consulted.
Samuel Clark, article "Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. «V., Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431;
Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1873, 3d ed. 189 1, trans). 1883), §§ 140 f.;
Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and 5<frz/«V^j (1874), pp. 263-88 ; Wellhau-
SES, Prolegomena, pp. 1 10-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopcedia Bri-
tannica. Vol. IX (1879); Kuenen, The Hexaieuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86,
312; W. R.Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op.cit., pp. 509 f.
C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," S'sniiVs, Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893)
H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), pp. 186, 286 ff., 383
McCurdy, op. cit., §§ 1 1 16, 1 1 18, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article
"Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article
"Feasts and Fasts," Z(Ji^., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-1 1; M.
Jastrow, I?/. «V., p. 688; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of,"
Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency-
clopcedia Biblica, Vol. H (1901) ; Ottlev, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman
Period (igoi), pp. 305 f.
38 See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 13 ; 69 : 10 ; 109 : 24.
39 See, e. g., I Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; Ecclus. 34 : 26.
*°See, e. g.. Matt. 4:2; 6 : 16 ff.; 9 : 14 f.; 17 :2i ; Mark 2: 18 ff.; 9 129; Luke
2 :37 ; 5 : 33 ff-; 18 : 12 ; Acts 10 : 30 ; 13 : 2 f.; 14 : 23 ; 27 :9, 33 ; i Cor. 7:5; 2 Cor.
6:5; 11:27.
^' See, e. g., the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Jastrow,
and Black cited in § 154.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 43
HoLTZMANN, article "Fasten," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869);
Orelli, article " Versohnungsfest," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1875); H. Oort,
"De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschi-ift, Vol. X (1876), pp. 142-65; D.
Hoffmann, Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i ff.; Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fur kirchliche
Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83; J. Derenbourg,
"Essai de restitution de I'ancienne redaction de Massechet Kippourim," Avz'«^ a'^'j
etudes juives. No. 11 (1883), pp. 41-80 ; Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel,
sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,
Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 178-84; Kuenen, Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XVII (1883), pp.
207-12; RiEHM, article "Fasten," Handwbrterbuch, Vol. I (1884); Delitzsch,
article "Versohnungstag," Riehm's Handwbrterbuch, Vol. II (1884); Stade, Ge-
jc/«V/5/^, Vol. II (1888), pp. 182, 258 £f.; Benzinger, " Das Gesetz iiber den grossen
Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX
(1889), pp. 65-88; SCHWALLY, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), pp. 26 ff.; Smend,
c/. «/■., pp. 142, 319, 33off., 396; NowACK, 0^ «A, Vol. II, pp. 270 ff.; Benzinger,
op. cit., pp. 165, 464, 477 ; DiLLMANN, Op. cit., p. 184 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 234, 283 f.;
Buhl, "Fasten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed.. Vol. V (1898); Frey,
Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel {l8gS), pp. 37, 81-5, I17.
§155. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity through
Oracles, Urim and Thummim, the Ephod, the Lot.
1. The early period.
{a) Oracles. — Gen. 24 : 12-14 (J); 25:22f. (J); Judg. i : i ; i8:5f.; i Sam.
10: 22 ; 14 : 19, 37 ; 23 : 2, 4, 10 ff.; 28 : 6 ; 30 : yf.; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5 : 19,
23f.; 16:23; 21:1 f.; 2Kings8:7ff.; Numb. 24 : 3, 15 ; Isa. 15:1;
Amos 2:11, 16.
ip) Urim and Thummim. — i Sam. 14 : 4if.; 28 : 4-6 ;22:io, 13; 23:2, 4,
6, 9-12 ; 30 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5 : 19, 23f.; 21:1; Deut. 33 : 8 (E).
ic) The ephod. — Judg. 8:27a/ 17:5; 18:14,20; i Sam. 14:18; 2i:9f.;
23:6,92.; 3o:7f.; Hos. 3:4.
(</) The lot. — Josh. 16: i (J); 17:14, 17 (J); Judg. 1:3; 20:9; Isa. 17:14;
Mic. 2 : 5.
2. The middle period.
{a) Oracles. — Mic. 4:6; 5:9; Nah. 2:13; Zeph. 1:2; Ezek. 5 : 1 1 ; 11 : 8,
21 ; Jer. 1:8; 2:3.
{b) The ephod.— V)tMX. 2:28; Judg. 8 : 27 <5.
{c) The lot. — Josh, 18 : 6,8, 10 (R**); Isa. 34 : 17 ; Jer. 13 : 25 ; Ezek. 24 :6;
Obad. II ; Nah, 3:10; Deut. 32:9.
3. The late period.'*''
{a) Oracles. — Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zech. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12;
12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36 : I ; 110:1.
(^) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21;
Ezra 2 :63 ; Neh. 7 : 65.
*' References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(c) The lot. — Lev. i6 : 8-10 ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33 : 54 ; 34 : 13 ; 36 : 2 f.;
Josh. 14:2; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 : 4, 5 f., 8,
10,40; I Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24:5,7,31; 25 : 8 f.;
26: 13 f.; Neh. 10 : 34 ; 11 : i ; Esther 3:7; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57 :6 ; Joel
3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12 : 13.
§ 156. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which
seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles,
Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of
each, and consider (i) the various circumstances under which such
consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the
relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any)
between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word
oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing
the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use;
(8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts.
Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and
the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these
external helps increases or diminishes.
Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting
the deity, as they may be referred to in (i) the Psalms,*' (2) the
wisdom literature,'** (3) the apocryphal literature,*^ {^^ ^Vt New Testa-
ment ;"* and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,*'
(6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,'*^ (7) the ancient Arabs,*' (8) the
Greeks and Romans.^"
§ 157. Literature to be Consulted.
Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and
Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L.
Bevan, article "Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893);
KUENEN, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transl. 1874), pp. 96-100 ; W. M. Ramsay,
«See, e. g., Pss. 16:5; 22 : 18; 36: i; no: i; 125:3.
<*See, e. g., Prov. 1:14; 16 : 33 ; 18 : 18 ; 30 : i; 31 : i.
« Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8.
<'See, ^. g.. Matt. 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke 1:9; 23:34; John 19:24; Acts
I :26; 7 :38; 8 :2i; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12 ; i Pet. 4:11.
^^ See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v.
"Oracle, etc."
♦' See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157.
■•'See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in §157.
5° See, e. g., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
s. V. "Sortes."
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 45
article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p.
130 ; T. G. Pinches, " The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol.
XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid.. Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 129-40; S. F.
Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp.
252-56; KoNiG, Religious History of Israel {i88s), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of
Sem., see Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel {Camb.
Bible, 1 891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30; S. A. STRONG, "On Some Oracles to Esar-
haddon and Assurbanipal," j9«V/-a^^ zur Assyriologie,'2>zx^d. II (1894), pp. 627-45 ;
J. F. McCuRDY, op. cit,, see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. Moor^., fudges (Inter-
national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommki., Ancient Hebrew Tradition
(1897), pp. 28off.; S. R. Driver, article "Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary , V o\. I
(1898); Jastrow, <?/. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical
Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40; O. C.
Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss-
Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Semitic Languages and
Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle,"
Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encyclopcedia
Biblica, Vol. II (i 901).
Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und
Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41;
G. K.l.ft.lB^K, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); YJoYlXJ^R, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Geschichte des Alten Testamentes, Vol. t (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article
"Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Riehm, A^awo'-
worterbuch (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f.), articles "Ephod" and " Licht
und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade,
Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthu?ns, pp.
126 f., 133, 167, etc.; ^\\]T)l?,?,lti, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums {i'i?,()),
pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17; Sellin, Beitrdge
zur israelitiscken und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 1 19; WlL-
helm Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, No\. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo-
NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff.
§ 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super-
natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft.
1. The early period. ^^
[a) Magic and divination. — Gen. 44:5, 15 (J); Exod. 22:17; Numb.
22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; i Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f ., 1 1 ; Isa. 2 : 6.
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; i Sam. 15:23; 2 Kings 9 : 22.
2. The middle period. ^^
(a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9;
29: 8 ; Ezek. 12 :24 ; 13 : 7-9, 23 ; 21 : 21 £f., 29; 22: 28 ; 2 Kings
17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic. 5: 12.
5» References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code,
s^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter-
onomy.
146 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3 : 4 ; Jer.
27:9; Isa. 47:9. 12 ; 57: 3.
3. The late period."
{a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 13:22; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27; Zech.
10 : 2.
(Jb) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7:11; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ;
Dan. 2 :2.
§159. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers
which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate,
viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (i) the various
circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under-
lying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in different
periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external
sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they
may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods;
(8) the explanation of this attitude ; (9) the relation of all this to
idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed;
(i i) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance.
Consider (i) the significance of references in the Psalms ;54 (2)
in the wisdom literature;" (3) in the apocryphal literature ; 5* (4) in
the New Testament."
Consider the use of these methods among (i) the Egyptians ;5« (2)
the ancient Arabs ;5' (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians;*" (4) the
Greeks and Romans.®'
§ 160. Literature to be Consulted.
F. W. Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary 0/ the Bible {isi ed.
1863, 2d ed. 1893); SCHULTZ, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 ff.; E. B.Tylor,
article "Divination," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VII (1878); Idem, article
53 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
5* See, e. g., Ps. 58 : 5. 55 See, e. ff., Prov. 16: 10.
5* See, e. g., Ecclus. 34 : 2-7.
57 See, ^. g-., Acts 8:9, II ; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev. 9 : 21 ; 18:23;
21 : 8 ; 22 : 15.
58 See, e. g., Budge, Egyptian Magic.
59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, /?el. ofSem., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen,
Reste arab. Held., pp. 135-64.
*°See, e. g., Lenormant, Chald(zan Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and
Sorcery.
*' See, e. g., E. B. Tvlor, article " Magic," Encyc. Brit.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47
" Magic," ibid., Vol. XV (1883); W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., see Index, s. v. " Charms,"
" Omens," " Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time
of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151-5; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl.
1894), see Index, s. v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., pp. 72, 91, 153 ; McCurdy,
op, cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644, 851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery,
Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand'' (1896); T. W. Davies, Magic,
Divinatio7t and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical
Texts," " Sorcer, etc.," " Witchcraft ; " F. B. Jevons, article " Divination," Hastings'
Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T. W.
Davies, article " Divination," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian
Magic (iSgg); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p. 22; O. C. Whitehouse, arti-
cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. «V., Vol. II, see
Index, s. V. "Divination;" Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib.,No\. II (1901);
Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; ANDREW Lang, Magic and Religion (1901).
Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, und magische Heilatten im Talmud
(1850); P. ScHOLZ, Gdtzetidienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebrdern und den
benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Pro-
phetenthums (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen,
Reste arabischen Heidenthums (" Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp. 126, 135-64,
215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist,
Assyrische Beschworungsserie Maqlu (1894); DiLLMANN, op, cit., see Index, s. v.
"Wahrsager;" Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion (1896,
1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frev, Tod, Seelenglaube U7id Seelenkiilt [\%g%), pp. 180,
202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen,
§ 161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs.
1. The early period.
Amos 5 : 16 ; 8:10; Mic. i : 8, 16 ; Isa. 3 : 24 ; 15:2; 22 : 12 ;
2 Sam. 3:31; 21:10; I Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 19: if.; Gen.
37: 34(E), 35 (J); f/. I Kings 20 :3i £.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 14: if.; Jer. 16:6-8; 41:5; 47:5; 49:3; 48:37; 4:8;
6: 26 ; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29 : 18 ; 27 : 31 ; 7 : 18.
3. The late period.
Lev.19 : 27f.; 21:5; Joel 1:8; Jon, 3 : 5 £f.; Ezra 9:3; Dan. 9 : 3.
§ 162. Questions and Suggestions.
Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (i) the
custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern
conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing;
(3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes,
putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of
mourning; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut.
26 : 14); (5) fasting \cf. i Sam. 31 : 13).
Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they
148 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to
what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate
the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or
evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been
incurred; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs {cf.
Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have
come about in the progress of history.
Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs
in the Psalms,*' (2) in the wisdom literature,*^ (3) in the apocryphal
literature,** (4) in the New Testaraent,'^ (5) among other ancient
nations.**
§163. Literature to be Consulted.
Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and
Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
(isted. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Maspero, Egyptian Archceology (transl. 1887), pp. 108-
63; W.R.Smith, Rel. of Sent., y>^. 322 f., 336, 370, 430 ; A. P. Bender, "Beliefs,
Rites, and Customs of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection,"
Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. VI (1893-94), pp. 317-47, 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95),
101-18, 259-69; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 306-27; E. A.
Wallis Budge, The Mummy {2A. gA. 1894); H. CYv.vubvv.'L, Studies in Oriental
Social Zz/^'(i894), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. v. "Funeral
Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in
the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp
137 f.; T. NicOL, article " Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; Duff
op. cit.. Vol. II, see Index, s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing ;" Day, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.;
Wiedemann, The Realm of the Egyptian Dead.
Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats-
schrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Wol.'S. (1861), pp. 345-55,
376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiumque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros-
KOFF, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Oort, "De
doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Yo\. XV (1881), pp. 35off.;
Kamphausen, article " Trauer," Riehm's IIandwdrterbuch,Wo\.ll [l'^^^) ; Lehrer,
article "Trauer bei den Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade,
Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 ff.; G. A. WiLKEN, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.) ; Well-
HAUSEN, Reste arab. Heidenthums (1887;, pp. 159 ff., 178 £.; Goldziher, Muhamme-
danischeStudien{i%^'6),'Vo\. I, pp. 229-63; Schwally,/)^.? Leben nach dem Tode{\^()2);
Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische und jUdische Geschichte (ist ed.
*'See, e. g.,Pss. 35 : 14 ; 38:6; 42:9; 43:2 ; 88 : 9.
*3 See, e. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2:11; 5:11; 30 : 28 ; Eccles. 3 : 4.
'^See, e. g., Ecclus. 7 : 34 ; 22: iif.; 38: 16 ff.; 41 : i ff.
®5 See, e ^., Matt. 2 : 18 ; 5:4; 9 : 15; n : I7; 24 : 30 ; Mark 16 : 10 ; Luke 6 :25 ;
7:32; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7:7; Jas. 4:9; Rev. 18:8, 11.
**See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen,
Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 49
1894), p. 143; NOVJACK, op. «V., Vol. I, pp. 187-98; BeNZINGER, (?/. «V., pp. 102,
165 £f., 428 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 37, 40 ff., 116; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelen-
kult im alien Jsrael (iSgS) ; Bertholet, Die israelitischen Vorstellungen v.om Zustand
nach deni Tode (1899); Krehl, Religion der Araber; F. J. Grundt, Die Trauerge-
brauche der Hebrder.
§ 164, Supplementary Study on Circumcision.
1. The early period.
Exod. 4 : 24 £f. (J); Josh. 5 : 2 f,, 9 (J); Judg. 14:3; 15:18; i Sam.
14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25 ff.; 31:4; 2 Sam. 1:20; 3:14.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 10: 16; 30:6; Hab. 2 :i6; Jer. 4 :6; 6:10; 9:24 f. ; Josh. 5 : 4-8 ;
Ezek. 28 : 10 ; 31:18; 32 : 19, 21, 24-32 ; 44 : 7, 9; Isa. 52 : i.
3. The late period.*^
Lev. 12 : 3 ; 19 : 23 ff.; 26 :4i ; Gen. 17 : 10-14, 23-27 ; 21:4 ; 34 :I4 f.,
17, 22, 24 ; Exod. 6 : 12, 30 ; 12 ; 44, 48 ; i Chron. 10:4.
§165. Questions and Suggestions.
Study the references to circumcision, considering (i) the more
interesting narratives concerning instances of circumcision, e. g., (a)
Moses' son and Zipporah, (^) the circumcision at Gilgal, (c) the cir-
cumcision of Abraham's family, of Shechem and his family; (2) the
characterization of other nations as uncircumcised ; (3) the early
origin, how shown.
Consider (i) the explanation of the origin which makes it sanitary,
/. <?., instituted as a preventive of certain diseases ; (2) the explanation
which connects it with marriage, as thereby promoting fruitfulness ;
(3) the explanation that makes it a tribal badge, /. <r., a mark of initia-
tion into full membership in the tribe (which included religious
privileges), and therefore an act of sacramental communion, an act of
sacrifice, a dedication.
Consider (i) the place of circumcision in the early period, viz., of
young men (^.^., Gen., chap. 34; Josh. 5:2f.; Exod. 4 : 25), and as a tribal
distinction [cf. Gen., chap. 34; Ezek. 31:8); (2) its place in the middle
period : (a) not mentioned in history or in the older laws, not regarded
as important ; (d) circumcision of heart called for (Jer. 9 : 24, 25), while
the circumcision of Israelites is placed on the same plane with that of
Edomites, Ammonites, and other nations; (<:) the spiritualization by the
prophets furnishing the basis for more extended use in the next period ;
*7 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
150 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(3) its place in the later period : (a) the representations of its origin;
(d) the regulations for the performance of the rite; (c) its position as
one of the two distinctive ordinances of Judaism, the other being the
sabbath; (d) its significance as a rite of purification.
Consider representations concerning circumcision (i) in the apoc-
ryphal literature;^ (2) in the New Testament,*' and the lack of allusion
to it in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature. (3) Consider the prac-
tice of circumcision among the Egyptians, Arabs, and other nations.'"
§ 166. Literature to be Consulted.
T. T. Perowne, article "Circumcision," Smith's Diet. of the Bible (ist ed. 1863,
2d ed. 1893); EwALD, op. cit., pp. 89-97; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 192 ff.; II, pp.
7-70; KUENEN, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 238, 290;
AsHER, The Jewish Rite of Circumcision (1873); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,
Vol. II (1874), pp. 363 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, article "Circumcision," Encyclopedia
Britannica, Vol. V (1877); E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind (3d ed. 1878),
pp. 214-19; Kalisch, Bible Studies, Part II (1878), pp. 4-1 1 ; Wellhausen, Prole-
gomena, p. 340; Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. I (1887, transl. 1894),
pp. 104-9 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 328; Bancroft, Native Races (1890), Vol.
Ill, see Index; P. C. Remondino, History of Circuf?icision from the Earliest Times to
the Present (1891); H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (1893), pp. 79,215-24,
351 f.; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 32 f., 539; Schechter,
Studies in Judaism (1896), p. 343; A. H. Sayce, Expository Times, November, 1897;
I. J. Peritz, "Woman in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature,
Vol. XVII (1898), p. 136; Macalister, article "Circumcision," HASTi't^iGS' Dictionary,
Vol. I (1898); Benzinger, article "Circumcision," Encyc.Bib., Vol. I (1899).
Borheck, Ist die Beschneidung urspriinglich hebrdisch ? (1793); Cohen, Dis-
sertation sur la circoncision (1816); Autenrieth, Ueber den Ursprung der Beschnei-
dung (1829); LiJBKERT, "Der jiidische iinaTra.<sp.b%,^'' Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1835, pp. 657-64; CoLLiN, Die Beschneidung (1842); S. Holdheim,
Ueber die Beschneidung in religibs. Beziehungen; Bergson, Die Beschneidung
(1844); Salomon, Die Beschneidung histor. und tnedizin.dargestellt (1844); Brecher,
Die Beschneidung (1845); Steinschneider, Ueber die Beschneidung der Araber
(1845); G. Ebers, Aegypten und die Biicher Moses, Vol. I (1868), pp. 278-84 ; Steiner,
article "Beschneidung," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. I (1869); Auerbach,
Berith Abraham, oder, der Beschneidungsfeier {2d ed. 1880); Weber, Die Lehren
des Talmud (iSSo), p. 373; Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Volker (2d
ed. 1882), pp. 360 ff.; Riehm, article "Beschneidung," Handworterbuch (1884);
Sta.UK, Zeitschrift filr die alttestamentliche IVissenschaft, Vol. VI (1886), pp. 132-43;
Wellh AVSEti, Reste arab. Heidenthums (isted. 1887), pp. 154, 168, 215; Holzinger,
^ See, e. g., i Mace. 1:14, 48, 60 £.; 2 Mace. 6:10.
^'See, e. g., Luke i: 59 ; John 7 : 22 f.; Acts 15:5; 16:3; 21:21; Rom. 2 : 25 ff.;
I Cor. 7:18 f.; Gal. 5:2 f.; 6:13; Col. 3:11; Phil. 3:5.
7° See especially the references to the works of Tylor, Bancroft, W. R. Smith,
Wellhausen, Ploss, Ebers, Erman, and Reitzenstein, cited in § 166.
LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I5I
Einlntung in den Hexateuch (1893), PP- I33. 365, 437; Smend, op. cit., pp. 37 f., 116;
NowACK, op. cit., pp. 167-71 ; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 153 £f.; Budde, Zeitschrift fiir
die alttestamentliche Wissensckaft, Vol. XIV (1894), p. 250; Gi.a.ss^'EKG, Die Bescknei-
dung (1896); Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alien Testament (1896),
pp. 165, 174; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Frem-
den (1896), see Index, s. v. "Beschneidung; " Marti, op. cit., pp. 43, 163 f.; J,
Jaeger, " Ueber die Beschneidung," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, July, 1898, pp. 479-91;
Zeydner, " Kainszeichen, Keniter und Beschneidung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVIII (1898), pp. 120-25; RKiTZENSTElif, Zwei religions-
geschichtliche Fragen (1901).
Paet Fourth
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE LEGAL
LITERATURE
Xn. The Deuteronomic Code.
XIIL Ezekiel's Contribution.
XIV. The Priestly Code.
CHAPTER XII.
THE LEGAL LITERATURE THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE OF LAWS.
§ 167. The Literature of "Worship includes that portion of the Old
Testament literature which concerns itself with the subject of worship
in any of its forms, or was written by men imbued with the priestly
spirit. Here belong :
1. The legal literature (cf. §9), or codes of laws and regula-
tions dealing with the various elements in worship ; these codes
include more than can properly be classified under the head of
worship, but everything in them may be said to be priestly in its
character.
2. The historical literature (§10), viz., Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe-
miah, and the priestly history in the Hexateuch (=P).
3. The hymnal literature (§ 8), as found in the book of Psalms.
A marked spirit of unity characterizes all this literature, and dis-
tinguishes it from the prophetic and the wisdom literature (§ 2).
§ 168. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament
is found in four groups or codes of legislation, viz.:
1. The covenant code (§20), the earliest form of Exod. 20:23—
legislation, ordinarily called the prophetic code, because *3i9,34io-
it is incorporated in literature of a prophetic charac-
ter.
2. The Deuteronomic code (§§ 25-28), so called Deut. 12:1— 26:19;
because it forms the principal part of the book of ^p-*.
Deuteronomy.
3. Ezekiel's system of worship (§ 31), which is, Ezek., chaps,
strictly speaking, priestly and legalistic, although the "^^ '
work of a prophet.
4. The Levitical code (§§ 41-44), so called because
it is found in the book of Leviticus (with portions of
Exodus and Numbers).
§ 169. The Covenant Code (§ 20), or prophetic code,
is the codification of law and usage in Israel down to
about 650 B. C. Concerning this code there may be
noted:
155
156
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Judg. 17:7 ff.
Ezod. 20:24 if.
Exod. 23:14-17.
Exod. 22:18.
1. Its prevalence is synchronous with the period in
which the order of priests does not occupy the place of
power in Israelitish thought. When the priests take a
more influential place in the affairs of the nation, an-
other code appears (the Deuteronomic), in which this
higher position is recognized.
2. Its form, contents, and character are rather pro-
phetic than priestly, since, although (i) the act of wor-
ship is recognized (§ 73, i), (2) provision is made for
feasts and offerings (§ 96), (3) reference is made to magic
and sacrifice to other gods (§158, i), all this is of the
simplest character, and no tendency exists toward the
development of a priestly system, there being no men-
tion even of a priest or a priestly order (§ 59, i).
3. It furnishes a formulation under prophetic influ-
ence of the old Semitic usage, and, at the same time,
the basis on which the later codes are developed.
4. Its relation to these later codes has been shown in
the comparative examination of various usages (§§59-
166).
§ 170. The Story of the Discovery of Deuteronomy
(§25)-'
I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this
event occurred, viz., the preceding reigns of Manasseh
and Amon, their character, the forms of worship
encouraged, the prophetic attitude (2 Kings 21 : 10-
15), the particular royal acts regarded with disfavor
(§24).
See KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 370-79 ;
BUDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 161-9 ; Kent, A History
of the Hebrew People, Vo\.\l,Y>Y>- 159-64; Wellhausen, /"ro/^-^^-
mena to the History of Israel, pp. 485 ff.
' It is generally acknowledged by interpreters that the original story of the dis-
covery of Deuteronomy has been edited from the point of view of later times. The
account, as it now stands, comes from three sources: (i) the early narrative, (2) the
pre-exilic redaction, (3) the post-exilic redaction. The parts that show the clearest
evidence of the work of the post-exilic editor are 2 Kings 22: 14-20; 23:8ff., 16-18,
21-23, 25^-27 ; the work of the earlier editor appears in 23 : 3, 13, 24 f.; while 22 : z^b,
6, 8 (" the high-priest ") ; 23 : ^b, 5, "jb, 14, 16-20, seem to be minor glosses. The pur-
pose of these additions and modifications was to furnish an explanation, from the later
point of view, of the disaster that fell upon Judah so soon after this reform.
3 Kings 22 : 3—
a3:s5.
3 Kings 31: 1-36.
LEGAL LITERATURE — DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 57
2. Study the principal details of the discovery, e. g.,
(i) the chief agent, the priest; (2) the phrase "the book ^ |^'.°f|."-''' ''
of the law;" (3) the strange effect of the reading upon 2 Kings 22:8.
theking; (4) the consultation with Huldah — her oracle, 2Kings22:ii.
° ' ^^' 2 Kings 22 : 14-30.
its original form and meaning; (5) the convocation of 3 Kings 23:1 f.
the nation and the public reading ; (6) the covenant
entered into; (7) the phrase "his commandments, and
his testimonies, and his statutes;" (8) the phrase "with 2 Kings 33:3.
all his heart and all his soul;" (9) one by one, the 2 Kings 23 : 4-20.
various acts of reformation instituted by Josiah ; (10) 2 Kings 23 : 21-33.
the observance of the passover ; (11) the purpose of 2 Kings 22:8;
^ ' \ / 11 23:3,21,24.
these acts, viz., to confirm "the words of this covenant
which were written in this book," etc.
3. Consider (§26) the immediate results of the find- a Kings 33:4-34.
ing of this book, and compare these results with the
actual provisions of the book of Deuteronomy, and
determine: (i) whether Deuteronomy commands any
essential thing which Josiah did not try to do ; (2)
whether Josiah undertook any act of reformation for
which Deuteronomy does not make provision.
4. Take up now three important questions: (i) Is there
any reasonable doubt as to the identity of the book
found by Hilkiah with the book of Deuteronomy, or,
at least, a portion of it ? (2) Does the story in Kings of a Kings 23: 8-13.
the finding of the book definitely indicate a belief, on
the part of its writer, that the book discovered was one
written by Moses, or of Mosaic origin ? (3) If such
Mosaic origin is implied in the narrative, what explana-
tion of the narrative is possible from the point of view
of those who deny the Mosaic origin of the book ?
5. Take up, still further, these questions : (i) Do the
facts of the reformation furnish evidence that the book a Kings 23: 4-34.
which authorizes them is of ancient date, that is, Mosaic ?
(2) Could these facts be accounted for just as easily and
naturally on the other supposition, that is, that the book
of Deuteronomy was prepared during Manasseh's reign,
lost, and found in Josiah's reign ? (3) In this latter case,
what motive, worthy of the situation, could be ascribed
to those who took part in the transaction ? Would it be
sufficient to say that it was done to recommend certain
158 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
reforms and to establish more firmly the national reli-
gion ?
§171. Representations in Deuteronomy Concerning its
Authorship.
i.i-5;2 4:if., 44 I. Read and interpret the passages in Deuteronomy
9,' '11; '29. if.; which make reference to its authorship, notinsf the par-
31: if., 9f., 24 r' o r
f.,30; 32:44ff.; ticular portions of the book which contain these refer-
33; If.
ences, and noting, further, that the strictly legal portion,
12 : I — 26 : 19, contains nothing of this kind.
2. Consider whether it was customary in ancient
times to ascribe to great men writings whose authorship
was unknown, and whether instances of this custom are
Prov. 10: i; 25:1. found (in sacred writings) in the case of (i) Solomon,^
to whom are ascribed proverbs and psalms and books
Pss. 103; 122:124; which are of a manifestly later age; (2) David,'' to whom
psalms are ascribed which certainly date from a post-
isa. , chaps. 40-66. exilic time; (3) Isaiah,* to whom prophetic discourses
are ascribed which are now almost universally recognized
as belonging to the exilic and post-exilic periods ; and
(in secular writings) (4) the letters and many of the dia-
logues assigned to Plato;* (5) the "Shield of Hercules"
and many other works ascribed to Hesiod.'
3. Consider also the ancient custom in accordance
with which writers, for certain reasons, ascribed their
Eccies. i: 1, 12. own writings to great men, as in the case of (i) the
Song of Solomon writer of Ecclesiastes;® (2) the writer of the Song of
Solomon ;' (3) the authors of the " Wisdom of Solomon "
^^o'lil'eL^'''' and of the "Psalms of Solomon ;"" (4) the author of the
'All Scripture references in this chapter which are cited without the name of the
book are from Deuteronomy.
3 See, <f. g., Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.),
pp. 406 ff.
<See, e. g., Driver, op. cit., pp. 373 ff.
5 See, e. g., Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah.
* See Jevons, History of Greek Literature, pp. 482 f .
7 See Jevons, op. cit., p. 86.
^ See articles on " Ecclesiastes " in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible and in
Encyclopedia Biblica.
'See Driver, op. cit., pp. 437 ff.
"See articles on "Apocrypha" in Encyclopcedia Biblica and in Hastings's Dic-
tionary of the Bible..
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 59
book of Daniel ;" (5) Plato putting his words into the
mouth of Socrates;'^ (6) the alleged correspondence
between St. Paul and Seneca, consisting of fourteen
letters.'^
4. Consider the Egyptian custom of placing in con- c/. 31:26.
nection with religious works the statement "found in the
temple," this being understood to be, not a statement
that a book had been lost and found, but a conventional
fiction of the priestly class to affirm its sacred and
authoritative character."*
5. Consider, however, whether, after all, it is not
quite certain that the leaders of the time, as well as the
people, supposed the "found" book to have been (i)
lost for many years, (2) actually discovered, and (3) of
Mosaic origin.
§ 172. The Point of View and Coloring of the Book.
1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i)
the situation — border of the wilderness — outside the i.if.
Holy Land ; (2) the lack of any reference to Jerusalem
or the temple ; (3) the frequent representation that the i:8;4:i; 6:iof.;
land is not yet occupied; (4) the constant reference to 7:1-5. 17-24;
the Canaanites as Israel's enemies; (5) the references to 6:21; 7:8,18;
Egypt as a recent place of dwelling; (6) the references 4:3,4.
to events which those addressed had themselves seen ;
(7) the many Egyptian reminiscences, e. g., of methods 11:10; 25:2,3;
of irrigation, bastinado, writing of law on plastered stones, 11:18; ii:'io;
wearing of law as amulet, deliverance from Egypt, Esfvp- 28:27, 35:5 :'>5;
... . r , • J '5:15; 16.12.
tian diseases, motives of kindness to servants.
2. Consider, on the other hand, whether all these
points are not capable of other explanation, (i) Is it
inconceivable that the writer planned to give his book a
Mosaic setting — in other words, that all this material is
merely to be regarded as a part of the dramatic repre-
sentation ? Is the book not thoroughly dramatic in its
"See Driver, The Book 0/ Banie/ {Camhridge Bible), pp. xlvii-lxxvi.
"See the " Charmides," "Lysis," "Protagoras," etc.; and compare Jowett,
Dialogues of Plato (Macmillan Co., New York, 5 vols.).
'3 See LiGHTFOOT, St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, p. 260.
'* See Q.'O.YN-^Y., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, p. 85 ; Maspero, Histoire ancienne
de r Orient {\%\. ed.), pp. 57, 73; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens (ist ed.), pp. 60, 84.
l60 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
5:6-21; f/, Exod. whole presentation ? '5 (2) Is it not to be expected
20:3-17.
14:21,^/ cf. Exod that the writer, if a late one, would include material of
23 : \^h.
i6:4/'/ cf. Exod. the earlier times? Is there anywhere a claim that he
23:7^8; f/.33:3. includes only late material? (3) Is the author of the
book really as hostile to the Egyptians as a writer would
be expected to be, if he lived in the generation follow-
ing the exodus ? If so, how explain the permission to
admit an Egyptian to religious privileges in the third
generation, when this privilege is denied other nations
17:14-17. until the tenth generation ? (4) Is not the writer living
in a time when the upper classes have an attachment to
Egypt, which he must oppose, for how otherwise explain
isa., chaps. 30, 31; Deut. 1 7 : 14-17 ? (5) Is it not true that there was con-
36:6; 2 Kings . . . , T-. , -r. ,-. 1
18 : 21 ;i^/. 25:26. stant communication with Egypt between 750 B. L. and
600 B. C, and may not these Egyptian references be
explained on the ground of this intimacy ?
3. Are there not allusions which furnish direct evi-
dence that the writer is living at a distance from the
2:34:3:4, 8, etc.; period of which he treats ; e. g., (i) are the phrases "at
that time," " unto this day," appropriate in the mouth
of Moses, when the events described occurred during
the preceding six months (<:/. 1:3 with Numb. 33 : 38,
thus fixing the date of Numb. 20:22-28)? (2) How
24:9;25:i7;23:5; explain 2:12 as Mosaic ? (3) Could Moses have used
appropriately the phrase "when ye came forth out of
1:1,5; 3:8; etc. Egypt" ? (4) Must the writer not have lived in western
Palestine in view of his use of the phrase beyond the
Jordan of eastern Palestine ?
§ 173. The Language and Style of the Book.
I. Examine a list of special words and phrases'* fre-
quently occurring in the book of Deuteronomy, and con-
sider (i) the bearing of the fact of such a list upon the
question of authorship ; does it argue for or against
identity of authorship with the other books of the Penta-
teuch? (2) the general character of these expressions as
indicating early or later authorship.
"S Cf. the same element in the book of Job, viz., a dramatic representation of
antiquity in connection with the presentation of a (comparatively) modern thought.
'* See, If. g^., Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy,
pp. Ix.xvii-lxxxiv.
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE
i6i
2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities ap-
pearing in the book,'^ i. e., the peculiar forms, idioms,
etc., and consider whether these exhibit evidence (i) of
antiquity of date, or (2) of late date. With what writer
in the Old Testament does the book of Deuteronomy
show the largest number of similarities ?
3. Consider (i) the general style of Deuteronomy,
viz., classical, pure, broad, copious, idiomatic ; (2) the
striking points of style which distinguish this book from
the other Pentateuchal books, and, indeed, from other
Old Testament books, viz., {a) individual, affecting even
quotations ; {d) the hortatory element, based upon {c) the
oratorical.
§ 174. The Material of the Book. — Make an examina-
tion of the material of the book with a view to finding
evidence for and against the Mosaic authorship, as
follows :
1. Note (i) the prohibition of intercourse with the
Canaanites; (2) references to Israel's condition in the
wilderness; (3) the directions for appointing a king;
(4) the law for the cities of refuge, possible only at the
time of the entrance ; (5) the order to recall what
Amalek did to them ; (6) directions for the blessing
and cursing on Mount Ebal ; and consider whether
material of this kind could possibly have had its origin
at any other than a very early time, viz., the time of
Moses.
2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether the
presence of this material has not already been accounted
for in the statement (see § 172, 2) that the book is con-
ceded to contain much very old material which has been
handed down and incorporated side by side with the
newer material ; and (2) whether the presence of the
newer material can possibly be explained in a book of
Mosaic origin, e. g., (a) the prohibition of star-worship,
which is late; (d) warnings against lower forms of proph-
ecy, which cannot have antedated Amos and Hosea ;
C/. Jer. 7 : 1-26 ;
11:1-8; 16 Il-
ia; 21 : 3-10.
C/. 2 : 28 with
Numb. 20:19;
1 : 28 with
Wumb. 13 : 28 ;
1 : 35, 36. 39, 41
with Numb.
14:33,24,31,
406.
7:1.
4:3. 4; 7:1; 8:1;
9:1.
17:14-
19: 1-IO.
25:17-19.
27: 11-16.
4:19; 17:3-
18: 10-12.
'' See, e. g., Driver, op. cit., p. Ixxxiv ; HohziJ^GER, £tn/et^uMg in den Hexateuch,
pp. 282-91 ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium ("Handkommentar zum Alien Testa-
ment"), pp. xxxii-xli.
l62
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
12: 1-7.
Chaps. 15; 21; 23;
34-
31:9; 33: 1.4;
4:44-49; chap.
34.
Mai. 4 : 4.
1:9-13; cf. Exod.
18:13-26.
1 : 22 f . ; cf. Numb,
13 : 1-3.
> : 37 *■ ; <■/. Numb.
20:12.
19:1-13; cf.
Numb. 35:9-34.
14 : 21 ; cf. Exod.
23:19; 34:26.
Chap, 16 ; cf.
Exod. 23: 14;
Lev., chap. 23.
Chap. 5;c/.Exod.,
chap. 20; chap.
14; cf. Lev.,
chap. II.
I Sam. 9:12-14;
16 2; 10:3,5,8;
1 Kings 18:30
ff. ; 2 Sam. 6: 13,
17 f.
Josh. 1 : 22, 23 ;
2: 10, 11; 3:7;
10:28-43;
11:10-15;
Judg. 1. 11-23;
{c) the law centralizing worship at one place ; (^) laws
like those concerning contracts and inheritance, which
mark an advanced state of social development.
3. Consider from the point of view of the material
the truth or falsity of the following statements : " The
Israel of Deuteronomy is separated from the Israel of
the exodus by a complete social revolution;" "The
nomadic tribes have grown into a settled and wealthy
community whose organization no longer needs to be
constituted, but only to be reformed."
4. Consider in their bearing on this question the
following: (i) certain passages which manifestly cannot
be ascribed to Moses, e. g., the account of his death ;
(2) the fact that the first reference in the prophets to a
Mosaic code occurs in post-exilic times ; (3) the lack of
consistency which appears in so many cases in com-
parison with the other parts of the Pentateuch, e. g., the
difference in the representations concerning the appoint-
ment of assistants to Moses in his work as judge ; the
different accounts of the sending out of the twelve spies;
the different causes assigned for Jehovah's anger against
Moses ; the many differences between the last chapters
of Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy, though both
are assigned to the same year ; (4) the repetitions of laws
which occur also in other books, e. g., the law against
seething a kid in its mother's milk ; the law concerning
feasts ; the decalogue ; the law of clean and unclean.
5. Consider the cases in which Israel's leaders in the
early period show utter disregard of Deuteronomic laws,
without any indication that what they do is regarded
as illegal ; e. g., Samuel sacrifices at other places than
Jerusalem ; Elijah sacrifices on Mount Carmel ; David
also offers sacrifice.
6. Consider the bearing upon this question of the
more important teachings (see § 178).
§ 175. The Book of Deuteronomy as Related to Other
Old Testament Literature.
I. Examine the strongly Deuteronomic character of
certain passages in Joshua, Judges, and Kings, and con-
sider whether these are to be explained (i) as themselves
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 63
early, and indicating the existence of the book of Deu- ?-^"^' "'c'"!'
-' ' o 0 : 1 ; 10: o-io ;
teronomy at an early date; or (2) as later interpolations iKings2 3. 4;
and expansions by Deuteronomic editors after the publi- "Kin\'
cation of Deuteronomy in 621 B. C. (see § 180). ^°^'' '7 7-23;
2. Examine the remarkable cases of similarity (in 4:20; c/. jer.
thought and form) between Jeremiah and Deuteronomy'^ ^/.je'r. 7:23.
{cf. the sixty-six passages from Deuteronomy of which 25:6.
, , . , , . , • f T 18:20; c/. Jer.
there are echoes in not less than eighty-six of Jere- 29:23.
• 1 \ 1 -1 II 1 • ■ 1 1 • 11 28 26 , c/. Jer.
miah); and consider whether this is to be explained by 7 33.
/ \ 1 T 1 • 1 1 r 1 r J 28 36 ; 1:/. Jer.
supposing (i) that Jeremiah was particularly fond of, and 16:13.
familiar with, the ancient Deuteronomy; or (2) that Deu- 5:15.
2Q ■ 23 ' cf, Tcr
teronomy and Jeremiah are the product of nearly the 22:8 '
12 ' "^i * cf Tcr
same times, the latter being strongly influenced by the 7:31.
former ; or (3) that Jeremiah was himself the author of 42:12.
Deuteronomy."
3. Consider the significance of the fact that in the
genuine portions of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah none of
these Deuteronomic phrases are to be found.
4. Consider, still further, the cases in later literature Neh. 1:5-11;
9 : 6 II. ;
in which the Deuteronomic phrases still maintain them- Dan. 9:4-19;
^ I Chron. 29:19;
selves, €. p"., Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Daniel. 22:13; 28:8,20;
' * ' 2 Chron. 32 : 7.
§ 176. The Book of Deuteronomy and the New Testa-
ment.
1. Examine the allusions in the New Testament to Marki:44;ia:26;
the " law of Moses," and consider the bearing of these ^l^'ie^agl's^!
statements on the authorship of the Pentateuch in gen- 5I 46^f ."^^ 8 : 5 f °
p_„i 1:17; 7:19; Acts
^'^ai. 15:21; 28:23;
2. Examine the quotations in the New Testament y^^^^'^'^]'
^ Matt. 19 : 7 f . ;
taken from the book of Deuteronomy, and consider the 22:24; Mark
•' 10:3 f. ; 12 :i9;
bearing of the statements made in connection with them V"^® 20:28,
° Acts 3:22; 7:37;
on the authorship of Deuteronomy in particular. Rom. 10:19.
3. Consider the three interpretations which have been
made of these and similar passages: (i) that the state-
ments are literally true and are to be accepted as final ;""
'^ZuNZ, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, 1873, pp. 671-3;
Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii ff.
''But see Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii f. ; Cheyne, /eremta/i. His Life and
Times, pp. 81 f.; J. L. KoNiG, Alttestamentliche Studien, II; Kleinert, Das
Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker, pp. 185-90, 235.
