CONSERVATI
trategies for the
Nineties and Beyond
\
HOrs
1
Abraham Verghese
Sridhar. S
Chakravarthy. A.K.
v-r
Minutes of the meeting on held 12th May, 1993 at the Institution of Engineers in connection with the First
National Seminar on "CHANGING SCENARIO OF BIRD ECOLOGY & CONSERVATION", Bangalore
(12-14 November 1993) under the Chairmanship of Mr. A.N Yellappa Reddy. Special Secretary. Department
of Ecology and Environment " vernment of Karnataka
The following Members attended the Meeting :•
01. MOSriram
66, Fifty Main Road, Malleswaram
Bangalore - 560 003
Ph. No 345372/346739
02. S Karthikeyan, 24, Opp.
Banashankari Temple, 8th Block,
Jayanagar, Bangalore - 560 082
Ph No. 646980
03. Vivek R Sinha, 764, 100 Feet Road,
IndiranagarBangalore - 560 008
Ph. No. 572687
05. K Althoja Shotty, Kamala Mansion,
143, Infantry Road.Bangalore - 560 078
Ph. No. Off. 573206, Res. 642200
07. AN Yellappa Rcddy, Special Secretary
Dept. of Ecology & Environment
Multi-storied Building, Bangalore - 560 001
Ph. No. Off. 264377 Res. 630248
09. M G Muthanna
19, Cubbon Road.Bangalore - 560 001
Ph. No. 574705
11. M G R Rao, Visvesvaraya Industrial &
Technological Museum, Kasturba Road.
Bangalore - 560 00!
Ph. No. 564563
04. Col R T Chacko. A-301, Spartan
Heights, 16, Richmond Road.Bangalore -
560 025
Ph. No. 215304
06. S Sridhar, No. 10, Sirur Park, 'B'
Street, Seshadripuram.Bangalore - 560 020
Ph. No. Off. 364142,Res. 362927
08. AKChakravarty
40, 4th Main, Gangenahalli
Bangalore - 560 032
10. N AMadhyastha, HOD Zoology,
Poornaprajna College, UDUPI - 576 101
12. S Rangaswami, Rishi Valley Bird
Preserve
Rishi Valley, Chittoor Dist. 517 352
13. K Praveen Karanth, No. 44, II Cross,
Hospital Extension, Bangalore - 560 024
Ph. No 332260
15. B K Chakrapani,
159, Gopala Krupa. 3rd Main, Banashankari
III Stage, III Phase, Channammanakere
Atchkat.Bangalore - 560 085
17. J N Prasad, Merlin Nature Club,
13, 8th Cross, 30th Main, J P Nagar.
I Phase, Bangalore - 560 078
Ph. No. Off. 265823,Res. 644682
19. S. Theodore Hhaskaran
124, Ashoka Pillar Road, 1st Block,
Jayanaear. Bangalore - 560 0! 1
Ph. No. Off. 265293.Res 631337
14. Smt. L'sha Ramaiah,
124, 42nd Cross, 8th Block,
Jayanagar, Bangalore - 560 082
Ph. No 645342
16. S R Surendra Babu, P B No. 10,
RamnagaramPin 571 511
18. Abraham Verghese, 139, 2nd Main,
Domlur, 2nd Stage, Bangalore - 560 071
Pb No. 573791
The following members could not attend the Meeting. However many of them have informed about their
willingness to be actively associated with the Seminar :-
01. PratapSurana
155, 2nd Main Road,
Seshadripuram.Bangalorp - 560 020
Ph. No. 366048
03. J C Uttangi
36/1, Mission Compound, Dharwad - 580 001
02. L Shyamal, D-206, IISc.
Campus.Bangalore - 560 012
04. Boby Kovoor
172,2nd Cross.HMTLayout,
Vidyaranyapura, Bangalore - 560 013
05. Arunachalam Kumar,
Associate Prof, -or of Anatomy,
Kasturba Medical College,
Mangalore - 575 001
07. E Hanumantha Kao
C/o. K H Shama Rao & Sons.P B No. 2766,
12, Lall :;h Road, Bangalore - 560 027
Ph. No. 237046
09. TSSrinivasa
684, 16th Main, 38th Cross,4th T Block,
Jayanagar, Bangalore - 560 041
11. S Subramanya,
326, Chitramala Apartments.Byrasandra
Bangalore -560 011
Ph.No. 330153/Extn. 221
13. TVNMurthy
'NISARGA', Nisarga Layout, NearHotel
Vaishali. S H Extn. Tumkur 572 102
15. Joseph George
100, 5th 'A' Cross, HIG Colony,
RMV II Stage, Bangalore - 560 094
Ph.No. Off 322207
06. O C Naveein, No. 5, William's Town
Extn. Bangalore - 560 046
08. V G Prasad.51/3, Maruthi
Nilaya.Temple Street, 13th Cross down,
Malleswaram.Bangalore - 560 003
10. Arun Bhatia
'Dew Drop', 241, 4th Cross I Block,
Koramangala Bangalore - 560 024
Ph.No. 530880
12 G S Jayadeva
Lei urer, Department of Zoology, J S S
College.Chamrajnagar - 571 313
14. Satish Dhavan, 7/11, Palace Cross
Road Bangalore - 560 020
16. PD Sudarshan, Soil Health Centre,
Sirsi, Uttara Kannada Dist. PIN : 581 401
h
c.
The Chairman Mr. A. N. Yeiiappa Ready welcomed ail the invitees, gave a brief introduction and outlined
the importance of conducting this Seminar. Then he made the following announcements:-
a. The venue of the seminar will be Aranya Bhavan, (Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003). The Principal
Chief Conservator of Forest, has agreed to provide the requisite facilities at the venue.
Mr.S. Theodore Baskarun, Post Master General, Kai uataka, has agreed to issue a special cover and
cancellation to mark the occasion. An exhibition on bird philately, photographs and specimens will also
be organised at the Visvesvaraya Industrial Technological Museum (VITM), Bangalore. The curator
has agreed to provide the Exhibition hall, Display boards, Tables, Auditorium etc.,
Lunch, dinner and tea will be sponsored by the following organisations:
1) Forest Department, Govt, of Karnotaka,
2) Karnataka State Forest Development Corporation.
3) Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation &
4) Karnataka State Cashew Development Corporation.
d. Mid-seminar field trip will be to one or more of the sites in small manageable groups* Viz Tailur Tank
Kokre Bellur Pelicanry, Kalkere Forest, Bannerghatta National Park and Ranganathittu Bird
banctuary.