^°See Alvah Hovey, "The New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation of
the Old Testament," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp, 207-13.
164 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(2) that Jesus and the New Testament writers, though
knowing the real facts, accommodated themselves to the
point of view of their times and accepted the traditional
interpretation, not wishing to arouse opposition over a
matter of comparatively slight importance and thereby
detract attention from the great truths they wished to
teach;*' (3) that Jesus and the New Testament writers
were not sent to teach historical and biblical criticism,
hence were not given any more knowledge concerning
such questions than was possessed by their contem-
poraries."
§177. Is Not the Book a Forg[ery and a Fraud, if
Not "Written by Moses ?
1. Consider (i) whether, in view of its own assertions
and the general belief, this book is not a fraudulent
imposture, if Moses did not write it ; (2) whether, if a
forg'ery, it could under any circumstances be counted
among the sacred writings ; (3) how, if a forgery, it
could possibly have gained acceptance in the Jewish
nation ; (4) whether the writer, whoever he was, did not
secure its acceptance on the pretense that it was the
work of Moses.
2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether, in those
days, there was anything in existence like the literary
usages and laws of the modern world, e. g., any literary
proprietorship, any literary copyright; and, if these were
not in existence, can the modern conception of forgery or
plagiarism have existed ? (2) the suggestions made above
(§171, 2, 3) concerning ancient customs in connection
with writings ; (3) whether there are not books of excellent
morality which are, nevertheless, literary forgeries;*^ (4)
whether there have not been cases in which a modern law-
book has been palmed off as ancient ;*'' (5) whether the
proposition of forgery is possible in view of the fact that
Chap. 18. the supposed forgers, the priests of Zadok, include laws
"See G. B. Stevens, "The Bearing of New Testament Statements upon the
Authorship of Old Testament Books," 0/d Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 164-70.
"See C. H. Toy, "The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old Testament,"
Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 124-33.
="3 E. g., the Sibylline oracles. =* Cf. Sir Henry Maine, in Ancient Law, p. 82
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE l6$
touching the interests of the country-Levites which are
indirect conflict with the interests of the Zadokites ;*5
(6) whether the mass of the people who heard the read- s:i;3i:i>9>
ing of the law was in any proper position to consider
critically the question of authorship ; (7) whether Hilkiah
in permitting the belief in the Mosaic authorship was
really guilty of delusion; was it not rather illusion? (8)
whether the principle of illusion is not {a) necessary in
all educational work ;'* {b) practiced in the Old and New
Testaments;^ {c) one of the greatest elements in the
teaching of Jesus himself;*^ (9) whether, after all, the
writer of this book was not properly using the word
Moses, inasmuch as {a) this work was only a continuation
of the work of Moses, along the same lines and for the
same ends ; {S) this work was but the fuller growth of
the seed planted by Moses ; {c) even where the older
usage is changed, as in the case of the place of
worship, the principle underlying the change is one
enunciated by Moses; {d) the writer is doing only what
Moses himself under the changed circumstances would
have done ; {e) the writer has done just what modern
writers do, as in the case of the name of Webster's
Dictionary, the original author having long been dead,
and the dictionary, although greatly modified and
enlarged, still bearing his name ; or the name of
Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar, many editions having
appeared since the death of the author, with very
significant changes in system and matter.
§178. The Religious Teachings of the Book. — Con-
sider (i) the general religious teachings and their sig-
nificance (see § 28) ; (2) the teachings of Deuteronomy
upon the special subjects compared in §§52-166.
§ 179. The Structure and General Character of the Book
of Deuteronomy.
I. Consider the various sections which constitute the
'5 Cf. Cn'E.\i^-E., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 76 f.
=6 Cf. ibid., pp. 77 f.
^^7 Cf Jer. 20 : 7, in which the prophet utters his disappointment in his discovery
that he had been illuded (not deluded); also Heb. 4:8,9.
=8 C/. John 16: 12.
l66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
book of Deuteronomy as it now stands, and note their
specific contents :
1:1-5. (i) Introduction.
1:6—4:40. (2) The y^r^/ discourse of Moses, introductory.
4:41-43- (3) Appointment of three cities of refuge.
4:44-49- (4) Superscription to the second discourse of Moses.
5:1— 26: 19; chap. (c) The .y^<:^«^ discourse — the law.
28. ^-^^
Chaps. 5-11. (a) Hortatory introduction.
Chaps. 12-26, 28. (d) Code of laws.
Chap. 27 (6) The acceptance of the code.
29:1—30:20. (7) The //z/>^ discourse, supplementary.
31:1-8. _ (8) Moses's last words of encouragement.
31:9-13. (9) Delivery of the law to the priests.
31:14,15.23- (10) Commission of Joshua.
31:16-22,24-30; (11) Song of Moses.
32 : 1-43, 44. \ / <j
32:45-47. (12) Final commendation of the law to Israel.
32:48—34:12. (13) Moses's blessing and death.
2. Consider the literary structure of this material
upon the modern hypothesis : ** ( i ) To P are assigned
the few touches found in 1:3; 32:48-52; 34:10, ^d,
7-9 ; consider these passages in connection with the
commonly accepted idea of P, and note that by means of
them, at a late date, Deuteronomy was brought into the
Hexateuch. (2) To JE are assigned the earlier parts of the
book, viz., the incorporation of the blessing (chap. 33,
this being taken from JE in its original form); 27 : 5-7a/
3i:i4» 15; 31:23; 34:1*2, i^-sa, 6, 10. (3) To D,
the first Deuteronomic writer, and to D% a second Deu-
teronomic writer, is assigned the remainder, divided as
follows (D' being in black type): i : i f.; i -.4 — 3: 13;
3:14-17; 3:18—4:28; 4:29-31; 4:32-40; 4:41-49;
5:1—26:19; 27:1-4; 27:7^-8; 27:9 f.; 27:11-26;
28 : I — 29 : 8; 29:9-28; 30 : i-io ; 30 : 1 1-20 ; 31 : 1-13 ;
31:16-22; 31:24-27; 31:28-30; 32:45-47; 34:iif.
D' followed some time after D, and, besides making the
additions, incorporated the JE portion and the song
32 : 1-43-
*'So Driver, Deuteronomy; for variations consult Bertholet, Deuteronomium
("Kurzer Hand-Commentar ") ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (" Hand-Kommen-
tar"); G. F. MoORE, ^ Y^t^ttxoxiovxy ,'' Encyclopczdia Biblica; ST \%KK., Das Deute-
ronomium, sein Inhalt itnd seine literariscke Form.
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 167
3. Consider the general character of the material in
Deuteronomy, consisting as it does of (i) historical, (2)
legal, (3) hortatory elements. Which of these elements
is the controlling one ? Is the history narrated simply
for the sake of imparting a knowledge of historical
events, or is it used rather for the purpose of illustrating
and enforcing great truths ? Notice also that the laws
are imbedded in a didactic setting, and that their gen-
eral tone is not imperative, but argumentative and per-
suasive ; reasons are assigned for yielding obedience to
them and rewards are promised to the obedient. Consider
also the way in which the prophetic and priestly ele-
ments are combined in Deuteronomy, how the great ideas
of the book are of a prophetic character, and how the
priestly laws are calculated to give concrete expression
to these prophetic ideas and secure their lodgment in
the life and thought of the people.
§ 1 80. Other Work of the Deuteronomic "Writers. —
After the book of Deuteronomy was accepted as the law- josh. 1:3-9, "-
, , r 18; 4:21—5:1;
book of Israel, there seems to have arisen a school ot 5:4-8; 10:28-
writers controlled by the spirit of Deuteronomy whose
activity may be clearly traced in the Old Testament i Kings 2:10-12;
literature during the years immediately preceding the 8:14-66; 9:1-9;
I *% * i~s * etc.
exile and onward for a century or more. Their work
may be seen most clearly in the books of Judges and judg. 2:7, 11-23;
3:4-15*^/4:1-3;
Kings, which they edited from the Deuteronomic point 6:1,7-10; etc.
of view, inserting interpretations of the history of Israel
based wholly on the teachings of Deuteronomy. Much
of their work is found also in Joshua, and some traces 1 sam. i : 7 f ■, "•
of it appear in Samuel and in the preceding books of Gen. 26:1-5;
, ,„ X Exod. 15:26.
the Hexateuch (§175).^°
§ 181. Literature to be Consulted.
Havernick, Introduction to the Pentateuch (1836, transl. 1850), pp. 410 f.;
Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Pentateuch (1839, transl. 1847); Keil, Introduc-
tion to the Old Testament {iZS'i, 3d ed. 1873, transl. 1869); KUENEN, The Hexateuch
(1861, 2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886); Keil, Deuteronomy (1862, 2d ed. 1870, transl.
1867); SCHKOEDER, Deuteronomy (Lange's "Commentary," 1866, transl. 1879);
'EsviN, Deuteronomy {" Speaker's Commentary," 1871); Kvenen, I^eligion of Israel,
Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
i7//5ra^/, pp. 402£f. (1st ed. 1878, 2d ed. 1883,4th ed. 1895, transl. 1885); W. R. Smith,
3° Cf. Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 29 ff.
l68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Old Testameiit in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892); Bissell, The Penta-
teuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885); G, Vos, The Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuchal
Codes {\'i'it)\ Q\i^\^^, Jeremiah, His Life and Times (1888, chaps, v-vii); Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament {iSgi, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 69-103;
KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol, II, pp. 7-44 (1892, transl. 1896); H. E. Ryle,
Canon of the Old Testament {^i%g2, 2d ed. 1895), see Index; Montefiore, Religion of
the Ancient Hebreivs {" YWhhtii Lectures," 1892), pp. 161-221; S. R. Driver, article
"Deuteronomy," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); B. W. Bacon, The
Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); CORNILL, The Prophets of Israel (1895), pp.
80-92; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895), see Index;
Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. i-xcv ;
A. Harper, Deuteronomy {Expositor's Bible, 1895); C. J. Ball, "The Blessing of
Moses," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, 1896, pp. 118-37; L. W.
Batten, " The Origin and Character of Deuteronomy," Biblical World, April,
1898, pp. 246-54; Ed. Konig, "The Unity of Deuteronomy," Expository Times,
Oct. and Dec, 1898, pp. 16-19, 124-7; Feb., 1899, pp. 227-30; G.L.Robinson,
"The Genesis of Deuteronomy," Expositor, Oct. and Nov., 1898, pp. 241-61, 351-69;
Feb., Apr., and May, 1899, pp. 151-60,271-95,356-71; H. E. Ryle, article "Deuter-
onomy," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Th. Tyler, "Notes on
Deut. 32:42," Jewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. 379 f.; Addis, The Docu?nents of
the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 2-30; W. P. McKee, "Transient and Perma-
nent Elements in Deuteronomy," Biblical World April, 1899, pp. 249 ff.; H. G.
Mitchell, " The Use of the Second Person in Deuteronomy," Journal of Biblical
Literature, 1899, pp. 61-109; BuDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), pp.
170-80; F. H. Woods, article " Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol.
I, {1899); G. F. Moore, article "Deuteronomy," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899);
Martin, The Tora of Moses (1900); Stibitz, "The Centralization of Jehovah Wor-
ship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, Jan., 1900 ; DuFF, Old Testament Theology,
Vol.11 (1900); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch,
Vol. I (1900); Hayman, "The Blessing of Moses," American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106; Wellhausen and
Cheyne, article "Hexateuch," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Warren, "The
Origin of the Pentateuch," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 194 ff.
KuEPER, y>r^w?rt5 librorum sacrorum interpres et vindex (1838), pp. 4-45; J. L.
KoNiG, " Das Deuteronomium und der Prophet Jeremiah," Alttestamentliche Sludien,
Vol. II (1839); Riehm, Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab (1854); K. H. Graf,
DerSegen Mose's (1857); F. W. ScHULTZ, Das Deuteronomium (1859); Knobel, Z>«j
Deuteronomium (" Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1861); Kamp-
HAUSEN, Z>aj Lied Moses (1862); Kosters, De Historie-Beschouwing van den Deutero-
nomist met de Berichten in Gen. — Num. vergeleken (1868); Klostermann, "Das Lied
Mose's und das Deuteronomium," Studien und Kritiken, 1871 f.; Kleinert, Das
Deuteronotnium und der Deuteronomiker (1872); Reinke, " Ueber das unter dem
Konige Josia aufgefundene Gesetzbuch," Beitrdge zur Erkldrung des Alten Testa-
ments, 8 (1872), pp. 131-80; Riehm, Studien und Kritiken, 1873, pp. 165-200; ZuNZ,
Zeitschrift der detctschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVIII (1873), PP- 669-76;
Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte Israel und seitte Erweiterrtngen
(1874); Hollenberg, "Die deuteronomischen Bestandtheile des Buches Josua,"
Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 462-506; Havet, Le Christianisme et ses origines.
LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 169
Vol. Ill (1878), pp. 32 £f.; Reuss, Vhistoire sainte et la lot. Vol. I {1879), pp. 1 54 ff.;
J. J. P. Valeton, " Deuteronomium," Theologische Studien, Vol. V (1879), pp. 169-206,
291-313; VI (1880), pp. 133-74, 303-20; VII (1881), pp. 39-56, 205-28; Steinthal,
"Das fiinfte Buch Mose," Zeitschrift filr Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft,
1879, pp. 1-28; Idem, "Die erzahlenden Stiicke im funften Buche Mose," ibid., 1880,
pp. 253-89; Delitzsch, "Pentateuch-kritische Studien," Zeitschrift fiir kirchlicheWis-
senschaft und kirchliches Leben,Wo\. I (1880), pp. 445 ff., 503 ff., 559 ff.; StadE, Zeit-
schrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. V (1885), pp. 292-300; D'ElCHTHAL,
Melanges de critique biblique (1886); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887),
pp. 148-73,649-71; M.\KT\^, Introduction a la critique generate de TAncien Testa-
ment, Vol. I (1887), pp. 295 ff.; Vernes, Une nouvelle hypothese sur la composition du
Deut.; exanien des vues de M. d' Eichihal {\^'i']^\ KuENEN, "De Jongste Phasen der
Critiek van den Hexateuch," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1888, pp. 35 ff.; HORST, "Etudes
sur le Deut.," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XVI (1888), pp. 28-65; XVII
(1889), pp. 1-22; XVIII (1890), pp. 320-34; XXIII (189s), 184-200; XXVII (1899),
pp. 119-76; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuch und der historischen
Bucher des Alten Testaments {i8Sg, 3d ed. 1899); Baudissin, Geschichte des alttesta-
mentlichen Priesterthums (1889); Van Hoonacker, Vorigine des 4 premiers chapitres
du Deut. (1889); A. Zahn, Das Deuteronojniiwi (1890); Klostermann, "Beitrage
zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Pentateuch," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1890-92;
MoT^T^T, Le Deteteronome {iSgi); CoRNiLL, Einleittmg in das Alte Testament {xigi,
2d ed. 1892), pp. 29-45; Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuch, Vol. II (1892), pp.
32 ff.; Oettli, Das Deuteronomium (1893); H. Preiss, Zum Deuteronomium — ein
Beitrag zur Kritik des Pentateuchs (1892); Marti, "Das erste officielle Bekenntnis,"
Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, 1892, pp. 29-73; Reuss, Die heilige Geschichte
und das Gesetz (1893), pp. 106 ff.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), § 16; KONIG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(1893), pp. 209-25; WiLDEBOER, Die Litteratur des Alten Testament (1893, tr. 1894),
§ II; HoLZiNGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 255-331; Steuernagel,
Der Rahmen des Deuterononiium (1894); WiLLY Staerk, Das Deuteronomium, sein
Inkalt und seine literarische Form (i^g^); PiEPENBRiNG, " La reforme et le code de
Josias," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XXIX (1894), PP- 123 ff.; Steuernagel,
Die Entstehung des deuteronomischen Gesetzes (1896); Naumann, Das Deuterono-
mium (1897); D. Castelli, " Una congettura sopra Deuteronomio 32 : 5," Zeitschrift
fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVII {1897), PP- 337 f-; M. Lambert, " Le
cantique de Moise, Deut. XXXII," Revue des etudes juives. Vol. XXXVI (1898), pp.
47-52; VON Gall, " Deuteronomium und Deuteronomius," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest-
amentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 173-7 '> J- Halevy, "Le Deuteronome,"
Revue semitique, 'VoX.Yll (1899), pp. 313-32; Bertholet, Deuterojiomium erkldrt
(" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899), pp. ix-xxix; Finke, Wer
hat die ^ Biicher Moses verfasst? (1900); Klostermann, Deuteronomium und Grag&s
(1900); Steuernagel, Uebersetzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium
und Josua, und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch ("Hand-Kommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes
(1901), pp. 103-22 ; Herner, Ist der ztveite Dekalog alter als das Bundesbuch ? (1901);
HUMMELAUER, Commentarius in Deuteronomiutn (1901).
CHAPTER XIII.
THE LEGAL LITERATURE — EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION.
§ 182. The Historical Situation of which Ezekiel
and his work formed a part deserves careful study
(§§3off.)-'
Kings 24: 1-7. I- Gather together the principal facts (i) of the first
deportation as narrated in Kings, viz., the reign of
Jehoiakim, its character; the reign of Jehoiachin, the
invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, the carrying away of the
princes, etc. (vs. 14); the date of this being 597 B. C;
2 Kings 25: 1-21; (2) of the second deportation, including: the reig-n of
Jer., chap. 52. o s
Zedekiah, the siege of Jerusalem, its destruction, the car-
rying away of the residue (vs. 1 1).
2 Kings 25:22-26. 2. Note (i) the situation after the destruction of the
city under Gedaliah, and the story of Gedaliah's murder;
Jer., chap. 24; (2) the prophet's estimate of those taken away captive
29- 15-20. ^^^ those allowed to remain (the good and the bad figs),
and consider {a) whether it was the captives or those
left behind who were adjudged the more important ;
Ezek. n : 14-21 ; . J o r j
Jer., chaps. 42- also {J)) which of these two classes was supposed to be suf-
Bzek. 33:24!. fering the more keenly; still further (<:), how the lower
classes left behind regarded these matters.
Jer., chap. 29. 3. Study Jeremiah's letter' to the captives in Babylon
and formulate the policy therein advocated in respect to
business, marriage, etc.
'See McCuRDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill, pp. 227-431 ;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 488-98 ; SxADE, Geschichte
des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 675-703; II, 1-67; GuTHE, art. "Israel," §§40-47,
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II.
'It is very probable that Jer., chap. 29, at least in its present form, is from a
later writer, for : (i) Jeremiah is spoken of in the third person and described "as the
prophet ; " (2) the nature of the advice given suggests that it comes from one looking
back upon the conditions he is dealing with, rather than one living in the midst of
movements the outcome of which was still uncertain ; (3) parts of it seem to be
dependent upon the Books of Kings ; (4) the booklet, chaps, 26-29, bears marks of
late workmanship, linguistic and otherwise. See, e. g., Cornill, The Book of Jere-
miah (SBOT); Schmidt, art. "Jeremiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica; DvHM, Das Buch
Je.remia (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum A. T.").
170
LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION I7I
4. Consider the general effect which the news of the Ezek. 33:211.
fall of Jerusalem must have had when it reached the ears
of those who were already in captivity, among whom was
Ezekiel.
See GuTHE, Geschickte des Volkes Israel, pp. 239 ff.
5. Note (i) that the period was one of transition, or,
perhaps more truly, of revolution ; one in which mon-
olatry was to be supplanted by monotheism, idolatry by
the sole worship of Jehovah ; (2) that the principal
scene of action was no longer Palestine, but Babylon ;
(3) that Israel was now scattered, the nationality broken ;
(4) that the work of the prophetic order was giving
place to that of the priestly order ; for Jeremiah and Eze-
kiel were priests, and the books of Haggai, Zechariah, Jer. i : i ; Ezek.
and Malachi, which follow, are far more priestly than
prophetic {cf. § 34).
§ 183. The Preparation of Ezekiel.
1. Consider (i) the significance of the fact that he was i: 3.3
a priest, and the great influence, at this time, of the
priestly position, second only to that of the king; (2)
the character of the training which he would receive; 22:25, 26;4:i4.
(3) the influence which must have been exercised over
him by the book of Deuteronomy and by Jeremiah's ser-
mons (see § 184).
2. Note (i) the fact that Ezekiel had been in cap- 33:21; «■/. 26:1 f.
tivity already eleven years '• when news of the fall of
Jerusalem was received ; (2) the fact that the call came to ^^^^^
him after five years' experience in captivity (592 B. C);
(3) the latest date in the book (570 B. C). 29:17.
3. Study (i) the strange and wonderful character of
' All Scripture references in this chapter cited without the name of the book are
from Ezekiel.
^33:21 states that the tidings came in the twelfth year of the captivity; but we
learn from 26 : i f. that Ezekiel already knew of the fall of Jerusalem in the eleventh
year of the captivity. The Syriac version has eleventh year in 33 : 21 also, and this is
probably correct. Jerusalem fell on the ninth day of the fourth month of the eleventh
year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25 :2 f.; Jer. 39 : 2), which was also the eleventh
year of the captivity, since Zedekiah was placed on the throne when Jehoiachin was
removed to Babylon (2 Kings 24 : 15 ff.); and it is not reasonable to suppose that the
captives in Babylon did not hear of the fall of their city until a year and a half after
the event.
172 FRIESTLY ELEME>-T IX THZ CID TESTAMENT
the Ti5:o-s -srhich cc>nsr.rz:ec :he call, including {a) the
. t-A vision c: G-cc — w-j.- c:-zcep::ons of God are implied
in the foTir living creinres (vss. 5—14), the four wheels
Mztm. (yss. 15—2: '.''^ ''' — f -: -lory (vss. 22-2S)? {/>) the
«:3-». prophet"? : ? work by the God seen in
I i— 3 3. the v:5 — r. the inspira-
3:4-9. tier :. 1 - _ : ;. :_ given him, his
3:10-^ p3_-: : f . :: Tel-abib, the pre-
sizs-xi. cii - . nz.. to be a watchman ; (2)
s:x-». his .-'.^: ::^..z^ >; :r^--_--- "^ " " ■^"rhnian.
4. Examine, for the pnrp _ j a better point
of view for an appreoaxion ot his work, certain refer-
3:«-a,iE;M3-5. ences to his life and activity in exile : (i) the character
n:as of the people with wiiom he was called to work; (2) his
»:i;8:i;m3-5. Own characta- as Jehovah's spokesman ; (3) the fact that
he was frequentlj consulted in his own house by the
i4:i$-xk it-19. eldeis of Israel : (4* his use of the death of his wife as
an occasion for :-. r ;. : :_rff:re; (5) the threatening
character of Lis ei^lv ser— ols: (6) the consolatory
s^•.3P-3> <Aaracter of his laier sermons ; (7) his place and stand-
Lzr i^z: _ z rxiles-
i: _ I.T^-lrVs Prophetic Work. — F;r :i:e ':-e::cr
_i _ - jLici^cx 5 wori 3^ i pniit, BsiG. txie
priestiv ;:: : whicii he was the author, it is
importz-: :. "-~ as prophet should be appreci-
ated. T - 5 .5 : :-=t easily considered in connec-
tion with that of JerT
1. Consider the cz^ztt of dependence which Eze-
kiel exhibits in relation to Jeremiah as seen in the fol-
lowing passages : 3 : 3, cf- Jsr. 15 : 16 ; 3 : 1 7, </. Jer.
6:17; 7:14, 27, cf. Jer. 4:5-9: t^liap. 13, c/. Jer.
14 : 13-16 ; 13 : 10, cf. Jer. 6 : 14 ; 16:51, cf. Jer. 3:11;
chsr. iS, cf. Jer. 31: 29!; chap. 20, cf. Jer. 11:3—8;
24 : 16-23, ^- ]^- 1 6 : 3—9 ; chaps. 29-31, cf Jer., chap.
46; chap. 34. cf. Jer. 23:1-4; 36:26, cf. Jer. 24:7;
37:24. cf. Jer. 50 : 9 ; 3S : 15, cf. Jer. 6 : 22.
See especially Sjcexd, I>er Pr^pJut Eze^kiel (" Korzgefasstes
ezegcdsdtes Handbacfa," 1880), ppL xxir L; C. H. Tor, ait.
"EzdJd." EMCfd»p^£» BMuM, YclL TL, ooL 1462 ; Davii>sox, Tki
B0mit^tigJV»f*£e£xekitHGua.BiUe,i»92J.pp.iaLt,xhriS.
LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION 1 73
2. Study (i) the place occupied in his preaching by chap. iB; cf.
the teaching of individual responsibility — does he elabo- jgr. 31?*^^.'
rate the teaching of Jeremiah on this subject ? does he
give it any special application to the exiles? {2) his 33:1-17-
counsels concerning submission to Babylon and his pre-
' J , i7:"-2i; cf. jei
dictions concerning Jerusalem's fall, as compared with 28:12-17;
those of Jeremiah. 38:14-23-
3. Consider (i) his ethical and social teachings as Chaps. 18. 22.
enunciated, e. g., in chaps. 18 and 22, and note their
high character so far as concerns relations between
Israelites; (2) his attitude toward the outside nations,
to which no obligations are due, there being as yet no Chaps. 25-32.
international code.
4. Consider, also, if possible, Ezekiel's conceptions
concerning (i) God — how far does he sympathize
with the older ideas, how far with the new ? Is he a
monotheist ? or does he accept the existence of other
deities? Is the conception of Jehovah as a universal 1:26,28; 10:19;
34:30j37:2£ts
God associated with the older idea of the tribal God? 43:7-
(2) Man — his inward life, his outward life, reward and 18:28; 18:5-8.
punishment, the hereafter — .f^(f^/, transformation of the 26:20: 3»:i4-i7;
r , ■ X t 33:17-38-
heart (regeneration); cf. Jer. 31: 33. 36:a6L
See Toy, art. " Ezekiel,"' Encyclop<zdia Biblica, Vol. II, cols.
1467 ff ; Davidson, op. cit., pp. xxxi-xliii.
§ 185. Ezekiel's Own Representations Concerning Chaps.
40-48. — Frequent references are made by the prophet
to the origin of the material contained in these chapters.
Consider the various statements: (i) the man with an 40:1-+
appearance like brass and a line of flax in his hand, and
a measuring reed — what or whom did this man symbol-
ize ? what was his ftinction ? what the purpose of his
work? (2) the various steps in his guidance of the 40:17, »4, aS, 32,
prophet; (3) the messages delivered from time to time 42:13; 43: &-".
in the progress of the journey; (4) the visions of divine 44:5-8; 47:6ff.
Sflorv revealed; (k) the use of the phrase, "thus saith 43:1-5; 44:4.
; , ^ , ,, 4218; 44:9; 45:3;
the Lord God. 40:1, 16; 47;i3.
Formulate, upon the basis of this material, a state-
ment covering the author's point of view on this ques-
tion.
174 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ iS6. The Structure and General Character of Ezek.,
Chaps. 40-48.
40:1— 43:1a. I. Note the contents of the section: (i) plans and
*3; 13-27. specifications for the future temple; (2) the ordinances
44:4-31. for the erection and dedication of the altar : (3) the law
45:1-5. concerning the priesthood; (4) the sacred territory
5:&-35. located and defined: (5) regulations in reference to
44:1-3; 46:1-18. sacrifices; (6) the function of "the prince," with special
46:1^x4. reference to his religious obligations; (7) the law pro-
viding special places for the cooking of the sacrifices
47:1-". offered by the people; (S) description of the living
47:13—48:29. waters issuing from the temple; (9) a statement of the
boundaries of the land and its allotment among the
tribes, with especial provision for proselytes (47 : 22 f.) ;
48:30-35. (10) the dimensions of the Holy City and the location of
its twelve gates.
40:1. 2. Consider (i) that this material comes from a
date twelve years later than any portion of the book*
except 29: 17, iS ; (2) that there is in this section no
"teaching" on any subject; (3) that there is given here
a picture in which a people is represented as living in
an ideal condition; (4) "that it does not describe how
salvation is to be attained, for the salvation is realized
and enjoyed ; it describes the people and their condition
and their life now that redemption has come ;"* (5) that,
with the temple occupying the central place, there are
taken up questions relating to the priests, the sacrifices,
the land including the Dead Sea, the diWsion of terri-
tory, the laying out of the city; (6) that, in addition,
there are the regulations regarding the functions of the
"prince;" (7) that, in other words, it is an ideal state
s Attention may be called here to the fact that the genuineness of the book or of
certain parts of it has been called in question by some scholars ; e. g., ZuNZ, Gottes-
dUnstliche Vcrtrage drr Juden (2d ed.), pp. 165 £f., and in ZDMG., Vol. XXVII, pp.
676 £[., and Geiger, Urschrift und ubersetzungen der Bibel, p. 23, place the whole
book in the Persian period; Seinecke, GesckuhU des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884),
pp. I ff., assigns it to the Maccabasan period ; VoLZ, Du vorexilische Jahweprophetie
und der Messias (1897), p. 84, note, regards the last nine chapters as the work of a
disciple of Ezekiel. These views, however, have not met with any general acceptance.
«A. B. Davidson, op. cit., p. 288.
LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION I 75
which is thus presented, a conception which constitutes
the germ of the doctrine of the kingdom of God.
3. Consider, still further, (i) its form, namely vision, 40:2; 43:3-
in contrast with the form of Deuteronomy, which was
the sermonic; (2) how, not infrequently, it lapses into «:iffy 46: iff.;
the form of sermon or address to the people; (3)
whether in spirit it more nearly resembles Deuteronomy
or Leviticus; (4) the strange and confusing mingling of
the natural and supernatural elements, and show the
origin of this in the prophetic conception of life ; (5)
the relation of this picture to the preceding context, in 39:35-a9.
which Israel is represented as having now received the
outpouring of the divine spirit — is it not the climax of
the book ?
§ 187. The Principal Ideas of the section deser\-e clas-
sification and formulation :
1. Note the statement, made above, to the effect that
there were no "teachings" in the section; this does not
mean, however, that the picture does not rest upon cer-
tain conceptions, or imply the truth of certain great
ideas.
2. For a general statement of the ideas of Ezekiel in
this section, see §31. For the material on the priest,
see §§65, 66; on the place of worship, §§77» 7S; on
sacrifice, §§89, 90; on feasts, §102; on the sabbath,
§§114, 115 ; on clean and unclean, §§ 128, 129.
3. Consider some of the more important of the great
ideas that underlie the form of presentation employed in
these closing chapters, keeping in mind constantly the
necessity in many cases of basing our conclusions largely
upon the general tone and character of the material .
rather than upon specific statements and texts, (i) The
idea of God — what is the bearing upon this idea of {a)
the fact that the temple, Jehovah's house, is placed in the 45:1-8.
middle of the Holy Land and surrounded on all sides
by the land of the priests, Jehovah's ministers, thus being
kept from contact with everything profane and pollut-
ing? {I)) the stringent regulations concerning those who 44:4-a8.
mav approach Jehovah to offer sacrifice, and concerning
their apparel, etc.? {c) the exclusion of foreigners from
176 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the temple and of the laity from the inner court of the
temple? Does not the whole representation in chaps.
40-48 give the impression of the great exaltation and
43;i-5. holiness of Jehovah in comparison with everything
43:6-9; 48:35. human? (2) Jehovah's relation to Israel — note that
Jehovah is represented as having restored his people to
favor, and as requiring of them holiness in order that
44:7,3. they may enjoy his favor forever. Note also the feeling
of superiority over all foreigners that appears in the
restrictions placed upon the latter, though provision is
made for proselytes. Does not the spirit of particular-
ism appear here very clearly ? (3) The subordination of
political \Q) religious ideals — note {li) the fact that the
"prince's" functions are almost wholly religious; {p) the
45 : 8-12 546: 16 ff. exceedingly few non-religious matters that are dealt
with; (c) the complete silence on all matters relating to
national ambition or development ; {d) the fact that the
nation is represented rather as a community existing
only for religious purposes ; (e) the emphasis laid on the
ceremonial as compared with the ethical side of the reli-
43:2iff.; 44:27; gious life. (4) The great emphasis laid upon the idea of
^^'•'^'^' atonement as an evidence of an increasing sense of the
exceeding sinfulness of sin. Is this not a correlative of
the exalted idea of Jehovah's holiness ?
§ 188. The General Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to
Deuteronomy.
44:10-15; cf. I. Consider the place of the priests in both sections,
Deut. 18:1-8. .,T. ,,...,•
noting that Deuteronomy makes no distinction between
priests and Levites, while Ezekiel degrades the Levites,
gives the reasons for so doing, and restricts the priest-
. hood to the sons of Zadok.
44:i7-27;y/. 2. Consider the comparative fulness in the treatment
Deut. 17:9.
44:29f. ; chaps. of (i) the duties of priests, (2) the provision made for the
18:1-4. ^" priests; does not this indicate a great advance in the
conception of the place and dignity of the priesthood ?
3. Consider the absence in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, as
compared with Deuteronomy, of warnings against idola-
try.
Deut., chap. 16, 4. Consider the feasts as enumerated in Deuter-
onomy, the sacrificial details being absent ; while in
LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION 1 77
EzekieP the details of the material are given, and a Ezek. 45:21-25.
special ceremony of purification of the sanctuary on the 45: 18-20 (LXX).
first day of the first and seventh months.
5. Consider the apparent failure of the Deuteronomic
scheme in the catastrophe of the exile ; for was not this
scheme intended for a " holy " people, and to serve as Deut.7:6.
the expression of a people closely united with a "holy"
God ? Was it not intended to bring the people into a
life which should be worthy of Jehovah, their Lord, and
was not the destruction of Jerusalem understood to sepa-
rate them from him ?
6. Is not Ezekiel's scheme clearly prepared for a
people restored from captivity, and not only restored,
but actually purified and regenerated? "It opens with 36:24-28.
an elaborate account of a new temple set on the sacred
hill. The Maw of the house' is expounded with much 40:1-43:12.
detail, and the prophet then announces the ordinances
of the altar. These are followed in turn by regulations
for the priesthood and the appropriate sacrifices, and a
scheme of cultus is thus displayed by which the people,
once more consecrated, shall be preserved from further
temptation to unfaithfulness, and shall secure the pres-
ence of Jehovah in their midst forever."^
The relationship of Ezekiel's cultus to that of P will
be considered in the next chapter.
§ 189. Literature to be Consulted.
P. Fairbairn, Exposition of the Book of Ezekiel {\^^i); HENDERSON, The Book
of the Prophet Ezekiel Translated, etc. {i?>SS); H. Smith \W AK\.^iGn, Ezekiel' s Temple
(1856); CoLENSO, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined {l?>(>2-']()).
Vol. VI, pp. 3-23; KUENEN, Religion of Israel (1869-70, transl. 1882), Vol. II, pp.
190 ff.; CURRlE,-ezf/5?V/(" Speaker's Commentary," 1876); KuENEN, The Prophets and
Prophecy in Israel (1877), pp. 238-42; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of
Israel (1878, transl, 1885), pp. 378 ff.; W. R. SMITH, The Old Testament in the Jewish
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 442 f.; Plumptre, "Ezekiel: An Ideal Biog-
raphy," Expositor, 1884 ; Kuenen, Modern Review, Oct., 1884, pp. 617-40 ; Kuenen,
The Hexateiich (transl. from the Duteh, 1886), § 15, 10; H. SuLLEY, The Temple of
Ezekiel's Prophecy (1888); KiTTEL, /^w/ory of the Hebrews,No\. I (1888-92, transl.
1895), pp. 125 ff.; F. W. Farrar, "The Last Nine Chapters of Ezekiel," Expositor,
1889, pp. I ff.; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891,
6th ed. 1897), pp. 145 ff., 278-98; KiRKPATRiCK, Doctrine of the Prophets (1892),
^ Probably from oversight the Feast of Weeks is omitted.
•J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 127.
178 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
pp. 320-45 ; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures,"
1892), see Index: A. B. Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel ("Camb. Bible,"
1892); Skinner, ^zij/^/V/C Expositor's Bible," 1895); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel
(1895) pp. 115-30; L. B. Paton, Presbyterian and Reformed Review, Jan., 1896, pp.
98 ff.; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897), pp. 126 ff.; DouGLAS,
"Ezekiel's Temple," Expository Times, Vol. IX (1898), pp. 515 ff.; Skinner, article
"Ezekiel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Wood, article "Hexa-
teuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899), p. 374; C. H. Toy, The
Book of the Prophet Ezekiel — A New English Translation (" Sacred Books of the Old
and New Testaments," Part XII, 1899); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 126 £f.; C. H. Toy, article "Ezekiel,"
Encyclop(Edia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexa-
teuch," Encyclopcsdia Biblica, Vol. II (1901), coll. 2051 f.; KoNiG, "The Priests and
the Levites in Ezek. 44 : 7-15," Expository Times, April, 1901 ; Cobern, Ezekiel and
Daniel {igoi).
Hafenreffer, Templum Ezekiel {161 ;i); E. F. KosENMiJLhER, Scholia in Vetus
Testamentum, Pars VI (2d ed. 1826), pp. 575 ff.; ZUNZ, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge
derjuden (1832, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 165-70 ; J. F. Bottcher, Proben alttestamentlicher
Schrifterkldrung (1833), pp. 218-365; Havernick, Commentar iiber den Prophet
Ezechiel (1843); HiTZiG, Der Prophet Ezechiel erkldrt (1847); Balmer-Rinck, Des
Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1856); Th. Kliefoth, Das Buck Ezechiels
iibersetzt und erkldrt {i?>b^ i.); Graf, Geschichte der Biicher des alten Bundes (i8t6),
pp. 81-3; HEt^GSTENBERG, Der Prophet Ezechiel {1S67); Keil, Der Prophet Ezechiel
(1868, 2d ed. 1882); ScHRADER, article "Ezechiel," Schenkel's Bibel-Iexikon, Vol.
II (1869); ZuNZ, " Bibelkritisches. II: Ezechiel," Zeiischrift der Deutschen Mor-
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVII (1873), pp. 676-81; Schr&der, Das Buck
Ezechiel ("Langes Bibelwerk," 1873); G. C. Steynis, De Verhouding van de
Wetgeving bij Ezekiel tot die in den Pentateuch (1873); Graetz, "Die Echtheit des
Buches des Propheten Ezechiel," Monatsschrift fUr Geschichte und Wissenschaft des
Judenthums, Vol. XXIII (1874), pp. 433-46, 515-25 ; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buck
der Urgeschichte Israels und seine Erweiterungen {1874), pp. 176 ff.; DuHM, Theologie
der Propheten {x^Ti)), pp. 208-11, 216 f., 252-63; 'ii6'LDEYiE,Jahrbiicherfiirprotes-
tantische Theologie, 1875, pp. 355 ff.; Klostermann, "Ezechiel, ein Beitrag zur
bessern Wiirdigung seiner Person und seiner Schrift," Theologische Studien und
Kritiktn, 1877, pp. 391-439; Klostermann, "Hat Ezechiel die in Lev. 18-26 am
deutlichsten erkennbare Gesetzessammlung verfasst ?" Zeiischrift fiir Lutherische
Theologie, 1877, pp. 406-45 (reprinted in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368 ff.); Smend,
Der Prophet Ezechiel (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum A. T.," 1880);
HORST, Lev. 17-26 und Hezekiel {\'i%\); E. KiJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel
der Vollendungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. LV (1882), pp. 601-
88; CoKT<ii-Lt, Der Prophet Ezechiel geschildert (1882); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung
des altisraelitischen Prophetenthums (1883), pp. 38-60 ; P. Wurster, " Zur Charakter-
istik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetzes," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IV (1884), pp. 122 f.; Seinecke, Geschichte des
Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884), pp. 1-20; Dillmann, Die Biicher Numeri Deutero-
nomium und Joshua (2d ed. 1886), pp. 644 ff.; Cornill, Das Buck des Prophet
Ezechiel {\ 886) ; Arndt, Die Stellung Ezechiels in der alttestamentlichen Prophetie ( 1 886);
Valeton, Viertal Voorlez. over Prophet, des Ouden Verbonds (1SS6); Stade, Geschichte
LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEl's CONTRIBUTION I 79
des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 1-63; Orelli, Ezekiel (" Kurzgefasster Com-
mentar," 1888, 2d ed. 1896); H. Meulenbelt, De Prediking van den Profeet Ezechiel
(1888); Perrot et Chipiez, Le temple de Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Liban
restitues d^aprh Ezekiel et le livre des Rots (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das alte
7>j/'a;«^«/(i889-9o),Vol. II, pp. 1 1 1-26; KNABENBAUER.Coww^K/arewjew ^2^/^.(1890);
L. Gautier, La mission du prophhte Ezekiel {i?>gi); Baentzsch, Das Heiligkeitsgesetz
(1893), pp. 121 ff.; DiESTEL, article " Hesekiel," Riehm's Handworterbuch desbiblischen
Alterthums, Vol. I (2d ed., 1893); Gaupp, "Die Eigentiimlichkeit des Ezekiel,"
Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Vol. V (1894), pp. 613 ff.; Kamrath, " Der messianische
Theil des ezech. Proph., besonders in seinen Verhaltnissen zum Hexateuch,"ya^r-
biicker fiir protestantische Tkeologie, Vol. XVII (1891), pp. 585 ff.; CORNILL, Einlei-
tung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 77 f., 168-70 ; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des
Alten Testaments (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 245-57; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (1893), pp. 354-60; D. H. MiJLLER, Ezechiel-Studien (1895); Bertholet,
Die Verfassungsentivurf des Hesechiel (1896); Bertholet, Das Buck Hesekiel
erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1897); DussAUD, "Les
visions d'Ez^kiel," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XIX (1898), pp. 301 £f.;
Orelli, article " Ezechiel," Realencyklopddie fiir Protestantische Tkeologie und Kirche,
Vol. V (3d ed., 1898); Kraetzschmar, Das Buck Ezechiel iibersetzt und erkldrt
(" Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die
Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. i9off., 453-71; SCHMALZL, Ezechiel erkldrt
("Kurzgefasster wissenschaftl. Commentar," 1901).
Neh. 8
Neh.8
Neh. 8
CHAPTER XIV.
THE LEGAL LITERATURE ^ THE PRIESTLY CODE.
§ 190. The Story of the Adoption of the Law in Ezra's
Times (§§40-44).'
I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this
Ezra7:i,7-9; event occurred : (i) the date of the event :^ (2) the char-
8:31. ^ ^ > \ -f
Neh. 7:73; 9:1. -acter of Ezra and his constituency; (3) the duration of
8:2i'ff. ;9:5ff- Ezra's journev, March to Auo^ust ; (4) the gifts and lel-
Ezra7:ii-26; J J> o ' Vt/ &
8:2430. ters ; (5) the work of Nehemiah (§ 40); (6) the work of
Ezra (§4 0-
Neh., chaps. 8-10. 2. Study the account of the formal adoption, includ-
ing (i) the place of the assembly; (2) the duration of the
Neh. 8:3. reading; (3) the circumstances attending the reading;
8. (4) the reception given the law by the people ; (5) the
9. method of interpretation ; (6) the occasion of their
i3ff. weeping; (7) the reading on the second day in refer-
ence to the Feast of Booths, and the compliance of the
Neh. 9:39; 10:29- people ; (8) the various things which they covenanted to
Neh! 10:37-39. do (§43); (9) the fact that the priests are clearly distin-
guished from the Levites (§§43, 68).
2 Kings 22: 1— 3. Compare the general circumstances of the accept-
^^'*^' ance of the book of Deuteronomy (§25) with those of
the acceptance of this book, noting points of similarity
and difference, <f. g., (i) the national assembly; (2) the
celebration of a feast, in one case the Passover, in the other
' Ezra's work is probably to be placed a/ier that of Nehemiah ; for the arguments
in support of this position see Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel (I'&qi, ; transl. into Ger-
man, 1895); Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and
Greek Periods, pp. 196 ff.; Chevne, Jewish Religions Life after the Exile, pp. 36-81 ;
C. C. ToRREY, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra- Nehemiah, pp. 51-65;
GUTHE, art. " Israel " (§§ 55 ff.), Encyc.Biblica; A. VAN Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes
sur la restauration juive apris V exile de Babylone (1S96).
*The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem is placed shortly after 433 B. C. by Kosters and
Cheyne, Encyc. Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1487, and others. Professor van Hoonacker,
however, places it in the seventh year of Artaxerxes II., viz., 398-7; while Kitenen^
Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen IVissensehaft {i8g4), Ed. Meyer, Die Ent-
stehung des Judenthums (1896), and others retain the date 458 B. C.
180
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE l8l
the Feast of Booths, in a manner different from that in
which they had previously been observed in Canaan.
4. Consider, now, whether the law adopted thus by
the people in Ezra's time was (i) the entire Hexateuch
as we now possess it; or (2) the so-called Holiness
Code, that is. Lev., chaps. 17-26; or (3) the whole
Levitical code known as P (§ 43).^
5. Consider why, if Ezra brought the law with him
in 458 B. C, he took no steps to make it known to the Ezra7:i4-
people until'twelve years later, after Nehemiah had come
(446 or 445 B. C). Is it enough to answer that this was
delayed by (i) the troublous character of the times Ezra 10: 7.
which followed the expulsion of the foreign wives ; (2)
the necessity of Ezra's taking time to acquaint himself
with the conditions of the country and the adjustment
of the details of the law to those conditions ; (3) the
need of such a character as Nehemiah to arouse the
enthusiasm of the people ?
§ 191. Representations in P Concerning its Authorship
{cf. closely § 171).
I. Read and compare some of the various passages
in P which refer to its authorship, noting particularly
the phraseology employed, e. g., (i) "And Jehovah Exod. 25:1.
spake unto Moses, saying;" (2) "And he gave unto Exod. 31:18.
Moses the two tables of the testimony, tables of stone,
written with the finger of God;" (3) "And Moses Exod. 35:1,4.
assembled all the congregation of the children of Israel,
and said unto them ;" (4) "And it came to pass on the Lev. 9:1.
eighth day, that Moses called Aaron and his sons, and
the elders of Israel ; and he said unto Aaron ; " (5) "And Lev. 10:8, 12.
Jehovah spake unto Aaron, saying;" (6) "And Jehovah Lev. ii:i; 14:33;
spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying;" (7) "These Lev.'26:46; c/.
are the statutes and ordinances and laws, which Jehovah
made between him and the children of Israel in Mount
Sinai by Moses."
3 This point may well be omitted, except by those who desire to go into the criti'-
cal questions involved ; see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 138 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §57;
Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua (" Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 277 ff.;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 405 ff.; the articles on the
Hexateuch in the various Bible dictionaries ; and the discussions in the many intro-
ductions to the Old Testament.
I82
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Numb. 33:a. 2. Read the interesting passage in which writing is
ascribed to Moses, and consider whether the contents are
consistent with an assignment to the times ot Moses.
3. Take up now, one by one, the suggestions which
have been offered in explanation of a non-Mosaic author-
ship, as indicated in § 171 under 2, 3, 4, 5.
§ 192. Point of View and Coloring of the Priestly Code
{cf. §172).
1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i)
the representation concerning the plains of Moab as the
scene of certain legislation concerning Levitical cities;
(2) the situation at Sinai as the scene of certain events
and legislation ; (3) the situation in Egypt as the place
of the initiation of the Passover ; (4) the exact statement
of the date of departure from Sinai ; (5) the date of the
ordinances of the tabernacle and of its erection, together
with the statement that it accompanied Israel through
Lev. 14:34; 18:3; all the wanderings ; (6) the fact that it looks forward to
19 : 23 ; Numb. o ' \ /
33:51; entrance into Canaan, and introduces legislation appli-
cable only to settled life in Canaan ; (7) the warnings
uttered against practices of Egypt which they had
known and practices of Canaan which they are to know;
(8) the allusions to Egypt and Jehovah's deliverance of
Israel from bondage there; (9) the absence of any men-
tion of Jerusalem and the temple.
2. Consider, as bearing further upon this question,
(i) the regulations against Molech worship; (2) the
agricultural character of the feasts ; (3) the experiences
of the exile as depicted in Lev., chap. 26 ; (4) the phrase
"beyond the Jordan," used of the east side of Jordan;
(5) the constant reference to Moses in the third person;
(6) the apparent distance of Moses and Aaron in the
narrative Exod. 6 : 26 f., and of the eating of manna in the
description of the same ; (7) passages in which Israel seems
to be represented as in possession of the land of Canaan ;
(8) the significance of the great periods passed over in
silence (is it not against the supposition that the author
was a contemporary?), e. g., (a) between Exod. i : 5-7 and
1:13, a period of two or four hundred years ;* {b) between
*For an analysis of the text here see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 80 f., or the commentaries of Dillmann and
Baentsch. On the historical events see the histories of Kittel, Stade, Wellhausen, Kent.
Numb. 35:1;
36:13.
Numb. 1:1 ; 3:14;
9:5; Exod.
24: 18 — 25: 1.
Exod. 12:1.
Numb. 10:11.
Exod. 29:46.
Exod., chaps.
25 ff., 35-40.
Exod. 40: 17-38.
15:2,
34:2
Lev. 18:3, 271.;
20 : 22 fif .
Lev. 19:34, 36;
25:2, 54;
Numb. 8:17;
14:2.
Lev. 20:1-5.
Lev., chap. 23;
Numb., chaps.
28, 29.
Numb. 34: 15'
35 : M-
Lev. 7 : 28 ; 8:1;
9 : 1 , 5 f . ; 23 : 1
Exod. i5 : 55.
Lev. 18:24 If.
20: 23.
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I83
Numb. 20 : i and 20 : 2 2<5, a period of thirty-eight years
{cf. 10:11 and 33:37);^ {c) the representation that Dan's Numb. 1:38;
descendants in the fourth generation numbered 62,700.
§ 193. The Language and Style of the Priestly Code.
1. Examine a list of special words and phrases fre-
quently occurring in this code/ and consider (i) the
bearing of the fact of such a list upon the question of
authorship ; does it argue for or against identity of
authorship with the other books of the Hexateuch ?
(2) the general character of these expressions as indi-
cating early or late authorship. Note especially that the Exod. 40:2, 17;
, J J 1 t i^ev. 16:29;
months are numbered rather than named, and that the chap. 23.
New Year comes in the spring, not in the autumn.
When did this method of enumeration prevail ?
2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities
appearing in the book, /. <?., peculiar forms, idioms, etc., Cf., e. g.. Lev.
r I- a >■ 18:2* with
and consider whether these exhibit evidence of antiquity Ezek. 20:5, 7,
19; Lev. 18:25
of date, or of late date. With what writer in the Old with Ezek.
42 : 20,
Testament does the Priestly Code show the largest num-
ber of similarities ?
3. Consider (i) the general style of the Priestly Code,
viz., stereotyped, repetitious, statistical, rigid, prosaic,
precise, systematic; (2) the striking points of style which
distinguish this code from other portions of the Hexa-
teuch and, indeed, from other Old Testament writings,
viz., {a) legal, {B) imperative, {c) idealistic.^
§ 194. The Material of the Priestly Code as Bearing on
the Date and Authorship.
I. Examine the great number of repetitions of laws
found in other portions of the Pentateuch and within P
itself {e. g., Exod., chaps. 25-28 and 35-40 ; Lev. 3 : 5-
5 See Carpenter and Harford-Battersbv, T/ie Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 28.
* Extensive lists of the various linguistic phenomena of the Priestly Code are to
be found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I,
pp. 208-21 ; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §§43, 44, 51, 58; Addis,
Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 1 70-73; ^KiGGS, Higher Criticism of the
Hexateuch, pp. 172-80; Ryssel, Z><? Elohistae Pentateuchi Sermone (1878); GiESE-
BRECHT, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestameniliche IVissenchaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276 ; 'DKi\-E.K,Jourtial of Philology,
Vol. XI, pp. 201-36.
7 On literary style of P see the articles by W. R. Harper in Hebraica, Vols. V, VI.
l84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
4 : 35 and chap. i8 ; ig : ^d, 30 and 26 : 2 ; 19:9 and
23:22; 19:26^ and 17:10-14; 24:21 and 24:17;
18 : 6-23 and 20 : 10-21 ; Lev., chap. 8; Exod. 30 : i —
31 : 1 1, and Numb., chap. 8), and consider (i) how these
repetitions may be accounted for upon the supposition
that all portions of the Hexateuch had their origin
within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ; (2)
how these repetitions may be explained upon the suppo-
sition of three or more distinct codes of law, which
originated as codifications of teachings and usages that
had grown up through many centuries.
2. Examine passages which seem to furnish instances
of discrepancy and variation between P and other legisla-
tion {e. g., the differences in the lists of "clean and
unclean "as given in Lev., chap. 11, and Deut., chap. 14;
the variations in the details of the structure of the ark of
the covenant as described in Exod. 25:10; 37:1; 40:20,
and Deut., chap. 9; 10: i, 3, 5; the representation of
the tabernacle as located within the camp in Exod.,
chaps. 25-29, but without the camp in Exod. 33 : 7 ;
Numb. II : 24-30 ; 12:4; 10:33 — allE passages ; the
law of the altar as given in Exod. 20 : 24 (E) and the
totally different altar provided for in Exod., chaps. 25-
29 ; the law of slaves. Lev. 25 : 39-42, cf. Exod. 21 : 1-6
(E) and Deut. 15:12; the regulations concerning the
priest as found in Deuteronomy and in the Priestly
Code — see §§62, 63, and 68, 69), and consider (i) how
these discrepancies may be accounted for upon the sup-
position that all portions of the Hexateuch had their
origin within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ;
(2) how they may be explained upon the supposition of
three or more distinct codes of law, which originated as
codifications of teachings and usages that had grown up
through many centuries.
3. Examine the narratives relating to the tabernacle,
Exod.. chaps. viz., {a) the directions for its erection and decoration ;
25-29.
Exod., chaps. {^) the record of its erection and decoration ; and in the
^^'*°- study of these narratives consider the following ques-
tions : (i) are the representations concerning the taber-
nacle in the wilderness consistent with each other?*
® See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 52, 129.
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I85
(2) What is the significance of the fact that the first state- Exod. 33:7.
ment made represents the tent as in actual use before it
was constructed ?' (3) What are the various names by
which the tent is designated in the several docu-
ments ? '° (4) To what extent do the various codes
describe a different service in connection with it?" (5)
Is it possible to understand this representation as an
ideal one, and as corresponding to the prophetic pic-
tures of the future ?
§ 195. Structure and Contents of the Priestly Code.
T. Consider the extent to which the P history and
legislation constitute the basis on which the entire
Hexateuch rests, or the framework into which the rest of
the material is fitted.
2. Compare the relation of the P legislation to the
P history with that of the Deuteronomic legislation to
the Deuteronomic historical setting.
3. Consider (i) whether there are not to be found Lev.yrayf.;
^ ^ ii:46f.; 13:59;
formulae which mark the end of small codes and, conse- 16:34; etc.
quently, (2) whether the P legislation is not made up of
several separate collections of laws, <?. g.: (a) Lev., chaps.
17-26; (d) Lev., chaps. 1-7; (c) Exod., chaps. 25-28;
(d) Exod., chaps. 35-40; (e) Lev., chap. 11 ; (/) Lev.,
chaps. 13, 14; (g) Lev., chap. 15; (/i) Numb., chaps.
28-36.
4. Examine the contents and character of P^, so
called because it forms the historical groundwork of the
entire P legislation, considering (i) its central theme,
viz., Jehovah's purpose from the creation of the world to
develop and train Israel as his peculiar people, and the
means and institutions employed by him to accomplish
this purpose; (2) the extent of the ground covered, viz., Gen. 1:1; josh.,
from the creation to the establishment of the nation ;
5 The account of the construction of the tabernacle is given by P (= Exod.,
chaps. 35-40) as having taken place after the arrival at Sinai ; while E in Exod. 23 '• 7
speaks of " the tent of meeting " as a familiar institution of the camp.
"See Exod. 33:7 (E); Exod. 25 : 8 (P); Exod. 25 :9 (P) ; Numb. II : 24,* (E);
9:15 (P); Exod. 39:32 (P); 35:11 (P) ; the name does not occur in J or Deuter-
onomy.
" See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 55.
l86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
.Oen.2:4; 5:1; (3) the logical presentation, viz., (a) the toledhoih sec-
10; i; 25: 19;
etc. tions leading up to the Sinaitic revelation ; [p) the work
Gen., chap. 17. ^^ Moses in the deliverance from Egypt; {c) the special
Josh., chaps. 14 ff. covenant between Jehovah and Israel; {d') the settlement
of Abraham's descendants in Palestine ; (4) the character
of all this as compared with the similar narrative of J,
especially the differences which characterize it, such as
the emphasis placed upon religious institutions, the lack
of the personal element."
5. Consider now the great passage which stands apart
and constitutes P'', that is, the Holiness Code, taking up
Lev. 26:3-45; 18: (i) certain peculiar exhortations, which are intended to
2-5, 24-30 J ig :
2-4, 10, 12, 14, emphasize the idea of holiness, and the deity of Jehovah
22-26 ;'22 : 31-33! who led Israel out of Egypt; (2) certain laws which do
not seem to be consistent with other parts of P; (3)
other peculiarities of the form and contents;'^ (4) the
probability of the independence of this section, and in
this connection (a) the question as to the origin of this
material, {p) its self-consistency, {c) the amount of edi-
torial work which has been connected with it; (5) other
passages which seem to show the same peculiarities ; '''
(6) the question of date, distinguishing {a) the regula-
tions of which it is composed, {b) the hortatory frame-
work, and examining in detail the forms of the various
laws with reference to their sociological setting.
^"™''- 5: 5— 6. Consider in the same general manner the portions
assigned to P*, that is, priestly teaching {torah), which
treat especially of sacrifice, clean and unclean, and simi-
lar topics. '5
40:38^61:0? 7- Consider, likewise, the portions assigned to P^ that
"For further consideration of P^ see chap. XV.
'3.£'. g., a different style and phraseology (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 49 £f.) ;
a parenetic framework unknown to other parts of P ; repetitions of laws found else-
where in P; commands addressed to the people, not to the priest as in P.
'* Scholars differ somewhat as to the limits of the Holiness Code ; e. g.. Driver
(/«/;-(?i2'«f/?o«, p. 151) assigns to P*': Lev., chaps. 17-26 ; Exod. 6 : 6-8 ; 12:12; 31:13-
14a,- Lev. 10:9a, 10; 11:44; Numb. 15:37-41; A.DDI?, {Documents of the Hexateuck,
Vol. II, p. 178): Lev., chaps. 17-26; 11:43-45; Numb. 15 : 37-41; Carpenter and
Harford-Battersby {op. cit., Vol. I, p. 145): Lev., chaps. 17-26; Exod. 31: 13, 14a,-
Numb. 10:9; 15:38(^-41.
'5 For a statement of the limits and character of P* see Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 152 f.; and for a similar statement concerning P^ see
the same work, Vol. I, pp. 153-5.
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE iSj^
is, certain secondary expansions along many lines, tending
toward "the heightening of ritual and the elaboration of
detail."
§ 196. The Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to the
Priestly Code. — The question as to the relation of the
scheme of legislation contained in Ezek., chaps. 40-48,
to that of the Priestly Code, and especially the Holiness
Code, is one of especial interest, and has been the
occasion of much discussion. Nothing more can be
attempted here than to indicate the nature of the prob-
lem and the various lines of investigation.
1. Examine lists'* of the phraseological and linguis-
tic affinities existing between P and Ezek., chaps. 40-48*
and consider whether they are to be accounted for on the
supposition (i) that Ezekiel was especially fond of, and
thoroughly familiar with, the P legislation, and drew up
his scheme on the basis of it; or (2) that Ezek., chaps.
40-48, served as a model for the authors of P and was
largely drawn upon by them ; or (3) that Ezekiel was
the author of the Holiness Code ; or (4) that Ezek.,
chaps. 40-48, and the earlier parts of P originated at
about the same time, were both influenced largely by the
earlier existing legislation, and were both actuated by a
similar spirit and motive.
2. Consider from the same point of view the similar
regulations found in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and in P; Ezek. 44: 10-15 ;<-/.
/\,i..., IT. Numb., chaps.
e.g., (i) the distmction between priests and Levites; 1-4.
/ X , , . , ., , ,- . , Ezek. 43:7-9; <r/
(2) the emphasis laid upon the necessity of ceremonial Lev., chaps. 15.
"cleanness;" (3) the close similarity of the laws con- Ezek. 44:17-27;
, . / \ 1 1 . ,. . , <:/. Lev. 2i:i—
cerning the priests; (4) the large ritualistic element 22:16.
common to both; (5) the special sanctity of the sabbath ; Ezek. 20! 12.'
(6) the predominance in both of the religious element,
almost to the exclusion of secular matters; (7) the great Ezek. 40: 5— 43:12;
,.,.,,,, , f/.Exod., chaps.
emphasis laid by both upon the sanctuary. 25-29 and 35-40.
3. Consider, further, the points of difference between
the two schemes of legislation, e.g., (i) in P the priests Ezek. 44:15; <•/.
are sons of Aaron, in Ezekiel sons of Zadok ; (2) the Lev. 21:10.
high-priest occupies a large place in P, but is not men-
tioned in Ezekiel; (3) the function of "the prince" is Ezek.46:2ff.
^*See, e. g.. Driver, Introduction, pp. 130-35, 145-9; Smend, Der Prophet
£zecMe/ (iSSo), pp. xxv-xxviii.
l88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Lev., chap. i6;<r/. peculiar to Ezekiel : (4) the legislation for the Day of
Ezek. 45:18 ff. ^ ' \t/ & J
Ezek., chaps. 45, Atonement is unknown to Ezekiel; (s) the assignment
48; cf. Numb. ^'^' °
35: 1-8; Josh, of property to the priests is radically different, the scheme
Ezek. 45:21-35; of Ezekiel having no parallel in this respect; (6) the
c/. Lev., chap. t> r r > \ /
23; Numb., lesfislation concerning feasts differs in many details; (7)
chaps. 28,29. = ° J > \u
Lev, chap. 25; Ezekiel knows nothiner of a sabbatical year, or Year of
26 : 34 f . ; 27 : 17- ° ■'
24;f/.Bzek. Jubilee, upon which P lays great emphasis; (8) in gen-
eral, the legislation of P is much more detailed and
elaborate than that of Ezekiel. What is the bearing of
these and other differences upon the answer to the ques-
tions suggested above ?
§ 197. The Principal Ideas of the Priestly Code.
1. Consider that, for the most part, the Priestly Code
is not didactic, as is Deuteronomy, but is rather a manual
of religious customs and practices. To what extent,
however, does it give concrete expression to certain
great conceptions which lay at the basis of all its regula-
tions, and were deeply impressed upon the minds and
hearts of the worshipers as they participated in the
ceremonies prescribed by it ?
2. For a general statement concerning the ideas of
P, see § 49. For the P material on the priest, see §§ 68,
69 ; on the place of worship, see §§ 79, 80; on sacrifice,
see §§ 91, 92 ; on feasts, see §§ 103, 104 ; on the sabbath,
see §§ 117, 118; on clean and unclean, see §§ 131, 132.
3. In an effort to discover the chief ideas of the
Priestly Code consideration must be paid, not only to
specific statements that may be found in the text, but
also to the general tone and character of the material as
a whole and to the amount of attention given to the
various features of the system of worship : (i) The idea
of God here reaches the highest plane attained in the
Lev., chap. 16; Qld Testament. He is a Being so great, so holy, so
Exod. 35:161. o o ' J 1
Lev., chaps. 21, awful, that access to him is permitted only under the
most stringent conditions and always through the media-
tion of a specially consecrated priest ; into his inmost
presence only one man in the entire nation, viz., the
holiest man — the high-priest — may come, and that but
Lev. 4:1—6:7; once a year. (2) In the light of this unapproachable
6:34—7:10. holiness, the blackness of sin is immeasurably intensified ;
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I 89
he cannot look upon sin witn the least degree of allow-
ance; his holiness, pervading everything, is in constant
danger of violation ; hence the possibilities of sin are
greatly multiplied. Sin was the cause of all of Israel's Lev. 26:3-45.
calamities in the past ; hence, in order to insure Jehovah's
favor and blessing for the future, every precaution must
be taken to avoid sin, and to make propitiation to him
when sin is unavoidable or for any reason has been com-
mitted. (7.) The holy God demands a correspondingly Lev. 11:44!. ;
holy people who shall honor him with a holy worship. 21:71.; 22:32.
It is the purpose of the P legislation to secure this end.
This explains the great emphasis laid upon (4) ritual Lev., chaps. 8,
^ '^ ^ '^ ^ 12, 13, etc.
and ceremony. Everything is carefully prescribed and
intrusted to the execution of the priests whose especial
function it is to guide and lead the people in the pres-
entation of an acceptable worship unto Jehovah. (5)
Religion has become the great business of life; it has
stepped in and occupied the place formerly held by
national politics and ambitions. (6) The exalted con-
ception of Jehovah and the necessity of constant propi- Lev., chap. 23.
tiatory rites have completely done away with the joyous
abandon of the worship of early days, and the spirit of
confidence and fellowship has been largely replaced by
that of reverence and godly fear.
§ 198. Literature to be Consulted.
CoLENSO, TAe Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Critically Examined ij parts;
1862-69); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 5th ed. 1897;
transl. from German 1885), pp. 374-91, 404-10; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol.
XI (1882), pp. 201-36; KUENEN, An Historico-Critical Enquiry into the Origin of the
Hexateuch (\%%<),txzxii\. 1886); BisSELL, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure:
An Examination of Recent Theories {\%%'^); Yjwi^i., History of the Hebrews {1%%%,
transl. 1895), Vol. I, pp. 96-132 ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, Hebraica, Vols.
V-VIII (1888-91); W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1889, 2d
ed. 1892); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (189 1, 6th ed.
1897), PP- 42-59, 126-59; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1892, 2d
ed. 1897), pp. 108 f., 172-80, 233 ff.; Paton, "The Relation of Lev. XX to Lev.
XVII-XIX," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), pp. 111-2X; B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradi-
tion of the Exodus (1894); Driver and White, Leviticus ("Sacred Books of the Old
and New Testaments;" Hebrew text 1894, English transl. 1898); W. H. Green,
The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895); Paton, "The Holiness Code and
Ezekiel," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1896, pp. 98-115; Konig, Expositor,
August, 1896, p. 97; Paton, "The Original Form of Lev. IT-K)," Journal of Biblical
igO PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Literature, 1897, pp. 31-7; Addis, Doatments of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp.
170-91; F. H.Woods, art. "Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Yo\.
II (1899), pp. 368-71 ; Paton, "The Original Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 21 and 22,"
Journal of Biblical Literature, Yo\. XVII (1899), pp. 149-75; Idem, "The Original
Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 23, 25," ibid.. Vol. XVIII (1899), pp. 35-60; J. E. Car-
penter AND G. \lA'Si■eovi■D-BK^^^E.K?,^\, The Hexateuch (1900), Vol. I, pp. 121-57;
Wellhausen, art. " Hexateuch," §§ 29 f., Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901);
H. G. Mitchell, The World before Abraham (1901), pp. 17 ff., 29 ff., 58 ff.; Kent
AND Sanders, " The Growth of Israelitish Law," in Biblical and Semitic Studies by the
Members of the Semitic and Biblical Faculty of Yale University (1901), pp. 41-90;
G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902); G. B. Gray,
art. " Law Literature," ibid.
E. Bertheau, Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze in den drei tnittleren Biichern
des Pentateuchs (1840); J. PoPPER, Der biblische Bericht iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862);
Merx, " Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die Opfergesetze, Lev. 1-V 11,'" Zeitsckriftfiir
wissenschaftliche Theologie, Vol. VI (1863), pp. 41-84, 164-81; Graf, Die geschicht-
lichen Biicher des Alien Testaments (1866); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Wo\.
I (1887), pp. 62 £f.; Noldeke, Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); Noldeke,
Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alien Testaments (1869), pp. 1-144; Kuenen, "De
priesterlike Bestanddeelen van Pentateuch en Josua," Theologisch Tijdschrift, VoL
IV (1870), pp. 391-426, 492-500; Y^K\'S>%^, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte
Israels und seine Erweitertingen (1874); HoFMANN, " Einheit und Integritat der
Opfergesetze Lev. 1-7," Magazin filr Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1877; Kloster-
MANN, "Ezechiel und das Heiligkeits-Gesetz," Zeitschrift filr luth. Theologie und
Kirche, 1877, pp. 406-44 (republished in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368-418); Bleek-
V<Sv.\A.Yi.KU^YM, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1878); VON Ryssel, De Elohistae
Pentateuchi Sermone{\'il'i) ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des altisraelitischen Priestex'
^/iMwj (1880), pp. 74 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft
und kirchliches Leben,Vo\. l{i?>ii), pp. 617-26; HOKST, Leviticus XVII-XX VI utid
Hezekiel {l?>%i) ; Giesebrecht, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; P. WuR-
STER, " Zur Charakteristik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetz,"
ibid.,Vo\.W (1884), pp. 112-33; DiLLMANN, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium
und Josua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 2d ed.
1886), pp. 593-690; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der histori-
schen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1899); Westphal, Les sources du
Pentateuque{\%%%, 1892); Ri'E.Yi'M., Einleitung in das Alte Testament {i?,?,g); Steinthal,
Zeitschrift fiir Vdlker-Psychologie,Yo\.X.yi. (1890), pp. 54 ff.; CoRJ^lLh, Einleitung in
das Alte Testament {iSgi, ;id ed. 1896), pp. 56-86; KoNiG, Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1893, pp. 464-8, 478; Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar
de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German transl. 1895), §20; Holzinger,
Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), PP- 332-475; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (1893), §48; Baentsch, Das Heiligkeits-Gesetz {1893); Meyer, Die
Entstehung des Judenthums {i%()t),^'p. 20%-!$ ; Wellhausen, Die Composition des
Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testaments {T,d ed. i?>gci) ; GuTHE,
Geschichte des Volkes Israel (iSgg), pp. 259 f. ; Steuernagel, Uebersetzung und
Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua tind allgemeine Einleitung in den
ZTirjra/ifMfA (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; Halevv,
LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I9I
"Influence du code sacerdotal sur les proph^tes," Revue simitique, January, 1901;
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alien Tesiamentes {i<)Oi), §§31, 41-4, 50-55.
See also the commentaries on Exodus by Dillmann (1897), Holzinger (1900),
Baentsch (1900), and Kennedy ("The Temple Bible," 1901); and on Leviticus by
Kalisch (1867), Keil (2d ed. 1870), Lange (1874), Strack (1894), Dillmann-
Ryssel (1897), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1901), and Paterson ("The Temple
Bible," 1901).
Paet Fifth
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HISTORICAL
LITERATURE
XV. The Priestly Narrative in the Hexateuch.
XVI. The Books of Chronicles.
XVII. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE IN THE HEXATEUCH.
§199. The New Tendency Encouraged in the Exile. —
Consider (i) the effect of the exile upon the ambition of isa. 57: 17-20.
Israel to be a nation among other nations of the earth ;
(2) the actual condition, in the exile, of all political 2 Cbron. 35:17-21.
institutions and political machinery; (3) the certainty 153,41:17-20.
that under these conditions the minds of the leaders
and the energies of the people would be turned in some
other direction: (4) the naturalness and, indeed, the Ezek., chaps.
40-48.
inevitableness of a turning in the direction of a more
definitely religious, as distinguished from a political,
regime; (5) the foundation for this movement already 133.44:24-28.
prepared in the two great doctrines of individualism, as
preached by the priest Jeremiah, and solidarity, as jer. 31:29!.
preached by the priest Ezekiel — doctrines preached in Ezek., chaps. 18,
view of and in connection with the fall of the nation.
See J. R. Slater, "Individualism and Solidarity as Developed
by Jeremiah and Ezekiel," Biblical World, VoL XIV (1899), pp.
172-83; MONTEFIORE, Z^c^wr^j <7« the Origin and Growth of Reli-
gion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebretvs, pp. 216-19,
251-3; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 488 f.
§200. The Basis of This Tendency toward Priestly
Influence. — Observe now three things: (i) that the 2 Kings 22:3—
23 :52.
priestly influence had long been in existence, and that
only a century or so before the fall of Jerusalem it had
been greatly strengthened by the union of effort in which
prophet and priest joined, and of which the promulgation
of Deuteronomy was the result {cf. §§25-8, 170); (2) jer. 1:1; Ezek.
that the prophetic work in these last days had in large ^'^'
measure fallen to priests, e. g., Jeremiah and Ezekiel ;
(3) that, inasmuch as the will of God had now been pre-
sented so clearly in the prophetic word (for prophecy had
practically completed its work, having reached its highest
development in Jeremiah) and in the written law (the 2 Kings 22: 3;
law as found in Deuteronomy having been canonized in ^^'^'
195
196
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Deut. 10:8.
Ezod. 20: 23—
23:33; Deut.
chaps. 16-26.
Ezek., chaps.
40-48.
Mai. 1:6-14;
Zech. 14: i6lf.
Leviticus.
Hag. 1:7-14;
2:1-9; Zech.
6:9-14.
C.f. P (below).
Cf. Chronicles.
621 B. C), the task that remained was not so much the
revelation of new truth as the interpretation, organi-
zation, and application of the great body of truth
already known. Such ministration was the work of the
priest.
§201. The Origin of the Idea of the Church or Com-
munity.— Consider now to what extent the idea and
practice of the community or church (i) were the further
development of the priestly conception and ritual which
existed before the exile and were formulated during the
exile by Ezekiel in his visions; (2) were the direct
outcome of the prophetic teaching of individualism and
solidarity (see § 199); and still further (3) were the neces-
sary result of the historical forces which combined to
destroy the nation and put an end to prophetic work and
leadership.
§202. The Purpose of the Church. — (i) Study, as
widely as possible (<r. g., in Ezekiel's code, the Levitical
code, and the priestly prophets), the purpose of the
church as it now began to take the place of the nation,
as that purpose exhibited itself {a) in the emphasis placed
on worship, {b) in the multiplication of ordinances seek-
ing to preserve, organize, and develop the ritual of the
temple; and (2) consider how greatly such interest
(already existing in the exile) would be strengthened
when the return had taken place, the temple had been
rebuilt, and worship had actually been established in the
new environment.
§203. The Desire to Prepare Histories of Worship. —
Consider how, under these circumstances, there would
come into existence the desire (i) to trace the beginnings
of these ordinances to the earliest times, and to show
the place assigned them under the great leaders of the
past; (2) to write a narrative which would present their
history through the long centuries from David's time
down to the last days — a story parallel with that other
narrative (prepared by the prophets who had now passed
away) which, in representing prophetic truth, had almost
entirely ignored the priest-side of the national history;
and (3) to show just how these institutions were finally
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE ig'J'
reinstated or re-established after the return by the great c/. Ezra and
•^ ° Nehemiah.
leaders Ezra and Nehemiah. This desire found its reali-
zation in what we may call the histories of the priestly
school.
§ 204. The Histories of the Prophetic School. — Recall
(i) the history of J, the work of a Judean prophet, prob- Gen. 2:4<5— 4:26;
ably the oldest of the prophetic histories, which gathers
up the stories and traditions of the earliest times down
to the settlement of Israel in Canaan and uses all this
material for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing
the truths of prophecy;' (2) the history of E, which Gen. 15:1,5,16;
covers practically the same ground as J, but is written from
the point of view of northern Israel, and is somewhat less
naive in its conception of God and in respect to other
theological ideas ; "" (3) the histories found in Judges,
Samuel, and Kings, which trace the progress of the
nation from the conquest to the exile ; and note the
principal characteristics, common to them all, viz.:
(a) that they are in large part compilations of older 2Sam. 1:18;
• 1 /7\ 1 1 • . • 1 1 . , I Kings 11:41;
material; (o) the emphasis laid by them upon the 14:29; 2 Kings
15 : 26 ; etc.
thought of sin as the cause of all of Israel's troubles ; 2 Kings! chap. 24.
(c) the purpose of their work as evidently didactic,
rather than historical in the modern sense of the word ;
'The J-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is: 2:4l> — 4:26; 5:29; 6:1-8; 7:1-5,
7-10, 12, 17^, 22f.; 8 :2i^, 3a, 6-12, 13^,20-22; 9:18-27; I0:l(5, 8-19, 21,24-30;
11:1-9,28-30; 12:1-4^,6-20; 13 : 1-5, 6<^-ii«, 13-18; 15 : 3f., 6-II, 17 f.; 16: i3,
2,4-14; 18:1 — 19:28, 30-38; 21 : la, 2a, 7, 28-30, 33; 22:20-24; 24:1 — 25:6,
18, 2l-26a, 28 ; 26 : 1-30, 6-14, 16 f., 19-33 ; 27 : la, 2, 3, 4*5, 53, 6, 7fl, 15, l83-20,
24-290:, 2gc, 30a, 30<r, 313-34, 4i<^-42, 43(^, 45a/ 28 : 10, 13-16, 19 ; 29 : 2-14, 31-35 ;
30:33-16, 22c, 23a, 24 f., 27, 29-3ia, 34-38a, 39-400, 40^-43; 31 :i, 17, iSa, 25, 27,
31, 43f., 46, 48-50; 32:3-70, 133-220, 233-29, 31 f.; 33:1-180; 34 : 23, 30, 3<r, 5, 7,
III 19, 26, 293-31; 35:14,16-220; 36:31-39; 37:23,20^-4,12,130, 143,183,21,
253-27, 283, 320, 35 ; 38 : I — 39 : 63, 73-23. The remainder of the document may be
found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, T/ie Hexatetuh, Vol. II;
or in Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I ; or in Driver, Introduction to the
Literature of the Old Testament.
"The E-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is : 15:1,2,5,16; 20:1-18; 21:6,8-27,
31 f., 34 ; 22 : I-13, 19 ; 25 : 253, 27, 29-34 5 27 : l3, 40, 73-14, 16-180, 21-23, 303, 310,
35-410, 44, 453; 28 : II f., 17 f., 20, 210, 22 ; 29 : I, 15-23, 25-280, 30 ; 30 : I-30, 17-
20, 26, 313-33, 383, 4o3; 31:2-16, 19-24,26,28-30,32-42,47,51 — 32:2,230,30;
33: l8<r-20; 35 : 1-5, 63-8 ; 37 :5-ll, 133, 140, 173, 19 f., 22-250, 28o,28(:-3i, 323, 330,
34.36; 39:6c, 70; 40:1-23. For the remainder of the document see literature cited
in the foregoing footnote.
198 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(d) the selection and arrangement of material, which is
such as to enforce the great lessons of prophecy.
§205. The Priestly Histories. — Under this head may
be classified (i) the priestly narrative in the Hexateuch;
(2) the books of Chronicles, which furnish a parallel
history, as understood by the priest, for the entire
period covered by the prophetic history found in
s«e ?i04. Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and (3) the books of
Ezra and Nehemiah, which describe the restoration from
exile and the re-establishment of the temple and its
elaborate system of worship. These all possess the same
general characteristics of style, are controlled by the
same theological ideas, are interested in the same general
subject, and are written from the same priestly point of
view.
§206. The Historical Character of the Priestly His-
tories.— Keep in mind (i) the purpose of these so-called
histories, viz., to represent the priest-side, that is, the
element of worship; (2) the consequent necessity of
making selections from the large body of material in
existence; (3) the fragmentary and disconnected char-
acter of the material which comes by selection ; (4) the
only method that, under these circumstances, can be
employed — that of compilation; (5) the danger of
confusion and disorder ; (6) the certainty that material
having its origin centuries after the event described will
not be intended to serve as a chronicle of the event, but
rather to meet some definite and practical end in view;
(7) the difference between actual history and idealized
story; (8) the meaning of the word "pragmatic" as
applied to history.
See, e. g., my article in Sunday School Times, July, 1889 ; Geo.
F. Moore, art. " Historical Literature," Encylopcedia Biblica, Vol.
II; W. E. Barnes, "The Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler,"
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIII
(1896-97), pp. 14-20 ; T. G. Scares, "The Import of the Chronicles
as a Piece of Religio-Historical Literature," American Journal of
Theology, \o\. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; C. C. Torrey, The Composi-
tion and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemia ("Beiheft zur Zeitschrift
fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,'' II, 1896); L. DiESTEL, "Die
hebraische Geschichtesschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theo-
logie, Vol. XVIII (1873), pp. 365 ff.; Franz Uelitzsch, "Die
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE I99
Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift
fiir lutherische Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff.;
J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His-
torians (1901), pp. 241 ff., 271 ff.
§ 207. The Scope of the Priestly Narrative. — This
document is found alongside of the prophetical histories
J and E in the Hexateuch.^ Like them it goes back to
the time of creation and sketches the course of events vjon ..-— 2:4a/
Josh., chaps. 14,
up to the settlement of Israel in Canaan. This leads it 15, 17. etc.
in many cases to duplicate the narratives of the pro-
phetic historians; but, although the same events are Gen. 34:1,2a, 3^,
, , , 4, 6. 8-10, 12-18,
often narrated in both accounts, the point of view is 20-25, 27-293/
cf, 34 : iby 3(Z, 3^:,
widely different, since the purposes of the two schools 5. 7. ". 19, etc.
of writers are of a different character. The priestly nar-
rative is primarily concerned with questions like (a) the
divine choice of Israel as the peculiar people of God ;
(<5) the divine origin of her system of worship ; {c) the
growth of the accompanying institutions and customs.
§ 208. The Gradual Growth of the Priestly Narrative. —
A careful examination of this priestly narrative reveals
that it is not all the work of one hand or one time, but,
like the prophetic histories, is a compilation of older
materials, which have gradually been brought together
and wrought into a homogeneous narrative. This ap-
pears {a) from the fact that there are many repetitions
3 The material belonging to the priestly narrative, as indicated in The Hexatench,
by J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, is as follows : Gen. i: i — 2 : 4a,-
5:1-28, 30-32; 6:9-22; 7:6, II, I3-I7a, 18-21, 24; 8:1, 2a, 3<5-5, 13a, 14-19;
9 : 1-17, 28, 29; 10: \a, 2-7, 20, 22, 23, 31, 32 ; II: IO-27, 31, 32 ; 12 : i,b, 5 ; 13 :6a,
\\b, 12 ; 16 : \a, 3, 15, 16 ; 17 : I-27; 19 : 29; 21: \b, 2^-5 ; 23 : 1-20 ; 25 : 7-17, 19,20,
26^,- 26:34, 35; 27:46—28:9; 29:24, 281^, 29; 30:21, 22a; 31:18^,- 33:18^,-
34 : \-2a, 2,l>, 4, 6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 2'j-2ga; 35 : 6a, 9-13, 15, 22b — 36 : 30, 40-43 ;
37:1, 2a, 2c; 41:45/^, 46a,- 46:6-27; 47:5, 6a, 7-II, 2lb, 28; 48:3-7; 49 : la^
28-330;, 33(r,- 50:12, 13; Exod. 1:1-5, 7.13. 14'^.' 2:23^-25; 6:2 — 7:13, 19, 20a,
21^,22; 8:5-7,15*^-19; 9:8-12; 11:9 — 12:20,24,28,40 — 13:2,20; 14:1-4,8,
93, 15^, l63-l8, 2la, 2IC-23, 26, 27a, 28a, 29; 16:1-3, 5-35; 17: i«/ 19: If 2a,
24: I5i5-i8a,- 25:1 — 3i:i8di,* 34:29 — 40:38; Lev. i:i — 27:34; Numb. i:i —
10:28, 34; 13 : I-I7a, 2\b, 25, 26a, 32; 14:1a, 2, 5-7, 9a, 10, 26-30, 32-39a,
15:1-41; 16: la, \b, 2b, 3-II, 16-24, 26a, 27a, 32^, 33c, 35 — 2o:ia, 2, 3;^, 4, 6-8a,
8^-13,22(5-29; 21: 4a, 10, I la,- 22:1; 25:6 — 32:38; 33:1 — 36:13; Deut. 32 : 48-52;
34 : la, \c, Sd, 7-9 ; Josh. 3:4a, 8, 15, 16; 4 : 7b, 8a, 13, 15-17, 19 ; 5 : 10-12 ; 9 : 15^:,
17-21; 13:15 — 14:5; 15:1-12,20-61; 16:4-9; 17:1-10; 18:1, II — 19:46,48 —
21: 42 ; 22 : 9-34.
200
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod., chaps. 25-
30, cf. 35-40;
Numb., chaps.
1-3, r/. 26; Lev.,
chap. 23, cf.
Numb., chaps.
28, 29,
Lev., chaps. 17-26.
Numb. 15: 1-31 ;
etc.