During the Meeting, with the proposal and consent of all the members present, the following committees
were formed with specific duties as indicated against each :
1. RECEPTION COMMITTEE :
Chairman- K A Bhoja Shcuy
Members
Dunes
RTChacko
S Kurt hikes an
K Pravecn Karanih
J C Uttavgi
1 . To make arrangement for the inaugural function
2. To arrange registration for the participants ai the e
3. To make auditorium arrangements for Inaugural (unction and other sessions
including plenary session.
4. To decide Ihc Chief Guest, dais arrangcmcnt.Banncr. Public Arrange System.
Audio Visual Aid, Invitation, memento etc.
2. PROGRAMME COMMITTKK ;
Chairman-
Members-
Duties -
Joseph George
Abraham Verghesc
S Sridhai
A K Chakravarthy
1 . To screen abstracts. Notes and papers received and allot them to appropriate sessions.
2. Tobring out the abstracts and proceedings of the seminar.
3. To decide on the Chairman and the Rapporteurs for different sessions.
4. To prejiarc and procure articles for the Souvenir.
3. SOUVENIR COMMITTKK :
Chairman-
Members -
M G Mulhanna
Nagcsh Hcgdc
Aiunachalam Kumar
S R Surcndra Babu
M O Sriram
Praiap Surana
T V N Murthy
Duties-
1 . Collection of Advertisements and donations
2, Contacting M/s.Godrcj. Birlas. Taias, DCM. MJ.milras & their Trusts/ Foundations Tor funds.
V To approach Dharmadikari. Dharmasthala; Rural Development & Ecology Fund of
Canara Bank; Vijaya Bank. LIC etc.,
4. To pursue with the Government Departments like CSIR, ICAR. UGC. DST. INSA,
Department of Ecology and Environment, Government of Kamataka. etc..
lor financial assistance.
A. KXHIBITION COMMITTEE :
Chairmen - S Theodore Baskaran
V S Rainachandran
Members ■ MG R Rao
E Hanumaniha Rao
Vivck R Sinha
Nccrad Muthanna
SmtUshaRamiah
S Ranpncwami
BKCliakrapani
G S Jayadeva
R S Harvac
Duties -
I To Organise exhibition on bird philately, photographs and specimens
to coincide with curtain raiser and Seminar.
2. Tobring out abrochurc about the exhibits
3. To enroll volunteers for exhibition
5. CATERING. TRANSPORT AND ACCOMMODATION COMMITTEE :
Chairman Deputy Conservator of Forests
(Green Bell Division)
Members- ACF. Green Bell Division
Range Officers - Forest Dcpi.. Aranya Bhavan
Esiaic Officer. Aranya Bhavan
O C Navccin
Dutics-
1 . To receive ihc delegates at Airpori. Railway Siauon etc.,
2. To arrange for Boarding and lodging for delegates.
3. To oversee caicnng arrangements.
4. To arrange for TV. Chairs, ft&lfic address sysicm.AiK!io-visual aids and operators etc.
6. PRESS AND PUBLICITY COMMITTEE
Chairmen • Zafar Fulchally
A N Yellappa Rcddy
Members-
Abraham Vcrghesc
Arun Bhaii;i
P D Sudarshan
N A Madhyaslha
• hanna Naganj
Dunes -
1 . To arrange curiam raiser and press conferences and prepare press release.
7. MID • SEMINAR FIELD TRIP COMMITTEE :
Chairman
Mcmbcrs-
Abraham Vorghese
S Subramanya
M B Krishna
A K Chakravanhy
L Shyamal
K Pravccn Karamh
J N Prasad
N Srinivasan
TS Srinivasa
If Harish Kumar
1) To decide on the places to be visited and prepare a pamplcl outlining the sailcnt features
Ol each site and provide then 1 in (he participants.
2) To enlist participants for the trip to places ot bird interest and conduct them
in small manageable groups
*) to make transport and catering arrange me nsis for the field trip.
BUDGET :
Members deliberated on the possible sources of funds and approbated a budget for Rs.1.05 lakhs The
projected expenditure would however be to the tune of Rs.1.2 lakhs.
The chairman requested the Souvenir Committee to try and make-up the deficit.
u ^ M ^ '* Cl0 » d W,,h ^Chairman thanking all the members for their participation and for their
willingness to take-up responsibilities.
im^tl^ h i?l d K the "^k meet,r i e on F " d »>*. ! 1 th June 1993 at 5.30 p.m. The venue for this meetin C
will be intimated to all the members in due course. OBaDRflLor* ClllW
D re2rr « * *? ,?;r; tees r requested to prcpare bHef repons about the ■>«*"« made * *™ ^
present uie same in the next meeting.
Please write to S Sridhar or Tel. 364142, 363927 and
eonflra tout participation.
BIRD CONSERVATION
Strategies for the
Nineties and Beyond
First National Seminar on
\ Bird £q
°%
Bangalore
12-14 November 1993
Seminar Venue
Aranya Bhavan
18th cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003
Exhibition Venue
Vlsvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum
Kasturba Road, Bangalore 560 001
Convened by
Ornithological Society of India
in Co-operation with
Dept of Ecology & Environment, Govt of Karnataka
Forest Department, Govt of Karnataka
Vlsvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum
Karnataka State Forest Development Corporation
Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation
Karnataka State Cashew Development Corporation
Rishi Valley Bird Preserve, Andhra Pradesh
Seminar Executive Commltees:
Phone Nos
Executive Committee Chairman
A. N. Yellappa Roddy 264377 ( off) 630248(res)
Reception Committee Chairman
K S Bhoja Shetty 573206 (off) 642200(res)
Programme Committee Chairman
Joseph George 322207 (off)
Souvenir Committee Chairman
M G Muthanna 574705 (off)
Exhibition Committee Chairmen
S Theodore Baskaran 631337 (res)
V S Ramachandran 564563 (off)
Catering, Transport and
Accommodation Committee Chairman
D S Ravindran 343464(off) 347765 (res)
Press & Publicity Committee Charlmen
Zatar Futehally 533684(res)
A N Yellappa Reddy 264377(off) 630248 (res)
Mid Seminar Field Trip Committee Chairman
Abraham Verghese 394356 (off) 573791 (res)
Seminar Liaison Office
No. 10. 'Vishnu Chtttam' 364142 362927
Sirur Park B' Street. 364682 (after office hrs.)
Seshdaripuram.
BANGALORE - 560 020
List of Philatelists exhibiting
Bird Stamps at the Exhibition Hall,
Visvesvaraya Industrial & Technological Museum,
Kasturba Road , Bangalore 560 001
1. Mr. Aravind N. A.
Sto, Dr. N. A. Madhyasta, Inchala. Durga Saw Mill Lane
Chitpadi, Udupi- 576101
2. Mr. Daniel Monthero
Library Asst, SMS College. Brahmavar - 576 213
Udupi Taluk
3. Ms. Lakshmi Rama Krishnan
Flat No L -3. (223) Kailask Apartments. 8th Mam Road.