Exod. 30: 22 —
31 : II ; etc.
within the priestly narrative itself, e. g., the repetition of
the account of the structure of the tabernacle, the double
account of the census of Israel, the two recensions of
the laws concerning feasts, etc.; and (d) from the differ-
ent tone and character of various parts of the narrative.
It is now generally granted that there are at least four
different strata in this work. These are (i) a continuous
narrative from the creation to the settlement in Canaan,
which forms the groundwork of the priestly narrative
(=pg); (2) the Holiness Code(=P''); (3) a collection
of priestly teachings on subjects connected with the
various institutions (=P'); (4) "a miscellaneous set
of secondary enlargements, ranging over a wide variety
of topics — genealogical expansions, legislative elabora-
tions, illustrative narratives, etc."( = P').
See, e. g.,]. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, TAe
Hexateiich., Vol. I, pp. 142 ff.; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch,
Vol. II, pp. 186 ff.; HOLZINGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp.
332 ff.; Stever^ag^i., Deuteronomium und Josua, iind allgenieine
Einleitung in den Hexateuch, p. 272 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die
Biicher des Alten Testamentes,Y)Y>- 154 ff.; yfEL'LUAVSEN, Prolegomena
to the History of Israel, p. 385.
§209. The Sources of the Priestly Narrative. — (i)
Examine carefully some of the narratives contained in
both the prophetic history and in the priestly narrative,
e. g., the accounts of the deluge, the story of Dinah,"
the bringing of water from the rock in the wilderness,^
etc., and consider whether the prophetic and priestly
writers are to be regarded {a) as having used the same
sources, or {d) as having used different sources, or {c)
as being dependent one upon the other; if the latter,
which is the original ?
(2) Consider, further, whether it is probable that any
sources other than popular traditions were ever in exist-
ence for the study of the earliest prehistoric times. In
cases where the priestly and prophetic accounts of the
♦In the Dinah narrative the following material is from P : Gen. 34 : I, 2a, T,b, 4,
6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 2']-2^a; and the remainder of chap. 34 belongs to J.
5 In Numb., chap. 20, the following material is assigned to P : 20 : la, 2, 3<^-4,
6-8a, 8C-13, 223-29; the following to J: 20:l3, 3a, 5, 83, 19 f.; and the remainder
to E.
Gen. 6 : 5-8 ;
7:1-5, 7-10.
etc. \ cf.f>: 9-22 ;
7:6,11, etc.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 201
same event differ widely, e. g., in the accounts of the
events at Sinai,* what explanation maybe given?'' Is
the difference to be explained as due to the use of vary-
ing sources or as a result of the different purpose and
point of view of these writers ?
(■X) Compare the creation accounts of T and P with Gen. 1:1—3 :4a.*
^^ ^/. Gen. a : 4i5-
each other, and still further with the creation stories as 24.
found on Babylonian tablets. Note carefully the points
of resemblance and difference, and try to determine {a)
which of the two shows the clearer traces of Babylonian
influence; {b) whether they both resemble the same
Babylonian tradition ; or (^) whether each reflects a
different Babylonian tradition ; or {d) whether the
Hebrew and Babylonian accounts are to be considered
as parallel, but independent, narratives, {e) If the Baby-
lonian accounts are considered as sources of the He-
brew narratives, note how thoroughly the Hebrew writers
have edited their sources and the different style of edit-
ing done by P as compared with J.
For English translations of these Babylonian stories see W.
Muss-Arnolt's rendering in R. F. Harper's Assyrian attd Babylo-
nian Literature {"The V^orldi's Great Books," Aldine edition, New
York, 1901), pp. 282-300. On the relations of the Hebrew and
Babylonian accounts, see LenormaNT, The Beginnings of His-
tory, pp. 47-66 ; GuNKEL, The Legends of Genesis ; ]oii^ D.Davis.
Genesis and Semitic Tradition, pp. 1-22; H. Zimmern, Biblische
uni babylonische Urgeschichte (1901) ; I. Barth, Babel und israeli-
tisches Religionswesen (1902), pp. 21-31.
§210. The Legislation Embodied in the Priestly-
Narrative. — Note that, just as the prophetic histories Exod. 34 : 17-28.
included some elements of legislation, viz., the smaller
Book of the Covenant in J, and the greater Book of the Exod. 20:23—
Covenant, with the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1-17), in E, • > •
So the priestly narrative contains its proportion of laws.
®For the distribution of material among the various sources in Exod., chaps.
19-40, in the book of Leviticus, and in Numb., chaps, i-io, see the literature cited
in note I.
7 Other stories which are thought to be duplicates are : (i) the account of the birth
of Hagar, etc., in Gen., chap. 16 (P = 16 : la, 3, 15, 16 ; the remainder belongs to J);
(2) the birth of Isaac (P = Gen. i\:\b, 2b, 3-5 ; the remainder belongs to J and E):
the revelation of God to Jacob at Bethel (P = Gen. 35 : 6ff, 9-13, 15 ; the remainder
belongs to J and E).
202
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 12: 1-20,
25 f-, 43-49;
13:1; 25: 1—
31 :i7; chaps.
35-40; Numb.
5:1—9:10;
chaps. 15, 18,
19, 28-31, and
35-
Gen.
Gen. 2:40-25.
Gen. 2:40/ 5: i;
6:9; 10: 1 ;
II : 10; II : 27;
25: 12; 25:19;
36: 1 ; 37: 2.
Gen. 1:1; 8:
etc.
Gen. 17: 1.
Exod. 6:2f.
Gen. 9: 8-17.
Gen., chap. 17.
Exod. 31 :i6f.
Gen. i: i — 2: 4a/
5: i; 10: 1 ; etc.
This legal element is found in portions of Exodus and
Numbers and in the entire book of Leviticus, (i) Notice
the relatively large amount of space and consideration
given to legal matters in P, as compared with J and E.
Is it not true that in J and E the legal material is inci-
dental, while in P it is the essential and all-important
thing ? (2) How may this increase of legal material be
accounted for ? Is it perhaps due to the greater interest
of the priestly writers in such matters ?
§211. Orderly, Systematic Treatment of Material. —
Read the priestly narrative of the creation, and (i) notice
that the order of events is carefully distributed through-
out six days, corresponding to the working days of the
week, and that God is represented as resting upon the
seventh day. (2) Is not the whole account much more
systematic than the prophetic account of the same sub-
ject in the following chapter ? (3) Consider also the
division of the patriarchal period into ten "generations,"
beginning with the "generations of the heaven and of
the earth," ^ and ending with the generations of Jacob.
(4) Notice that prior to the time of Abraham the gen-
eral name elohim is used ; between Abraham and Moses
the name (?/ J"/ifl;//^(2:/ appears ; after the times of Moses the
name is Jehovah. (5) Observe the similar system which
appears in the presentation of the covenant idea ; the
first covenant being represented as having been made
with Noah, its sign — the rainbow; the second covenant
being with Abraham, its sign — circumcision; while still
later the sabbath is spoken of as a covenant, and as the
sign of a covenant.
See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(6th ed.), pp. 129 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexatetich, pp.
353 ff.; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly
Historians, pp. 24^ i.; Stevernagkl, £)duteronomii<fn und Josua u.
s. w., pp. 271 f.
§ 2 1 2. The Fondness of the Priestly Narrative for Genea-
logical Statements. — (i) Recall the fact, previously men-
tioned, that the creation account and the patriarchal
•Gen. 2 :4a belongs to P's preceding narrative and should probably be transposed
to the beginning of chap. i.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE-
PRIESTLY NARRATIVE
20'
history are presented in the form of genealogies. (2)
Notice further the large amount of genealogical material
in the priestly narratives, and that long periods of time
are frequently represented by nothing more than a genea-
logical list. (3) Does it seem that the writer uses these
lists in large part as connecting links for his narrative,
hastening over by their means long periods of time in
which he has no especial interest, in order to give more
attention to matters in which he is vitally concerned ?
§ 213. Prevalence of Statistics and Dates in the Priestly
Narrative. — In illustration of this characteristic of P,
recall the fact that it gives the ages of the antediluvians ;
the dimensions of the ark ; the date of the flood ; the
depth of the waters of the flood and its duration ; the
age of Abraham at various junctures in his life ; the price
paid for the field of Ephron ; the number of people that
entered Egypt; the duration of the sojourn in Egypt;
the date of the arrival in the wilderness of Sin and of that
at Sinai ; the dimensions and specifications of the ark of
testimony, the table of shewbread, and the golden can-
dlestick ; most minute specifications for the tabernacle
with all its furnishings; the exact dates of all feasts ; a
census of Israel at Sinai ; the exact value of the offerings
made in connection with the dedication of the altar; a
careful demarkation of the boundaries of the various
tribes ; etc. Does not the presence of so much material
of this sort render the general style stiff and precise
as compared with the free, flowing narratives of J
and E ?
§ 2 1 4. The Style of the Priestly Narrative is Repetitious.
— (i) Observe that the account of the structure of the
tabernacle is given in full twice ; also that the census of
Israel at Sinai is twice narrated. (2) Read Numb., chap.
7, and notice that six verses are used twelve times in this
chapter. (3) Consider, further, the large extent to which
certain formulas and stereotyped phrases are repeated,
and the fact that many sentences are cast in the same
mold. (4) Are some of these repetitions due to the fact
that the priestly narrative is a compilation ? But can
the tendency to the repeated use of the same phraseology
Exod. 6: 14-27;
Numb. 1 : 5-16,
20,47; 3:14-39;
26 :i — 27: II.
Gen, chap. 5;
6: i5f.; 7:6,11,
13,20,24 ; 8 :3ff.,
13, 14; 12:4;
16: 3, 16; 17: I,
24 ff. ; 21:5;
23: 16; 46:27;
Exod. 12 : 401.;
16: 1 ; 19: 1 ;
25:ioff., 23, 25,
31 ff.; chaps.
26-30 and 35-40;
Lev., chap. 23;
Numb., chaps.
28, 29; chaps.
1-3, and 26 ;
chap. 7; 34:1-15
Exod., chaps. 26-
30 and 35-40;
Numb. , chaps.
1-3 and 26; 7:13-
17; Gen. 1:5,
81^, 13, etc. ; 10:
5, 20, 31 f.; 25:
i6; 36:40, 43,
etc. ; Gen. 5:6 8,
9-11, 12 14, etc ;
II :io-ii, 12-13,
etc. ; 12 :4^/
16: 16; 17. 24 f. ;
21:5; 25 : 26*/
41 : 46a,- Exod.
7:7; Numb.
33:39; i:2of.,
22 f . , etc. ;
2: 3-9, 10-16,
etc.
204 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
be SO explained ? Is it not a marked characteristic of
the priestly style ?
On the style of the priestly narrative in general see : Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp.
126-35; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 125 f.; Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, pp.
145 f., 148; HoLZiNGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 349-54;
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp.
96-102; and the articles by W. R. Harper and W. H. Green in
Hebraica, Vols. V and VI.
§215. The Selection of Material in the Priestly Narra-
tive.— (i) Consider whether, if it is not the purpose of the
priestly writers to write a history in the modern sense of
the word, but rather to teach certain truths with reference
to God and the proper methods of worship, it may not be
reasonable to suppose that they selected and arranged
their material with a view to its appropriateness to the
end they had in view. (2) Notice, for example, {a) that,
while in J the narrative of the creation is merely intro-
Gen. 1:1—2:40. ductory to the account of man's first sin, in P the cre-
ation narrative is treated in a manner to emphasize
strongly the sanctity of the sabbath ; {b) that between
the creation and Abraham the centuries are bridged over
by means of genealogies, with the single exception of the
deluge and the account of the covenant with Noah ; {c)
Gen., chap. 17. that the only incidents in Abraham's life to which P
gives any consideration are the account of the institu-
Gen., chap. 53. tion of circumcision with the accompanying covenant,
Gen. a8: 1-9. and the purchase of the field of Ephron ; {d^ that the
only incident treated in the life of Isaac is the care
taken to provide for his son's marriage to a woman of
Gen. 34 : 1 f., 3i5, 4, his own race; and in Jacob's life the failure of the pro-
etc. ; 35:9-13, posed alliance between the sons of Jacob and the men
15 ; 46: 6-27.
of Shechem, the appearance of God to him at Bethel
with the promise to bless his descendants, and his
entrance into Egypt with his sons ; {e) that in the
Exod. 12 : 1-20, account of the exodus the only incidents receiving any
40-51,
considerable attention are the institution of the Passover,
Exod., chaps. 25- the giving of manna on six days and its withholding on
40; Lev., chaps. ^
1-27; etc. the seventh, and the legislation at Sinai which consti-
tutes the bulk of the priestly narrative. (3) Consider in
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 205
each of the above cases why the incident was chosen for
treatment to the exclusion of other material, much of
which would have been of more interest and value as
pure history.
See, e.g., Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, pp. 146 f.; HoL-
ZINGER, Einleitung in den Hexatetich, pp. 359 f.
§ 2 1 6. The Theological Point of View of the Priestly-
Narrative. — (i) Is not the conception of God that appears
in the priestly narrative in many respects the highest
attained in the Old Testament ? Note that in the
creation account of P, as compared with that of J, all
anthropomorphic features are lacking; it is sufficient for Gen. 1:1-2:40.
God to speak and the thing is done. He is most holy, •
so that none but members of the holiest class may come Wumb., chap. tS;
Lev., chap. 8.
near his altar or perform the highest functions of his wor-
ship ; and these ministers are set apart by a most solemn
service of consecration. The usual manifestation of his
presence is by means of a cloud resting upon the tent Exod. 40:34 ff.;
f • 11 ri, 1.1x1 Numb. 16: 19.
of meeting and the appearance of his 'glory. In the
presence of such a holy Being the sinfulness of man is
greatly intensified ; constant sacrifices are necessary to
make atonement ; and there is an obligation resting upon Lev. 19:2.
all Israel to be holy, because God is holy. This exalted
conception of God can be traced everywhere in the nar-
rative and in the legislation. (2) To what extent is it
due to this conception of God and of Israel's relation to
him that the accounts of Israel's ancestors given by P
differ so widely in spirit from the corresponding narra-
tives of J and E ? (3) Consider the significance of the
fact that none of the sins and shortcomings of the patri-
archs, so freely mentioned by the prophetic writers, are
alluded to in the priestly narrative ; it being taken for
granted that the patriarchs, who were the founders of the
holy nation, as such must themselves have been holy.
(4) Note also that no sacrifices are offered nor altars built
by the patriarchs according to the priestly narrative, in
contrast with the prophetic account, because sacrifice was Gen. 35: 6, off.;
not legal until the Mosaic legislation had been given '^■'•35-7.
and the proper means for the right conduct of sacrifice
provided.
206 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See, e. g., Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Tes-
tament (6th ed.), pp. 128 f.; J. E. Carpenter and G, Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, VoL 'I, pp, 132 f.; Holzinger, Ein-
leitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 376-90 ; KoNIG, Einleitung in das Alte
Testament, pp. 231 ff.
§ 217. Literature to be Consulted.
Kuenex, ^« Historico-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the
Hexateuch (1861, 2d ed. 1885; transl. 1886), pp. 65-107, 272-313; J. W. CoLENSO,
The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically Examined, Parts I-VII {1862-79);
VVellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 4th ed. 1895 5 transl. from
German 1885), pp. 385-91; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church
(1881, 2d ed. 1892), Lecture XII ; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol. XI (1882), pp.
201-36; E. C. BISSELL, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885), pp. 318-61;
DiLLMANN, Genesis Critically and Exegetically Expounded ($\.h ed. 1886; trans]. 1897),
Vol. I, pp. 1-26; Franz Delitzsch, ^ Ne-M Commentary on Genesis {^ih. ed. 1887;
transl. 1889), Vol. I, pp. I-59; B. \V. Bacon, "Pentateuchal Analysis," Hebraica,
VoL IV (1888), pp. 219-26; Kittel, History of the Hebrews (1888; transl. 1895), Vol.
I, pp. 96-134; W. H. Green, i¥^<^raiVa, Vol. V (1888-89), PP- I49ff-, 162!., 174 ff.;
VoL VI, pp. 127, 133, 167, 180 f., 196, 210; Vol. VII, pp. 16, 27, 33, 36 f., ii3ff.,
137L, 141; Vol. VIII, 37 f., 63, 201 f., 228, 243; W. R. Harper, i%(5ra?Va, Vol. V
(1888-89), pp. 22 f., 25 f., 33 L, 45, 52 ff., 63 ff., 244 f., 253, 266 f., 275, 286; Vol. VI,
pp. 2, II L, 19, 26 f., 36 ff., 242 L, 252, 265 f., 276 L, 288 f.; Driver, An Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 126-35 \ E. J. Fripp,
The Composition of the Book of Genesis (1892); C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of
the Hexateuch (1892, 2d ed. 1 897), pp. 69-75; B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis
(1893), pp- 54-9. 66-94 ; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895),
pp. 59-133; Idem, The Unity of the Book of Genesis (1895), passim; Addis, Doc-
uments of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 170-88; H. E. Ryle, article "Gene-
sis" (§ iv {a)) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. A. Briggs,
General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture {1899), pp., 329!.; F. H. Woods,
article "Hexateuch" (§ iii, 2 and 4 D) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II
(1899); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View (1899, 2d
ed. 1901), pp. 79-119; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexa-
teuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 121-56; G. F. Moore, articles "Genesis" (§§2f.) and
" Historical Literature " (§§ 9 f.) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Gunkel, The
Legends of Genesis {i<^o\),T^^. 144-60; Wellhausen, article "Hexateuch" (§§19,23,
24, 29, 30) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 239-47.
H. Hupfeld, Z>/i? Quellen der Genesis (1853); K. H. Graf, Die geschichtlichen
Biicher des Allen Testaments (1866); Noldeke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alien
Testamentes {i%bg); Ed. Riehm, "Ueberdie Grundschrift desPentateuchs," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1872, pp. 283-307; Bleek-Wellhausen, Einleitung in das
Alte Testament {^ih ed. 1878), §§ 81 ff.; Ryssel, De Elohistae sermone (1878); GlESE-
BRECHT, "Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; Wurster, "Zur Charakte-
ristik und Geschichte des Priestercodex," ibid.. Vol. IV (1884), pp. iiiff.; DiLL-
mann, Die Biicher Humeri, Deuteronomium und Josua ("Kurzgefasstes exegetisches
HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 20/
Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1886), pp. 648 f., 663; Kautzsch und Socin,
Die Genesis mit dusserer Unterscheidung der Quellen (1888, 2d ed. 1891); Well-
HAUSEN, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alien Testa-
ments (1889); RiEHM, Einleilung in das Alle Testament, Vol. I (1889), pp. 253-80;
C. H. CORNILL, Einleilung in das Alle Testament [l^gi, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-68;
Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuqiie, Tome 2 (1892), pp. 21-32; Wildeboer,
Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (Dutch, 1893; transl. into German, 1895), pp.
306-33; Ed. Konig, Einleilung in das Alte Testatnent (1893), pp. 225-31; HoL-
ZltiG^YL, Einleilung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 332-425; Steuernagel, Ueber-
setzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine Ein-
leitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8;
Baudissin, Einleilung in die Biicher des Allen Testamentes (1901), pp. 96-102.
§ 2 1 8. Constructive Work.
1. Prepare a brief survey of early Israelitish history from the pas-
sages ordinarily assigned to P (see p. 199, note 3), noting especially
{(i) the gaps which are found to exist, that is, the periods left
untouched, or passed over in the genealogical method (see §212);
{f) the portions on which large emphasis is laid.
2. Make a list of all the so-called duplicates {cf. § 209), that is,
those events which are described by some other writer (^. g., J or E)
as well as by P, and observe particularly the characteristics which
distinguish the account of P from other accounts.
3. Prepare a statement which (a) will present in logical order the
various elements of style that characterize P, {p) will show the relation-
ship existing between these characteristics of style and the contents,
and {c) will exhibit the contrast between the style of P and that of the
prophetic narrators (J and E).
4. Trace the growth of P in its various stages, viz., P^, P^, P', P%and
indicate (<z) the chronological order of these various elements of P;
{f) the ideas and laws peculiarly characteristic of each stage of the P
legislation.
5. Formulate P's conception of God, and trace the influence of
this conception in (a) the contents, that is, as explaining why certain
things are included or omitted; {p) the style, that is, as explaining why
the style is in such marked contrast, e. g., with the prophetic style; {c)
the conception, that is, as explaining the thought of the writer on
various subjects, e. g., man, angels, worship, etc., etc.
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES.
§ 2 1 9. The Scope of the History in Chronicles. — Observe
iChron i:i; cf. that the narrative in Chronicles (i) begins, like that in P,
Gen. I .^.
I Chron. 1 : 1-27. with the very beginning of the human race; (2) runs
1 Chron. ;'.:28- rapidly over the early history of mankind in general ; (3)
10' 14. " '
takes up that of the Hebrew people, beginning with Abra-
ham and hastening on to the death of Saul ; while (4) with
the accession of David it treats the history niore elabo-
rately, and covers the period from David to the exile in
the remainder of the work. Observe further that, as com-
pared with the prophetic history in Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, (i) while beginning at an earlier point in history,
it gives very much less consideration to the pre-Davidic
period ; (2) it leaves the history of the Northern Kingdom
2 Chron. 36 : 2s f . ; almost entirely out of account; and (3) both stop with
25:27 ff. the exile, the end of Israel's national life.
Consider, now, the purpose of the compiler (i) as
gathered from the scope of his work; (2) as gathered
from a comparison with Judges, Samuel, and Kings; (3)
as gathered from the comparative fulness of treatment
of different parts.
§220. The Date of the Books of Chronicles. — Con-
sidering the relationship and significance of old materials
in the book, side by side with materials which indicate a
comparatively late date for the origin of the book as a
a Chron. 36 : 22. whole, note (i) that the history extends to the "first
2 Chron. 36 : 20, year of Cyrus, king of Persia;" (2) that the common
"6f'.;^7:27''f.V ^^^^^^ ^^ Cyrus and all the Persian kings were "the
2:\'frfHig."'; King," the "Great King," the "King of Kings," the
i,i5;Zech.7:i. '< j;;_ing of the Lands;" they are never called kings of
Persia in contemporaneous literature ; does not this fact
point to a period considerably later than that of the
1 Chron. 29:7. Persian empire? (3) that the daric, a Persian coin intro-
duced in the time of Darius I. (5 2 1-486 B. C.) and named
208
HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 209
after him, is spoken of as in use in the time of David ;
does not this suggest that the coin had been so long in
use when Chronicles was prepared that the time and
place of its origin had been forgotten ? (4) that the
language of the book has a very strong Aramaic coloring,
is full of words and phrases characteristic of post-exilic
literature, and that the syntax is of a decidedly late char-
acter;' (5) that in the list of Zerubbabel's descendants i Chron.3:i9-24.
six generations are enumerated according to the Hebrew
text, while the Septuagint gives eleven. Since Zerub-
babel lived about 520 B. C, and a generation may be Hag.i:i.
reckoned at about twenty years, this genealogy, according
to the Hebrew text, gives us a date about 400 B. C; or, if
the Septuagint be accepted, about 300 B. C. (6) If
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah are the work of the same
editor (see § 226), may we not use data furnished by Ezra
and Nehemiah to determine the date of Chronicles? In
Nehemiah, the high-priest Jaddua is mentioned, and the Neh. lani.aa.
phrase "the days of Jaddua" is employed to indicate a
date in the past. Does not this suggest that the writer
lived some time after Jaddua ? But, according to the
narrative of Josephus,- Jaddua was the high-priest who
met Alexander the Great as he marched through Syria
(333 B. C.) and rendered him favorable to the Jews.
Hence we get a date about 300 B. C. for the compilation
of Chronicles.
See, e. g., Barnes, The Books of Chronicles ("Cambridge Bible,"
1899), PP- xi f.; W. R. Smith and S. R. Driver, article "Chroni-
cles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 764 ; FRANCIS Brown, article
''Chronicles I and II," Hastings's Dictionary of ike Bible, Vol. I,
p. 392; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(6th ed.), pp. 518 ff.
§221. The Sources of the Books of Chronicles. — Since
.the chronicler was one of the latest contributors to the
collection of writings known as the Old Testament, con-
sider the probability of his having used many sources
' For the linguistic data and their bearing on the date of Chronicles see especially
Fr. Brown's article "Chronicles," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp.
389-92; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old 7'«/'a/«<f«/ (6th ed.), pp.
504 ff.; and article "Chronicles, Books of," in Encyclopcedia Biblica (§ il).
^Antiquities, XI, viii, 4, 5.
210
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3 Chron. g : ag ;
n: 15; 13: 22;
20 : 34 ; 26 : 22 ;
3»: 34; 33: 19;
I Cbron. 29 : 29.
I Chron. 9:1;
16: II ; 20:34;
25: 26 ; 27: 7 ;
28 : 26 ; 32 : 32 ;
33:18; 35: 27;
36:8.
1 Chron. 23 : 27 ;
27:24.
3 Chron. 35: 25.
2 Chron. 24: 27.
3 Chron. 30: 22 ff.,
cf. I Kings
22 : 43 ; 24 : 2, cf.
2 Kings 12 :3;
25:1-4. cf.
2 Kings 14: 2 f.,
5f. ; I Chron. 14:
3-7, cf. 2 Sam.
15 : 13-16 ; 20: I,
cf. 2 Sam. II : I.
I Chron. 5: 17.
I Chron. 16: 8-36,
cf. Pss. 105 : 1-
15; 96: 1-13;
106 :i, 47 f.
already in existence both within and outside of the Old
Testament writings, and notice his frequent references to
such sources, viz.: (i) a series of prophetic narratives,^ (a)
the "words of Nathan, the prophet;" (p) the "prophecy
of Ahijah, the Shilonite;" (c) the "visions of Iddo, the
seer;" (^) the "words of Iddo, the seer;" (e) the "mid-
rash of the prophet Iddo ;" (/) the "words of Shemaiah,
the prophet ;" {g) the " words of Jehu, the son of Hanani ;"
(//) " the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and last, did
Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz, write;" (/) the
" vision of Isaiah, the prophet, the son of Amoz ;" (y) the
" words of Hozai ;" {k) the " words of Samuel, the seer,
and of Gad, the seer;" (2) a set of court records, vari-
ously cited as {a) "the book of the kings of Israel;"
{b^ " the book of the kings of Judah and Israel ;" {c) " the
book of the kings of Israel and Judah ;" (^/) " the affairs
of the kings of Israel ;" (3) a similar record of the reign
of David; (4) a collection of lamentations; (5) "the
midrash of the book of the kings," which is perhaps
identical with the "book of the kings" cited under (2);
(6) the canonical books of Samuel and Kings must have
been known to the chronicler, and many passages indi-
cate a close relationship between the two; (7) ancient
genealogical lists; (8) collections of psalms.
In connection with an investigation of the sources,
the following general questions are to be considered :
Did the chronicler use any sources other than those used
by the compiler of Samuel and Kings ? Is the relation-
ship between Chronicles, on the one hand, and Samuel
and Kings, on the other, to be explained as due to {a)
direct borrowing of the former from the latter, or to {p)
the use of the same sources by both, or to [c] the use by
the chronicler of a work based upon the canonical books
of Samuel and Kings? What is the significance of the
name " midrash " applied to two of the above-mentioned
sources? How much material, if any, did the chronicler
himself contribute?
'It is probable, however, that these existed only as a part of the more compre-
hensive work cited under (2).
HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES
211
On the sources of Chronicles see, e. g., Barnes, op. cit., pp. xviii-
xxi ; Fr. Brown, op. cit., pp. 394 f.; Driver, Introduction, etc., pp
519 £f.; W. R. Smith and Driver, Encyclopcedia Biblica,No\. I, coll.
766 ff.; Benzinger, Die BUcker der Chronik, pp. x £f.; Kuenen,
Einleitung u. s. w., §§ 28-32; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews,
Vol. II, pp. 244-30.
§222. The Chronicler's Treatment of His Sources. —
This is most easily seen by means of a comparison
between Chronicles on the one hand and Samuel and
Kings on the other, (i) Note that some material appears
in both works in almost exactly the same form. Con-
sider the character of this material, {a) with reference to
its fitness for the chronicler's purpose, {b) as conveying
ideas that were in keeping with those represented by the
chronicler {cf. § 227). (2) Note the presence of some
material not found in Samuel and Kings. Consider {a)
the reason for its incorporation by the chronicler, {b) the
source whence it was derived, {c) the question of its his-
torical credibility. (3) Note the absence from Chronicles
of some material found in Samuel and Kings. Consider
the reason for its rejection by the chronicler as bearing
on the question of the purpose of the latter. (4) Note
that there are many cases in which the chronicler modi-
fies the material in Samuel and Kings in some degree,
sometimes condensing a narrative greatly, sometimes
expanding; at other times changing the significance of
an event, or magnifying the size of an army, or disre-
garding historical fact. Consider, with reference to such
cases, whether the divergence is to be explained {a) as
due to the greater faithfulness of one or the other com-
piler to the source whence the material was taken; or {b)
as demanded by the chronicler's more advanced concep-
tion of God ; or {c) as an outgrowth of the chronicler's
idea of the temple and the cultus ; or [d) as a result of
the different historical circumstances and influences
amid which the chronicler lived, as compared with the
times in which Samuel and Kings were edited ; or {e) as
due to other historical or theological influences.
§ 223. The Chronicler's Use of Genealogies. — Chron-
icles resembles P in its abundant use of genealogical
I Chron. 10: 1-12
{cf. I Sam.
31: 1-13) ; 11: 1-
9 (cf. 2 Sam. 5 :
1-3,6-10) ; 14:1-
16 {cf. 2 Sam.
5:11-25) ; chap.
17 {cf. 2 Sam.,
chap. 7) ;
2 Chron i : 14-
17 {cf. I Kings
10 : 26-29) ;
9 : 29 — 10 : 19 {cf.
I Kings 11:41—
12 : 19) ; etc.
1 Chron. 10: 13 f. ;
14: 17; chaps.
22-29; 2 Chron.
14:9-15;
24:20-22 ;
33 : 10-13 ; etc,
2 Sam. 5:4*- ;
II :2 — 12 ; 23 ;
13:1—14:33;
1 Kings, chaps.
17, 18, 19;
2 Kings 3 • I—
8: 15; chap. 10;
etc.
1 Chron. 13: 15 f.
{ef. 2 Sam.,
chap. 6) I
2 Chron. 5:4
{cf. I Kings
8:3) ; chap. 23
{cf. 2 Kings,
chap. II) ;
chap. 20 {cf. 2
Kings, chap. 3) ;
12 : 2^-8 {cf. I
Kings 14: 25!) ,
14: 5 and 17:6
{cf. I Kings
15: 14; 22; 43) ;
3:1-13 {cf.
1 Kings
6:1-3, 15-35);
8 : 12-16 {cf. I
Kings 9 : 25) ;
14:3-5 icf. I
Kings 15: 12) ;
16 : 12-14 ('■/■ I
Kings 15:233-
24a) ; 28: 5-15
(cf. 2 Kings
16: 5) ; 29: 3—
31 : 21 {cf. 2
Kings 18:4-73);
32 : 24-33 (<^/- a
Kings, chap.
20) ; 36 : 9 f . {cf
2 Kings 24:8-
17).
212 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I chron., chaps, lists. Note (i) that the period from Adam to the death
of Saul is merely outlined by a series of genealogies;
1 Chron., chaps. (2) the genealogical character of much of the material
23-27.
in the narrative of David's preparations for the building
2 Chron. 29:12- and care of the temple: (3) the emphasis placed upon
14; 31 : 11-19. 1 \- / i 1 1
genealogies of the priests and Levites. How is this use
of genealogies to be explained ? Why is so much care
taken in tracing the descent of priests and Levites ? Was
there any connection between this and the later Hebrew
law, which was very stringent in prohibiting the participa-
tion of foreigners and non-Levites in the conduct of the
temple worship ? Whence may we suppose that the
chronicler secured these long lists of names ? May
they be depended upon as historically accurate ?
§ 224. The Chronological and Statistical Character of
I Chron. 12: 23-37; Chronicles. — Note that, in addition to statistics given in the
29: 1-9; 2 Chron. '-'
2:i7f.; 15:11; narrative of Samuel and Kings, Chronicles states the
17 : II, 14-19;
25:5!.; 26 :u number of the Israelites who came to make David king
if.; 27: 6; 29: 17, ^
2i,32f.; 30:24; in Hebron; the value of the offerings made in David's
last days for the building of the temple ; the number of
"strangers" pressed into the work of building the
temple; the number of oxen and sheep sacrificed in one
day in the third month of the fifteenth year of Asa ; the
number of sheep and goats brought to Jehoshaphat as
tribute by the Arabians ; the number of soldiers in Jehosh-
aphat's standing army ; the number of the warriors of
Judah led forth by Amaziah to battle against Edom in
the valley of Salt; the size of Uzziah's standing army ;
the number of Judah's warriors slain by Pekah of Israel ;
the exact date of the cleansing of the temple in Heze-
kiah's reign ; the number of sheep, oxen, and goats
sacrificed in connection with this occasion; the dates of
Josiah's first steps toward religious reform ; and other
similar data, (i) Can any principle, or principles, be dis-
covered which will account for part or all of this statis-
tical information ? or (2) is it merely a characteristic of
the chronicler's literary style ? (3) What is the bearing
on this question of the fact that there are divergencies
between Chronicles and Kings in many cases where they
give figures for the same event ? {Cf. § 222, (4).)
34:3.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 213
§225. The Literary Style of Chronicles. — Consisting,
as it does, in large part of excerpts from earlier sources
which have been edited and supplemented by the editor
of Chronicles, may we expect to find the unity of style
that is manifest in a work that comes from one hand ?
Examine lists of the peculiarities of vocabulary and syn-
tax in Chronicles'* and read large portions of the book
with a view to determining {a) the style of the chroni"
cler as distinguished from that of the sources he uses ;
{b) the style of the chronicler as compared with that of
the prophetic narratives in J, E, Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, on the one hand, and with that of P, on the other.
Is the style seen to be involved, stiff, prosaic, repeti-
tious ?
§226. The Chronicler's Selection of Material. — If it
was not the aim of the chronicler to write a history, but
to use history in such a way as to illustrate and enforce
great ideas which he wished to present, should we not
expect to find that he selects and arranges his material
with a view to his purpose? Note that (i) he passes 2 Chron., chap.
10; II :i-4 :
over the history of northern Israel in silence, except in chap. 13; 16:1-
6; chap. 18;
a few places where the intimate relation of the two king- 20:35-37; 22:5-
9 ; 25 : 6 10, 17-
doms compels him to mention Israel; why? (2) that 24; 28:5-15;
he fails to mention the sins of David, Solomon, Heze-
kiah, and others who were interested in supporting the
temple and its worship; why? (3) that he emphasizes i chron., chaps.
the activities of these kings in behalf of the temple and 29:22';2Chron.
, 1 , , , chaps. 1-7; 17:
priesthood to such an extent as to make them appear 1-9; 19:4-11;
,., , ,. i->/\ii . 24 : 4-16 ; chaps
more like priests than kings; why? (4) that he assigns 29-31; 34:1—
the priests an essential part in the battle-array; why ?
(5) that the religious institutions are given an exceedingly i chron. 13:12.
large place as compared with the books of Samuel and i chron. 6:1-81;
Kings. What light do these and other similar facts shed 23-26; 2'cnron'
upon the nature of the purpose of Chronicles? Is it 2 kings
23 : 21 ff.) ;
not a church history rather than a history of the chaps. 29-31 (c/.
2Kingsi8:4).
nation ?
§227. The Religion of the Chronicler.— Note (1) ' fj':2°°5'^8:i2'f.;
that the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all 21 •^29: 12*36;^"
etc.
^See, e. g., Driver, Introduction, etc., pp. 535-40; Fr. Brown, Hastings's
Dictionary 0/ the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 389 ff.
214
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 Chron. 21 rs;
2 Chron. 17: 14-19;
25:5; 36:11 if. ;
2 Chron. 27:6;
33:11-13;
31 : 21 ; 13: 11;
17:4 f.; 26: 5.
1 Chron. 10: 13 f.;
2 Chron. 25 :2o;
24:24f. ; 28:5
ff.,19: 26: i5ff. ;
21 : 12 ff.
2 Chron. 13: 15,
18; 26:5; 16:7,
12.
1 Chron. 28:9;
2 Chron. 14 : 11 ;
5 : 22, 26 ; 16 :9.
2 Chron. 30:9,
18 f.
a Chron. 30:19.
2 Chron., chaps.
23-28; 2 Chron.,
chaps. 3, 4.
I Chron. 14: 17; a
Chron. i : 14-17;
17: 10-19; 32:
33. 27-3 I-
See,e.^.,i Chron.
chaps. 13, 15,
16, 17; 21: 18—
29: 22.
2 Chron. 7: 5; 13
3; 17: 10-19; 25
11-13 ; 27: 6, 8
etc.
2 Chron. 8:2;
21 : 12 (c/.
2 Kings 3; II ;
8:16).
matters of ritual and worship ; (2) that the most religious
kings are represented as the mightiest, David having
more than a million and a half of soldiers, Jehoshaphat
over a million, Asa more than half a million, Amaziah
and Uzziah only 300,000, Rehoboam only 180,000; (3)
that prosperity is declared to be due to faithfulness to
Jehovah and his worship as conducted at the temple ;
(4) that disaster is declared to be due to sin in abandon-
ing Jehovah or his worship ; (5) that Jehovah is the only
and all-sufficient source of help and deliverance ; (6)
that Jehovah is omnipotent and omniscient ; (7) that
Jehovah is merciful and good, ever ready to pardon the
penitent ; (8) that, though great emphasis is laid upon
ritual, the spirit of an act is recognized as more impor-
tant than the form.
§228. The Idealistic Character of Chronicles. — Recall
(i) that there is silence as to the great sins of David and
other religious leaders (see § 222 (3)) ; (2) that the Mo-
saic system as it existed in the chronicler's day is repre-
sented as in full operation in the times of David and
Solomon ; (3) that the splendor and power of the king-
dom in the days of David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Heze-
kiah, and others are rather a reflection of the greatness
of the Persian empire, with which the chronicler was
familiar, than a representation of the actual state of
affairs ; (4) that a disproportionate prominence is given
to matters of temple and ritual in the early days of the
kingdom ; (5) that there is a tendency to use extraordi-
narily large numbers in calculations and estimates ; (6)
that occasionally he changes the natural course of histori-
cal events, e. g., representing Hiram of Tyre as giving
cities to Solomon, though the book of Kings states that
the cities were given to Hiram by Solomon in payment for
assistance rendered by Hiram in the work of building the
temple ; and Elijah as writing a message to King Jeho-
ram, although Elijah had been dead for some time. How
may these things be most satisfactorily explained ? Are
they due merely to a lack of historical perspective ? Can
they be accounted for as necessary to the accomplishment
of the chronicler's purpose ? Is there a sense in which
HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 21 5
they represent a larger truth than could be imparted by a
statement of bare fact ? In other words, can these rep-
resentations be regarded as ideally true, if not literally ?
§ 229. Literature to be Consulted.
EwALD, History of Israel (1843, 3d ed. 1864, transl. 1883), Vol, I, pp. 169 ff.;
C. F. Keil, The Books of Chronicles (1870, transl. 1872); ZoCKLER-MURPHY, The
Books of Chronicles (Lange's "Commentary," 1874); W. R. Smith, art. "Chronicles,'
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1876) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel
(1878, 5th ed. 1899, transl. 1885), pp. 171-227; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the
Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 140 ff., 182 ff.; Ball, Chronicles (Ellicott's
"Commentary for English Readers," 1883); Wildeboer, Origin of the Cation of the
Old Testament (1891, transl. 1895), see Index; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the
Literature of the Old Testament (1891,6th ed. 1897), pp. 516-40; Kittel, i¥w^O'
of the Hebrews, Vol. II (1892, transl. 1896), pp. 224-9 ; J. Robertson, Book by Book
(1892), pp. 111-19; Jennings, "Chronicles," The Thinker, July, Sept., Nov., 1892;
Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament (1892), pp. 138 f., 145, 151, 162; MONTEFIORE,
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892), pp. 447 ff., 454, 483;
Renan, History of the People of Israel, from the Rule of the Persians to That of the
Greeks (1893, transl. 1895), pp. I5iff. ; W. H. Bennett, The Books of Chronicles
("Expositor's Bible," 1894); Gm\i-LY.%-\o'!:i-^, Deuterographs {\%qi,), passim; Driver,
"The Speeches in Chronicles," Expositor, Apr. and Oct., 1895; G. B. Gray, Studies
in Hebrew Proper Names (1896), chap, iii; Kautzsch, Att Outline of the History of the
Literature of the Old Testament {i^gb, transl. 1899), pp. I2I-8; W. E. Barnes, "The
Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," American Journal of Semitic Languages and
Literatures, Vol. XIII (1896-97), pp. 14-20 ; Idem, An Apparatus Criticus to Chroni-
cles in the Peshitta Version (1897) ; Idem, "Chronicles a Targum," Expository Times,
Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 316 f.; Crockett, A Harmony of Samuel, Kings, and Chroni-
cles (1897); Fr. Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I
(1898); T. K. Chkyv^., Jewish Religious Life after the Exile {i?>g?,), sqq Index; T.
G, Scares, "The Import of the Chronicles as a Piece of Religio-Historical Litera-
ture," American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; W. R. SMITH AND
S. R. Driver, art. "Books of Chronicles," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); C. F.
Kent, History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods
(1899), pp. loi ff.; Barnes, The Books of Chronicles ("Cambridge Bible," 1899);
Beecher, "Is the Chronicler a Veracious Historian for the Post-Exilian Period?"
Bible Student, Oct., 1899, Jan. and Feb., 1900 ; HowLETT, " Wellhausen and the
Chronicler," Dublin Review, Apr., 1 900; Macmillan, "The Date of Chronicles,"
Presbyterian and Reformed Review, July, 1 900; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 270-85 ; R. Somervell, "The His-
torical Character of the Old Testament Narratives," Expository Times, April, 1902,
pp. 298-302.