Malleswaram. Bangalore 560 003
4. Mr. Radha Krishna. S
Near Saw Mill. Kaggalipura P.O. Kanakaoura Road.
Bangalore South. 562112
5. Mr. Ramaswamy
'Angeeras'. 2924. 14th Cross K.R. Road
BSK 2nd Stage, Bangalore 560 070
6. Mr. Sukumar. D.
30. V Cross. J. P. LIC Colony. Jayanagar, III Block East.
Bangalore 560 011.
7. Mr. Yogesh Kumar Vora
59/11 .SSI Area. 5th Block.
Rajajinagar. Bangalore 560 010
1
List of Participants for the First National Seminar on
"Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology & Conservation,
November 12-14 , 1993, Bangalore
as on 1st Sept. 1993
Mr. AASHEESH PITTiE
70, Begum Bazar
Hyderabad - 500 012
I*. ABDUL BASHIR. C.A.
Asst Manager.Kerala Forest
Development Corporation
P.O. Gavi. Vandiperryar
Kerala - 685 533
12. Dr. ASAD R. RAHMANI
Centre ol Wildlife and
Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University.
Aligarh- 202 002
13. Mr. BALAKRISHNAP.
Jr. Agronomist ,
Sunflower Scheme,
UAS. GKVK. Bangalore - 560 065
22. Mr. BOSOKUIKARNI
President
Friends of Birds & W.A.R Society
1117 Nokasabajilak Chowk
Solapur. Maharashtra - 413 007
23. Brig. CARIAPPA CM. (Retd)
Doctor Estate. Kodag ad al
Via. Chettalli.
Kodagu - 571 248
»
Mr. AHMED ABDUL AZIZ
AZIZ BAGH'. Sultanpura
Hyderabad • 500 024
Ur A1YANNA. P.M.
Fa*n frnchona Estate, P.B. No.
■ -na. Kodagu -571 250
e AMOREW ROBERTSON
2 St. Georges Terrace
chey. Moreton- In- Marsh
.GL56 9BN
AMNAMALAI. R. (I.F.S.)
Dean (Forestry)
Forest College & Research
Nadu Agricultural
Uaeersty.
fcftattjoaLayam- 644 1301
AfiATHI BELLIAPPA
i. Kurta.
250
JRKVMDA.NA
> KAUadhyasiha
ren Dirga Saw Mill Land
.dip -576 101
CHAUDHURY
Jean.P.O. Regent
: Mullick Road
MB :?2
14. Mr. BASAPPA S
KOLLANAVAR
Basavan Beedi. Mundgod
U tiara Kannada,
Karnataka-581 349
15. Mr. BELLIAPPA K.C.
Nanchi Estate. Kutta
Kodagu - 571 250
16. Dr. BHAGWATV.R.
Assoc. Prof. Dept.of Biochemistry
Govt. Medical College,
Miraj-416 410
17.
18.
19.
20.
G.
RCLAM*
Veethi
•aeJMaow-636 016
21.
Dr. BHASKAR V.
Asso. Prof. Dept
Forestry.
U.AS..G.K.V.K..
Bangalore - 560 065
of Farm
Dr. BHATNAGAR R.K.
Principal Scientist (Ornithology)
Indian Agricultural Research
Institute. New Delhi-110 012
Dr. BHATTACHARJEE P.C.
Dept. of Zoology,
Gauhali University.
Guwahati, Assam - 781 014
Mr. BIBHA8 KUMAR
TALUKDAR
Animal Ecology S Wild life
Biology Lab. Dept. of Zoology
Gauhati University. Guwahati
Assam -781 014
Mr. BOBY KOVOOR
172. 2nd Cross, HMT Layout
Vidyaranyapura,
Bangalore -560 013
24. Col. CHACKO. R.T. (Reld)
A-301, Spartan Heights
16. Richmond Road
Bangalore • 560 025
25. Ms. CHAMPA. B.V.
Dept. of Horticulture, U.A.S..
G.K.V.K.. Bangalore - 560 065
26. Dr. CHANDRAPPA, P.L.
Regional Research Station
Hand Post . Mudigere.
Chikmagalur-577 132
27. Mr. CHANDRASHEKAR A.S.
Gown, III Block. II Stage,
III Cross. Vinobha Nagar,
Shimoga-577 201
28. Mr. CHANNAMALLAPPA
PATIL
Prabhu Nivas. Shorapur
Gulbarga Dist.,
Karnataka - 585 224
28. Dr. DANI N. P. (Retd)
Area Co-ordinator CFTRI 90,
Kalidasa Road. V.V. Mohalla
Mysore - 570 002
29. Dr. DANIEL WESLEY H.
126. Ramalinganagar South.
4th Street, Vayalur Road
Tiruchirapalli,
Tamil Nadu -620 017
30. Mr. DAYANANDA K.R.
'Vlihangama nursery'
Bharathipura (At & Post).
Thirthahalli Taluk
Shimoga - 577 432
-'.ANDANP.
Owe. o* Botany
Madras Christian College
Tjfftaram. Madras - 600 059
43. Mr.GURURAJA
Sto K.V. Acharya
90(8), Armugan Buildings
Jail Road, Shimoga - 577 201
54. Dt. JASWINDER S. SANDHU
Dept. of Forestry and Natural
Resources, Dept. of Zoology.
PAU. Ludhiana- 141004
OESAI R. N.
lofthe Zoology Department
faka Science College
dar«*3-580O01
IcVASAHAYAM S.
Hmcrz Research Centre
Sexes Marikunnu P.O.
Cafcu:, Kerala -673 012
44. Mr. HANUMANTH RAO E.
Shamrao Compound, Mission
Road, Bangalore • 560 027
45. Mr. HARI PRASAD K.A.
486. 6th Main. 11th Cross
RMV II Stage, HIG Colony
Bangalore -560 094
55. Dr. JAYADEVA G.S.
Lecturer in Zoology
J S S College, Chamarajanagara
Karnataka- 571 313
56. Dr. JOHN MATHEW
Dept. of Botany
Madras Christian College
Tambaram- 600 059
»
t>. DHWDSA. M S.
Dept of Zoology,
fttfjabAgri.. Univ.,
Ln*una-141 004
46. Mr. HARISH M.S.
680, 29th Main, BTM Layout
II Stage. I Phase,
Bangalore-560 076
47
fc DFTIMANTA BAROOAH
Dass Pharmacy, Temple Road
Stosagar, Assam - 785 640
X Dr. ERNEST FRITSCHI
C Kamafakshipuram
Bagayam. Vetlore
Tamil Nadu - 632 002
48.