De Wette, Kritischer Versuch iiber die Glaubwiirdigkeit d. Chron. ("Beitrage,"
Vol. I (1806)); C. P. W. GkA-TA^^KG, Die Chronik nach ihrem geschichtlichen Charak-
ter und ihrer Glaubwiirdigkeit gepriift (1823); C. F. Keil, Apologetischer Versuch
iiber die Bilcher der Chronik (1833); Movers, Kritische Untersuchungen Uber die
bibl. Chron. (1834); E. Bertheau, Die Bilcher der Chronik (" Kurzgefasstes exege-
tisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1854, 2d ed. 1873 ; 3d ed. by Ryssel, 1887) ;
2l6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
KUENEN, Historischkritisch Onderzoek (1861, 2d ed. 1887), §§28-32; Graf, Die
geschichtlichen Biicher des Allen Testaments (1866), pp. 114-247 ; De Wette-Schra-
DER, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1869), §§ 224-33 '. VVellhausen, De gentibus
et fatniliis Judaeis quae i Ch. s — 4 enumerantur (1870); Franz Delitzsch, "Die
Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift fiir lutherische
Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff. ; L. DiESTEL, "Die hebraische
Geschichtsschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theologie, Vol. XVIII (1873), PP-
365 ff.; Oettli, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzgefasster exegetischer Kommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1889); Riehu, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890),
pp. 316-28; C0RNII.I., Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 2d ed. 1896), §46;
BuDDE, " Vermutungen zum 'Midrasch' des Buches dtx Komgt," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 37 ff. ; H. WiNCKLER, Alttestamentliche
Untersuchungen (1892), pp. 157-67 (= " Bemerkungen zur Chronik als Geschichts-
quelle"); Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), PP- 269-76; WiLDEBOER,
De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893;
German transl. 1895), pp. 404-20 ; Klostermann, art. " Chronik," ^^a/ifwryy^/ci/af/zV
fiir prat. Theologie und Kirche, Vo\. IV (3d ed. 1898); 'B^.'SZlt^GTS.K, Die Biicher der
Chronik ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament" (1901); Baudissin, ^jm-
leitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 266-78 ; RoTHSTEiN, Die
Genealogie des Konigs Jojachim und seiner Nachkommen {/ Chron. 3 : iy-24) in
geschichtlicher Beleuchtung ( 1 902 ).
§230. Constructive "Work.
1. Make a minute comparison of 2 Chron. 2: i — 9:31 with i Kings
5:1 — 11:43, 3.nd (i) classify the variations which are found; (2)
explain the motive which may have led to the making of the change.
2. Make a similar comparison of the psalms found in i Chron.
16:8-36 with the form of these same psalms as they occur in the
Psalter, viz., Pss. 105: 1-15 ; 96: 1-13 ; 106: i, 47 f.
3. Study the classification of the sources of Chronicles as pre-
sented by Driver, viz.: ( i) the canonical books from Genesis to Kings ;
(2) the "book of the kings of Israel and Judah," which included the
prophetic writings referred to in 2 Chron. 20:34; 32:32 ; 33:19, and
possibly those mentioned in i Chron. 29 : 29 ; 2 Chron. 9: 29 ; 12:15;
(3) the "acts of Uzziah," 2 Chron. 26:22; (4) the " midrash of the
prophet Iddo," 2 Chron. 13:22; and (5) the " midrash of the book of
the kings" (2 Chron. 24: 27), unless this be identical with (2).
4. Study the classification of sources as given by Kautzsch, viz.:
(i) excerpts from canonical books of Samuel and Kings : i Chron.,
chaps. 1-9; 10:1-12; 11:1-9; 14: 1-17; 16 : 43 — 17 : 27; 2 Chron. 1:13
—3:1; 5:2-10; 5:13^—6:12; 6:14-39; 7:4,5,7,8; 7:17—8:1;
8:6-iidf/ 9:1-28; 9:30 — 11:4; 12:2a, qb-ii, i2)b; 12:15^ — 13:2;
13:23a!/ 15: 16-18; 18:3-34; 21:1; 24:1-2^/ 24:27^—25:4; 25:17-
20a, 21-26; 25:27^ — 26:4; 27 : i-2«, 3«/ 28:1-2^?, 3, 4; 29:1, 2;
32:33^ — 33:95 34:1,2; (2) similar excerpts which were edited by the
HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 21/
chronicler: i Chron. 13: 1-14 ; 15:25-29; 18:1 — 21:27; 2 Chron.
1:7-12 ; 3: 2—5: I ; 7: 11-16 ; 8:17 f.; 16: 1^-6 ; 20:31-33^/ 21:5-
loa/ 24:4-14; 26:21-23; 27:7-9; 32:9-21; 32: 24 ; 33:20-25 ;
34:8-32^!,- 35:18 f., 20b; 35:26 — 36:6^; 36:8(5-i2a/ (3) contribu-
tions of the chronicler himself and older sources which were thor-
oughly worked over by him into conformity with his own point of view:
1 Chron. 10: 13 f.; 1 1 : 10 — 12: 40 ; 15: 1-24; 16:1-42; 21:28 — 29:30;
2 Chron. 1 : 1-6; 5:ii-i3a/ 6:13; 6:40 — 7:3; 7:6, 9f.; 8:2-5,11^-
16 ; 9: 29; 11:5 — 12:1 ; 12: 2^-9^, 12, 13a, 14, 15a,- 13: 3-22 ; 13: 23^
— 15:15; 15 : 19— 16 : i^z/ 16:7—18:2; 19:1—20:30; 20:33/^-37;
21:2-4; 2i:io<^ — 23: 21; 24: 2^, 3, i5-27d;/ 25: 5-16, 20<5, 27^;/ 26:5-
20; 27:2(5, 3(5-6; 28:2^5, 5-25; 29:3 — 32:8; 32: 22 f., 25-33<:,- 33:10-19;
34:3-7; 34:32'^— 35:17 ; 35:20^,21-25; 36: 6(5-8rt, 12^-23.
5. Prepare an outline statement in which you will embody the
principal propositions (perhaps six or eight) which seem to hold good
concerning the contents, style, date, and character of the books of
Chronicles.
§ 231. Supplementary Topics.
1. Take up the question of genealogies in the Old Testament, and
consider (i) the extent to which they appear; (2) the form in which
they are given ; (3) the purpose, in each case, of the insertion ; (4)
the accuracy of the representation; (5) similar usage in other Semitic
literatures, especially Arabic.
See, e. g., E. L. Curtis, article " Genealogy," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap, i ; S. A. CoOK,
article "Genealogies," Encyc. Biblica; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 2-6;
Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeis quae i Ch. 2-4 enumerantur ; M.
Berlin, "Gershonite and Merarite Genealogies," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol.
XII (1900), pp. 291 ff.; McLennan, Studies in Attcient History, 2d series, chap. 9
( =r " Examples of Fabricated Genealogies" ) ; G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew
Proper Names, chap, iii ; Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Esra und Nehemia.
2. Consider the question of numbers in Chronicles, including (i) the
variations between Chronicles and the prophetic histories of Samuel
and Kings; (2) the motive for insertion; (3) the method of represen-
tation ; (4) the general accuracy.
See, e. g., Francis Brown, article " Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible, Vol. I, p. 394; T. G. Scares, American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill, pp.
264 f.; Benzinger, Chronik, p. ix.
3. Take up for study the lost books of Scripture which are cited in
Chronicles, and in connection with these (i) other lost books cited
elsewhere in Scripture, e. g., the book of Jashar ; (2) the character, in
general, of these books ; (3) the relation of these books to the canoni-
cal books. '
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE — THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.
§232. The Scope of the History in Ezra-Nehemiah. —
Ezrai:i-4. Notc that the narrative in these books (i) begins with
the decree of Cyrus permitting the exiled Jews to return
Neh. 13:6-30. from Babylon ; (2) closes with an account of the activi-
ties of Nehemiah during his second visit to Jerusalem ;
(3) covers a period, therefore, of about one hundred
years ; and (4) that comparatively few of the events
and movements belonging to this period are treated in
the history, much being passed over in silence.
Ezrai:5-n; a:i- Observe the order of presentation : (i) The account
70.
of the return gives the decree of Cyrus, a statement about
the gifts sent to the temple, and a long list of the names
of the returning exiles ; nothing being said of the journey
Ezra 3:1-4: 34. itself. Then follows (2) the account of the building of
an altar to Jehovah and of the attempt to rebuild the
temple; with (3) the story of the successful opposition
Ezras:!— 6:82. of the enemies of the Jews. (4) The next section
describes (a) the renewed effort to build the temple,
under the leadership of Haggai and Zechariah ; (d) the
renewed opposition on the part of the enemy and the
resulting correspondence with Darius ; (c) the comple-
tion of the work, and the festivities connected with the
Ezra 7 : 1—8 : 36. dedication of the restored temple. Then (5), passing
over in silence a period of about sixty years, the historian
gives the story of Ezra's visit to Jerusalem, including the
letter of authority given to him by Artaxerxes, a list of
the names of all who accompanied Ezra, and a list of
the presents sent up from Babylon for the temple. (6)
Ezra 9: 1— 10:44. The last section of the book of Ezra deals with Ezra's
efforts to put a stop to the marriages of Jews with for-
eigners, and gives much space to Ezra's prayer in refer-
ence to this subject, and to a list of the names of those
who had married foreign wives.
218
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 2ig
Notice that the book of Nehemiah (i) opens with Neh. in— a:8.
the account of Nehemiah's purpose to visit Jerusalem,
and his success in securing the sanction and the support
of Artaxerxes the king. Then follows (2) the narrative of Neh. 2:9-20.
Nehemiah's arrival at Jerusalem, his tour of inspection
made under cover of darkness, and his success in arousing
the citizens to repair the walls of the city. (3) At this point Neh. 3 : 1-32.
is inserted a list of those who engaged in the work, with
careful indication of the special portion performed by each
family or group ; together with a description of the efforts
of the Samaritans to hinder the work and the measures Neh. 4:1-23.
taken by Nehemiah to bring the plans of the Samaritans
to nought. Thereupon (4) comes a digression con- Neh. 5:1-19-
cerning Nehemiah's championship of the cause of the
oppressed debtors among the Jews, and his own policy of
refraining from levying upon the people for his support
as former governors had done. (5) The story of the Neh. 6:1— 7:4.
building of the walls is then continued by a recital of
various conspiracies made by the Samaritans against the
life and the influence of Nehemiah until the work of '
building was completed and the city was properly
guarded. (6) A list of those who had returned from Neh. 7 : 5-73 ; <:/.
'^ ^ ' Ezra 2: 1-70.
exile is next included, this list being a duplicate of one
given in Ezra. Upon this list follows (7) the account of Neh. 8:1-9:38.
Ezra's introduction of the law and of its adoption by
the people in public assembly. Then comes (8) a list Neh. 10:1-27; 10:
of those who signed the new covenant and an account of
the terms of the covenant itself, with still other lists of Neh. 11:1 -12: 26.
names. (9) A description of the ceremonies in connec- Neh. 12 : 27-43.
tion with the dedication of the wall is then given. (10)
To this are subjoined brief statements concerning the Neh. 12:44— 13:3.
provision made by Nehemiah for the support of the tem-
ple ministry and concerning the expulsion of foreigners.
The narrative closes (i i) with the reforms in the inter- Neh. 13:4-31.
ests of the temple and its ministry, sabbath observance,
and the prohibition of mixed marriages, carried through
by Nehemiah after his return from a visit to Babylon.
§ 233. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement, based upon a study
of the foregoing outline of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, concern-
ing the purpose of these narratives, as it appears (a) in the kind of
220 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
matter selected for treatment ; {b) in the relative amount of prominence
given to the various subjects; {c) in the places assigned respectively to
Ezra and to Nehemiah.
§234. The Unity of the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah. —
Consider the following facts: (i) Some most ancient
Jewish and early Christian writers speak of the book of
Ezra in such a way as to indicate that they include with
it the present book of Nehemiah.' (2) The old Jewish
commentators, e. g., Rashi and Aben Ezra, pass from
Ezra 10:44 to Neh. i :i without any break such as is
customary in passing from one book to another. (3)
The Massoretic notes attached to each book in the
Hebrew Bible are not found at the close of Ezra, but do
appear at the end of Nehemiah, and there give facts
showing that the Massoretes regarded Ezra-Nehemiah as
one book ; e. g., they declare Neh. 3 : 1 2 to be the middle
verse of this book. (4) The sections into which the
Hebrew text was divided by the Massoretes for use in
the synagogue service show that they thought of Ezra-
Nehemiah as a single book, one section being Ezra 8 : 35
— Neh. 2:1. (5) The two books are united in the Sep-
tuagint translation.
§235. Constructive "Work. — In the light of these facts, and the
additional fact that the two books treat the same period, are concerned
with the same general problems, and furnish much evidence pointing
to their having been edited by the same hand, formulate an extended
answer to the question ; Shall we consider the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah, now treated separately, as a single literary production?
See especially Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible"), pp. i-xiii.
§236. The Unity of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. —
3 Chron. 36 : 22 f . ; What is the significance of the following facts? (i) The
closing verses of Chronicles are repeated at the opening
of the book of Ezra. (2) Both works are compilations
from various sources (see §§ 221, 228). (3) Both give
especial prominence to genealogical lists (see §§223;
230, (i)). (4) The two works greatly resemble each
other in general literary style and in their vocabulary
(see §§225; 230,(4)). (5) The two exhibit the same
absorbing interest in matters relating to the temple and
'So, e. g., Talmud, Baba bathra, folio 14, c. 2; Melito, bishop of Sardis [ca. 180
A. D.), cited in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., IV, 26.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 221
its service; e. s;., id) grreat prominence is given to the Ezra3:8-i2;
, . ' * ' V / 6 V e« Neh.8:7-i3;
Levites, who are mentioned more than sixty times in cf. chron.
Ezra-Nehemiah and about one hundred times in Chroni-
cles ; {p) in both the musical service is emphasized; {c) ^"^s^iof. ;
in both prayer is highly esteemed, and hence is frequently 46 ; ^A Chron.
placed in the mouths of Israel's great leaders; {d) Neh 1:4; 4 9;
relififious festivals and ceremonies are described in detail Ezra 6: 19-22,
° Neh. 12: 27-43,
by both ; (e) the porters are mentioned as a part of the cA2Ciiron.,
temple staff nowhere except in Ezra-Nehemiah and Ezra 2:42; Neh.
^ ^ 12:25,45,47;
Chronicles, in which books they are often so spoken of ; '/• Chron.
(/) the Nethinim, mentioned frequently in Ezra-Nehe- Ezra7:7; 817;
miah, are mentioned in no other book except Chronicles; io:28;'<r/.'
(6) Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles come from the same
period (see §§220, 227); (7) Ezra-Nehemiah takes up
the history at the point where it stops in Chronicles and
continues it until the building of the second temple is
narrated, the two books, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah,
thus constituting a history of the temple and its worship
from the time of the building of Solomon's temple until
the restoration of worship in the days of Ezra and
Nehemiah.
See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and A^eheniiah, pp. xxvi ff.; Reuss, Das
Alte Testament, pp. 8 £f.; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p.
285; TiKiVKK, Introduction, etc., pp. 516 f.; Sayce, Introduction to
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther, pp. 29 f.; cf. Higher Criticism and the
Verdict of the Monuments, pp. 537 f., 548.
§237. Constructive "Work. — Prepare a statement discussing the
explanation of these facts, whether (i) by the supposition that the two
editors, working in the same period and upon the same subjects and
with the same interests, used the same methods and arrived at similar
results; or (2) by the supposition that the two books are really one,
being the product of the same editor's labors.
§ 238. The Date of Ezra-Nehemiah (cf. § 220). — Note
(i) the use of the expression "the days of Nehemiah;" Neh. 12:26, 47-
does the writer not seem to regard these days as long
past? (2) the use of the title "king of Persia," in view Ezra i: if., 8;
of the fact that contemporary sources when speaking of 24; 6:14; 7:1.
Persian monarchs use simply "the king;" does not this Hag. 1:1,15;
T^ • / . . , . , , Zech. 7:1; Ezra
suggest that the Persian dominion was a thing of the 7:27!.; 8:1,22,
past in the writer's time? the words "of Persia" would i:ii;'2: i ff'.;
5:4, 14 ; 6 ; 7 J
be superfluous while the Persian empire was supreme, 13:6.
222 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh. 12:10 f., 22 ; but entirely appropriate after its overthrow; (t.) the
f/. 13:4, 28; 1
josephus, An- reference to Jaddua, the high-priest, who lived three
tiguities, XI, . t^ , , , ,
vii, 8. generations later than Eliashib, the contemporary of
Nehemiah ; this points to a time as late as the days
of Alexander the Great for Jaddua, and the phrase
" the days of Jaddua," would seem to indicate that the
Weh. ia:22. priesthood of Jaddua was now long past; (4) the refer-
ence to " the reign of Darius, the Persian," as a period
some time past; it is generally agreed that the king
referred to is Darius Codomannus, 336-332 B. C; (5)
Neh. 12:23. the reference to "the book of the chronicles" which is
said to have contained the register of the Levites as far
down as the high-priesthood of Johanan, the son of
Ezra 4: 6-23; Eliashib; (6) the treatment of the sources, which is such
7:1-10; etc. ' \ '
as no contemporary historian would have ventured {cf.
§ 229).
§239. Constructive Work. — Discuss the significance of the preced-
ing facts; and determine whether they point (i) to the work of a later
editor, Avho inserted all these allusions to late history in a book that
had been written at an earlier period, or (2) to the probability that
the book as a whole was not compiled and edited until a time some-
where about 300 B. C.
See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xxiii ff.; Driver, Introduction, etc.,
p. 545 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die BUcher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 266 ff.
§ 240. The Sources of Ezra-Nehemiah. — In support of
the position that Ezra-Nehemiah is the work of an editor
who compiled largely from existing sources, consider (i)
Ezra 2:1; 5:1; the many cases of abrupt transition from one topic or
7:1; 9:1; Neh. . . , -^ , ^, , . , . , .
1:1; 7:73*/ incident to another, an abruptness which is natural m a
12 * 27 " I*? ' 4
work made up of extracts from older works placed side by
side, but hard to account for in a work all of which origi-
nated from the same hand ; (2) the frequent change from
the third to the first person, and vice versa, in closely
related sections of the work, without any indication of
Ezra4:8— 6:18; reason for the change; (3) the presence of two large sec-
7: 12-26. ...,.., ,
tions written m Aramaic, without any apparent reason for
Neh. 7:6-73; 11: the change of speech ; (4) the presence of lists of names
3-36; 12:1-26. , . , , , ■ , 1
which have no close connection with the context to
Ezra2:2;3:2; which they belong ; (5) the use of important names in
Neh. 12:22,32. such a way as to imply that they had occurred in some
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 223
previous context from which they are now severed ; (6)
the marked differences in style and language appearing
in various parts of the narrative ; (7) the fact that all the
other historical books of the Old Testament are com-
pilations; for the book of Chronicles especially see
§ 221; (8) the allusion to the "books of the chronicles," Neh. 12:23.
apparently a temple-register from which the editor
obtained some materials.
As materials which the editor seems to have derived
from earlier sources may be noted (i) the decree of Ezra 1:1-4,
Cyrus permitting the exiles to return home; (2) the Ezra 4 : 7-16 ; 4 :
Aramaic sections containing (a) the letter sent by the 6: 18;' 7: 12-26.
Jews' enemies to Artaxerxes; (d) the king's reply; (c)
the account of the building of the temple in the days of
Haggai and Zechariah, with certain letters that passed
between Jerusalem and Babylon with reference to it ;
(d) the firman of Artaxerxes endowing Ezra with such
authority as he desired; (i) various lists, including (a) Ezra 1:9-11;
■' / X & V / Ezra2:i-7oand
the vessels of the temple; (d) the Tews who came back Neh. 7:6-73;
^ , s Ezra 10 : 20-44 ;
from exile with Zerubbabel ; (c) the men who married Neh., chap. 3;
10: 1-27; II :3-
foreign wives; [d) the builders of the wall; (<r) the 36; 12:1-26.
signers of the covenant ; (/) the dwellers in Jerusalem
and in other cities ; (g) the priests and Levites ; (4) the Neh. T.mb—
account of the adoption of the law and the new covenant "'■^^"
in the time of Nehemiah ; (5) certain portions of the Ezra 7 : 27— 8 : 34 ;
narrative which use the first person and seem to have ^ i-is-
belonged to the memoirs of Ezra; (6) similar sections Neh., chaps. 1-6;
which seem to have been taken from the memoirs of 43^ is^-s*."^^
Nehemiah.
§ 241. The Treatment of the Sources in Ezra-Nehemiah.
— Consider (i) the form of the decree of Cyrus with Ezra i : 2 ff . ; <r/.
6; 3 ff,
reference to the return of the exiles as it is given in two
different places in Ezra, and note the differences in
phraseology and contents ; is it probable that there were
two copies of the decree in existence differing so much
as these, or is it more natural to ascribe the variations to
the hand of the editor? (2) the fact that a large section Neh., chaps. 8-10;
/■ TVT , • 1 11 , ■ r -^ '^f- Ezra, chaps.
of Nehemiah appears to belong to the memoirs of Ezra, 7-10.
being closely connected with them in the period with
which they deal, in tone, and in phraseology; (3) the Ezra, chaps. 4-6 ;
Neh., chaps,
fact that the opposition of the Samaritans to the Jewish 4,6.
224 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
community is all crowded together at the beginning of
the narrative, though, as a matter of fact, the dates given
show that this opposition extended over a period of
about eighty years and grew more and more bitter ; (4)
Ezras:!— 3:11,- the fact that there are more than one hundred variations
cf. Neh. 7:6-73. . ^ . , ^, 111-.. J •
in two copies of the same genealogical list, and, in par-
ticular, that the numbers differ oftener than they agree.
Consider further (5) the evidence pointing to the
conclusion that Ezra's expedition x^dWy followed \\i2X of
Nehemiah instead of preceding it, as the editor's narrative
reads; e. g., (a) Nehemiah's memoirs make no allusion to
any previous work of Ezra ; (d) those who came back with
Ezra seem to have taken no part in the rebuilding of the
walls, as they certainly would have done had they been
Neh. 13:25; <^/- present ; (c) Ezra's measures, especially with reference to
Ezra, chap. 10. ^ ^ ' "^
intermarriage, all seem more decisive than those of Nehe-
miah, which have the appearance of being tentative; (d)
the fact that, according to the editor's narrative, Ezra's
law was not promulgated until after the arrival of Nehe-
miah, and that no explanation of this long delay is
Ezra 9:9. offered by the editor; (e) the fact that Ezra gives thanks
to Jehovah that the walls have been rebuilt at a time
when Nehemiah, the builder of the walls, had not yet
appeared on the scene, according to the editor's narrative.
What motive could have led to such a rearrangement of
the documentary sources? Is it sufficient to say that it
was for the purpose of giving Ezra, the priest, precedence
over Nehemiah, the layman?
§ 242. The Style of Ezra-Nehemiah. — As indicative of
Ezra chap 2; ^^^ editor's tastes and interests note (i ) the large amount
^■'ncIi 3°'i-32- °^ genealogical ma.tena.\ he incorporates into his narrative,
7:8-65; 10:1- p^ivinsr lists of those who took part in the first return
27; 11: 3 — 13:20. 00 ^
from exile, of those who helped build the wall, of those
Ezra 1 : 10 1; who dwelt in Jerusalem, etc., etc.; (2) the similar fond-
i8?V^22;^8:^ ness for statistical statements, as evidenced in connection
f^' 35;. ^fee^s. with the above lists and on every other possible occasion ;
Ezra 1:1; 3:1,6, (3) the numerous chronological data with which his work
\'^yr\',''^-%\^' abounds. In connection with these characteristics,
i6f!;"Neh°i?i; recall the similar features seen to have been character-
gJl^'y.s-'.V:, istic of the books of Chronicles (see §§ 223, 224). Con-
f.^,i3,i7t;9:i; sider (4) the style of the editor's own contributions to
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 225
the work as distinguished from the style of the sources
used by him.
§243. Constructive Work. — Examine lists of phrases and words
peculiar to the various sources, and read each source separately, as far
as possible, in order that its literary style may impress itself upon your
mind. Then treat the editor's own contribution in the same way, and
compare its style with that of the editorial contributions to the books
of Chronicles, with a view to the light that may be thrown by such a
comparison upon the question of the unity of Chronicles, Ezra, and
Nehemiah.
See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xviii f., xxviii f.; Driver, Introdtir-
tion, etc., pp. 546 ff., 553 ; Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren,
insbesondere zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (1899).
§244. The Religion of Ezra-Nehemiah. — If Ezra-Nehe-
miah is the result of a compiler's work, the religious
interests of the compiler must be looked for in three
directions: (i) the nature of the subjects he selects for
treatment; (2) the relative prominence given by him to
various matters ; (3) the religious tone of the material
contributed by himself. In reference to (i) it maybe Neh. 12:27-43;
, , , 1 • 1 1 1 r 1 . • 1 Ezra, chaps. 9,
noted that the subjects treated are all of a religious char- 10.
acter, such matters as are not in themselves distinctively
religious being given a religious interpretation, e. g.,
the building of the walls and the movement against inter-
marriaeres with foreie^ners. As to (2) we may note the Ezrai:3-ti; 2:
. . , , J ■ rr ■ ,. 68ff.;chap.3;
great prominence given to the temple and its affairs, the Neh. 3:4-14;
. ... . Ezra 6: 16-22;
important place in the community assigned to priests Neh. 12:27-47;
, -r • 111 r" -1 1 Ezra 2: 40-63;
and Levites, and the large amount of attention bestowed 3:8-10,12; 7:7,
r ■ 1 1 • • f 1- • 11-13. 24; 8:15-
upon matters of ritual, descriptions of religious cere- ao; io:i8ff. ;
111-, ^ . / \ , 1 Neh. 12:1-26.
monies, and the like. Concerning (3) we observe the Ezra 6: 16-22;
1 . 1 . . 1 T , 1 11 T- i-io; 8: 35f. ;
priestly interest dominant m the editor s work, and that Neh. 12:44-47;
the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all matters of
ritual and worship.
In general, is there any appreciable difference be-
tween the religious ideals and feelings of the editor of
Ezra-Nehemiah and those of the Chronicler {cf. § 227)?
If not, is not this a strong indication of the unity of
Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles?
§ 245. Literature to be Consulted.
F. W. SCHULZ, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (Lange's "Commentary on the
Holy Scriptures," 1876, transl. 1877); Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. I (1843, 3"^ ^d.
226 PRIESTLY FLEMENT IN THE CLD TESTAMENT
1864, transl. 1883), pp. 169-96; Keil. Commentary on (he Books of Ezra, Nehemiah
and Esther (1870, transl. 1879); D. H. Haigk, ' Coincidence of the History of Ezra
with the First Part of the History of Nehemiah," Transactions of the Society of Biblical
Archceology, Vol. II (1873), pp. I10-13; J. S. Black, articles on "Ezra" and "Books
of Ezra and Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VIII (1878); W. R. Smith,
The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 42 f. ; Geo.
Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah (" Pulpit Commentary," 1881) ; KUENEN, National
Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 323-7 (on "Ezra
and the Establishment of Judaism") ; A. H. Sayce, An Introduction to the Books of
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885, 3d ed. 1893); MARCUS DoDS, "Ezra" and "Nehe-
miah," Expositor, 3d series, Vol. VI (1887), pp. 53-64, 287-97 ; P- H. Hunter, After
the Exile, Vol. II (1890); G. Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah, Their Lives and Times
("Men of the Bible " series, 1890); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old
Testament (ist ed. 1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 540-54 ; W. F. Adeney, Ezra, Nehemiah
and Esther ( 1 893); Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893),
pp. 537-53; A. C. Hervey, "The Chronology of Ezra II and IV, 6-23," Expositor,
June, 1893, pp. 431-43; July, 1893, pp. 50-63; H. E. Ryle, The Books of Ezra and
Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible," 1893); G. S. Goodspeed, "Ezra and Nehemiah,"
Biblical World, Vol. 1 (1893), pp. 40-48, 208-19; H. HowoRTH, The Academy, 1893,
Jan. 7, pp. 13 f.; Jan. 21, p. 60; Feb. 4, p. 106; Feb. 25, pp. 174 f.; April 15, pp. 326 f.;
June 17, p. 524; July 22, pp. 73 f.; Sept. 16, pp. 233 f. ; Idem, "A Criticism of the
Sources and Relative Importance and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the
Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras I," Transactions of the Ninth International Con-
gress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), pp. 68-85; C. C. Torrey, The Composition and
Historical Value of Ezra-N'ehemiah ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fUr die alttestament-
liche Wissenschaft," II, 1896); Kautzsch, The Literature of the Old Testament (i^qb,
transl. 1899), pp. 121-8; J. A. Selbie, "Van Hoonacker on Israel's Return from
Exile," Expository Times, Vol. VII (1897), pp. 71-3; Idem, "Israel's Return from
Exile," ibid., pp. 320-22; Idem, " Ezra-Nehemiah," ibid., pp. 509-11; Idem, "Kosters
on Israel's Return from Exile," ibid.. Vol. IX, pp. 66-8 ; A. R. S. Kennedy, " Did
the Jews Return under Cyrus ?" ibid., Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 268-71; Van Hoonacker,
"The Return of the Jews under Cyrus," ibid.. Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 351-4 ; Cheyne,
^ Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), pp. 36-8 1; Idem, "The Times of Ezra
V^ and Nehemiah," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 238-50; N. Schmidt, "Nehe-
miah and His Work," ibid., Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 329-43 ; L. W. Batten, art. "Ezra
and Nehemiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. F. Kent, A
History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian attd Greek Periods (1899),
pp. 126-36, 167-214 ; J. O. Boyd, " The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, 1900, pp. 414-37; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro-
phetic and Priestly Historians {igoi),^^. 2)i^~M'> Cheyne, "From Isaiah to Ezra,"
American Journal of Theology, 1 90 1, pp. 433-41; Kosters AND Cheyne, art. "E^ra-
Nehemiah," Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901) ; Guthe and Batten, The Books of
Ezra and Nehemiah — Critical Edition of the Hebrew Text, etc. ("Polychrome Bible,"
1901); J. W. Harper, The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther ("The Temple
Bible," 1902).
Kleinert, in Beitrage zu den theologischen Wissenschaften von den Professoren
zu Dorpat, Band I (1832), pp. 1-304 (on origin, structure, and date of Ezra-Nehe-
miah) ;. Keil, Apologetischer Versuch iiber die Biicher der Chronik und iiber die
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 227
Integritdt des Buches Ezra (1833); Kuenen, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar het
Onistaan en de Verzatneling van de Boeken des Oitden Verbonds, Vol. II (1861, 2d ed.
1887, German transl. 1892), pp. 103-83; Schrader, "Die Dauer des zweiten Tempel-
baues. Zugleich ein Kritik des Buches Ezra," Theologische Studien und Kritiken,
1867, pp. 460-504; Margraf, " Zur Aufhellung der nachexilischen Chronologie,"
Theolog. Quartalsckrift, 1870, pp. 567 ff.; DE Saulcy, Etude chronologique des livres
d'Esdras et de Nehemie (1868); BoHME, Nehemia 1-6 (1871); Franz Delitzsch,
"Der Esra der Uberlieferung und der Esra der neuesten Pentateuch-Kritik," Zeit-
schrift fur die gesamte lutherische Theologie u. Kirche, Vol. XXXVIII (1877); J.
Halevy, "Esdras et le code sacerdotal," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. IV
(1877); Eb. Nestle, "Zum Frage nach der urspriingliche Einheit der Biicher Chronik,
Esra und Nehemia," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1879, pp. I55~2i; Smend,
Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia {\%%\); A. RoSENZWElG, Das Jahrhundert
nach dent babylonischen Exit mil besonderer Riicksicht auf die religiose Entivicklung
des Judentums (1885); J. Halevy, "Esdras a-t-il promulgue une loi nouvelle?" Revue
de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XII (1885); KuENEN, " L'oeuvre d'Esdras," ibid.. Vol.
XIII (1886), pp. 334-58 (German transl. by K. Budde in Gesammelte Abhandlungen
zur biblischen Wissenschaft von Dr. Abraham Kuenen (1894), pp. 370-91); Bleek-
Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 205-22 ; Ber-
theau-Ryssel, Die Biicher Esra-Nehemia und Esther erkldrt (" Kurzgefasstes
exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1887); Ryssel, " Die Anfange der
jiidischen Schriftgelehrsamkeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1887, pp. 149-82;
Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 95-193; Oettli, Ezra und
Nehemia (Strack und Zockler's " Kurzgefasste Kommentar," 1889); Riehm, Ein-
leitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 329-38 ; Van Hoonacker, Nehanie
et Esdras. Une nouvelle hypothise sur la chronologie de Pepoque de la restauration
(1890) ; Kuenen, " De Chronologie van het Perzische Tijdvak der Joodsche Geschie-
denis," Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akadetnie van Wetensc happen,
Afdeeling Letterkunde, Amsterdam, 1890, pp. 273-322 (German transl. by K. Budde,
in Gesammelte AbhandlungeJi u. s.tv. (1894), PP- 212-51); CoRNiLL, Einleitung in
das Alte Testament {ii()i, 3d ed. 1896), §45 ; Van Hoonacker, Zorobabel et le second
temple: etude sur la chronologie des six premiers chapitres du livre d^ Esdras (1892) ;
Idem, Nehemie en Van 20 d^Artaxerxh I, Esdras en Pan 7 d'Artaxerxes J/ {iSg2);
Zui>:z, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge derjuden (1892), pp. 20-31; Yi.b'HiG, Einleitung
in das Alte Testatnent (1893), PP- 276-85 ; Ch. Huyghe, " La chronologie des livres
d'Esdras et de Nehemie," Revue des questions historiques, 1893; Wildeboer, De
Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German
transl. 1895), pp. 404-20; KOSTERS, Het Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak
(1894, German transl. 1895); Lagrange, "Nehemie et Esdras," Revue biblique, Oct.
1894; Wellhausen, "Die Riickkehr der Juden aus dem babylonischen Exil," Nach-
richten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft zu Gbttingen, 1895, PP- 166-86;
Kosters, "Het Tijdvak van Israels Herstel," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1895, pp.
549-57; 1896, pp. 489-504; 1897, pp. 518-54; Fl. de Moor, "L'epoque de la
restauration juive d'aprfes les livres d'Esdras et de Nehemie," Science catholique,
1895 ; Van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes sur la restauration juive apris Pexil
de Babylone (1896); Ed, Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896); Well-
hausen, Gottingischer gelehrter Anzeiger, 1897, No. 2, pp. 89 £f. (review of Meyer's
Entstehung des Judenthums); Ed. Meyer, J. Wellhausen und meine Schrift, "Die
228 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Entstehung des Judenthums" (1897); J. Marquart, Fundamente israditischer und
jiidischer Geschichte (1897), pp. 28-68; Seli.in, Serubbabel — ein Beitrag zttr
Geschichte der messianischen Erwartung und der Entsiekung des Judenthums {\^()^),
pp. 48-61 ; Klostermann, art. "Esra und Nehemia," Realencyklopcedie fiir prot.
Theol. u. Kirche, Vol. V (3d ed. 1898) ; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899),
pp. 245-60; J. Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren insbesondere
zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (i^iqg); MouLTON, " Uber die
ijberlieferung und den textkritischen Werth des dritten Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 209-58 ; Vol. XX (1900), pp.
1-35; Winckler, "Die Zeit der Herstellung ]\id2LS,'" Altorientalische Forschungen,
zvveite Reihe, Band II (1899), pp. 210-27 ; Idem, "Die Zeit von Ezras Ankunft in
Jerusalem," z(5za'., pp. 241-4 ; Idem, "Die doppelte Darstellung in Ezra-Nehemia,"
ibid.. Band III (1901), pp. 458-89; NiKEL, Die Wiederherstellung des jiidischen
Gemeinwesens nach dem babylonischen Exi/ (igoo) ; C. Siegfried, Esra, Nehemia und
Esther iibersetzt und erkldrt {" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1 901); Sellin,
Studien zur Entstehtingsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde, Band II (190 1 ); Baudissin,
Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 264-6, 279-300 ; Bertho-
LET, Die Biicher Esra und Nehemia erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten
Testament," 1902) ; Carl Holzhey, Die Biicher Ezra und Nehemia. Untersuchung
ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen Charakters (1902).
§ 246. Supplementary Topics.
1 . Make a careful comparison of the parallel passages, Ezra 2 : i — 3 wa
and Neh. 7:6—23, noting and classifying the variations in the two lists.
2. Analyze Ezra-Nehemiah carefully, with a view to determining
for yourself the sources of the various materials of which it is com-
posed and the historical value of the narrative as it has been presented
by the editor.
Cf. especially Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah ;
Guthe, ^zra and Nehemiah ("Polychrome Bible," 1901); Siegfried, ^5r«, A^ehe-
mia und Esther ("Handkommentar z, A. T."), pp. 7-14 ; Kosters, Het Herstel van
Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak (1894, Germ, transl. 1895); Carl Holzhey, /?/<•
Biicher Ezra und Nehemia; Untersuchung ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen
Charakters {i()02) ; Meyer, Z'zV Entstehung des Judenthums; Schrader, Theologi-
sche Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460-504 ; Van Hoonacker, N^ehemie et Esdras;
J. O. Boyd, "The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian and Reformed
Review, 1900, pp. 414-37.
3. Compare the canonical book of Ezra with the apocryphal book,
Esdras I, noting (i) the materials common to both, (2) the materials
peculiar to each ; and consider the relative value of each as historical
sources.
See, e.g., H. Howorth, "A Criticism of the Sources and Relative Importance
and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras
I," Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), pp.
68-85 ; MoULTON, " ijber die ijberlieferung und den text-kritischen Werth des dritten
Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX, pp. 209-58 ;
HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 229
XX, 1-35 ; Bertholet, Esra und Nehemia, p. xvi ; SIEGFRIED, Esra, Nehemia
und Esther, pp. 14 f.
4. Study the contents of the numerous genealogical lists in Ezra-
Nehemiah from the point of view of (i) their origin, (2) their historical
value, (3) their purpose.
See Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881).
5. Study the descriptions of priestly ceremonies, and customs, the
provision made for the support of the temple and its ministry, and all
other references to laws and usages of worship, and note the points of
contact with the codes of worship, with a view to determining which
stratum of laws is reflected by the narrative of Ezra-Nehemiah.
6. Consider the fact that certain portions of Ezra-Nehemiah are
written in Aramaic, and the best explanation of this fact. In this con-
nection study the significance of the presence of an Aramaic section in
the book of Daniel.
See, e. g., Bertholet, op. cit., p. xv; Siegfried, op. cit., p. 7 ; Ryle, op. cit., p.
XX ; Baudissin, Einleitung, p. 283. On Daniel see the commentaries by Driver,
Marti, Behrmann, Bevan, and Prince.
Paet Sixth
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HYMNAL
LITERATURE
XVIIL The Priestly Element in the Psalter.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE — THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE PSALTER.
§ 247. The Scope of the Priestly Element in the Psalter. — The Psalter
was used in the ritual of worship. But more than this ; a consider-
able portion of it had its origin in connection with such ritual. It
was, therefore, very largely a result, directly or indirectly, of the
priestly activity. Its outward form (§ 259) shows many peculiarities
which are distinctly priestly. It abounds in allusions (§§ 261 ff.) to the
priest, the place of worship, feasts, etc. Its principal contents consist
of prayers and songs of praise (§§ 265 f.), that is, material intended for
use in worship. Much of the composition, although by no means all,
may, indeed, be attributed to priests, or guilds of priests.
§ 248. Other Elements than the Priestly occupy a large
place in the Psalter. This is due to the fact that at the
late period in Hebrew history in which the Psalter finally
took on its present form the work of the prophets for
the most part had been concluded ; the work also of the
sage had taken strong hold upon the people, and conse-
quently much of the teaching of both these classes had
been absorbed into the general thought and opinion of
the times. Accordingly, we may be prepared to find in Pss. 15,19,32,46,
this collection a very large prophetic element, and a
smaller amount of the wisdom material. At the same
time, it may fairly be claimed that the priestly element
dominates ; for in fact, the Psalter has shown itself to be
the greatest help to worship that history has known.
§249. Constructive Study. — Take up Pss. 72-99, and Pss. 72-99.
distinguish each as predominantly prophetic, priestly, or
philosophic (that is, as exhibiting the wisdom element).
§ 250. Many Important Problems present themselves to the student
of the Psalter ; most of these require at least a tentative solution before
the more general questions can be satisfactorily considered. Among
such problems are the following :
I. Are the superscriptions, of which so many are found in the
Psalter, a part of the psalm in each case, and consequently authorita-
233
234 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
tive ? Or are they from a much later date, and consequently to be
treated only as editorial and unauthoritative suggestions ?
2. May we expect to find, in connection with each of the psalms, a
historical background, similar to that which, in recent years, has been
emphasized so strongly in connection with the sermons of prophets,
and the different codes of legislation ?
■3. Did David really write all the psalms attributed to him, or any
considerable portion of them ? Is it reasonable any longer to suppose
that any of the psalms in this collection come from so early a period
as the reign of David ?
4. Is the " I " which plays so important a part in the psalms an
individual, or is it a personification of the Israelitish community?
5. Are there psalms in the Psalter which come from as late a date
as the times of the Maccabees, /. e., 168 to 161 B. C?
6. To what extent may it be supposed that editorial work has been
done on the collection as a whole, and in connection with individual
psalms ?
§ 251. Of "What Authority Are the Superscriptions? —
In answering this question, consider —
Pss. II, 13, 14. 15, I. Xhe form and content, and note that they are
16, 17, 19, 20, 21, -' ' -'
23,24,25,35,37, complete sentences, or detached phrases which give
42,50,72,87,90. r ' r a
Pss. 3, 7, 18, 30, information, more or less definite, concerning the
57'6o,'63,'92,ioo', authorsMp, or the circumstances out of which a psalm
120-134, 142. • 7 7- ■ 7 1 J
Pss. 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, grew, or matters of a musical or liturgical character ; and
22,45,61,62,84. ^j^^^ %wq}!\ superscriptions are rarely found outside of the
isa. 38:9; Psalter
Hab.3:i. rbaiLci.
2. Their origin, and determine whether they are to be
regarded as coming from the author of the psalm in
each case; or from contemporaries of the author; or from
editors or collectors living long after the original produc-
tion of the psalm.
3. Their authority, and note :
(<z) The considerations which may be urged in favor
of this authority, viz., the fact that they evidently are
iChron. 15:20,21. very old — so old, indeed, that to the writer of i Chron.
15:20, 21, the Hebrew words had lost their meaning;
the fact that in the Hebrew they form an organic part of
Pss. 51,54, 59. the psalm itself; the fact that, in some cases at least, the
substance of the superscription seems to be entirely con-
sistent with the content of the psalm; the fact, also, that
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 235
they are not distributed indiscriminately, but evidently
were intended to subserve a particular purpose.
{b) The considerations which are urged as opposing
their authority, viz., the fact that very frequently the
manuscripts and versions differ, while the Septuagint
and the Peshitto present many deviations and additions,*
thus indicating that even in the most ancient days there
were many differences of opinion; the fact that the Pss. 27, 74, 79.
superscription in many cases is plainly inconsistent with
the content of the psalm ; the fact that so few authors
are named, when probably there were many; the fact,
also, that statements referring to historical circumstances
are limited to psalms ascribed to David.
4. The tests to which they must be subjected, viz.: {a)
that of linguistic and rhetorical consistency when exam-
ined with reference to the content of the psalm ; (3) that
of historical and logical consistency with the content of
the psalm.
In all this each superscription should be taken up
for separate consideration.
§252. Constructive Study. — Examine a series of
superscriptions and tabulate the questions suggested by -ff. ^., Pss. 18, 72,
each case, with the results which may fairly be accepted 23! 34, 45, 51, eoi
, . 110.
in each instance.
§253. Is there an Historical Element in the Psalter, like
that which has been found to form the background of
Old Testament prophecy and Old Testament legislation?
That is, can we find any connection between these psalms
and the history of the people in the midst of which
they were first uttered? Did Israel's history, or did the
experiences of Israel's leaders, find expression in the
Psalms?
I. Consider, now, the various kinds of psalms which
may be thought of as in one way or another historical :
' See W. T. Davison, art. " Psalms," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol.
IV, p. 150; KiRKPATRiCK, The Book of Psalms, Books IV and V (1901), pp. xxxi f.;
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed., 1897), pp. 370 f.;
Baethgen, Z>2(? Psalmen ("Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 2d ed., 1897),
p. v; DUHM, Die Psalmen ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899),
p. xvii.
236 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Pss. 106, 78. (a) Certain psalms describe in a concrete way certain
historical events, either individual or national; may
these, and others like them, be called objectively historical?
Pss. ?4-7-io; 46, (^) Certain psalms, although not descriptive of his-
torical events, may be regarded as the outgrowth, and in
themselves the expression, of an historical event — sub-
jectively historical.
Pss. 22, 51, 69, 84, (c\ Certain psalms may be regarded as the expression,
86, 130, 139.
although not the description, of individual experience.
2. Note some points of general interest in respect to
the historical element in the Psalms :
{a) The absence, in general, of distinct allusion to
specific historical events. How far may this be explained
(i) on the ground of the lyric character of the Psalms?
(2) On the ground of the divine purpose as to the use of
the Psalter as a hymn-book for all ages? (3) On the
supposition that changes and omissions have been intro-
duced throughout the centuries, as editors have trans-
mitted the collection from hand to hand?
if) The great importance of discovering this histori-
cal element wherever possible (i) for the sake of the
freshness and vividness which is thereby added to the
material ; (2) for the sake of the new historical data thus
brought to light ; (3) for the sake of the evidence thus
gained respecting the growth and development of
psalmody.
3. Still further, make a study of three closely related
points, viz.:
(a) The sources from which help may be obtained
for reaching a decision on these questions, e. g., (i) bib-
lical history ; (2) the style and language of the Psalms ;
(3) the present position and arrangement in the Psalter;
and (4) the superscriptions.
{b) The character of the knowledge thus obtained : is
it definite? is it trustworthy? is it abundant?
{c) The analogy furnished by a study of the modern
hymn-book.
Pss. 78, 81, 105, §254. Constructive Study. — Examine certain psalms;
79,126,137.' ' and (i) classify each under one of the heads (i. («) {b)
and {c)) indicated above; (2) point out in detail and dis-
cuss the historical element which you find.
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 237
§255. What Is David's Place in Connection with the
Psalter? — Perhaps no problem more important than this
may be found in Old Testament literature. It is well
worth while to examine into the scope and the signifi-
cance of this problem. Consider, therefore — pg®' 59' 54^^56, 34
1. The psalms assigned to David by tradition — in 63^'(?^/'7*'*6'(?)',
all seventv-three, and ordinarily classified by periods as "'55-
•^ ■' ■' ^ Pss. loi, 15, 24,
follows: {a) psalms reflecting his early life; {0) psalms 68,132,30.
connected with Saul's persecution ; {c) psalms connected 60, is'.* '" '*'
with the removal of the ark; (d) psalms connected with Pss. 51,32.
Pss. 63, 3, 4, 23,
David's v/ars ; («?) psalms connected with David's fall: 26,62,27,28,41,
, , 55. 69, 109.
(/) psalms connected with his flight from Absalom ; {g) pss. 5, 9, 11-14,
others not definitely connected with any period. 36^4o,'53,58,'6i','
2. The reasons urged for the probability of so large 108, io9?i22.'i24i
a number of Davidic psalms, e. g. : I4II 1431^145.'^ ~
{a) The period preceding David was just what would
have been expected to produce such a result, since it
included, e. g., (i) the religious revival under Samuel ;
(2) a wonderful activity on the part of the prophets, like
Samuel, Gad, Nathan ; (3) the founding of the prophetic
schools ; (4) a marked degree of development in the way
of spiritual activity.
{l>) The times of David furnished an excellent basis
for these psalms, since they were times of national
struggle, of multiform experience, of high aspiration.
(c) The several historical references to David as a i Sam. 15:17, 18;
^ ^ i8:io: 2 Sam.
musician and a poet substantiate this claim. 1:19-27; Amos
{d) The many-sidedness of David's character as it is
revealed in his private life, as shepherd, soldier, states-
man ; priest, prophet, king ; friend, father, leader.
(e) The overwhelming evidence furnished by the
superscriptions, which, at all events, show that from very
early times David was regarded as the author.
(/) The ease with which the events of David's life
may be fitted into connection with the content of the
Psalms.'
'On this point the following statements present the opposing views : " References
to the more remarkable passages in David's life occur in places without number.
There are psalms, not a few, which it is impossible for anyone to read without being
reminded that they are his." — Binnie, The Psalms.
The view that these psalms come from David "implies absolute incapacity to
238 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. The reasons urged against the probability of so
large a number of Davidic psalms:
(a) The uniform tendency of tradition to magnify
the work of a particular man ; as seen in the parallel
cases of Moses, to whom all Hebrew legislation is
£•. ^., Lev. I : I ; ascribed; Isaiah, to whom the work of four or more
4:1; Deut. 27 :
i; Prov. 1:1; prophets is ascribed; and Solomon, to whom so large a
Eccl. 1:1; ^ ^. , , . J ,. . .J
Cant, i: I. portion of the wisdom literature is assigned.
.£•.;?■., Pss. 3,18, (d) The fact that only in the case of psalms assigned
to David are the circumstances of occasion or origin
indicated.
.e.^.,Pss. 122, (A The certainty that in many cases the assignment
124. i39i 142.
to David is unquestionably wrong; and, with this, the
unreliable character in general of the superscriptions.
(d) The difficulty involved in the proposition that
the composition of psalms was thus restricted to so few
periods. Were there not many historical situations in
which conditions existed favorable to psalmody ?
((?) The difficulties involved in the proposition that
psalms which represent the highest and latest stage of
Israelitish spiritual development should have had their
origin (i) before the work and utterances of a single
c/. Pss. 90, 97. prophet of those who have written ; (2) before there was
any considerable acceptance on the part of the Israelitish
c/. Pss. 91,96. nation of the doctrine of one God; (3) during a period
when Israel was steeped in superstition and continually
c/. Pss. 86, 39. relapsing into idolatry of the foulest character; (4) in
connection with the life of a king characterized by a
spirit at once fierce and warlike, and by a life abounding
in the most heinous crimes, among which were adultery
and murder.
4. The views presented in some of the more impor-
tant contributions to the subject, e.g.: Konig (1893)
maintains the historical probability of the Davidic author-
ship of certain psalms and finds no objection to assigning
3, 4, 6, 7, 8, II, 15, 18, 23, 29, 30, and 32 to David.
Driver {Introduction, 6th ed., 1897) grants that a majority
understand the difference between old Israel and later Judaism, and makes almost
anything possible in the way of ascription of comparatively modern pieces to ancient
authors." — W. R. Smith, Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 3931-
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 239
of the "Davidic" psalms are not David's, but insists
upon the possibility of Davidic psalms, and declares that
if there are any such, they may safely be looked for
among those on Ewald's list, which is possibly too large.
Baethgen (1897) says, "of the seventy-three psalms
ascribed to David, in the case of only a few at the most
can Davidic authorship be defended with any plausibility,
e. g., 3, 4, 18; and that even for these the supposition of
a later redaction is hardly to be avoided." Wellhausen
(1898) says : "It is not a question whether there be any
post-exilic psalms, but rather whether the psalms contain
any poems written before the exile." Duhm (1899)
denies the existence of any Davidic psalms, and is
doubtful whether any psalms come from a time earlier
than the Greek period. Kirkpatrick (1901) argues for
the Davidic authorship of Ps. 18, and adds: "If this be
acknowledged, important consequences follow. For
depth of devotion, simplicity of trust, joyousness of
gratitude, and confidence of hope, not less than for its
natural force and poetic beauty, that psalm has few
rivals. It has all the freshness of creative genius. It
can hardly have been the solitary production of its
author. If such a psalm could have been written by
David, so might many others." Cheyne {Encyclopcedia
Biblica) denies the historical possibility of Davidic
psalms in our Psalter, and explains the superscription of
David di% a corruption of an original of Jedithun?
5. The various tests to which each psalm, thought to
be Davidic, must be subjected, viz.:
{a) The historical test ; that is : Is the background
of the psalm in harmony with the conditions of David's
time? Are the historical and social presuppositions of
the psalm met by the facts of the Davidic period ?
{b) The theological test ; that is : Are the ideas con-
cerning God, man, and sin which the psalm reflects in
k-eeping with the stage of theological thought to which
David and his contemporaries may fairly be said to have
belonged ?
{c) The rhetorical test ; that is : Are the poetical
3See also pp. 23 f.
240 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
form and the general literary style such as were charac-
teristic of the earlier days of Hebrew poetry ?
{d) The grammatical test; that is : Are the syntax,
the order of words, the structure of sentences, and the
grammatical forms such as are found in the earlier stages
of the language of the Old Testament?
{e) The vocabulary test ; that is : Is the language of
the psalm the pure Hebrew of the Davidic age, or does
it contain Aramaic, Persian, and Greek words, so many
of which crowded into the Hebrew speech in the course
of the later history ?
§256. Constructive Study. — Select from each of the
following groups of psalms one or more, and apply the
tests suggested above :
Pss. 122, 124, 131, I. Psalms which, although assigned by tradition to
David, are almost universally believed to be wrongly so
assigned.
Pss.3, 4, 7, II, 18, 2. Psalms which are certainly to be regarded as
Davidic, if there are any Davidic psalms.
Pss. 8, 19, 22, 23, 3. Psalms which, while assigned to David by some
eminent authorities, are, to say the least, uncertain.
§257. Constructive Study. — Formulate a statement which will pre-
sent briefly what is involved in a decision to assign no psalms to David,
in contrast with the traditional view ascribing to him seventy-three, or
even a more liberal position ascribing ten or twelve.
§258. Does the "I" of the Psalter represent an
individual, or the entire Israelitish community ? Con-
sider, in connection with this problem, the following
points :
1. The use of the rhetorical figure, ttrmtd. personifica-
tion in general literature."
2. The use of personification by the Arabs in the
effort to find concrete expression for the origin of a tribe
or community .5
* On the general subject of personification see especially Freytag, Technique of
the Drama, trans, by E. J. MacEwan {3d ed., 1900), pp. 246 £f.
SW. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885, 2d ed., 1903),
pp. 20 f.
THE HYMNAL LITEPxATURE 24 1
■z. Some specific examples: »?<?=E2fyptians(Exod. £.^., Numb. 20:
^ ^ ^ , J '8,19; Isa. 12:
14:1c;); and the frequent interchanare of sins^ular and 1,2; 25:1; 26:
' 9; Jer. 10:19;
plural. Mic. 7:7-10;
Lam. 1 : 116-16,
4. Some important examples of personification in the 18-22; isa. 61:
Old Testament :
(a) The servant of Jehovah, under which figure is set isa., chaps. 40-55.
forth the mission of the community of pious Jews as the
representative of Jehovah in a wicked world.
(^) The character of Job in the Book of Job ; under
the guise of a person, the sufferings of the Jewish com-
munity at the hands of heathen oppressors are portrayed
and discussed, the poet setting forth the doubts and
questions which arose in the minds of pious Jews, the
various theories proposed in explanation of the suffer-
ings, and his own point of view.
(f) The common practice of the prophets, e. g., Amos's Am. 5: i ff.
dirge over the approaching destruction of northern
Israel ; Hosea's representation of Israel as the bride of hos., chap. 2.
Jehovah; the representation of Jerusalem as a person in isa., chap. 60.
Isaiah; Ezekiel's characterization of Samaria and Jerusa- Ezek., chap. 23.
lem as two harlots ; and the use of the title " virgin
daughter of Israel."
5. Some of the points involved in interpreting the
"I" as of the community :
{a) If the "I" be the community of Israel, and the
statements made represent the thought of the community
as a whole, will it be necessary to find a date for these
psalms in which there was a fair degree of unanimity of
opinion in the community?
{p) If these psalms are the expression of the heart of
the community at large, could they have been written at
a time when the prophets and priests were in definite
conflict with each other, i. e., down until 621 B. C?
{c) When, as a matter of fact, did there first come to
be a community feeling in Israel?
{d) Is a difference to be found between national
feeling and community feeling? If so, in what does
this consist? Is the idea of a church-nation evident?
{e) Is it, in general, true that the community inter-
pretation requires a later date for the psalms than the
individual interpretation?
242 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(/) Would the following description of the "I"
meet the demands of the case, viz.: "the company of
faithful Israelites and diligent frequenters of the temple
who formed the kernel of the post-exilic Judean com-
munity"?
{g) Would one expect to find, at this age of religious
development, in a hymn-book intended for a community
and for public worship, psalms of so strongly marked
an individual character?
{h) Is it not true, on the other hand, that the lyric
poet always generalizes, and that, while describing his
own experiences, he really includes all whose situation is
like his own?
(/) Are not these psalms, when interpreted of the
community, much more significant?
(y) Is it also true that a writer may as a representa-
tive include with himself a few others, perhaps an entire
party, who have the same feelings with himself?
§ 259. Constructive Study. — Take up, now, the special
study of certain passages, and determine whether, on the
whole, the individual, or the community interpretation
Pss. 44:4,6, 15; seems more fitting, e. g.:
66:i3ff. ;'7i; I. A group which most modern writers would regard
74:12; 89:50;
102; 118. as representing the community.
Pss. 7; 9; 10; 28; 2. A group thought by some to have as subject the
godly portion of the community.
Pss. 44 ; 56 ; 57 ; 3. A group thought by some to have as subject the
145- nation as a whole.
§ 260. Did Any Psalms Have Their Origin in the Maccabean Period
(/. e., 168-161 B. C.)? — Consider, in this connection:
1. The question of the close of the Old Testament canon. When
may this be supposed to have happened, and under what circumstances?
What bearing on this question does the book of Ecclesiasticus (see
Prologue) have? And, further, in what relation with this event does
the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes stand?
2. The question of the age of the Book of Daniel; <?. g.: {a) What
considerations may be urged against the older view which placed the
book in the days of the exile, and in favor of the modern view which
assigns it to the age of the Maccabees? [b) What important difference
in the interpretation of chap. 11 turns on this decision?
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 243
3. The question of the origin and date of the Septuagint; e. g.: (a)
Could books have found their place in the canon as late as 161 B. C,
and yet have secured a place in the Greek version? (^) At what
periods were the various divisions of the Old Testament translated into
Greek? (c) The significance of the fact that the Septuagint includes a
psalm not found in the Hebrew.
4. The special circumstances of the Maccabean times which cannot
be found in connection with any earlier period of Israelitish history;
e.g.: {a) a time when protestation of national innocence was possible
(^/. Ps. 44); {b) a time when synagogues were in existence {cf. Ps.
74:8); {c) a time when Israel and the opposing nations constitute the
two classes mentioned.
§261. Constructive Study. — Take up certain psalms,
and determine for yourself whether they seem to fit into
the Maccabean times; e. g.:
1. Certain psalms, generally acknowledged to be Pss. 44, 74, 79, 83.
Maccabean.
2. Certain psalms concerning which there is con- Pss. 80, 60,
^ ° 113-118.
siderable doubt.
3. Certain psalms concerning which there is still a Pss. 20,21,33, loi.
greater degree of doubt.
§ 262. In What Ways Did the Editorial Factor Enter
into the Psalter? — This question can only be touched
upon. Consider —
1. The editorial element which appears in connec-
tion with the superscriptions (see above, § 251), a work
involving selection, arrangement, interpretation, and
designation as to use. Is there evidence of difference of
opinion in this work ?
2. The editorial work suggested by the fact that the
Greek text (Septuagint) has a psalm not contained in the Ps. 151.
Hebrew Psalter, concerning David as a shepherd.
3. The editorial work to be inferred from (a) the
fact that Pss. 42, 43, now two, were quite certainly one Pss.42. 43,113,114.
at an earlier time ; cf, also Pss. 113, 114; and {F) the fact
that Ps. 24, now one, was perhaps originally two, vss. Pss. 24, 27, 32.
1-6 and vss. 7-10 being separate pieces; cf. also Ps.
27 : 1-6 and 7-14 ; Ps. 32 : 1-7 and 8-1 1.
4. The editorial work implied in the two editions of
the same psalm which are to be found, in which one Ps. 18 and 2 Sam.,
^ chap. 22.
244 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
word in every four shows a variation, the more common
of which may be classified as (a) the incorporation of
glosses, (d) correction of harsh and unusual terms, (c)
alterations for the purpose of securing greater harmony,
or of removing words which were objectionable from the
dogmatic point of view.*
5. Editorial work which went so far as to add new
Ps. 51:18, 19. verses to an old psalm.
6. Who these editors were ; <f. ^., those connected
with the song service of the temple? prophets? priests?
scribes ?
§263. Constructive Study. — Select from any part of
.£.^.,Pss. 72-76. the Psalter half a dozen psalms, and, taking them up one
by one, tabulate carefully anything that looks like edito-
rial work.
§ 264. The Pritstly Factor in the Psalter is plainly
discernible in certain external elements affecting its out-
ward form and use :
Ps. 41:13. I. Read the doxology which closes Book I; compare
Pss. 72: 18,19; the similar doxologies in other psalms, and note that by
89:53; 106:48; ^ -^
150. means of these doxologies the Psalter is divided intoyfev
books. Was this suggested by the division of the /aw
into five books ? May both arrangements be ascribed
to the priests ?
£:. ^., Pss. 51 : 7, 2. Examine the phraseology, tone, and style of sev-
16,17,19; 27:1-
6;65:i-3;74:i- cral passagcs, and observe how definitely all this points
to the priest.
Ps. 34. 3. Note, id) in Ps. 24, the question asked in vs. 3,
with the answer given in vss. 4-6 ; likewise, {b) the simi-
lar interchange of general statement, answer, and ques-
Pss. 42, 43. tion in vss. 7-10; {c) the thrice-recurring refrain in Pss.
42, 43 (vss. 5, 1 1, and vs. 5) ; (</) the monotonous refrain
Ps. 136. in Ps. 136; and consider whether these examples do not
seem to show that, in some cases at least, there was
antiphonal singing by divisions of the temple choir, as
well as that the psalms were used in public song. Con-
sider also {e) the many musical terms employed.
Pss. isa, 134, 134. 4. Examine Pss. 122, 124, 134, and consider their
^Cf. W. H. Bennett, "Notes on a Comparison of Psalm XVIII with 2 Sam.
XXII," Hebraica, Vol. Ill, pp. 65-86.
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 245
adaptation to the purpose which seems to be suggested
in their title, "Songs of Ascents," viz., songs sung by
companies of pilgrims on their way to the temple at
Jerusalem. With what spirit is the temple itself re-
garded ?
5. Read carefully the group of psalms numbered
146-150, and note that the entire content is an invita- Pss. 146-150.
tion or call to worship — ^ exhortations to the whole con-
gregation of worshipers to sing praises to Jehovah.
6. Consider the use of certain psalms in connection ^!fj.^'',^."5:
A 33 . 1-3 , go . 4~o.
with special occasions of worship; e. g.: (a) with feasts; i Chron. 15 : 16-28.
(d) with the temple-worship ; (c) with the dedication of 35 "f!,^ 38^40^43.
the wall at Jerusalem; (^) with the bringing up of the '^■^e'wit^h Pss"^'
ark to Jerusalem. la^'i'oeP^yf^'''
§265. Constructive Study. — Summarize the material suggested in
§ 264, and formulate a statement on the priestly element in the Psalter
as seen in the external use.
S266. References to the Priett are found in the Pss. 58:64; 99:6;
105:26; 106:16,
Psalter. What, briefly, is the evidence furnished by these sot; 110:4;
115: 10, 12;
passages concerning the priest, his position, and his innu- 118:3; 132:9.
ence ? 135: 19 f.
S 267. References to the Place of Worship are found Pss. 5:7; 11:4;
" 20 : 2 ; 22 : 25 ; 24 :
in the Psalter. What may be inferred from this material 3; 26:6-8, 12;
27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ;
concerning the attitude of the psalmists toward the 29:9; 36:8; 40:
.... 9;42:4;43:3f-;
temple and its worship ? 46:4; 48:1 f.,
^ 8f. ; 51:18 f.;
0 268. References to Sacrifice are found in the Psalter. 52:8; 55 14;
61 : 4 ; 63 : 2 ; 65 :
What light do these references throw upon the subject of 1,4; 66:13; 68:
15-17. 24,29; 69:
the priestly tone and spirit of the Psalter? What is the 9; 73:17; 74:
2 ff . ; 76 : 2 ; 77 :
attitude of the psalmists toward sacrifice? 13; 78:54. 58,
_ .^ r 1 • , T^ , 60, 68 f . ; etc.
§ 269. References to Feasts are found in the Psalter. pss.4:5; 20:3;
Consider also the significance of the Psalms of Ascents in J4,'23;^5i^i6l,
this connection.^ Do the psalms furnish any evidence It'il'iy^U^l]
as to the ideas concerning feasts at the time of their w7:22':^^i6Vi7;
composition ?
§270. The Very Essence of the Psalter is Priestly,
since in its purpose and contents it may be explained
'On these psalms see the literature cited on p. 106, note 10; also Baethgen,
Die Psalmen ubersetzt und erkldrt (" Handkommentar," u. s. w.; 2d ed., 1897), pp.
xvii f.; W. T. Davison, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 153 f.;
and the commentaries of Ewald and Delitzsch, in loc.
118: 27.
Pss. 4:7; 81:3.
246
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See, <•. ,c.. Pss. 69,
88, 17, 26, 143.
See, e. g., Pss. 29,
95- "3. 135.9.
103.
See. e. g.. Pss. 42.
91.23. 73-
Pss. 69, 88.
Cf. Ps. 21 : 1-21
with Ps. 22: 22-
Pss. 80,85,90,123.
Pss. 69,
38, 43.
3 Kings 19: 15-19;
20 : 3 ; Amos
7:5; Jon. 2:1-9;
Hab., chap. 3.
Pss. 17, 26, 55, 57,
69,70.
only as a Book of Worship. In this regard it maybe con-
sidered from three points of view, according as it served
the purpose of (i) Book of Prayer, for the Israel itish
church; (2) Book of Praise; (3) Manual of Personal
Communion with God.
§ 271. The Psalter as a Book of Prayer. — Note that —
1. Sometimes throughout an entire psalm the tone is
that of supplication or penitence, or both; while at other
times the tone of supplication with which the psalm
begins passes over into one of triumphant praise.
2. Sometimes the prayer is unquestionably the formal
prayer spoken by the congregation as such ; while at
other times the prayer is clearly that of an individual
soul "in converse with God, disclosing to him its mani-
fold emotions, desires, aspirations, or fears."
3. The Psalter is as definitely a prayer-book as it is a
hymn-book, and to be interpreted as such.
§272. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the
following assignments of work :
\a. Examine carefully certain prayers offered for
deliverance, and analyze the thought which they contain,
in order to determine, e. g., {a) the nature of the calumny
or trouble from which deliverance is sought; {b) the out-
ward circumstances of the suffering described; (r) the
grounds on which petition for relief is based; {d) the
extent to which faith exists that deliverance will ulti-
mately be secured; {e) the stage of religious thought
marked by these utterances.
lb. Study in the same way similar utterances found
outside of the Psalter, and note the points of difference.
2a. Examine certain prayers which demand from God
vindication of character; and analyze the thought pre-
sented, in order to formulate, e. g., (a) the nature of the
accusation which seems to have been preferred against
the defendant; (;^) the injury which he is represented
as having suffered in consequence; (c) the grounds
on which the demand for vindication is made ; (d) the
measure of the suppliant's consciousness of rectitude ;
(e) the stage of religious development suggested by
these utterances.
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 247
2b. Study in the same way similar pieces found out- isa.57:if-; Job,
•' "^ * chaps. 22, 30.
side of the Psalter, and note any points of difference.
3a. Examine passages containing petition iox guidance pss. 143,61,85,
in the midst of danger and difficulty; and analyze the
same in order to determine, e.g., (a) the nature of the
trouble or difficulty in which the suppliant finds him-
self; (b) the historical background which is implied ; (c)
the tone of the supplication put forth for guidance ; (d)
the degree of expectation which is exhibited as to the
answer to be vouchsafed ; (e) the stage of religious
development indicated.
■id. Study in the same way similar utterances found Numb. 11:10-15;
•^ J J Jos. 7:6-9;
outside the Psalter, and note the points of difference. iSam. 23 2,
7-12; 30: 7 f.
4. Examine certain prayers which exhibit more of the
element of contemplation; and analyze the thought i^. ^., Pss. 77, 73,
expressed, adopting as the basis of analysis your own
form of logical development.
§ 273. The Psalter as a Book of Praise. — Observe —
1. That the very name of the Hebrew Psalter {t'JiiHim)
means "praise-songs;" and that still other words -£■. ^. , Pss. 66,
*■ ^ . 112, 113.
expressing various phases of the idea of song are em-
ployed.
2. That in many cases the tone of prayer passes into 5. ^., Pss. 13, 22,
•' f J r 27, 28, 106, 138.
that of praise, and in still others, the tone of praise
passes into that of prayer.
3. That everything of a musical character points to
the use of the psalms as media oi praise.
§274. Constructire Studies. — Take up, in turn, the
following assignments of work :
\a. Examine carefully certain praise-songs, in which -£•. a'-, Pss. 65, 107,
•^ ^ ° 114,124, 135.
the author seeks to find expression for the praise of
God because of the manifestation of his power; and
analyze the thought according as it is related to {a) the
writer's situation ; {b) the form of manifestation of the
divine power; {c) the way in which the writer's situation
has been affected by this particular manifestation ; {d)
the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances.
\b. Study in the same way similar utterances found E.g.. isa.,chap.
• 1 1 T-. 1 1 , . ., . , i2;Exod.,chap.
outside the Psalter and note pomts of similarity and 15.
difference.
248 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Pss. 104, 103, 48, 2a. Examitie certain praise sontrs, in which the writer
46,146, 147- ^ °
seeks to find expression for praise of God, on the ground
of what he is, perhaps, in history or in nature ; in other
words, his attributes, analyzing the thought with refer-
ence to {a) the writer's situation ; {b) the particular attri-
butes referred to; {c) the bearing upon the writer's
position ; {d) the stage of religious thought marked by
these utterances.
^.|-., Job, chaps. 2b. Take up, in the same way, similar utterances
36, 37. 38, 39; ^ ■'
isa. 40: 27-31; outside the Psalter, and note points of similarity and
44 : 24-28 ; 45 : ^ J
18 f.; 63: 7-19- difference.
§275. The Psalter as a Manual of Personal Communion with God. —
Observe —
1. " The surprising variety of mood and subject and occasion in the
Psalms which gives them their catholicity, and, combined with their
deep spirituality, adapts them to be" a manual of meditation and
communion.
2. The strange and significant expression of the community-feeling
in the personified " I " — a fact which adds greatly to the use of the book
for practical and devotional purposes.
3. The incomparable freedom with which the soul is represented as
in converse with the Deity, laying bare its inmost feelings.
§276. Constructive Studies. — Take up the following
lines of work :
Pss. 46, 64, 103. la. An examination of certain psalms with a view to
{a) the position of the author ; {b) his relation of trust and
dependence on God ; {c) the analysis of this feeling ; {d)
the conception of God which underlies it.
jer. 20:7-13; Isa., \b. A similar examination of certain passages outside
chap. 26.
of the Psalter.
Pss. 51,38, 39- 2a. An examination of certain psalms, with a view
to {a) the position of the author; {b) the consciousness
before God of the "exceeding sinfulness of sin," and an
intense longing for forgiveness; {c) the analysis of this
Ezra. chap. 9; feeling; (d) the conception of God which underlies it.
Lev., chap. 16; & ' V / f
Isa., chap. I, 2b. A similar examination of certain passages outsidc
6:5; Am. 5: r &
10-15. of the Psalter.
Pss. 42, 22, 13. 3a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to
{a) the psalmist's position; {b) his longing for com-
munion with God; {c) the analysis of this feeling; {d)
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 249
the conception of God which underlies it; (e) the custom
referred to in this psalm of praising God in public
worship.
■id. A similar examination of certain passages outside Lam., chap. 5;
•^ r D Isa., 63: 15-64:
of the Psalter. 12.
4a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to Pss. 91,23,73.
(a) the psalmist's position; (d) the confidence, security,
joy, and comfort resulting from fellowship with God;
(c) the analysis of this feeling; (d) the underlying con-
ception of God.
4^. A similar examination of certain passages outside Deut. 33 : 36-29 ;
Am. 7:10-17;
of the Psalter. jer. 30:7-13;
Josh, i: i-ii.
§277. The Significance of the Psalter as Related to
the Priestly System. — Consider, now^
1. The various elements of worship that have found tangible expres-
sion in the Psalter, e. g., prayer, praise, penitence, gratitude, thanks-
giving, trust, fellowship with God ; and discover, if possible, any
fundamental religious emotion which does not find full expression in it.
2. The full and definite evidence cited that the Psalter {a) had its
origin in connection with the temple-worship; ((5) was largely the
creative work of the priests ; {/) exercised great influence upon the
priests ; {d) was employed as a manual of temple-worship ; {e) served
also as a manual of private individual devotion. And, in view of all
this, ask yourself the following questions :
(a) If all this is a part of the priestly system of the Old Testament,
what is the conception of this priestly work which we must hold?
{b) Could a priestly system, including as its climax a hymnal,
breathing a devotion so rich, be wholly formal and mechanical, devoid
of life and of spiritual power?
{c) Could such a hymnal have owed its origin to a body of priests
who were strangers to the spiritual and altogether slaves of the formal?
(d) Is there any higher type of spirituality in the Old Testament
than that which is thus represented by the Psalter?
{e) Is it, then, true or untrue that the highest type of spiritual life
known in the Old Testament is oi priestly or'igm, priestly environment,
and on a. priestly basis?
§278. Literature to be Consulted.^
H. EwALD, Coinmentary on the Psalms {1%'^'^, 3d ed. 1866, transl. 1880); Isaac
Taylor, The Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry (1861); Perowne, The Book of Psalms,
^Of the extensive literature on the Psalter only the more recent and important
works of an exegetical and critical character are cited here.
250 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
•with Introductions and Notes, explanatory and critical {1864, 8th ed. 1892); Franz
Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Psalms (1867, 4th ed. 1883 [transl. 1887-
89], 5th ed. 1894); 7he Psalms Chronologically Arranged by Four Friends {1867, 2d
ed. 1891); W. Kay, The Psalms, with Notes (i87i,2d ed. 1874); A. C.Jennings
AND W. H. Lowe, The Psalms, with Introductions and Critical Notes (1875-77);
T. C. ^IVKUPiN , lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms (1880); W. R.
Smith, The Old Testament in the Jeivish Church, Lecture VII {i88i,2d ed. 1892);
C. H. Toy, " Date of the Korah Psalms," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. IV
(1884), pp. 80-92; Idem, "On the Asaph-Psalms," ibid., Vol. VI (1886), pp. 73-85;
BiNNiE, The Psalms, Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886); C. II. Toy, " Rise
of Hebrew Psalm-Writing," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. VII, pp. 47-60 ; T. K.
Cheyne, The Book of Psalms: A New Translation, with Commentary {1S88); C. G,
MoNTEFiORE, "Mystic Passages in the Psa.\ms," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. I (1889),
pp. 143 ff.; A. Neubauer, "On the Titles of the Psalms According to Early Jewish
Authorities," Studia Biblica, Vol. II (1890), pp. 1-58; S. R. Dkw^k, Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 359-91; A. F. KiRK-
PATRICK, The Book of Psalms, with Introduction and Notes, 3 vols. ("The Cam-
bridge Bible," 1891-1901); T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism
(1892), pp. 129 ff.; W. T, Davison, The Praises of Israel (1893, 2d ed. 1898); J.
P. Peters, "The Development of the Psalter," The New World, 1893, pp. 203 ff.; A.
Maclaren, The Psalms ("Expositor's Bible," 1893-94); J. Sharpe, The Student's
Handbook to the Psalms (iSg^); T. K. Abbot, "On the Alphabetical Arrangement
of Ps. IX and X, with Some Other Emendations," Zeitschrift f. d. alttest. Wissenschaft,
Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 292-94; J. W. Beardslee, "The Imprecatory Psalms," /"rw-
byterian and Reformed Review, 1897, pp. 490-505; T. K. Cheyne, "The Book of
Psalms; Its Origin and its Relation to Zoroastrianism," Semitic Studies in Memory
of Alexander Kohut (1897), pp. 111-19; F. Buhl, "The Aid of Criticism in the
Interpretation of the Psalms," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp,
763-75 ; E. G. King, The Psalms in Three Collections: Translated with Notes (1898);
J. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms; A New Translation (Haupt's" Sacred Books
of the Old and New Testaments," 1898); S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter:
Being the Prayerbook Version of the Psalms and a New Version .... with an
Introduction and Glossaries (1898); J. Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the
Psalms (1898); T. K. Cheyne, The Christian Use of the Psalms (1899); Idem,
"Studies in the Criticism of the Psalms," Expositor, 1899, pp. 252-63, 334-44; G. A.
Barton, " The Bearing of the Composition of the Psalter on the Date of the 44th Psalm,"
American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 740-46; Emilie G. Briggs,
"n50)" American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1899),
pp. 1-29 ; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899),
pp. 355-426; T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the
Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions (" Bampton Lectures "
for 1899); A. S. Carrier, "Notes on the Psalms" American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1900), pp. 54-59; WRIGHT, The Psalms of
David and the Higher Criticism (1900); W. S. Pratt, "A Comparative Study of
Ps. i\e,," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 189-218; D. Smith,
"Songs of the Ascents," Expository Times, Vol. XII (1901), pp. 62-65, 161-64,414-
16; Vol. XIII, pp. 118-20, 500-503; Vol. XV, pp. 39-42; W. T. Davison, art.
" Psalms," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV (1902) ; Budde, art. " Hebrew
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 25 1
Poetry," ibid., Vol. IV (1902); W. R. Smith and T. K. Cheyne, art. "Psalms,"
Encyclopedia Bid/ica, Yo], 111 (1902); DuHM, art. "Poetical Literature," ibid.,Yo\.
Ill (1902); E. G.HlRSCH, "Note on Psalms 34 and 25," American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, XVIII (1902), pp. 167-73 ; W.W. Martin, "A Psalmist's
Epithalamion," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1902), pp. 49-51; P. Haupt, "The Poetic Form of
the First Psalm," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 129-42; C. Martin, "The Impreca-
tions in the Psalms," Princeton Theological Review, Vol. I (1903), pp. 535-53;
J. W. Thirtle, The Titles of the Psalms: Their Nature and Meaning Explained
(1904); T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms, Translated from a Revised Text with
Notes and Introduction (1904); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Psalmists:
The Psalms of the Old Testament Arranged in Their Natural Grouping and Freely
Rendered in Paraphrase (1904).
J. G. VON Herder, Vom Geist der ebrdischen Poesie (1782-83); Hitzig, Die
Psalmen (1835, 2d ed., 1863-65); J. Olshausen, Die Psalmen erkldrt (" Kurzge-
fasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1853); T. Noldeke, Die
alttestamentliche Literatur (1868), pp. 117-42; Q,'EYi'R'V,AbfassungszeitundAbschluss
des Psalters zur Priifung der Frage nach Makkabaerpsalmen historisch-kritisch
untersucht (1869); E. Reuss, Le Psautier, ou le livre de cantiques de la synagogue
(1879); Lagarde, Orientalia, Vol. II (1880), pp. 13-27; M. KOPFSTEIN, Die Asaph-
Psalmen untersucht (iSSi); F. GlESEBRECHT, "tjber die Abfassungszeit des Psalters,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol, I (1881), pp. 276-332; H.
Graetz, Kritischer Commentar zii den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung
(1882); F. Baethgen, "Der textkritische Wert der alten Uebersetzungen zu den
Psalmen," Jahrbiicher der prot. Theologie, Vol. VIII (1882), pp. 405-59, 593-667;
Bleek-Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 443-75;
Hupfeld-Nowack, Die Psalmen iibersetzt und ausgelegt (1888); R. Smend,
*' Ueber das Ich der Psalmen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,
Vol. VIII (1888), pp. 49-147; Kessler, Die asaphitische Psalmengruppe unter-
sucht (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 171-
205; W. Campe, ZJaj Verhdltniss Jeremias zu den Psalmen (i8gi) ; J. Muhlmann,
Zur Frage nach den makkabdischen Psalmen (1891); C. H. CORNILL, Einleitung
in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 205-20; E. Sellin, Disputatio de origine carmi-
num quae primus psalterii liber continet (1892); F. BaethgeN, Die Psalmen iiber-
setzt und erkldrt ("Handkommentar z. Alten Testament," 1892, 2d ed. 1897); W.
Staerk, " Zur Kritik der Psalmeniiberschriften," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 91-151; A. Rahlfs, "^27 and "ly^ in den Psalmen
(1892); J. B ACHMAN^, Praeparation und Kommentar zu den Psalmen, mit getiauen
Analysen und getreuer Uebersetzung fiir Gymnasiasten, Siudirende und Candidaten
(1892) ; B. Stade, " Die messianische Hoffnung im Psalter," Zeitschrift fiir Theologie
und Kirche,Vo\.\\ (1892), pp. 369-413 (reprmted in Akademische Reden und Abhand-
lungen [1899], pp. 37-76); Kuenen-Matthes, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in
die Biicher des Alten Testaments, Vol. Ill (1893, German transl. 1894), pp. 1-57;
E. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), PP- 393~4o6; Wildeboer,
Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1894), pp. 388-403; W. Diehl, Erkldrung
von Ps. 47 (1894); G. 'Q'E.^K, Individual- und Gemeinde- Psalmen (1894); B. Jacob,
"Eeitrage zu einer Einleitung in die Psalmen," Zeitschrift f. d. alttest. Wissenschaft,
Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 129-81, 265-91; Vol. XVII, pp. 48-80, 263-79; Vol.XVIII, pp.
99-120; Vol. XX, pp. 49-80; J. K. Zenner, Die Chorgesdnge im Buche der Psalmen
252 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(1896) ; F. COBLENZ, Ueber das betende Ich in den Psalmen (1897) ; W. Staerk, " Die
Gottlosen inden Psalmen," Tkeologische Studien und Kriiiken,i?iC)'] ,-pY>- 449-88; C. H.
CORNILL, Die Psalmen in der Weltlitteratiir (1898); D. Leimdorfer, Z'ax Psalter-
Ego in den Ich-Psalmen: Beitrag ztir wissenschaftlichen Psalmenforschung (1898);
BucHLER, "Zur Geschichte der Tempelmusik und der Tempelpsalmen," Zeitschrift
/. d. alttest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 96 £f.; W. Riedel, "Zur Redaktion
des Psalters," ibid.. Vol. XIX {1899), pp. 169-72; A. Merx, Ps. IX und X und
andres Maccabaeische {I'igg) ; H. Kessler, Die Psalmen ("Kurzgefasster Kommen-
tar zu den heiligen Schriften," 1899); J. Wellhausen, " Bemerkungen zu den
Psalmen," Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. VI (1899), pp. 163-S7; B. DuHM, Die
Psalmen erkldrt (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, 1899); Idem,
Die Psabnen iibersetzt (1899); J. KoBERLE, Die Tempehdnger im Alten Testament
(1899); RoTHSTEiN, " Ps. 78, ein Zeuge fiir d. Jahwistische Gestalt der Exodus-
Tradition," Zeitschri/t fiir wissenscha/tlicke Theologie, 1 900, No. 4; Grimme, "Was
bedeutet nibyiSn n^Tp?" Orientalistische Literatur-Zeitung, Vol. IV (1901), pp.
180-82; Couard, "Behandlung und Lbsung des Problems der Theodicee in den
Ps. 37, 39 und 73," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. XLVII (1901), pp.
110-24; Baudissin, Einleitung in die B ticker des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp.
635-72; E. Kautzsch, Die Poesie und die poetischen Biicher des Alten Testaments
(1902); Matthes, "Die Psalmen und d. Tempeldienst," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 65-82; Grimme, Psalmenprobletne :
Untersuchungen iiber Metrik, Strophik und Paseq des Psalmenbuches (1902).
§279. Supplementary Topics.
1. Is the Psalter rightly classified as z. priestly product? Consider
the significance of the fact that it contains a large amount of prophetic
and wisdom material as well as priestly. Can it be said to belong to
any one of these three classes of Old Testament literature, or does it
belong, rather, to all of them ? Might it not properly be a class by
itself, viz., devotional literature?
2. Consider the various possible methods of classifying the Psalms;
e. g., as to {a) their subject-matter (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 368 f.),
{b) their spirit and tone, {c) the time of their origin.