Dr. HARJEET K. SAINI
All India Coordinated Research
project on Agril. Ornithology,
Dept of Zoology.
Punjab Agril University,
Ludhiana 141 004
Dr. HARKIRAT
SANGHA
B-27. Gautam Marg
Khatipura . Jaipur.
Rajaslhan-302 012
SINGH
57. Dr. JYOTHI LAXMI A.
C/o Prof. Susan Bhaskar Rao
Dept. of Zoology, University
College, Kakatiya Univ.
Vidyaranyapuri
Warangal-506009
58. Mr. KARTHIKEYAN S.
24, Opp. Banashankari Templt
8th Block. Jayanagar
Bangalore-560 078
59. Mr. KASINATHAN P.
10, Mettu St. Ammapet. Salem
Tamil Nadu-636 003
Dr GANESHAIAH K.N.
Dept. of Plant Breeding &
Genetics, U.A.S, G.K.V.K,
Bangalore - 560 065
49. Dr. HEGDE S.G.
Dept. of Genetics and Plant
Breeding, U.A.S., G.K.V.K.,
Bangalore- 560 065
60. Mr. KAVIN D. PAULRAJ
C/o Dr. P. Dayanandan
Madras Christian College
Tambaram, Madras- 600 059
38 Dr GANGADHAR KOLGI
Shiralagi. Skldapur
UttaraKannada-581 355
39. Mr. GANGADHARA L.
14. Bhagya Nivas, 13th Main.
J.P Nagar. V Phase
Bangalore • 560 078
40. Mr GIRUA SHANKAR
Editor. Janamitra Daily
Chfcmagalur - 577 101
U'.GIRISHANANTH
_2.e:« Road. II Cross
Bangalore -560 001
Ur.GOPI SUNDAR K.S
Mo. 25. M.I.G.I Stage, K.H.B.
Colony. Bangalore - 560 079
50. Mr. HEMANT K. SAHU
Jr. Research Fellow
Forest Wildlife Camp
Krushna Prasad Garh
Parikud, Puri - 750 032
51. Mr HILLALJYOTI SINGHA
C/o Prof. P.C. Bhattacharjee
Animal Ecology & Wildlife Bio..
Lab , Dept. of Zoology ,
Guwahati University
Guwahati, Assam-781 014
52. Mr. IMRAN KHAN
Farm Land. Huyilal Village
Yelwal P.O. Mysore-571130
53. Mr. INDRA KUMAR SHARMA
Bhagawathi Bhavan, Ratanada
Road . Jodhpur 342 020
61. Mr. KEWAL KRISHNAN
GUPTA
Range Forest Officer
WildLife Range. Nugalsari. via
Jeoxy, Himachal Pradesh-172
101
62. Mr. LAVKUMAR KACHAR
646, Vastunirman, Gandhinagar
Gujarat- 382 022
63. Dr. MADHYASTHA N.A.
Dept. of Zoology,
Poornaprajna College
Udupi-576 101
64. Mr. MAHABALA GIRI
Suma Printex
Opp. Vysya Bank Ltd.,
C.P. Bazar,
Sirsi-581 401
♦
65 Mr. MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA
B-33. Selhi Colony
Jaipur, Rajasthan- 302 004
66 Mrs. MANORAMA FRITSCHI
2/91. C, Kamalakshipuram
Bagayam. Vetlore.
Tamil Nadu-632 002
67. Dr. MANUOOMMEN
Depl.ol Zoology.
Caiholicale College.
Pathanamthitta. Kerala
68. Mr. MARIA DOMINIC SAVIO M
Post Graduate Scholar
Forest College & Research
Institute . Mettupalayam,
Coimbatore Dist
Tamil Nadu-641 301
69. Mr. MAYUR MISTRY
Recreation Youth Club
45/269, Vijayanagar, Naranpura.
Ahmedabad, Gujarat-380 013
70. Mr. MINOOD C.R.
Asst. Development Officer.
NABARD Regional Office.
113/1.J.C. Road. P.B. No. 29.
Bangalore-560 002
71. Dr. MURALI K.S.
Dept. of Genetics and Plant
Breeding. U.A.S., G.K.V.K..
Bangalore-560 065
72. Mr. NAMEER P.O.
Ilnd Msc, Forestry
College of Forestry.
Kerala Agricultural Univ.
Velanikkara. Trichur - 680 654
73. Dr. NARASIMHAN D.
Dept. of Botany
Madras Christian College
Tambaram-600 059
74. Mr. NARENDRAK.V.
111/1 (56 New), 6th Main
Malleswaram.
Bangalore -560 003
75. Mr. NARENDRA KUMAR G.K.
Dept. of Horticulture
Dept. of Genetics & Plant
Breeding .U.A.S.. G.K.V.K..
Bangalore- 560 065
76. Mr. NARENDRA KUMAR J.B.
University of Agricultural Science
Regional Research Station,
Mudigere-577 132
77. Dr. NATARAJAN V.
Scientist, BNHS Grassland
Ecology Project.
'Prakruti'. 24, Vrundavan
Society. Market Rd. Dahod.
Gujarat-389 151
78. Ms. NEETA SUKTHANKAR
34. Poornanand. Dongeris Road
Bombay-400 006
79. Mr. PERICHIAPPAN A.
Room No. 222, New Hostel
St. Joseph's College,
Tiruchirapalli.
Tamil Nadu- 620 002
80. Ms. PRABHAVATHI B.
C/o Prof. Susan Bhaskar Rao
Dept. of Zoology. University
College Kakatiya Univ.
Vidyaranyapuri
Warangal-506 009
81 Mr. PRAHALAD V. CHALAGERI
II BSc. Forestry Deg ree
Programme. Banavasi Rd.,
Sirsi, Karnataka-581 401
82. Dr. PRAKASH GOLE
Ecological Society
1 B, Abhimanshree Society
Opp. Pashan Road
Puna- 411 008
83. Mr. PRAKASH K. BHAT
C/o M k . Bhat . Adarsh Nagar,
College Road , Sirsi- 581 402
84. Mr. PRAKASH RAO
K-4. QCH Colony. Sriharikota,
Nellore Dist. A.P- 524 124
85. Mr. PRAMOD P.
Research Scholar, Dept of
Zoology .Calicut University.
Kerala-673 635
86. Dr. PRARTHANA KATHURIA
Dept. of Geneiics and Plant
Breeding .U.A.S. G.K.V.K.,
Bangalore- 560 065
87. Mr. PRASAD J.N.
Merlin Nature Club
13. 8th Cross. 30th Main J.P.