3. Of what value is the Psalter as a source of information con-
cerning Israel's history ? What knowledge of Israel's past history does
it reveal ? What can be legitimately inferred from a study of the
individual psalms as to the historical conditions amid which they were
composed? What light does the fact of the existence and use of the
Psalter throw upon the life and spirit of the post-exilic Jews?
4. In a study of the origin of the Psalter what is the significance of
{a) the presence within it of such groups as the Korahite psalms, the
Asaphite psalms, the Pilgrim psalms ; {b) the groups of Yahwistic and
Elohistic psalms; {c) the division into five books; {d) the grouping of
the "Davidic" psalms? On the basis of these and other similar
THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 253
phenomena, can any history of the growth of the Psalter through the
grouping of various earlier collections be satisfactorily traced ?
5. Take up the so-called "Imprecatory Psalms" and study them
in the light of the following considerations : (a) the times to which
they belong, when moral and spiritual conceptions were still in a more
or less primitive stage and the spirit of the gospel was not yet shed
abroad; (d) the great provocation which called forth these utterances,
the feeling of injury, oppression, and insult revealed in them ; (c) the
tendency of human nature to seek revenge ; (d) the deep sense of
justice out of which they spring, the feeling that such sins must not
and cannot go unpunished, that the vindication of Jehovah's character
demands the infliction of drastic penalties upon the notoriously wicked ;
(1?) the necessity that this infliction of punishment should take place
here and now, since the thought of a future life and a future judgment
had not yet developed ; (/) the doctrine that prosperity was a sign of
the divine favor, while misfortune and suffering was manifest evidence
of and chastisement for sin.
6. Make a comparison of the Psalms of Solomon with the Old
Testament Psalter, and note the points of similarity and difference in
the two collections.
On the Psalms of Solomon see especially R. H.Charles, art. "Apocalyptic
Literature," §77-85, Encyclopedia Biblica; Ryle and James, The Psalms of the
Pharisees (1901); W. Frankenberg, Die Datierung der Psalmen Salomes: ein Bei-
trag zur jUdischen Geschichte ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft," 1896).
7. Compare the old Babylonian penitential psalms with corre-
sponding psalms of the Old Testament, with reference to such matters
as {a) their idea of God, {b) their conception of sin, {c) their longing
for forgiveness, (^) their idea of atonement.
On the Babylonian psalms see especially: H. Zimmern, Babylonische Buss-
psalmen, umschrieben, iibersetzt und erkldrt {li?i$) ; R. BriJNNOW, "Assyrian Hymns,"
Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV, pp. I-40, 225-58; Vol. V, pp. 55-80; T. G.
Pinches, " An Erechite's Lament," Records of the Past (New Series), Vol. I, pp. 84 f.;
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature (1901), pp. 429-44; J, Bahr,
Die babylonischen Busspsalmen und das Alte Testament (1903); W. Caspari, "Die
Religion in den assyrisch-babylonischen Busspsalmen," Beitrdge zur Forderung
Christlicher Theologie, Vol. VH, No. 4 (1903).
Paet Seyee^th
THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY
ELEMENT
XIX. The Essential Significance of the Priestly Element.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
§ 280. The Priestly Element Had Serious Limitations.
— The agencies, through which the Spirit of God worked
upon Israel during long centuries of guidance were
human, and therefore imperfect. The prophet, with all
his enthusiasm and enlarged vision, suffered serious limita-
tions. The sage, in spite of his careful, methodical and,
at times, scientific observation and study, fell far short of
reaching even his own ideals. In what way were the
priests limited? Consider the following :
1. There were granted to the priests, as such, no
great and uplifting visions of the nation's future glory.
In later days, to be sure, priests like Ezekiel and
Zechariah were given such inspiration ; but they and
others like them were no longer simply priests : they
were prophets. The lack of the presence of the Spirit
in their souls placed the ordinary priests in a class
essentially different from that of the prophets.
2. The priest was by the very nature of his profession
a literalist, and consequently he was forever denied the
strength and freshness which those may have who rise
higher than the letter and see what is above and beyond it.
This fact will account for much that is distinctly disap-
pointing in the priestly element.
3. Since the priestly element represented worship,
and for that reason {a) came out of an early paganism,
and ip) was constantly being drawn backward into that
same paganism, or into other forms of heathen thought
with which the sacrificial system was always in more or
less close contact, it was forced to carry a heavy burden
made up of corrupt and injurious notions and prac-
tices, which even long culture would not and could
not shake off. From all this prophetism was practically
free.
257
Ezek. I : 1-3 : 15;
8:1-11 :25;
chaps. 40-48;
Zech. 1:7-6:8.
Cf. Exod., chaps.
35-40; Lev.,
chaps. 1-3, 7,
14; Numb.,
chaps. 3, 4.
Kings 3:3; 12:
25-33 : 16 : 31 ff. ;
2 Kings 16: II-
16; 21: 3-7;
Ezek. 8:7-13;
Jer. 44 : 17-19.
258 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 32:1-6,23- 4. All the ignorance and superstition of the masses
24; Numb. 16: , , , -11 1111
1-3, 12-14; Hos. were borne by the priestly class, rather than by the
isalss-.jf. ' ' prophets. The priest, if he remained a priest, was
compelled to live and work with the masses in the midst
of all that was degrading.
Lev. 8:1-9:24; 5. The priest had to do chiefly with the outer form
of truth, the symbol; and while this was supposed to
Zech. 7:4, 5; isa. represent the inner and essential thought, it not infre-
quently failed to maintain any real connection with that
thought.
Zech. 6:11; Lev. 6. The priest was intensely ambitious of power and
2 Kings 11:4-20. wealth, and the fact that, in time, the order gained
control of state and church is evidence of success which
in itself was detrimental to true and sincere effort.
Numb., chap. 19; 7. The teachings of the priest were more subjective
Lev., chaps. 1-3. ,, ,. , , ,, , .,
and less direct than those of the prophet, in that the
teaching of the latter was given to the people directly
through the spoken or written word, while iriuch of the
priest's teaching was dependent upon the worshiper's
own interpretation of the symbol employed in the ritual.
2 Kings 22 : 3-23 : A Strong spirit of conservatism was always in control;
25; weh. 8:1- ^ ^ , ^ , , , . r
10:39; Mai. 1: progress was secured most frequently by revolution from
6-2 ; 9.
the outside, in which the prophets took leading part.
Under the circumstances the priestly teaching was always
slow to penetrate the nation's heart.
§281. The Characteristics of the Priestly System,
regarded as a whole, may be briefly studied :
1. Its spirit not peculiar. — What is to be said of the
spirit of this system when compared with that of other
priestly systems? Wherein, if at all, is a distinction to
Lev. 17:6; 20:26; be found? Is not the spirit, in this case, just what the
chap. 16; 26: . . , , • 1 1 • ,1
11 f. true spirit of worship always proves to be, viz., the
simplest and most common effort to come into close
touch with the higher powers?
2. Its form not peculiar. — But what may be said of the
outer fortti of this priestly system ? Does it not have
c/. §§72:4, 6; 95: much in common likewise with other systems? What is
6 7 * 107 * S 6 7 '
121:8, 9;' 135': 7! peculiar to it so far as form is concerned? Altar?
temple? sacrifice? feast? music and prayer? priest and
holy order? Are not the Urim and Thummim of
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 259
foreign origin ? How about sacrifices of salt and meal ?
the clean and unclean ? Can you find among the
institutions of the Israelitish priestly system one which
does not have an analogue in other religions ?
3. Its relation to other priestly systems. — ^on^xd.t.x,
now, whether or not it is true that in its priestly system
the Hebrew religion touches other ancient religions
most closely. Have other religions prophetism and
prophecy ? Or is it not rather soothsaying and divina-
tion ? Is the Hebrew priestly system as different from
other priestly systems as Hebrew prophecy is different
from other systems of prophecy ?
4. The system and the people. — 1% it true that at first Amos2:6ff.,
^ -^ -^ ^ . iiff.; 3:14; 4:
the people were more in sympathy with their priestly 4f.; s:4ff-, 21-
system than with the prophetic ideas which were pro- Ho's. 2:11; 3:4;
posed in opposition? Did the nation ever struggle
against the priest as it struggled against the prophet ?
Does this mean that the priestly conception and expres-
sion were something less alien to the hearts of the
people ?
5. The period of its dominance. — To what extent were J^''-« ? ?^- ' . *° •
priest and prophet in conflict with each other? And loff; Hos. 6:4-
why ? Is it the priest whom the prophet always holds Mi'^'g^eo'
responsible for the people's sins ? Which of the two
orders represented the old ? which the new ? Which
represented form ? which spirit ? Which held back ?
which pushed forward ? How important in the history
of the nation was this struggle between prophet and
priest ? which conquered ? when ? why ?
6. Its chronological relation to prophecy. — ^^htn in the Jer. i : i ; Ezek.
* ^ '^ 1:3; 4:14;
history of the priestly system was its progress most chaps. 40-48;
pronounced ? How explain the fact that in the later ^°S-iA^'^\^^
^ ^ gff ;MaI. 1 : 6ff;
periods of prophecy the prophets were all priests ? But 2:1-9-
what became of the great teachings of the prophets
when prophetism as a movement had died out and the
priestly order was in power? Was this teaching lost? Deut., chaps, e-
^ J r "11; Lev. 23:22;
or was it appropriated by the priests and incorporated 25: 39ff; 26:14-
into their system ? Of what importance was the legacy
left by prophecy at its death ? Are priest and prophet
now one, the priest being the spokesman ? But why did
260 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
prophecy die? And how did it happen that the priest,
who had always opposed the prophet and his work, took
up that work when there were no longer prophets to
conduct it ?
Exod. 20:24: 7. Its variations and contradictious. — Does not this
Deut. 12:2-4. -11
Deut. 18:1-8; priestly element seem to be full or contradictions? But
Numb. 18:1-7; 1 •' 1 r ■, 1
Lev. 21 : 10-15. what IS the nature of these contradictions ? Is it that of
change from time to time ? Is it the result of adjust-
c/. §§76; 80; ment to great changes in national life? What, for
example, led to the change from the system in which
worship was distributed throughout the nation to that
of centralization at one place? Why was worship in
Babylon during the exile impossible ? Explain the
recentralization later in the second temple; and still
later its redistribution in the synagogues. All this
points to what characteristics besides those of flexibility
and capability of adjustment ?
c/. §§60, 62,66, 8. Its autocratic and democratic character. — Con-
sider the change in character that has taken place
between the early days when every man might be his
own priest, and the last days which witnessed the firm
establishment of the hierarchy. How is this to be
accounted for?
Cf. chaps, ii, iii, 9. Its purity, impurity, and artificiality. — Compare
iv,and §§84, 92^ , . . , / \ 1 • • 1 i • 1 n 1
97, 104. this priestly system {a) when it was mingled with all the
impurities of Canaanitish worship, and {I)) when it has
been purged and purified of its dross by the fire of
captivity; and still again (r) when it has become
one of the most artificial rituals ever accepted by a
nation. What is to be said of these different stages ?
10. Its narrowness and breadth. — Compare, again, the
character of this system in its later days when, from one
point of view, it was most narrow and artificial ; while,
from another, it was most broad and spiritual ; since, at
Lev., chaps. 4, 5. a time when animals were being slain by tens of
6, 7, 12, 14, 15,
21; Numb., thousands, and the body was being worn out with
chaps. 6, 8 ^
worship and purifications, then, and not till then, did
c/. §§270-77. this religious system give birth to the Psalter, which
contains the greatest examples of higher spiritual con-
templation and communion with God that religion has
ever produced.
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26 1
§ 282. The Purpose or Function of the Priestly System.
— Which of these words is to be employed, "purpose"
or "function" ? What is the point of view involved in
each ?
1. Its purpose or function in general. — What may be
said as to the purpose or function of the priestly system Cf.%\.
in any religion ? What other elements, aside from the
priestly element, are required to make up religion, or to
constitute the religious spirit ? What is the relation
sustained by the priestly element to the others ?
2. Its purpose or function for the individual. — {a) Was
there a meaning in the various acts of worship for each
and every person who participated in the worship ? Did c/. §§84:2; 87:2;
oil and salt, blood and fat, meal and incense, represent
ideas? What, in the case of each of these? Did these
ideas, thus symbolically represented, come from men's
hearts and express various phases of their feelings ? {l?)
In what sense was the temple a laboratory in which men
were required to go through a certain process, doing the
detail of the work, every detail representing an experi-
ence of one or another kind in the religious life ?
Would the doing of these things impress upon the doer
the meaning which they were supposed to represent ?
What was the answer to the oft-recurring questions :
" Why do I wash ? Why do I touch no unclean thing ?
Why do I observe the sabbath?" Was it not in each
case a great truth ? Was the act, therefore, a lesson
repeated every time the act was performed ? But would
many, perhaps the great majority, perform the act
without asking the question, and so without being
conscious of any lesson involved in it ? Is it just so in
acts of worship today ? Does this fact, in itself, affect
essentially the point in question ?
3. Its purpose or function for the nation. — [a) Did the
national idea precede or follow that of the individual? Am. 2:6; siiff.;
,,,, J.J, - . ., .,..,, Exod. 20 : 2 If . ;
When did the nrst conception of the individual as jer. 31:29!.;
distinguished from the nation begin to appear ? Did
the idea of individualism have large development in Old
Testament times ? or even in the first centuries of
Christianity? Was the priestly system, on the whole.
Ezek., chap. 18.
262 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMEFT
better adapted to individual or national life ? {b) What,
so far as concerns relationship to the deity, would be the
result for the nation, of a regular and sincere adoption
of the ceremonial ? How different would the effect of
observing the ritual be from that of attending church in
more modern times? Would it, in some sense, bring
them into touch with God, and under His influence?
Was it, after all, a very natural expression of man's
relation to God ? {c) Are we to suppose that sacrifice
(which may here be taken as representing the priestly
system) from the beginning was something established
by God himself and suggested by him directly to man ?
Lev., chaps. 1-7. Is this not the way in which the Priest Code everywhere
c/. §216, (4). regards sacrifice? In other words, as something given
by God to man through Moses ? Does the Priest Code
recognize the existence of a priestly system before
Moses's day? or among other nations? How, then, is
this presentation of the subject to be understood? {d)
But in what way are we to account for the universal
prevalence of sacrifice among the nations? What is to
be said for and against the hypothesis of a primitive
revelation to which all this points back? Is it easier to
understand this common form of worship, viz., sacrifice,
as a natural expression, on the part of man, of the
relation which he believes himself to sustain to the
higher powers ? In this case what was the nature of the
feeling which originally prompted the action, and
controlled the devotee in the process of the action ?
Lev., chap. 16; 4: (^) ^Vas it his sense of God's holiness and his own sin ?
i6ff^;Numb. his feeling that he deserved death? Did he therefore
present animals in sacrifice as his own substitute ? What
is meant in this connection by the use of the words
"piacular," "propitiation ?" But can we suppose that
the men of primitive times, savages, had reached so
advanced a point of philosophical reflection ? May we
perhaps suppose that this act, which constitutes so large
an element in all priestly systems, had its origin and
abiding function in a desire to acknowledge dependence
upon the higher power and to render to it homage ?
Would it be far removed from this to say that the chief
15:22 31; 19:
1-9.
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 263
purpose of the worshiper, whether nation or individual, Lev. 4:20, 26, 31,
■was to gain the favor of the god, or to avert his isi. ;Numb.'
displeasure? (/) What is involved in that other expla- Gen. 18: 1-8; 31:
54 j Exod. 18 \
nation which finds the essence of sacrifice in the meal 12; Numb. 22:
40 ; Deut. 27 :
which followed, a communion of man and God in food ? 6^^, 7; i sam.
^ , . , ■ 1 1 ' :3ff-; 9: lit.;
Did not eating together constitute a covenant or bond i6;2, 5; 20:29;
Ezek. 39:17-20
of friendship? God and the tribe being one, would not Lev. 8:15, 24;
9:18; 17: 6.
this union be strengthened, or, if temporarily strained. Lev. 1:3-9.
be restored by eating food in common ? And did not
the god receive his share in the blood poured upon the
altar? In this case how explain the whole burnt
offering, all of which was given to the god ? How
much change in this conception of sacrifice was involved
in the advance from nomadic life, when all property was
held in common by the tribe, to the agricultural life,
when men began to hold personal property ? (g) In
any case, is it not true that in Old Testament times the
idea most in vogue is that the priestly system, with the
act of sacrifice as its central feature, represented the
means by which a man might make a.gi/fto God? Is it Numb., chap. 28;
•^ ° . Exod. 3o:7f.
anywhere suggested that the giving of gifts to God is
something: displeasing to him ? Is there srreat difference Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Amos
° ^ ° ° 5:21-24; Hos.
of opinion, on the other hand, as to the particular thing 6:6.
which shall be given ?
4. Its function in connection with the messianic idea. —
{a) In what sense is the word "messianic" to be taken ?
What are some of the more important elements of which
it is constituted? In how far may the word "eschato-
logical " be used as a synonym ? Who are indicated as
the conspicuous representatives of this movement or
element, (i) during the existence of the kingdom; (2) isa.9:6f.
during the Babylonian exile? (<5) When Jerusalem is isa. 49:1-6; 52:
rebuilt and the second temple is erected — that is, at the
time of the restoration — what official fissure comes into Hag. 1:1, 12, 14;
° 2:2, 4; Zech.,
especial prominence? At the same time what feeling chap. 3.
becomes uppermost in the minds of the people? As a Lev., chap. 16;
consequence of this overwhelming sense of sin, what Numb. 19:1-9.
new importance attaches to the idea of atonement? {c)
Were the people of the restoration disappointed in Hag. 2 : 6-9, 20-
^^ 23; Zech. 6:15;
their failure to see the fulfilment of the prophetic chap. 8.
264 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
promises concerning the re-establishment of the king-
dom and the coming of the Messiah ? How did they,
Mai. 1:1-14; 2: after awhile, account for the refusal or failure of God to
c/.§§38,i5; 92, fulfil these promises? Regarding themselves as respon-
sible, what steps were taken to force God to bring these
Mai. 3: 1-6. things to pass ? How did this affect the priestly system ?
In what way, also, the further development of the
messianic idea ?
5. Its function in relation to the introduction of Greek
thought. — What, in general, was the effect upon the
eastern world of the fall of the Persian empire and the
supremacy of the Greeks, attained through Alexander
the Great ? How was Greek influence exerted upon
these eastern nationalities? To what extent was the
c/. §51. Jewish nation affected by Greece? What were the
essential contributions received by Judaism from Greece?
To what extent did Judaism successfully resist the
movement which exerted so strong an influence upon all
other nations with which it came in contact? What
enabled Judaism to withstand this influence ? What
were the elements in the priestly system that enabled it
to render this very striking service ?
c/. §197, 3. § 283. The Essential Thought of the Priestly Element
may be grouped around three or four subjects. These
are, God, Man, Sin, and the Church.
I. God. — (a) Does not the priestly thought of God,
after all, represent the whole Old Testament, except the
portions known as Wisdom ?
(/5) How, and in what sense, does the priestly element
include the prophetic ?
{c) Can a distinction be made between the priestly
and the prophetic conceptions of God in the periods that
precede the captivity in Babylon ? in the periods that
follow the captivity ?
(//) What stages of growth may be discovered in the
c/. §§ 18, 38, 49. priestly conception of God before its incorporation of
the prophetic ? likewise, after the incorporation ? Was
the later conception more strongly priestly or prophetic ?
(<?) What distinct conceptions, if any, are to be found
in the Wisdom element ? Are they older than the
priestly, or later ? higher or lower ?
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 265
(/) Are holiness and majesty perhaps the two pre-
dominant conceptions of God in the priestly element ?
What others might be mentioned as almost equally
prominent ? Was either of these attributes a part of the
primitive Semitic conception of God ? At what time in
Greece's history did they begin to be recognized ? How Lev., chaps. 8, 9,
is the holiness of God symbolically represented in the Exod. ?4:i5^-i8«;
34 : 29-35.
Levitical ritual ? How is the majesty of God indicated,
especially in the Priest Code? Upon what aspects of Pss. 23, 90, 91,
deity do the Psalms dwell most earnestly?
2. Man. — {a) In what way is the priestly element
especially concerned with man? (i) as an individual? c/. §383, 2, 3.
or (2) as representing the human race? or (3) as he
appears, earlier, in the Israelitish nation and later, in the
Judaistic church ? What is the position of the individual,
in contrast with that of the nation, as represented in the
Levitical ritual ? in the Psalter ?
(<5) Is it through Israel alone that God will meet the Exod. 19:6;
-ii T T 11 1 • 1 11 Deut. 26 : ig ;
world? What will be Israels relation to the world at 32:81.
large? Does the materialistic conception continue to
the end in spite of the prophetic teaching?
{c) \s iho. sinfulness of man's nature more definitely Lev. 4:35; 9:3:
and frequently expressed than any other quality ? What 16; Numb. 19: '
, - , .,.,-,. 1-9; Pss. 51 ;
is the form of expression most common in the ritual? in 90:8; 41:4;
the Psalter ?
38:3; 32:1-5.
x. Sin. — (a) Have there been different stages in the Josh., chap. 7;
, Deut. 7:25;
growth of the priestly idea of sin? What, for example, 8:19; 9:5!.;
r y ' r ' 11 : 16; 25: 13-16.
was the prevailing idea in the patriarchal time under the Lev. 4: if., 13,
, - , 27; 6: iff.;
primitive Semitic worship? What, later, when the chap. 16;
^ r ' ' Numb. 15:32 ff.
prophets have given their message ? What, still later,
when the fulness of the monotheistic conception has
come to be realized ?
{b) Is it true that the idea of sin is always and every-
where simply a corollary of the idea of God? What c/. §92, n.
connection may be traced in the development of the
priestly system between these two ideas ? How shall
we explain the growth, among the Hebrews, of the inten-
sity of feeling concerning sin?
(c) Is it true that the different Hebrew words iox sin Lev. 4:3; 16:16;
. 20: 20; Numb.
express various phases of the idea as they were recog- 15:28; Deut.
17:2.
266
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Amos 5:7. 10 ff.,
15; Hos. a: 13;
4:6; 6:6ff. ;
Lev. 18: 1-5;
15:31 ; 6: 1 ff. ;
5:i4ff.
Pss. 51 ; 36 : 1-4 ;
39:1; 53:1-
Lev., chap. 16;
5:5f.
Numb. 19: i-io.
Exod. 12:3; 16:1;
Lev. 4: 13;
Numb. 35 : 24 ;
Ps. 74:8.
Pss. 2:6; 9: II ;
48:12; 51:18;
53 : 6 ; 126 : i ;
Isa. 1 : 8 : 14 : 32 ;
28: 16; Jer. 26:
18: 50:5-
Amos 1 : 2.
Lev. 24: 8; 26: 42.
Gen. 1 : 27-30 ; 9 :
8-17; 17: 1-14;
Exod. 31 : 16 f .
Ezra 9: 1-4 ; chap.
10 ;Neh.. chaps.
9, 10; Lev. 4 :
13 ff. ; chap. 25.
Isa. 8:16-18.
Isa. 7:3; 10 : 20-
22.
Jer. 31 : 29 f .
Ezek., chaps. 18,
33, 40-48.
nized by the Hebrews ? What are the more important
of these words (in English), and what is the distinctive
meaning of each ? What, as a matter of fact, is the
meaning of the word {JiattatJi), commonly translated siti?
{d) Can a distinction be made between the priestly
and the prophetic conceptions of sin? Does Wisdom
furnish any varying ideas ? Wherein consists the difference
between the priestly conception of sin, as expressed in
the Psalter and the ritual, and that which is found in the
Assyrian penitential psalms and corresponding ritual ?
((?) How may forgiveness of sin be secured ? What
is the essential idea in the teaching concerning atone-
ment as it appears in connection with the ritual ?
4. The Church. — {a) Does this word really belong
to Old Testament thought of any school ? What is the
usage of the terms "congregation" and "synagogue"?
Is " Zion " a priestly or a prophetic word ? What general
significance does it have aside from its literal meaning ?
What is the distinctive meaning of two other common
phrases, "the Covenant people," and "the theocracy"?
{p) Was it with the inner or outer sense of the terms
cited above that the priestly element had most to do ?
Was there a time after which the inner sense received
greater consideration ?
{c) Did the great priestly narrative [P] lay stress upon
certain covenants, viz., with Adam, Noah, Abraham, and
Moses ? What bearing did these covenants have upon
the later conception of the church ?
{(i) Was Judaism a kingdom or a church ? Was the
ruling power a monarchy or a hierarchy ? Did the
priestly element, therefore, really become a church sys-
tem ? and were the institutions of worship precursors in
thought as we41 as in forin of the idea of the church ?
(if) Was the company made up of Isaiah and his dis-
ciples the first step away from the national community
to the church community? Did Isaiah's teaching of the
remnant prepare the way for Jeremiah's teaching of indi-
vidualism, and the two together thus furnish the basis
for the church idea? Did Ezekiel continue to develop
this thought in the direction of a church community
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 267
made up of those who were circumcized of heart? Were jer. 1:1; Ezek.
1 : 3.
Jeremiah and Ezekiel priests as well as prophets ?
(/) In what way did the period of the exile during
which worship in the usual sense was impossible contri-
bute to the development of the church community ?
Did this period also make more prominent the observance Cf. §§ ns and
137. 3
of the sabbath and the service of prayer? Did Ezekiel Ezek. 8:1; 14:1;
ao:i.
gather together the people for exhortation ? What indi-
cations are found, in Ezra's times and later, of the growing Ezra 10: iff.;
Neh. 9: 1 ff.
habit of assembling for prayer and for the reading and
interpretation of Scripture?
i^g) If we may understand that back and under all
institutions thought is to be found, and if we measure the
importance of the thought by the number of the institu-
tutions involved, as also by the acknowledged character
of the institutions, is it not true that the church, with all .
that it represented before the times of the Christian
church, was one of the most essential subjects of thought
in the priestly element?
§ 284. Many of the Ideals of Modern Church Life and Worship are
the direct contribution of the priestly element found in the Old Testa-
ment. The word "inheritance" is perhaps a better word in this con-
nection than "contribution." Some of these ideals are institutions;
and some, aspirations of the most holy character. Consider and
formulate in some detail the following propositions :
1. That the Christian church goes back directly to the synagogue
community.
See : J. A. Selbie, art. "Congregation," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; S. C.
Gayford, art. "Church," ibid.; Backer, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; J. A. Robinson, art.
"Church," Encyclopedia Biblica; L J. Peritz, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; Schurer,
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Division II, Vol. II, pp. 52-89,
243-52 ; Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Neuetestamentlichen Canons, Vol. II
(1883), p. 165; Idem, Einleituns in das Neue Testament, Vol. I, pp. 66 f. ; Hatch,
The Organization of the Early Christiati Churches.
2. That the Christian service of song, prayer, and exhortation goes
back to the Jewish temple ritual and the exercises of the synagogue.
See: chap, xviii; Weiszacker, The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church, Voli
II, pp. 246, 254, 258.
3. That the beginning of the modern Bible in form and idea dates
from the priestly reform of Josiah's times when Deuteronomy was
published.
268 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See: Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 89 f. ; F. H. Woods, art. "Old Testament
Canon," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Wii.deboer, The Origin of the Canon
of the Old Testament, pp. 22-25.
4. That the conception of the clergy as distinct from the laity goes
back to the Levitical priesthood.
See: §§62f.; and Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches,
pp. 141 f. ; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 87 f.
5. That the idea of the mission of the church to the world at large
goes back to the commission of Israel to be a priest nation.
See: Exod. 19:6; Isa. 42:1-7; 61:6; i Pet. 2:5, 9, and Holzinger, j5'j-(7a'Mj, p.
67 ; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, pp. 457 f. ; G. A. Smith,
The Book of Isaiah, Vol. H, pp. 237 ff.
6. That the thought of bringing God into the world comes from
the determination of the Jewish saints, under priestly influence, to live
lives of such purity and holiness as to make God introduce the messi-
anic times, of which there had been dreams, but as yet no realization.
See : Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 80 f. ; MoNTEFiORE, The
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 321 f.
7. That the highest ideals of mankind touching the soul's contact
with God have come from the experiences of Jewish saints expressed in
song for purposes of Jewish worship (/. e., the Psalms).
See : §§ 275-277 ; and Perowne, The Book of Psalms (8th ed.), Vol. I, pp. 25-40 ;
Kirkpatrick, The Book of Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. Ixxvili ff.
8. That the Lord's Supper is the continuation of the Jewish Paschal
feast.
See: Plummer, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. HI, p. 145; J. A.
Robinson, in Encyclopcedia Biblica, col. 1419.
9. That the Lord's day, Sunday, is the offspring of the Jewish sab-
bath.
See: Hessey, Sunday, its Origin, History, and Present Obligation (Bampton
Lecture, 5th. ed., 1889); H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath ("Golden Lectures"
for 1900-1901); N. J. D. White, art. "Lord's Day," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible; Zahn, Geschichte des Sonntags vornehmlich in der alten Kirche; G. A. Deiss-
MANN, art. " Lord's Day," Encyclopaedia Biblica.
10. That the Christian Easter celebration is the continuation of
the spring feast which has come down to us through the Jewish Pass-
over feast.
See: Hitzig, Ostern und Pfingsten (1837-38); Duchesne, La question des
origines du culte chretien (1889), pp. 226 ff.; Canon Venables, art. "Easter,"
EncyclopcEdia Britannica.
11. That Thanksgiving day is the modern representative of the
Feast of Tabernacles.
ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 269
See: Deut. 16:13-15; and A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast of Tabernacles,"
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Benzinger, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," Ency-
ilopadia Biblica.
12. That the more widely accepted theories of the atonement
(whether right or wrong) rest fundamentally upon the Old Testament
doctrine of sacrifice.
See: J. O. F. Murray, art. "Atonement," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;
Dale, The Doctrine of the Atonement; Wilson, Hulsean Lectures on the Atonement
(1899); ScHULTZ, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; Archibald Scott, Sacrifice, its
Prophecy and Fttlfilment {"BdAxd Lecture," 1892-93).
13. That the New Covenant, a more accurate expression for the
New Testament now commonly used, was first conceived and expressed
in its fundamental principles by an Old Testament priest (who was
also a prophet).
See : Jer. 31: 31 ff.; and A. B. Davidson, art. "Covenant," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible; McClymont, art. "New Testament," ibid.
14. That the Christian practice of fasting had its direct origin in
the usage which grew up in later Judaism.
See: §§152-154; and J. S. Black, art. "Fasting," Encyclopcedia Britannica;
Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia Biblica; C. J. Ball, art. "Fasting
and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893).
15. That the Christian rite of baptism is historically (through John
the Baptist) and logically (moral uncleanness taking the place of cere-
monial uncleanness), the successor to the Jewish rite of baptism,
practised as a means of restoration from a state of ceremonial unclean-
ness, and employed in the case of proselytes.
See : Plummer, art. " Baptism," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; J. A.
Robinson, art. "Baptism," Encyclopaedia Biblica; W. Elwin, art. "Baptism,"
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893).
§ 285. Permanent Truth of a most precious kind was wrought out
through this long laboratory process, along with much which, of
course, was temporary and ephemeral. Consider and formulate, among
other great and fundamental truths of an eternal character, those
relating to —
I. The Holiness of God, especially from the point of view of the
Levitical system, in which it occupies a fundamental position.
See: J. Skinner, art. "Holiness in the Old Testament," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible; Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. II, pp.
3-142; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlicheti Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.) pp. 325 f.;
A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 144-60; Schultz, Old Testament
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 166 ff.
270 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
2. The filthiness of sin, especially as symbolized in certain details
of the Levitical system, which undoubtedly were, however, only the
tangible representation of previous prophetic thought.
See: Koberle, Siinde und Gnade im religiosen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf
Christum (1905), pp. 325-57, 415-571; BERNARD, art. "Sin," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 203-34;. Tennant, The Origin
and Propagation of Sin; Idem, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original
Sin; Clemen, Die Christliche Lehre von der Siinde.
3. The forgiveness of sin, as illustrated by the ceremonial of the
priestly system.
See: Koberle, op. cit., pp. 597-638; Bethune-Baker, art. "Forgiveness,"
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions-
geschichte (2d ed. 1893), PP- 394-403; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 315 ff.
4. Vicarious suffering, as involved in the doctrine of sacrifice.
See: Baird, Sacrifice, its Prophecy and Fulfilment; ScHULTZ, "The Significance
of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American fournal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900),
pp. 257-313; Driver, art. "Offer, Offering," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et Pexpiation (1891).
5. The ecclesiastical state, as pictured by Ezekiel.
See : Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and the commentaries on these chapters, especially
those of Davidson (^Cambridge Bible), Kraetzschmar {Hand- Kommentar zum
Alten TVj/awffw/), Bertholet {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), B.nd
Skinner (Expositor's Bible).
§ 286. The Ethical Influence of the Priestly Element is one which
can be felt more easily than it can be described, (i) Analyze this
element and point out the various individual factors in it which, one
may believe, would tend to an ethical uplifting of those who conscien-
tiously followed the rules and regulations of the priestly ceremonial.
(2) Consider, on the other hand, the factors which might be expected
to prove injurious ethically. (3) Would some of these factors for
good vary in their influence, producing one result in certain cases, and
a different result in still other cases ? (4) What, upon the whole,
would be the general ethical influence of the system ?
§ 287. Pre-natal Christianity and the Priestly Element. — Much of
that which was later called Christianity really existed before the
coming of Jesus. This is true of teachings and ideals which were
distinctively prophetic, and of those which were characteristic of
the sage, as well as of those which were peculiarly priestly in their
origin and character. All these elements, as they existed together in
Judaism, may figuratively be called pre-natal Christianity. Endeavor
to reconstruct this embryonic Christianity, and decide what part or
portion of the whole was this priestly element, as separated from the
other elements of prophecy and wisdom.
Appe:ndixes
A. The Vocabulary of Worship; Lists of the More Important
Words.
B. Classified Lists of Important Books.
C. New Literature on the Priestly Element.
APPENDIX A.
THE VOCABULARY OF WORSHIP.
The following list, though not designed to be exhaustive, aims to
include all the more important words relating to worship and to the great
ideas that find expression in the ritual. The list of Greek equivalents
contains the various renderings employed in the Septuagint with the
exception of some of the rarer ones, and of those evidently based
upon different readings from those now found in the Massoretic Text.
nyiis bns?
7] (TKrjvrj Tov ixapTvplov
tent of meeting
n^nns
S-^Xuais, dr]\oi
Urim
n-'ign"! n^n^x
(puTiiTwv (Neh. 7:65)
Urim and Thummim
nbs
dpd, 6pKi(rpL6s, op/cos, op/cw-
oath, curse
D'lnbs
fioffla, Kardpa
6e6s^ K'jpios
God
c^ps
eoprr] (rvvreXeias
ingathering, harvest
n©s
opia/jLos
^ f(povS, i^u)8, iiru/xls (or iiruj-
binding oath, vow
rriss
/xt'Ses, Exod. 28:8; 39:5),
nisx'
ieparela (Hos. 3: 4), (TtoXtj
(2 Sam. 6:14; I Chron.
, 15:27)
- ephod
"^s^
o-7ro56s, ffirodia, KOirpia. (Job
2:8)
ashes
■jinx
ark
r\m
dvffla, 0v(xiacriJ.a, Kdpirwixa,
Kdpiroffis, oXoKa^Tu/jLa
an offering made by fire
um
TrXTifjineXeii', d/xapTaveii', dy-
v6eiv
offend, be guilty
um
■!rX7]fip.^X€ia, dyuoia, TrXiju/jLi-
offense, trespass, guilt,
X77^a, TrXTifji.fj.^Xr](ns, d/xap-
rla
trespass offering
□t?N
TrXrjfifieXeiv, iv dfiapriais elvai
(Gen. 42:21)
guilty
n-gm
dyvoia, d/xapria, irXTj/jL/xeXeTv,
irX7jixfj.^X€ia
wrongdoing, guilt
nnics
dXaos, 'Affrdprri (2 Chron.
15:16; 24:18)
Asherah (A. V., " grove ")
13
)3d5, ^va-ffivos^ dyios (Ezek.
10:6,7)
white linen
273
274
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
nnr
nnr
©in
nfn
x-in
«ian
TO. TrpwToy€vv7jij.aTa, rd Trpoj- first-fruits
rdyova
\j\j/r)\bv {vyprjX-f)), ^afid, a^afxa high-place
(Ezek. 20:29), ^usix6%,
(TTrfKr), v\pos. ^ovi>6s, (Ps.
78:58; I Kings 10:13),
et8o)\ou (Ezek. l6:l6)
IffXvpbs, d<rTeros (Judg. 3:17), fat
eKXeKT6s, ttoxi^s (Ezek.
34:3)
bia.dr)Ki) covenant
evKoyla., evXoyeiv, ev\oyriT6s blessing
rjSucr^ta, Ovfxiafxa, dff/xr] rjSeia spice, balsam
K\ijpos, KXripofOfxia, Spiov,
6vofia
f^i/os, irdpoiKos, yrjupas. irpo-
crriXvTos, yelruv
el5u\a, eirLTr)devp.aTa, /35e-
\vyfj.aTa, Siavoi^/xara, iv-
Bv/xTQfiaTa
da^eip, 8a^eip, da^lp, paos
a'lfxa
xl6t7]S, to, dyaOd, <nro56s,
ffiroSla, KaraKdpTTijxns
vab^^ otKOS
dveiv, dvffid^eiv, crcpd^eiv,
6vfj.idv, dvfiid^eiv, irpoff-
(p^peiv (Deut. 17:1), iK^^-
Tetv (2 Chron. 28:23)
0v/j.a, dv<xia, 6v(Tla<r/ia, dvp,l-
OLixa, <r(f)dyiov (Am. 5:25),
oXoKai/TW/ua (Exod. 10:25)
eOpTT)
ioprd^eiv
firjv, veop.rtvia, vov/xTjvla, foprr)
ffTTjdvpiov, ffirap (Lev. 7:30)
dfjLapTaveiv. i^aixaprdveiv, d5t-
Kelv, ivvoeiv KaKd, diap-aprd-
veiv, ^K/cXiceu', icpa/xaprd-
veiv, fxiaiveiv, i^dyeiv
d<f>ayvi^eiv, dyvi^eiv, i^iXd-
ffK€(r6ai., Kadapl^eii-, pavri-
boil, seethe
lot
sojourner, stranger
idols
shrine, innermost room in
Solomon's temple
blood
fatness, fat ashes
temple
slaughter for sacrifice
sacrifice
feast, pilgrim-feast
make a pilgrimage, cele-
brate a feast
new moon, month
breast of animals
to sin
to atone, make expiation
for
APPENDIXES
275
xi2n
2bn
npn ,pn
Din
■jTCn
"inr!
siai:
ns^-j ,ns^t2
bsi^
"ins
ins
afxapTv\6s, dvofxos, dcre^rjs,
dfjLapTdvwv
duapria, dvofiia
dfiapria, a,iJ.dpTrjfj.a, dpS/xijixa,
dffi^fia, dvofiia, dcr^^rifia,
ddiKla, fxeraKivria't.s (Zech.
13:1), KaKla (Jer. 15 = 13),
Kapdla (Ps. 32:5), iJ-draLos
(i Kings 16:2)
iXafffidf, e^i\a<rix6f, ayvKT-
fioi, dyviffna
/TT^ap, /xi;eX6j (Gen. 45:18),
yaXd (Ps. 119:70; Ezek.
34:3)1 o-irapxv (Numb.
18: 29, 30, 32), 0v(Tla (i
Kings 8:64), (7dp/cos(Ezek.
44:7)'
vo/xos, TrpdffTayfia, diKalu/xa,
rb v6fXL/M)v, evToXri, Kpifxa.
diacrroXri, Tpowq^ cvma^is,
, ddcTLS
dpaT€6eiJiaT(.<TfJi,evov, dvddejj-a,
dvddrjfxa, d^dpicrna, diru-
Xeta, dtroWietv, ffay^vr],
e^o\6dpev/xa (i Kings
15:21), 6\^0pios (1 Kings
20:42)
\oyeiov, \6yt.oi>, TreptcTridiov,
Tro8ripT]s
fSdirreiv, fioMveiv
Kadapbv etvai, dfienTrrov eluai.
Kadapii^ecrdai, dy vi^eiv, d(pa-
yvi^ecrdai
AKddapTov ehaL, aKdOaprov
ylveffOai, iKfiialveadai, /jLiai-
veiv (to defile), j3€pr]\ovv
(to defile), dKaOapirla,
/xiavcrcs
dKaOapcria, aKdOapros, dwo-
Kad-qfiivTi, jxlavcns (Lev.
13: 44), fjLiaipeiv
&(p€<ns, d(pi<reu}s (Triij.a<Tia,
a-ijfxaffia, (7d\7ri7|, d<pai-
peffii (Numb. 36:4)
ijtrap
iepevs
oXoKavTUfxa, oXdKavTos
Xt^p-apifx. (2 Kings 23:5),
ol iepet'j (Zeph. 1:4)
sinful, sinner
y sm
J- sin-offering
fat
a statute
devoted thing, ban
breast-piece, or sacred
pouch
to dip, immerse
be clean, pure
be or become unclean
uncleanness
ram, ram's horn
liver
priest
holocaust
idol-priests
276
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
IB?
i^L\d.cra(T0ai,l\(io-K€<T6ai.,d<pU-
vai (Isa. 22:14), i^af"",
Kadapi^eLv (Exod. 30:10),
irepiKadapl^eiv (Isa. 6:7),
e(c/ca0ap^fet«'{Deut.32:43),
d^CfjoOi' (Isa. 18:23), d7td-
feif (Exod. 29:33)
to atone
id's
dWayfia, i^LXafffxa, irepiKd-
dap/jia, Xvrpov
atonement, ransom
^1^^
i\a<TT-/ipiov, i^iXafffxds
propitiatory
nins
Xepou/3ei/i, x^poi'^"", X^"
/)ou/3tj'
cherub
nphs
XtTwv, ffToKij (Isa. 22: 21)
tunic
-iri^
Kaipos, iopT'/i, &pa, ffwrayrj
appointed time, meeting-
(Judg. 20:38), iraj'TjYupts,
place
p.apTvpla^ 6poi (Exod. 9:5)
nar-a
dvffLaffTrjpi.ov, /3w/a6j
altar
n'i^T^
i/'oX/u.6s, 0/i»'r7(Tts, ai'^'fO'is,
T^pas (Isa. 24: 16), (jJ8i)
melody, psalm
P^T^
(pidXr), icrxdpo- (2 Chron.
bowl, basin
4:11), KaXvirrrip (Numb.
_
4:1.4)
Tifn^ s^^
reXeiovv rds x«pas, ifjLirnrXdv
rds xf'P'is (Exod. 28:41),
irX-qpoOv rds X^'pas, fft^-
TrXdvat rdj x^'P"' (Ezek.
install, consecrate
43:26), T€TeXetw/x^;'os (Lev.
consecrated
21:10)
n^x^iq
reXeioxris, irXripwffis, yXv<f>-^
installation
Din;?br)
Xa^iSes, eirapv<TTT]p (Exod.
tongs
25:38), iirapv(7Tpls (l
Kings 7:49)
nriD'a
Ovffia, duipov, dvalaffixa, ^4-
gift, offering, grain-offer-
viov, TTpocrcpopd
ing
HDD^
^tJ/ct; (Isa. 30:1)
molten image
by^
TrXij/XyuAeta, dStxia, ddiTrjfxa,
ddeffia, dvofiia, dTroffTa-
ffia, dirdcTTacns, d<rvi>de(rla,
X-flOy), TrapdiTTwua, wapa-
^aiveiv (Lev. 26:40)
transgression
iipy^
rov, iK<f)6piov (MaL 3:10),
dTTopx^ (Deut. 12:6)
tenth part, tithe
T ■• -
crrjXri, ffTrjXcoffis (2 Kings
18:18), (rT0Xos(Jer.43:l3),
vvdffTaffis (Ezek. 26:11),
O'/iKV (Isa. 6:13)
pillar, sacred stone
APPENDIXES
277
Temp's
nnTpp
t2ETt512
ni3
115
nsD
&^v/xos, TO. d^v/xa
ivToXrj, evToK/xa, irp6<TTayfi.a,
vSfjios (Prov. 6: 20), diKai-
Wjna (i Kings 2:3), Kplffis
(Deut. ii:i), pwa (Frov.
3:1), 0WV17 (Deut. 28:9,
13), 656s (Ps. 119:151)
TO dyiov, ayiao'Tripiov, rb
lepbv, rb rjyiaap.ii'OJ', ayia-
fffia, d7ta(7/x6s, TeXerri
dpves, iaTeaT(t}p.^voL
Xpinv^ d\ei(p€iv, Siaxp^eLV
Xpl(Tp.a, Xpi-<^i-s, xP'O'^o"
(XKrivrj, crKrjvwiJia, KaracTK'^vu}-
crts, oiKos, crvvayuiyr)
(pvXaKi^, Trpo^fXa/CTj, irpo-
(pvXa^, i(prjp.epia, irpbcr-
rayp-a, <pv\ayp.a, dta-
TTjprjtris, dirodTjKri, irapep.-
^oK-f)
Kpicris, Kpip.a, KpLTTipiov, crvy-
Kpi(7ii, diKaiuJcrcs, diKaLu}p,a,
diKaLUJcriivT], SIkt], iKd[Kr](ns,
Stdro^ts, crvvTa^is, wpbcr-
rayfia
dCjpov, dbfxa, 56(ris
eKOi^erioc, d6p.a, atpectj, d0at-
pep.a (Exod. 35:29), bfxo-
Xoyla, 6p.o\6yus (Hos.
14:5), cr(pdywv (Lev.
22:23)
Xi^pi-cp-bs, ixeTaKivrjcns, pera-
Kivovpevos, diroKad-qpivrj^
aKadapala, opeldicrpa, d<pe-
dpos, pavTicrp-ds, dyvi(rp.6i
evxVi bpxiXoyia, dQpov
eii^dp-evos, Naf/p, rjyia(Tp.ivos,
va^ipaTos, dyveia, dyios,
dyia.(TpJ)s
evxv, dyvicrpbs, dyvela, dyios,
dylacypa, Kadayi.d^€Lv
'Neecrddv
(TTTOvSr)
Na^ifi'yu, ^adavlp, 'NadLvaioi,
'Adivelp. (Ezra 8:17), oi
dedop4voi
pirpOV, p.€Tp7]T'/lS, olcpi
unleavened bread
commandment
sacred place, sanctuary
failings
anoint
anointing
tabernacle
watch, charge
judgment
gift
voluntary offering
impurity
vow
one consecrated, devoted,
a Nazirite
consecration, Naziriteship
the bronze serpent
drink-offering
Nethinim
a measure of flour or of
grain
278
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
nbo
i7
I
bos
^^ys
dXet0eii', XP^^^"
cre/jLidaXis
TTapa^alvuj. Tra.pipxoiJ.ai, iy-
KaTaXelTreiv, irapairopeve-
(rOai
avvayuyri
oXoKavTu/xa, oXokuvtwo'is,
KapiruxTLi, oXoKapTTwcris,
Kapirufxa. bXoKa.pirwp.a, 6v-
ffia, avacpopd. dvd(3a<n.i
ddiKia, ddiKr]jxa, dfiaprLa,
dp-dpTTjixa, dvo/jila, dvb-
p.7]fxa, wapavofj-la, (Frov.
5:22), KaKia (I Chron.
21:8; Jer. 13:22 ; 16: 18),
dffi^eia (Ezek. 33 : 9),
aiVia (Gen. 4:13).
etSwXoi', 7Xii7rT6;'
iepela (2 Kings 10:20), depa-
ireia (Joel 1:14; 2:15),
dpyeia (Isa. IU4), ffvvoSos,
e^68iov, Trav-qyvpis
7rapaTd(T<T€iv, (rroiPd^eLV,
{Trt(TT0ij3d^eiv, iroLpLd^eLv,
TrapacrKevd^€Lv{lsa.. 50:42),
irpoTidivaL, TrpoffTiOivai
(Exod. 40:23; Lev. 24:8),
eiriTidivai (Gen. 22 : 9),
KOffiJuelv (Ezek. 23:41),
atpeiv (i Chron. 12:8),
irapLcrrdvai, iffoOv, ofwiovv
(Ps. 40: 5; Isa. 40:18),
^oTjdelv (I Chron. 12:36),
dvaXa/j.^dveiv (Jer. 43 : 3),
iirLTpiwei.v (Job 32:14),
Kaleiv ( Exod. 27:21; Lev.
24:2, 3), K^vreiv (Job 6: 4),
Tifj.dv, TLpoypd(p€iv (2
Kings 23: 35)
deKaroCv
S^Karov
p.ia(rp.a, ddvrop, /3^/37jXos,
H€p.oXvfj.p^vos
Trdcrxa, (pacr^K
yXvTTTdv, etdwXov, <it7aX;aa,
Trepi^dbp-iov, yXvp-fxa. dKwv
anoint
fine flour
transgress
congregation
whole burnt-offerinc
iniquity
idol
assembly
arrange, set in order (the
parts of a sacrifice)
to tithe
tenth part
unclean thing, refuse
passover
idol, image
bell on high priest's robe
APPENDIXES
279
nDIS KaraweTacrfxa
yttjs
ytjs
ma
Ti'lp
ncjp
CDp
nsTT
adireiv, affi^eiv, atpicrravai
avofxeiv, ddiKelv, d/xapTa-
vetv, irXavdv, dyo/xos, 7ra-
pdvo/jLOS, d/xapria, wapa-
dff^l3eLa, ddiKia, dSlKijiJia,
dfiapria, dp.dprriiJ.a, dvo-
fiLa, dv6fj,7}p.a, irapdirTWfia,
ir\dvr), dyvoia
vrjcrreia
vrjcTTeveiv, dcnrelv
eiKtibv, 6/uotw/Lta, eidwXov, t6-
iros
dyLos, KdOapbi, ijyLacrfiivos
dyidi^eLV, dyvl^eiv, KaOapl^etv
(Job 1:5), do^d^eiv (Isa.
5.16), diaar^Weiv (Jos.
20:17), Kadayid^eiv, dva-
^i^d^eiv (Jer. 51:28)
dyios, dyiwffvprj, dyiacrixa,
dyid^eiv, dyia.<xp.b$^ dyvi-
irdpvr]
iKK\r]<Tia, crvvayuiyrj, ^x^os,
avviSpLov (Prov. 26:26),
crwratrts (Gen. 49 : 6),
irXrido's (Exod. 12:6; 2
Chron. 31:18), Xaos (i
Kings 12:3)
Ovfiidv, dv/jLid^eiv, i-mTidevai,
Oveiv, dva<p^p€LV, ■Kpo(T(pi-
peiv, iindveiv, dvaid^eiv
(Exod. 40:27)
Ovfiiafxa. ffvvdecTLS
HavTcla, fxavreiov, olu)vi.cr/J.a
BQpov, /cX^poj (Neh. 10:34)
ocTyttTj, d(T(ppaaia. (Hos. 14:7)
ocr/xTj €Vb}5las
6pKos, ivdpKLos (Numh. ^-.21),
evopKos (Neh. 6:18).
ad^^aTov, (rd^^ara, e/35o/xd5,
e/35o/xos, dvdiravcns
(rdXiriy^, Keparlvr]
(TOJTripiov, dp-r)VLK6v, Ovaia
acjTriplov, cruTT^pla, to toO
(TwrripLov
curtain (in tabernacle be-
fore Most Holy Place)
to rebel, transgress
transgression
fasting, fast
to fast
image
sacred, holy
set apart, consecrate,
dedicate
sanctit}', holiness
temple-prostitute
assembly, congregation
offer burnt-offering, offer
incense
smoke, odor, incense
divination
offering, oblation
scent, odor
soothing odor
oath
sabbath
trumpet
thank-offering, peace-
offering
280
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
nsrin
kXaiov, &\€Lfj.fjia, trluv
erosr^sd0^(reu>s(Deut.i5:9),
iviavrds d(p^aeus (Deut.
31:10)
atuecns, eiraivos, iifivos, yav-
pla/xa, KaiJXVf^o.i o.peT-q^
56^a, evdo^os, viJ.vr](Tis
g.Swv, afvecris, evx'^ X'^PMOCi^-
I'ljy, i^opLo\6yr]<Tis
/SSAfYyLia, ciKadapcria, aKci-
dapTos, dvofila
vd/ios, ivTokr}, rb v6fUfiov
7rpoa-€Vxv, ^^XV, 54r)<ns, vp.-
vos
dTrapxv, d.(paiptpia, d(p6pi(Tp.cL,
d^opi(Tix6$, ei(T(popd
eiduXa, 6epa(plv, 8r]\oL (Hos.
3 : 4), ra Kevordipia ( I Sam.
19:13), TO. yXvirrd (Ezek.
21: 21), oi diro<pd€yy6p.evoL
(Zech. 10: 2)
oiKTipfi6s, d^yjcns, wapaKXTjcris
84ri(n,s, eXeos, wpocrevxVf P^V
dX-^deia, TO. reXeia (Ezek.
2:63)
d-jrapxv- ("Tidep-a, d(palpepa,
dTr6Sofj.a, d<p6pi<7pa, d6pa
fat, oil
year of release
praise, song of praise
thanksgiving, praise
abomination
direction, instruction, law
prayer
gift-offering
Teraphim
petition
favor, request
Thummim
wave-offering
APPENDIX B.
IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
I. Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias.
J. Hastings, A Dictionary of the Bible, Vols. I-IV (1898-1902), with an extra volume,
containing supplementary articles, indexes, and maps (1904).
T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vols. I-IV (1899-1903).
W. Smith, A Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893).
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie fi'tr protestantische Theologie und Kirche (3d ed.
1896 £E.; fourteen volumes have now been published).
II. Introductions to Old Testament Literature.
S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897).
J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1900).
J. E. Carpenter, The Composition of the Hexateuch (1902).
C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897).
W. E. Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893, 1898).
W. R. Smith, The Old Testantent in the Jewish Church (2d ed. 1892).
C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1896).
APPENDIXES 281
H. HOLZINGER, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893).
W. VON Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alien Tesiametites (1901).
E. KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893).
A. KUENEN, Hisiorisch-critisch Onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verzameling van
de boeken des Oudeti Verbonds, 3 vols. (2d ed. 1885-89). German translation,
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1887-92).
English translation of Vol. I, The Hexateuch (1886).
G. WiLDEBOER, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de tijdsorde van haar
ontstaan (1893; 3d ed. 1903). German translation, Die Litteratur des Alten
Testaments (1895).
C. Steuernagel, Allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1900).
III. Hebrew Institutions and Archaeology.
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885).
A. Scott, Sacrifice, Its Prophecy and Fulfillment (" Baird Lecture," 1892-93).
W. VON Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestatnentlichen Priesterthums (1889).
W. NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdiscken Archdologie (1894).
I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894).
IV. Semitic Institutions and Archaeology.
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Setnites (1889 ; 2d ed. 1894).
G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins — Social and Religious (1902).
W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885 ; 2d ed. 1903).
Morris Jastrow, Jr., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898). German
translation, being a revised and enlarged edition of the English; Vol. I (1905).
L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (1899).
A. H, Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (1902).
S. I. CURTISS, Primitive Semitic Religion To-Day (1902).
\^Y.V.'L\l\\JS>^^,Reste des arabischen Heidenthums {^= Skizzen und Vorarbeitett, Vol. Ill,
1887; 2d ed. 1897.)
Lagrange, £tudes sur les religions Semitiques (1903).
ScHWALLV, Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer, Heft I (1901).
Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 2 vols. (1876, 1878).
Baethgen, Beitrdge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1888).
V. The Code of Hammurabi and Hebrew Legislation.
R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi (1904).
C. H. W. Johns, The Oldest Code of Laws in the World (1903).
C. H. W. Johns, Article "The Code of Hammurabi," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible (Extra Volume, 1904).
S. A. Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi {igOT,).
C. Edwards, The Hatnmurabi Code and the Sinaitic Legislation (1904).
C. F. Kent, "The Recently Discovered Civil Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World,
Vol. XXI (1903), pp. 175-90.
A. H. Sayce, "The Legal Code of Babylonia," American fournal of Theology (1904),
pp. 256-66.
262 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
D. H. Lyon, "The Structure of the Hammurabi Codt,''^ Journal of the American
Oriental Society, VoL XXV (1904), pp. 248-65.
V. SCHEiL, Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902).
V. SCHEIL, La lot de Hamt?turabi (1904).
H. WiNCKLER, Die Gesetze Hatntnurabis (1903).
H. V^VtiCVLUEK, Die Gesetze Hammurabis in Umschrift und Uebersetzung herausgegeben.
Dazu Einleitung, u. s. w. {1904).
J. KoHLER UND F. E. Peiser, Hammurabi's Gesetz, Vol. I : Uebersetzung, juristische
Wiedergabe, Erlduterung (1903).
D. H. MiJLLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis und ihr Verhdltnis zur Mosaiscken Gesetz-
gebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903).
H. Grimmk, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903).
S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903).
J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (1903).
G. CoHN, Die Gesetze Hammurabi's {1903).
A. Rosenbacher, Moses und Hammurabi (1904).
Ed. Konig, "Hammurabis Gesetzgebung und ihre religionsgeschichtliche Trag-
weite," Beweis des Glaubens (1903), pp. 169-80.
Lagrange, "Le code de Hammurabi," Revue biblique (1903), pp. 27-51.
VI. Old Testament Theology and Religion.
H. SCHULTZ, Old Testament T/ieology (German, 1869; 5th ed. 1896; English, 1892).
C. G. Montefiore, T/ie Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892),
A. Duff, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1891, 1900).
A. Kuenen, The Religion of Israel, j, vols. (Dutch, 1869-70; English translation,
1882-83).
A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament (1904).
J. Robertson, The Early Religion of Israel {" Bsiird Lecture," 1889).
Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament (1S86; English translation, 1893).
K. BuDDE, The Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899).
T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898).
R. Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeshichte (1893 ; 2d ed. 1899).
K. Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897).
A. DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895).
APPENDIX C.
NEW LITERATURE ON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
P. 63, note I — on Hexateuchal Analysis, etc.: H. G. Mitchell, The World Before
Abraham (1901); Driver, Commentary on Genesis (1904); C. F. Kent, Beginnings of
Hebrew History (1904); Tesch, Setzt der Prophet Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus
(1895); Paul Vetter, "Die Zeugnisse der vorexilischen Propheten iiber dem Penta-
teuch," Theologische Quartalschrift Vol. LXXXIII (1901), pp. 94-112, 187-207.
P. 71, § 71 — on The Priest: J. Taylor, art. " Nethinim," Hastings's Dictionary
of The Bible (1900); A. Walker, "The Levitical Priesthood — a Study in Social Tit-
xtXa-pmeni," Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 124-31; Benzinger,
art. " T>iei\\m\m.," Ettcyclopesdia Biblica (1902); W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet,
APPENDIXES 283
art. "Priests," ibid.; W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, art. " Levites," ibid.; Graf
VON Baudissin, art. "Priests and Levites," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible {\^02);
Frants Buhl, art, " Hoherpriester," Realencyklopiidie fiir protestantische Theologie
und Kirche Vol. VIII, {3d ed. 1900).
P. 72, §72, topic 6 — on The Priest in other Semitic Nations: W. H. Bennett,
art. " Molech, Moloch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (igoo) ; G. F. MoORE, art.
"Moloch," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. "Nature-Worship," z/^z^.; Idem,
art. "Tithes," ibid.; J. Jeremias, art. "Ritual," ibid.; M. J. Lagrange, "Les pretres
babyloniens d'apres une publication r^cente," Revue biblique, 1901, pp. 392-413;
Spiegelberg, Der Stabkultus bei den Agyptern (1903); W. Wreszinski, Die Hohen-
priester des Amon (1904).
P. 80, § 81, — on The Place of Worship : L.W. Batten, "The Sanctuary at Shiloh
and Samuel's Sleeping Therein," Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp.
124-31; O. C. Whitehouse, art. " Pillar," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (igoo);
G. F. Moore, art. " High Place," Encycloptrdia Biblica (1901); G. A. Deissmann, art.
"Mercy Seat," 2(^?V. (1902); G.F.Moore, art. " Massebah," ibid.; Benzinger, art.
"The Brazen Sea," z'^zV. (1903); G. H. Box; art. " Temple, Temple Service," ?<5zfl'.,*
Benzinger, art, "Tabernacle," ibid.; T. W. Davies, art. "Temple," Hastings's Dic-
tionary of The Bible (1902); A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Sanctuary," ibid.; Idem, art.
"Tabernacle," ibid.; J. T. Marshall, art. "Shekinah," ibid.; A. H. Sayce, "Recent
Biblical Archaeology; Tree and Pillar Cult," Expository Times, Vol. Xlll (1902) pp.
309 f.; W. E. Barnes, art. "Jachin and Boaz," Journal of Theological Studies, 1904,
pp. 447-51; J. Meinhold, Z^zV Lade Jahves (1900); Idem, "Die Lade Jahves; ein
Nachtrag," Theologische Studien und Kritiken Vol. LXXIV (1901), pp. 593-607; A.
LoTZ, Die Bundeslade (1901); K. Budde, "Die Urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade
Jahves," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche IVissenschaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 193-7;
W. RiEDEL, "Der Kultusort nach dem Bundesbuch, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen
(1902), pp. 48-5 1; M.Verne, " Notes sur les sanctuaires de la region chananeenne
qui furent frdquentes concurrement par les Israelites et les nations voisines," Revue
de Phistoire des religions. Vol. XLIII (1901), pp. 352-54; P. TORGE, Ascherah und
Astarte (1902); A. Buchler, Das Synedrium in Jerusalem und die grosse Beth-Din
in der Quader-Kammer des Jerusalem- Tempels (1902); J. Yk'ESiTE.'L, Baugeschichte der
jiidischen Heiligtiimer, und die Tempel-Salomos (1904).
Pp. 90 ff., §94 — on Sacrifice: Cheyne, art. "IncQuse," Encyclopcedia Biblica
(1901); W. P. Paterson, art. "Sacrifice," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902);
S. I. CURTiss, " Discoveries of a Vicarious Element in Primitive Semitic Sacrifice," Ex-
positor, 6th series, Vol. VI (1902), pp. 128-34; Idem, "The Origin of Sacrifice among
the Semites," ibid. (1904), pp. 461-72; S. R. Driver, art. "Propitiation," Hastings's
Dictionary of The Bible (1902); S. Langdon, " History and Significance of Carthagi-
nian Sacrifice," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIII (1903), pp. 79-93; G. F.
Moore, art. "Sacrifice," Eticyclopcedia Biblica (1903); R. de la Grasserie, "Du
role sociale du sacrifice religieux," Revue de Phistoire des religions, July-August, 1901;
J. C. Matthes, " Zoenoff ers," 7>j'/i?r'j Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. II (1904), pp. 69-92.
Pp. 104 ff., §106 — on Feasts: Cheyne, art. "Purim," Encyclopcedia Biblica (iqo2);
Benzinger, artt. "New Moon," "New Year," "Passover," "Pentecost," Encyclopedia
Biblica (1902), and "Feast of Tabernacles," ibid. (1903); A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast
of Tabernacles," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); J. A. McClymont, art.
284 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
" Purim," ibid.; J. E. H. Thomson, "The Samaritan Passover," Palestine Exploration
Fund, Vol. XXXIV (1902), pp. 82-92; Belleli, "The High Priest's Procession on
the Day of Atonement," Jewish Quarterly Review, October, 1904; W. Riedel, "Die
drei grossen judischen ¥e%\.G," Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen (1902), pp. 52-63; Fr.
Buhl, art. "Laubhiittenfest," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche,
Vol. XI (3d ed. 1902), pp. 303-6; HoCHFELD, "Die Entstehung des Hanukafestes,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestatnentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 264-84; S.
Hanover, Das Festgesetz der Samaritaner nach Ibrahim ibn Ja'kub (1904); B. D.
Eerdmans, " De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift {i<)0^), pp. 17-41.
Pp. 114 ff.,§ 120 — on Sabbath: Toy, "Earliest Form of the Sz.hha.i'h," Journal of
Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 191 ff.; W. R. Smith and Benzinger, art. "Jubilee,"
Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); Driver, art. "Sabbath," Hastings's Dictionary of The
Bible {iqQ2); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Sabbatical Year," ibid.: W. R. Smith,
Marti, and Cheyne, art. "Sabbath," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1903); T. G. Pinches,
"Sapattu, the Babylonian Sabbath," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology,
Vol. XXVI (1904), pp. 51-56; W. Riedel, '■'■ Yi&x ?)2.\)\i2X\\;' Alttestameniliche Unter-
suchungen (1902), pp. 74-89; Bohn, Der Sabbat itn Alien Testament (1903).
Pp. 126 ff., § 134 — on Clean and Unclean: A. Macalister, artt. "Leprosy" and
"Medicine," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); A. R. S. Kennedy, artt.
"Food" and "Meals," Encyclopcedia Biblica (igoi); C. Creighton, artt. "Leprosy,
Lepers," and "Medicine," ibid.; A. S. Peake, art. "Unclean, Uncleanness," Hast-
ings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); S. A. CooK, "Israel and Totemism," y<?ww/4
Quarterly Review, Vol. XIV (1902), pp. 413-48; Fr. Vinc. Zapletal, Der Totem-
ismus und die Religion Israels (1901) ; L. G. Levy, "Du totemisme chez les H^breux,"
Revue des etudes juives. Vol. XLV (1902), pp. 13-26.
Pp. 133 f., § 139 — on Prayer: J. A. Selbie, art. "Praise," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible (1902); E. R. Bernard, art. " Prayer," ibid.; Cheyne, art. "Prayer,"
Encyclopcedia Biblica (1902); Justus Koberle, Die Motive des Glaubens und der
Gebetserhorung im Alien Testament {\goi).
P. 135, § 142 — on Vows: W. H. Bennett, art. "Rechabites," Hastings's Dic-
tionary of the Bible (1902); A. S. Peake, art. "Vow," ibid.; W. R. Smith and T. K.
Cheyne, art. "Nazirite," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Vows,
Votive Offerings," ibid.
Pp. 140 f., § 151 — on The Oath: M. A. Canney, art. "Oz.\.\i," Encyclopcedia Biblica
(1902).
Pp. 142 f., § 154 — on Fasting: Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia
Biblica {1901); J. J. P. Valetun, "Jets over Israelietischen Vastendagen," Theologisch
Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXV (1901), pp. 521-29; M. Th. Houtsma, "Nog eenmal de
Israelietische Vastendagen," ibid.. Vol. XXXVI (1902), pp. 334-41.
P- 145. § 157 — on Oracles, Ephod, etc.: T. C. Foote, "The Y.'^'\\oA," Journal of
Biblical Literature, Vol. XXI {1902), pp. 1-47; A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Urim and
Thummim," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible {igoz); G. F. Moore, art. "Urim and
Thummim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); Elhorst, "De Ephod," Teyler's Theolo-
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. II, No. 2 (1904).
Pp. 146 f., §160 — on Magic and Divination: O.C.Whitehouse, art. "Soothsayer,
Soothsaying, Sorcery," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, (1902); H. Zimmern and
APPENDIXES 285
Davies, art. "Magic," E^icydopadia Biblica (1902); Cheyne, art. "Serpent," §§3 ff.,
ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Teraphim," ibid.; F. Schmid, "Die Zauberei und die
BiheX," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, Vol. XXVI, pp. 107-30; H. DvH^i, Die
bosen Geister im Alten Tesfa/zieni (igo^).
Pp. 148 f., § 163 — on Mourning Customs, etc.: Morris Jastrow, "The Tearing
of Garments as a Symbol of Mourning," Journal of the American Oriental Society,
Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 23-39; R- H- Charles, art. " Eschatology," Encyclopedia
Biblica (1901); Benzinger, art. " Mourning Customs,'" ibid.; M. Jastrow, "Baring
the Arm and Shoulder as a Sign of Monming,''^ Zeitschrijt ficr die alttesta>nentliche
IVissenschaJt, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 1 17-20; J. A. Beet, "The Immortality of the
Soul: Before Christ," Expositor, Sixth Series, Vol. Ill, pp. 50-61; J. Garnier, Wor-
ship of the Dead (1904); J. C. Matthes, " Rouw en doodenvereering in Israel," Theolo-
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIV (1900), pp. 97-128, 193-224; Vol. XXXV (1901), pp.
320-49; J. Wohlgemuth, Z)?V Unsterblichkeitslehre in der Bibel (igoi); G. Beer, Z'^r
biblische Hades {ig02); Sartori, Die Speisung der Toten (1903); C L. Deletra,
Recherches stir les vestiges d^un culte des morts chez les anciens Hebreux {igo'^) ; J.
SCHREINER, Elysium und Hades (1903); F. Roux, Essai sur la vie apr'es la mart chez
les Israelites (1904); F. Hrozny, "Zur Hollenfahrt der Istar," Wiener Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Aforgenlandes {igo^), pp. 323-30; G. WissoWA, "Die Anfange des
romischen l^z.xtn\i.\i\its," Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft [igo^), pp. 42-57; A. LODS,
"Les Israelites croyaient-ils a la vie future?" Revue chretienne (1904), pp. 283-300,
359-76-
Pp. 150 f., §166 — on Circumcision: H. Gunkel, "Ueber die Beschneidung im
alten Testament," ^r(:/«V//c> Papyrus-Forschung,N o\. II (1902), pp. 13-21; P. Wend-
LAND, "Die hellenistischen Zeugnisse iiber die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp.
23-31; Ulrich Wilcken, "Die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 4-13; Kutna,
"Studien iiber die Beschneidung, IV," Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft
des Judentums, Vol. XLVI (1902), pp. 193-205.
Pp. 167 ff , § 181 — on The Deuteronomic Code: Cullen, The Book of the Cove-
nant in Moab (1903); S. Fries, Der Gesetzschrift des Konigs Josia (1903).
Pp. 180 ff., chaps, xiv and xv — on The Priestly Document : Driver, art. " Law,"
Hastings's ZJ/c/zowary of the Bible (igoo); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Leviti-
cus," ibid.; Idem, art. " Numbers," ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclo-
pedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. "Numbers," ibid.; G. B. Gray, Commentary 071
Numbers ("International Critical Commentary," 1903); J. Halevy, "Influence du
Code Sacerdotal sur les prophetes," Revue semitique. Vol. IX (1901), pp. 1-6;
Holzinger, Numeri erkldrt ("Kurzer Handkommentar," 1903); Erbt, Die Sicher-
stellung des Monotheismus (1903).
Pp. 225 ff., § 245 — on Ezra and Nehemiah : W. H. Kosters and T. K. Cheyne,
art. "Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); A. E. CowLEY, art. "Samaritans,"
ibid. (1903); P. RiESSLER, "ijber Nehemias und Esdras," Biblische Zeitschrift, 1904,
pp. 15-27, 145-53-
Il^DEX
INDEX
Altar, 2, 16, 74 f., 76.
Aramaic sections of Ezra-Nehemiah
AND Daniel, 229.
Ark, 2, 16, 18, 20, 75, 78.
ASHERIM, 18, 20, 29.
Atonement: day of, 5, 53, 96, 103 f.,
113, 142.
Ban, 129, 138 f.; literature on, 139.
Baptism, 269.
Belief, i.
Blessings and cursings, 136-38; litera-
ture on, 137 f.
Blood: use of, 86, 89.
Bull-worship, 18.
Burnt-offering, 4, 18, 38.
Calf-worship, 20.
Canon: formation of, 34.
Centralization of worship, 76, 78, 99.
Christianity: pre-natal, 270.
Chronicles, books of, 208-17; scope of
history in, 208; date of, 208 f.; sources
of, 209-11, 216; treatment of sources
in, 211; use of genealogies in, 211 f.;
chronological and statistical character
of, 212; Hterary style of, 213; selection
of material in, 213; religion of, 213 f.;
idealistic character of, 214 f.; htera-
ture on, 215 f.; numbers in, 217.
Church-: origin of, 196; purpose of, 196;
and state, separation of, 34, 42, 43, 52.
Circumcision, 149-51; hterature on, 150 f.
Clan-god, 14.
Clean AND UNCLEAN, 32, 36, 119-30, 138;
in early period, 1 19-21; in middle
period, 121, 122; in Ezekiel, 122 f.; in
later period, 123-26; literature on, 126—
28; Hebrew words for, 129; among non-
Hebrews, 129.
Clergy: distinction between, and laity,
38, 268.
Community: Israel a religious, 43, 55;
origin of idea of, 196; purpose of, 196.
Conduct, i.
Covenant: Book of the, 25 f.; Code,
155 f-
Curse, 136 f.
Cyrus: pohcy of, 44.
Dancing, 6, 15, 19, 20, 22.
Davidic psalms, 23, 237-40.
Decalogue, 24 f.
Deuteronomy: discovery of, 29 f.; 156 f;
teaching of, 31 ff., 165; authorship of,
157-65; point of view and coloring of,
159 f.; language and style of, 160 f.;
material of, 161 f. ; its relation to other
Old Testament hterature, 162 f; and
the New Testament, 163 f.; a forgery?
164 f.; structure and general character
of, 165-67; hterature on, 167-69.
Deuteronomic writers, 167.
Divination, 17, 145-47.
Dream, 6, 17, 21.
Drink-offering, 4.
Ephod, 65, 120, 143-45.
EsDRAS I.: relation to Ezra, 228 f.
Ethics, i
EXCLUSIVENESS, 44, 55, 125 f., 175 f.
Exile: significance of, 35, 195; return
from, 39, 46, 51.
Ezekiel, 37, 39; work of, 170-79; histor-
ical background of, 170 f.; prepara-
tion of, 171 f.; prophetic work of, 172 f.;
dependence upon Jeremiah, 172;
structure and character of chaps. 40-
48, 174; genuineness of book, 174; ideas
of chaps. 40-48, 175; literature on,
177-79.
Ezra: work of, 48; relation to Nehemiah,
180, 181; introduction of law, 180 f.;
law of, what was it? 181; relation of
chaps. 40-48 to Priestly Code, 187 f.
Ezra and Nehemiah: books of, 218-29;
scope of history in, 218 f.; unity of, 220;
unity of Chronicles and, 220 f., 225;
date of, 221 f.; sources of, 222 f., 228;
treatment of sources in, 223 f.; style of,
224; religion of, 225; hterature on, 225-
28.
First-fruits, 21, 31, 49.
Fasts, 6, 36, 40, 45, 54, 103 f., 141-43.
269; literature on, 142 f.
290
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Feasts, 5, 15, 21, 32, S3> 36, 38. 53. 94-
107, 176 f.; Harvest, 18, 21, 95; Vintage,
18; at Shiloh, 19; of Ingathering, 21,
95; of Unleavened Bread, 21, 32, 33,
53> 95> 98, loi, 102; of Tabernacles,
32, 33' 40, 53 f., 95, 99, 102; of Pente-
cost, 32, 95, 96; of Weeks, 33, 53, 95,
99, 102; of Passover, 32, 38, 40, 53, 96,
98, 100, loi, 102, 113; of New Moon,
38, 40, 53, 97, 102; of New Year, 53; in
early times, 94-98; in middle period
98-100; in Ezekiel, 100 f.; in later pe-
riod, 101-4; literature on, 104-6; of
Booths, 95, 113; of Sheep-shearing,
97; special, 97; influence of, 97; of
Trumpets, 102 f., 113; of Purim, 104;
Hebrew words for, 170; among non-
Hebrews, 107.
Future life, 14.
Genealogies, in O. T., 217; in Chron-
icles, 211 f.; in P., 202 f. ; in Ezra-
Nehemiah, 229.
God, love of, 3^; conception of, 45, 95,
96, 107, 175, 188, 207; hoHness of, 45,
55, 107, 130, 176; Kingdom of,. 174 f.
Greek period, 56 f.
Hezekiah's reform, 28, 82.
High places, 2, 17, 22.
High-priest, 47, 52, 65, 70.
Histories: within the Hexateuch, 62;
priestly, 62, 195-229; origin of, 196 f.;
historical character of, 198 f.; prophetic,
197 f.
Holiness — see Clean and Unclean.
Holiness: of God, 45, 55, 265; of sanc-
tuary, 55.
Holiness Code, 63, 186.
Idolatry, 31, 35 f., 84, 90, 176.
Incense-offering, 4.
Individualism, 43, 54 f., 173.
Josiah: reform of, 30 f. ; death of, 35.
Jubilee: year of, 53, 114, 117.
Judaism, 42, 46, 52, 54 f.; Cornill on, 57.
Law: Levitical, 15, 43, 49, 50; Deutero-
nomic, 15, 29, 155-69; early, 15 f., 20,
24; codes of, 61 f.
-Laws, 7 f., 17, 19, 20, 44.
Legal literature, 155-91.
Levite, 18, 20, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 65, 66 f. ;
distinction between priest and, 39, 66 f.,
68, 69, 176.
Literalism of priests, 257.
Lord's Supper: the, 268.
Lost writings of Hebrews, 217.
Lot, 143-45.
Magic, 54, 137, 145-47; literature on,
146 f.
Malachi: priestly character of, 40.
Manasseh: reaction under, 29.
Marriages: mixed, 48, 49.
Meal -offering, 38.
Messianic expectations, 44.
Monotheism, 45, 55.
Moon-feasts, 18, 32, 38, 109, 112.
Mourning customs: 147-49; literature
on, 148 f.
Music, 6, 19, 20, 22, 40, 54.
Nazirite, 134 f.
Necromancy, 54.
Nehemiah: work of, 47 f.
0.\THS, 139-41 ; literature on, 140 f.
Oracles, 6, 21, 143-45; literature on,
144 f.
Passover, 32, 38, 40, 86, 96, 98, 125.
Peace-offering, 4, 38.
Pentateuch: origin of, 15, 19.
Persian rule, 51.
Personification in Old Testament,
240 f.
Pillars: sacred, 18, 20.
Place of worship, 1-3, 14, 16, 17 f.,
19 f-. 31. 33' 36, 37.. 52 f-, 74-82; in
early times, 74 f . ; in middle period, 75 f. ;
in Ezekiel, 76 f.; in later period, 77 f.;
literature on, 78-80; function of, 82.
Post-exilic period: characteristics of,
42 f.
Prayer, 6, 17, 18, 21, 22, 32, 36, 40, 45,
54, 131-34; literature on, 133 f.
Priest, 3, 16, 18, 20, 22, 31, 33 f.; 36, 37,
38, 39, 47, 52, 63-73, 126; classification
of, 70; sanctity of, 38, 68, 69, 175;
support of, 18, 31, 47, 48, 50, 65, 67,
68, 70, 84, 89 f.; in early times, 63-66;
in Deuteronomic period, 66 f . ; in Eze-
kiel, 67 f., 176; in later period, 68-70;
literature on, 70 f . ; among non-He-
brews, 72; outside functions of, 72; as
mediator, 73.
Priestly code, 62 f., 180-91; date and
authorship of, 181-85; point of view
INDEX
291
and coloring of, 182 f. ; language and
style of, 183; repetitions between P.
and other legislation, 183 f.; discrep-
ancies between P. and other legislation,
184 f.; structure and contents of, 185-
87; strata within, 185; relation of Ezek.
chaps. 40-48 to, 187 f.; principal ideas
of, 188 f.; literature on, 189-91.
Priestly element: limitations of, 257;
corruption in, 257; essential teachings
of, 264 f.; permanent truth in, 269 f. ;
ethical influence of, 270.
Priestly influence: basis of later, 195 f.
Priestly narrative in Hexateuch,
195-207; scope of, 199; gradual growth
of, 199 f . ; sources of, 200 f . ; legislation
within, 201 f.; systematic character of,
202; genealogical material within, 202 f;
statistics and dates within, 203; repe-
titiousness of, 203 f.; selection of
material in, 204 f.; theology of, 205 f.;
Uterature on, 206 f.
Priestly nation, 3, 36, 72.
Priestly system : characteristics of , 258f . ;
subjectivism of, 258; relation to proph-
ecy, 259 f. ; purpose of, 261 f. ; national
character of, 2 6if. ; relation to Messian-
ism, 263 f. ; relation to Greek thought,
264.
Prophets: Relation of P. toward wor-
ship, 22, 34, 38, 40, 62, 65, 67, 70, 73,
75, 76, 78, 84 f., 86, 90, 97, 100, 103,
109, no, 135.
Propitiation, 45, 50, 53, 54, 176, 189.
Psalm: supersciptions of, 234 f.
Psalms, 23, 233-53; of early period, 23;
literature on, 23; of second temple,
56; significance of, 56, 90; priest in, 71 ;
scope of priestly element in, 233; non-
priestly elements in, 233; problems of,
233-44; tests of Davidic, 239 f. ; Macca-
baean, 242 f . ; priestly element in, 244 ff . ;
of Ascents, 245; imprecatory, 253;
Babylonian penitential, 253.
Psalter: historical element in, 235 f.;
David's contribution to, 237 -40; the
"I" of the, 240 ff.; editorial element
in, 243 f. ; as a Book of Prayer, 246 f. ;
as a Book of Praise, 247 f. ; as a manual
of communion, 248 f.; significance of,
for priestly system, 249; Uterature on,
249-52; origin of, 252.
Reaction under Manasseh, 29; after
Josiah, 35; after rebuilding of temple,
46.
Reform of Hezekiah, 28, 82 ; of Josiah,
30 f., 267; of Nehemiah, 47 f.
Refuge: cities of, 70.
Religion: its constituent elements, i, 13;
most ancient form of Semitic, 13 f.
Revelation: channels of, i.
Sabbath, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 38, 45, 48,
49, 53, 108-18, 150; in early times,
108-10; in middle period, iiof.; in
Ezekiel, inf.; in later period, 11 2-1 4,
150; hterature on, 1 14-17; meaning of
Hebrew word, 117; among non-He-
brews, 117 f. ; origin of, 109, 118.
Sabbatical year, 21, 32, 49, 53, 109 f.,
Ill, 112, 113 f.
Sacrifice, 3-5, 14 f., 17, 18, 20 f., 22,
31. 34, 36, 38> 40, 53. 83-93, 205;
nature* of, 4, 14 f., 18, 20 f., 34, 45, 55,
84, 89; kinds of, 4 f., 38, 84, 85, 88;
materials of, 5, 88 f.; human, 21, 29,
32, 84, 86; in early period, 83-85; in
middle period, 85 f. ; in Ezekiel, 86 f.;
in later period, 8 7-90; Hterature on,
90-92; Hebrew words for, 93; among
non-Hebrews, 93; origin of, 93.
Sages: attitude of toward worship, 71,
92, 117, 128, 135, 148, 150.
Samaritans. 50 f.
Scribes, 52.
Semites: contribution of, 13.
Sennacherib's invasion, 28.
Serpent worship, 18.
Seven: use of number, 118, 140.
Sin: conception of, 55, 90, 96, 103, 107,
176, 188 f., 265!.
Sin-offering, 5.
Skepticism, 47.
Slaves: release of, 53, in.
Songs and hymns, 6 f., 17, 19, 22, 23, 40,
41. 54-
Soothsaying, 54.
Sorcery, 6, 18, 21, 22, 29, 32, 40, 137,
145-47-
Springs: as abodes of deity, 2.
Stones: sacred, 2.
Synagogue, 36, 43, 51 f., 53, 81, 267.
Tabernacle, 2, 78, 184 f.
Taboo, 120, 121, 138.
Temple, 2, 20, 37, 39, 48, 52 f., 75, 77,
78, 175; tax, 49; Samaritan, 50 f.; 81 f.
292
PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Tent of meeting, 2, 75.
Teraphim, 16, 17.
Times of worship, 5, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36,
38, 40, 53-
Tithe, 32, 40, 47, 48, 49.
ToTEMisM, 119 f., 121, 123, 124.
Tree-worship, 2, 18.
Trespass-offering, 4, 38.
Urim and Thummim, iS, 65, 67, 143-
45-
Visions, 18, 21, 171 f., 175.
Vows, 6, 17, 18, 21, 32, 40, 54, 134 f., 138;
literature on, 135.
Wave-offering, 5.
Witchcraft, 18, 20, 22, 145-47.
Wood for burnt-offerings, 49.
Worship, i, 13, 34 f.; corrupt, 47; history
of, 8, 13-57, 61; periods in history of,
13, 15 f. , 27 f.; primitive stage of, 16 f.;
Canaanitish stage of, 16, 17 iT.; proph-
etic stage of, 16, 19-22; Canaanitish
influence on, 17; Babylonian influence
on, 36 f.; Hterature of, 155.
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