Nagar. I Phase,
Bangalore-560 078
88. Dr. PRASANTA KUMAR SAIKIA
Lecturer, Dept. of Zoology
Guahati Univ. Guwahati
Assam-781 014
89. Mr. PRASHANT HEBBAR
Centre for Environment
Education. Southern Regional
Cell , 143. Kamala Mansion,
Infantry Road-
Bangalore - 560 001
90. Mr. PRASUN DASGUPTA
WIB(M}-3/2. Phase-ll
Golf Green Urban Complex,
Calcutta. West Bengal-700 045
91. Mr. PRATAP SURANA
155.2nd Main Road,
Seshadfjpuram
Bangalore-560 020
92. Dr. PRIYA DAVIDAR
Salim Ali School of Ecology
and Environmental Sciences
Pondicherry University
Kalapet, Pondicherry- 605 104
93. Dr. RAJAN M.K.
Lecturer In Zoology
Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal
College. Srvakasi-West.
Tamil Nadu-626 124
94. Mr. RAJARAM A.
C2. 29, 4th Seaward Road.
Valmiki Nagar. Tiruvanmiyur,
Madras-600 041
95. Mr. RAJASEKHAR B.
II MS Ecology
Salim Ali School of Ecology,
Pondicherry Univ., Kalapet
Pondicherry- 605 014
96. Mr. RAKESH VYAS
2 P 22. Vigyan Nagar
Kota- 324 005
97. Mr. RAMA KRISHNA S.
1st Cross, Sandy Complex
Shaktinagar-584 170
98. Ms. RAMA RAO G.N.
E-5. Museum Otrs
HA Main. I Block, lit Slags.
Basaveswaranagar
Bangalore- 560 079
99. Mr. RAMAGOPAL M.
H. No. 2-1-474/10,
Anand Apartments
Nallakunta. Hyderabad - 500 044
100. MR. RAJARAM. A.
29. 4th Seaward Road.
Valmiki Nagar.Tiruvanmiyur.
Madras- 600 041
109. Dr. SAINIM.S.
Dept. of Zoology
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana. Punjab- 141 004
110. Dr.SALIM JAVED
Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh.U.P-202 002
111. Dr.SANDHU P. S .
Assistant Ornithologist
Department of Zoology
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana. Punjab 141 004
120. Dr. SHARMA A.K.
University of Agricultural Science
Regional Research Station.
Mudigere-577 132
121. Mr. SHARMA U.P.
Kailash Dham Lane
S.K. Taraldar Road. Adampur.
Bhagalpur. Bihar- 812 001
1 22. Dr. SHIVA YOGESHWARA B.
Asst. Prof. Entomology
Regional Research Stalion
P.B. No.-126.Navile,
Shimoga-577 201
J
101. Mr. RANGASWAMI S.
Rishi Valley Bird Preserve.
Rishi Valley.
Chitoor District 51 7 352
102. Dr. RANJIT MANAKADAN
Rollapadu.
(ViaGadevemulaP.O.)
Kurnool Dist.. A.P.-518 508
103. Mr. RATHIN 8ARMAN
Research Scholar
Dept. of Zoology.
Gauhati University
Guwahati. Assam-781 014
112. Mr. SANTANU BARMAN
{Corporal)
C/o Aroop Chaudhury
C-1. Bagha Jatin,
Raja S.C. Mullick Road..
P.O. Regenl estate.
Calcutta-70O 092
113. Mr. SASHIKUMARC.
9, Subhash Nagar, Cannanore,
Kerala- 670 002
114. Dr. SATWANTKAURDHANDA
Dept. of Zoology
PAU, Ludhiana- 141 004
123. Dr. SHRIHARAN T.P.
Director.
National Centre for Integrates
Pest- Management. 646,
Sector 21 -A. Badkhal Road
Faridabad . Haryana- 121 001
124. Mr. SIRAJ A. TAHER
2/b, Atlas Apts. Road No. 10 ,
Banjara Hills. Hyderabad- 500
034
125. Ms. SONALI RAMAIAH
124. 42nd Cross. 8th Block
Jayanagar. Bangalore- 560 082
104. Dr.RATHINASABHAPATHYB.
Research Asst.
The Coimbatore Zoological Park
Pioneer House - Peelamedu
Coimbatore.
Tamil Nadu- 641 004
105. Mr. RAVI SHANKAR KANOJE
Forest Ranger, At & Post
Mukki Dist. Balaghai.
M.P.-481 111
106. Mr. RISHAD NAOROJI
C/o Godrej & Boyee Mfg. Co.
Ltd. Godrej Bhavan. 4A Home
Street , Bombay-400 001
107. Mr. RIYAZ UDDIN S.
15/296, Bandhl Mitta Street
Cuddapah. A.P. 516 001
115. Mr. SELVARATHINAMS.M.
C/o Dr. P. Dayanandan
Dept. of Botany
Madras Christian College
Tambaram- 600 059
116. Mr. SETHNAK.R.
Yellikodigi Estate, Aldur. P.O.
Chikmangalur Dist.- 577 1 1 1
117. Mr.SHADAKSHARIM.N.
Principal
Model English High School
Vijayapura,
Chikmagalur-577 101
1 1 8. Dr. SHAKUNTALA SRIDH ARA
Assoc. Prof, of Zoology
C-25. UAS Staff Quarters
Hebbal. Bangalore - 560 034
126. Dr. SREEVATSA S.
Prot. & H.O.D. of Botany
H. No. L/200. Nijalingappa
Colony . Raichur-584 101
127. Mr. SRINIVASA CHARY A.V.
No. 20. Anandanilayam
Sahebnagar. Vanastalipuram
Hyderabad-500 661
128. Mr. SRIPADRAO
The Valley School, 'Haridvanam'
1 7th Km. Kanakapura Road
Thatguni ,
Bangalore-560 062
129. Dr. SUBRAMANYA S.
HPHT Scheme, J'Block
UAS. GKVK,
Bangalore- 560 065
1
108. Mr. ROHITESHWARAN
Kibetta Estate, Somvarpet
Kodagu-571 236
119. Dr. SHANBHAG A.8.
Reader, Dept. of Zoology
Goa University.
Taleigao Plateau
Goa-403 203
130. Dr. SUDARSHAN P.D.
Soil Hearth Centre Sirs),
Uttaarkannada,
Kamataka- 581 402
,.
Dr. SUDHAKAR KAR
Research Officer
O/o The Principal Chief
Conservator of Forests & Chief
Wildhfe Warden,
7-Saheed Nagar,
Bhubaneshwar.
Onssa-751 007
t32 DrSUGATHANR.
: : •: ~: s;. Environment Research
Picgramme. 292/1 6. BOC Road..
Ptfumbavoor, Kerala- 683 542
SURESH CHANDRA
PRADHAN
Dept of Zoology
, jr*v*rst\y of Allahabad
AMiabad-211 002. U P.
i> HARJEET K. SANI.
Department of Zoology
Om m n ty of Allahabad
' 002 UP
5tf€SH RS.
W.ii- 466/4,
OMjuiialRoad..
ftoec Cross. V.V. Puram
URYA N.R. ADDOOR
Farms . Post Addoor,
Uangalore Taluk
Kannada-574 145
141. Mr. THIMMAIAH M.C.
Timber Top. Aruvathoklu P.O.
Gonicoppal, Kodagu- 571 213
142. Dr.THIRUMURTHIS.
Associate Professor
(Entomology) Forest College &
Research Institute
Mettupalayam,
Tamil Nadu-641 301
143. Mr. THOMAS M. BALAN J
Nadumalai Estate . Valparai Post
Coimbatore Dist.,
Tamil Nadu-642 127
144. Dr. THYAGARAJ N.E.
Asst. Prof. (entomology)
Regional Research Station,
Mudigere. Chikrnagalur Dist
Karnataka- 577 132
145. Mr. TIMMAPUR R.G.
NO. A-75, Hidkal Dam,
Tq:Hukkeri, Dist: Belguam.
Karnataka- 591 107
146. Mr.TIWARI J.K.
Scientist 'A' BNHS, Fulay-Chhari
Nakhtrana-Kutch.
Gujarat- 370 665
147. Dr. UTTANGIJ.C.
36, Mission Compound
Dharwad- 580 001
152. Mr. VIRINDER SINGH
B-1,297, Janakpuri
Now Delhi- 110 058
153.
154.
155.
156
Dr. VISWANATHA REDDY G.
Project Director, Drda.
Opp. Akashvani, AIwar-301 001
Mr. VIVEK MEMON
Traffic - India
WWF-lndia. Secretariat
1 72-B, Lodhi estate,
New Delhi- 110 003
Mr VUAYTULJAPURKAR
SHIVAJI ROAD
MIRAJ-416410
Dr. WALTER BOCK
Permanent Secretary.
International Ornithological
Congress.
Dept. of Biological Scionces
Columbia University in the City of
New York Box 37,Schermerhorn
Hall , New York, USA, NY- 1 0027
157. Dr. YAHYA H.S.A.
Centre Of Wildlife & Ornithology
Altgarh Muslkn University
Aligarh-202 002
158. Mr. YARDI DILIP
120, Shastn Nagar, Garkheda
Road.
Aurangabad -431 005
kAN BHASKAR RAO
a Dact of Zoology
maces
---.s I Science
1 B.
148. Mr. VENKATASWAPPA
12, 15th Cross. Cubbonpet
Bangalore- 560 002
149. Mr. VENKAT6SHWARA H.
Hanthila House ,
Ramakunja Post
Puttur Taluk-574 241
150. Mr. VENKATRAMAN
Research Scholar,
Dept. of Zoology
Presidency College
Madras- 600 005
159. YELLAPPA REDDY,
Special Secretary, Dept of
Ecology & Environment, Govt of
Karnataka, Multistoried Building,
Bangalore 560 001
160. ZAFAR FUTEHALLY
No. 2205, Oakwood Apartments
Jakkasandra Layout,
Koramangala
3rd Block, 8th Main.
BANGALORE - 560 034
MBKMUN S
Cofan)
151. Dr. VUAYAKUMAR T.N.
Head of Dept of Zoology
NSS College.
Manjeri, Malappuram Dist.
Kara)*- A7A 190
ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
President
Zafar Futehally
No. 2205, Oakwood Apartments Jakkasandra Layout,
Koramangala 3rd Block. 8th Main. BANGALORE - 560 034
Secretary General
Asha Chandola Saklanl
P. Box 45. Gharwal University
Srinagar. UP. -246 174
Regional Secretaries
Aasheesh Pitlie
14-7-370. Begum Bazar, Hyderabad - 500 012
Abdul Jamil Urfl
A/270. Jamia Nagar, Okhla, Mew Delhi - 1 10 025
Abraham Verghese
1 39. 2nd Main. Domlur 2nd Stage. Bangalore - 560 071
M.K. Himmat Sinji
Jubilee Ground, Bhuj. Kutch, Gujarat - 370 001
Lavkumar Khachar
646, Vastunirman, Gandhinagar. Gujarat - 382 022
Prakash Gole
Ecological Society, 1 B, Abhimnashree Housing Society.
GU Pashan Road. Pune - 41 1 008
R J Ranjit Daniels
Madras Crocodile Bank, Perur P.O.
Mahabalipuram Road
Madras -603 104
Rishad Naoroji
Godrej Bhavan, 4 A. Home Street. Fort. Bombay - 400 001
I NavOnariih Enterprises. Sesttadnpuram. Bangalcve
BIRD CONSERVATION
Strategies for the
Nineties and Beyond
Editors
Abraham Verghese
Sridhar, S
Chakravarthy, A.K.
Published by
ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
Contributions to the First National Seminar on
'Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology and Conservation'
held at Bangalore, 12-14 November 1993.
Publisher
Zafar Fulhehally
President, Ornithological Society of India
OSI-Liaison Office
No.10, Vishnu Chittam, Sirur Park Road
Seshadripuram, Bangalore 560 020. India
Ornithological Society of India - 1993
Prinlerd at
Navbharath Enterprises
Seshadipuram
Bangalore 560 020
First National Seminar on
Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology and Conservation
Bangalore 12 - 14 November 1993
Seminar Venue)
Aranya Bhavan,
18th Cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003
Exhibition Venue
Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum
Kasturba Road, Bangalore 560 001
Convened by
Ornithological Society of India
in Co-operation with
Department of Ecology & Environment, Govt, of Karnataka
Forest Department, Govt, of Karnataka
Visvesvaraya Industrial & Technological Museum
Karnataka State Forest Development Corporation
Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation
Karnataka State Cashew Development Corporation
Centre for Ecological Sciences, HSc. Bangalore
Rishi Valley Bird Preserve
Coorg Wildlife Society
With Financial Support from
The Wild Bird Society of Japan, Tokyo
Tata Consultancy Services, Bombay
Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Limited, Bombay
Mysore Lamps Works Limited, Bangalore
Mysore Sales International Limited, Bangalore
National Organic Chemical Industries Limited, Bombay
Poddar Granites, Bangalore
Senapathy Whiteley Limited, Bangalore
Jain Housing Company, Bangalore
Seminar Executive Committees
Executive Committee
Reception Committee
Programme Committee
Souvenir Committee
Exhibition Committee
Chairman
Chairman
Members
Chairman
Members
Chairman
Members
Chairmen
Members
(Philately)
Yellappa Reddy A N
BhojaShetty KA
Col. Chako. Karthikeyan S, Praveen Karanth. Uttangi J C.
Joseph George
Abraham Verghese, Sridhar S, Chakravarthy A K.
Muthanna M G
Surandra Babu S R. Sriram M O
Theodore Baskaran S
Ramachandran V S
Sangoram. Rao M G R, Rangaswamy S
Catering, Transports
Accom. Committee
Members
(Photographs) Pratap Surana, Hanumantha Rao E. Vivek Sinha,
Chairman Ravindran D S
Members Usha Ramaiah. SwamyJ, Hemanth
(Accommodation)
Members
(Transport)
Ullas P A. Jayanth MS
Press & Publicity
Committee Chairmen
Zafar Futehalfy
Yellappa Reddy A N
Members
Iyer K S N , Madhyastha N A . Sudarshan P D
Mid Seminar Field Trip Commhee
Chairman
Members
Abraham Verghese
Shyamal L, Prasad J N
Seminar Liaison Office
No. 10. 'Vishnu Chittam'
Sirur Park 'B' Street. Seshadripuram
Bangalore - 560 020
Cover : Aflock of shovellers {Anas clypeata) Phone : 080-364142 or 080-364682
on their trans oriental migration {Photo S. Sridhar) Fax : 080 - 563953 or 080 • 3332634
v_
PREFACE
This book is a collection of papers contributed to the "First National Seminar on Birds:
Changing Scenario ot Bird Conservation and Ecology", November 12-14, 1993, Bangalore.
This is clearly a departure trom the established norm ot publishing a "Proceedings", after a
seminar (i.e. where organizers are able to bring oul one). The overwhelming response to the
Seminar and the wealth of information on birds that kept pouring into the Seminar office,
convinced us lhat it is only fair to disseminate these in print to all participants.
"Bird Conservation: Strategies for Nineties and Beyond", the title of this book, reflects the
vision with which the organizing team worked. There has been no dilution of our original belief
that amateurs, the major chunk of bird observers in India, constituted mainly by students,
research scholars, scientists, and enthusiastic birdwatchers have to be brought on to a
common platform with foresters, environmentalists and policy-makers to make viable bird
conservation strategies operative. This book serves to cement these above categories of
people and hopefully, as a catalyst to bird conservation movement in the oriental region.
In India, the field study of birds, even at a 'professional' level is more amateurish and
qualitative. Many a times, inferences are trom inadequate observations or analyses. We accept
this since ornithology is still a growing field in India and we hope it will graduate to a
professional level, wherein we can see more incisive studies on life-tables, population
dynamics, predator-prey models, resource and foraging models, etc., from which precise
conservation strategies can be drawn.
The task of editors was gigantic with nearly 1 ,500 pages of manuscript — the majority without
adherence to our publication format. We have tried out best to maintain uniformity, clarity and
brevity in all the manuscripts.
The views and inferences in the papers are solely the authors', and this book serves only as a
medium of dissemination. It is divided into three sections, viz., 1. Ecology and Conservation,
2. Biology and Behaviour and 3. Economic Ornithology.
The editors on behalf of the Organizing Committee of this Seminar, commend the efforts put in
by the authors. They are assured that this book will be of immense value to Government
Officials (in the environment, forestry and agriculture sectors) research institutions, colleges
and overseas conservation organizations. Also, we sincerely hope that it will stimulate more
researches on birds, in many other directions, currently unforeseen by us.
We place on record the support extended by Mr. Zafar Futehally, President. Ornithological
Society of India, who has been the spirit behind this Seminar; Mr. A.N. Yellappa Reddy, Special
Secretary, Department of Forest, Ecology and Environment, Government of Karnataka for his
encouragement and enthusiasm; Mr. Noritaka Ichida of Wild Bird Society ot Japan for the
financial support to the publication of this book; all the authors tor sending their papers and
notes.
Thanks are due to Ms. C. Amrutha, Ms. Chandra, Ms. Suma, Ms. Vijaya and Ms. N.S. Naga-
shree for their editorial, desk top publishing and secretarial assistance and Mr. R. Narayana-
swamy for planning and printing the book.
We are thankful to several other individuals, NGOs and Institutions who have directly or
indirectly helped us in bringing out this book in a short period.
12.11.1993 Editors
Contents
Preface
Ecology and Conservation
A Decade of Conservation of the Great Indian Bustard {Ardeotis nigriceps) at
Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
Ranjit Manakadan and Asad R. Rahmani 1
Possible Impacts of Climatic Changes on Wetlands and Birds
A.K. Sharma. A K. Chakravarthy and S. Sridhar 4
White Winged Wood Duck (Carina scutulata): Viable Habitat Conservation in
Assam
Bibhab. Kr. Talukdar and PC. Bhattacharjee q
The Wetland Avifauna of Pulicat Bird Sanctuary, South India
Prakash Rao and K K. Mohapatra n
A Preliminary Study on the Bird Community of Silent Valley Area
P Pramod. Ramakrishnan Palat and D.N. Mathew 15
Avifauna of Vembakkottai Water Reservoir — A Field Checklist
R. Sudhakaran. A.P Muthukumaran, S. Shenbagaraj. S. Murali and
Alfred Mohandoss 1 8
Status. Diversity and Decline of Waterbirds in Brahmaputra Valley Assam
Prasanta Kumar Saikia and Parimal C. Bhattacharjee 20
Frugivorous Birds and the Conservation of Dry Evergreen Forest
0. Narasimhan. John Mathew, Kavin Paulraj. S.M. Selvarathinam and 28
P. Dayanandan
Conservation Priorities of the Whitewinged Wood Duck, Carina scutulata in India
H.S.A. Yahya 31
Population and Wetland Habitat Preference of Waterfowls at Kota
Rakesh Vyas 33
Islands Size and Forest Bird Distributions in the Andaman Islands
Priya Davidar, Thiollay. J. M. , Yoganand , T. R.K. and Niraj Joshi 39
Winter Waterfowl Population at Myani Bird Reserve
V. R. Bhagwat 39
Nesting Mortality of Birds in Open Woodland and Scrubland near Bangalore
S. Sridhar and Praveen Karanth 40
Btfd Attracting Wild Flora of Sidderbetta, Tumkur District, Karnataka
C.G. Kushalappa and V. Bhaskar 45
i
Avifaunal Survey ol Forest Reserves in Mahadayi Valley. Western Ghats, During
April-May 1993.
J. C. Uttangi 47
Density ol Waterbirds at Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
C. Venkataraman and S. Muthukrishnan 55
Decline ol Green Pigeon, Treron phoenicopters in Coorg District in the Last
Three Decades
B. B. Bopaiah 61
Preliminary Study on Ecology of Aquatic Birds in Chilika Lake, Orissa
S. K. Kar and H.K. Sahu 62
Avifaunal Diversity in Different Vegetation Types of Eastern Ghat of Andhra
Pradesh
B. Rathinsabasabapathy and S Asokan 65
Checklist of the Birds on the Madras Christian College Campus from 1990-1993
Senthan M. Selvarathinam. John Mathew, Amardeep M. Devadason and 69
Lee/a Madhavan
Project Buslard : Last Chance to Save the Great Indian Bustard
Asad R. Rahmani 73
Factors Affecting Water Birds in Chikmagalur
D. V. Girija Shankar, Girish and M.N. Snadakshan 76
Checklist of Birds of Shimoga and Gudavi
K. V. Gunjraja, N.A. Aravinda and V. Ragunatha 77
Checklist of Birds Around Damoh Town, Madhya Pradesh
A. Kher and P. Khare 81
Distribution and Habitat Preferences of Pheasants in Foresls of Garhwal
Himalaya
Dinesh Kumar Sharma and Asha Chandola Saklani 82
Vanishing of the Migratory Birds of Kawar Lake (Begusarai) Bihar : Conservation
and Management
U. P. Sharma 83
Birds of Ihe Scrub Forest around Madras City
Ramanan, A. Rajaram and V. Shantharam 87
Changing Habitats of Birds in Dakshina Kannada
N. A. Madhyastha 87
Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary
S. G Neginhal 88
Habitat Preference of Birds of Neria
H. Venkateswara andB.K. Sharath 90
Avifauna of Udampur (Jammu & Kashmir) District
Santanu Barman 92
Factors Affecting Water Birds in Chikmagalur
D. V. Girija Shankar 76
Wetlands of Shimoga City
V. Gururaja 98
Ecological Study of Null Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Using Remote Sensing
Technology
Uday Panchoti 99
Birds recorded During a Visit to the Desert National Park. Rajastan
Harkirat Singh Sangha and Manoj Kutshreshtha 1 02
Sighting of Eastern Calandra Lark in Kutch
JugalKishore Tiwari 103
Occurrence of Ciconia episcopus {Boddaerl} in Kutch
Jugal Kishor Tiwari 1 03
Conserving the Kole Wetlands — APotential Rarnsar Site from Southern India
RO.Nameer 105
Bird Mortality on Roads in Punjab
Manjit S. Dihndsa. Harjeel K. Saint, Jaswinder S. Sandu 1 1 1
Status and Habitat Requirement of Yellowthroated Bulbul
S. Subramanya. J .N. Prasad and S. Karthikeyan 111
Effects of Industrialisation on the Populations of Peafowl, Paro cristatus Linn.
Tnirumurthi, P. Annamalai and V. Gunashekaran 112
Education Through Bird Watching
Prashanth Hebbar 1 1 3
Habitat Quality Estimation by Habitat Suitability Index in Metopodus indicus
Rathin Barman and P. C. Bhattacharjiee 1 1 6
A Study on the Habitat Quality of Dendrocygna javanica
Hillal Jyoti Singha and P. C. Bhattacharjee 1 21
Diversity of Bird Species in the Eastern Ghats of India
C. Venkataraman and G. Ramasamy 125
A Preliminary Survey of Egrets and Pond Herons in the Water Resources of
Sivakasi
M.K. Rajan. 6. Sankarpervmal and Alfred Mohandoss 130
A Preliminary Field Report on 1993 Winter Survey of Birds in the Nehru Park,
Allahabad (U. P.)
S.C.Pradhan 130
in
Some Observation on the Birds of Silent Valley, National Park
C. A. Abdul Bashir and P.O. Nameer
131
Impact ot Stone Crushing Limits on the Populations ot Redvented Bulbul,
Pyenonotus cafer
S. Thirvmurthi, R. Annamalai and V. Gunasekaran
Observations and Recommendations Concerning Some Serious Ecological
Problems of Wetland Bird Habitats in the Bangalore Region, Peninsular India
A.N. Yellappa Reddy. A.N. Srinivasan, B.K. Chakrapani and O.C. Naveen
Ecological Evaluation ot Irrigation Tanks In the Tiruvannamalai Sambuvaryar,
South District of Tamilnadu. India
K. Sampalh
Avifaunal Decline in a Newly Formed Extension of Bangalore City
Abraham Verghese, A.K. Chakravarthy. S. Sridhar and P.M.
Govindakrishnan
137
139
142
145
Wildbird Trade In Bangalore City
Prasanna Manu and Pavan Nagaraj
148
Birds of Annamalai Hills
J, Thomas and M. Baian
149
Biology and Behaviour
A Look at the Cooperative Breeding Strategies in Small Green Bee-eaters
{Merops orientalis) In Southern India
S. Sridhar and K. Praveen Karanth
Aggregation Pattern in Foraging Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis
Abraham Verghese
Awakening. Roosting and Vocalisation Behaviour of the Southern Crow-pheasant
(Centropos sinensis) at Point Calimere. Tamilnadu
V. Natarajan
Time Budgets in Fruit Ealing Koel Eudynamys scolopacea and Barbet
Megaiaima viridis
T. N. Vijaya Kumar and V J. Zacharias
Benefit of Being Attractive : Fruit Colour and Animal Dispersal
B. V. Champa and $. G. Hegde
Breeding Behavior. Sequential Polyandry and Population Decline in Rostratula
bengalensis
H. Daniel Wesley
A Report on the Susceptibility of Chicks to Mammalian Trypanosome
8. Prabhavathi and Susan Bhaskar Rao
153
157
158
161
164
166
173
Sexual Size Dimorphism In Columbia livia and Sex Determination by
Discriminant Analysis
Harjeet K. Saini and Manjit S. Dhindsa ! 75
Microscopic Identification of Feathers with the Scanning Electron Microscope
A Rajaram , 75
Atmospheric Temperaiure and the Incubation Pattern in the Ashy Wren-Warbler
Prinia ocialis
R.N. Desai
Serum LDH Isozyme Analysis of Some Birds Infected with Plasmodium
A. Jyothilaxmi and Susan Bhaskar Rao
Effect of Dexomethazone on the Immune Responses of Bird Malaria
K Swaroopa Rani and Susan Bhaskar Rao
176
Avian Nesting and Roosting on Eucalyptus Trees in Punjab
L.B. Rishi and Jasmnder Sandhu 176
Breeding Biology of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis
Manu Oommen and M.I. Andrews 1 77
Brood Size Distribution Patterns in Animal Dispersed Plant Species
G.K. Narendra Kumar, K.S. Murali. Prathana Kalhuha and S.G. Hegde 181
Birds Visiting Flowers of Indian Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum) at
Caltcut, Kerala
S. Devasahayam and J. Rema 184
To be on the Right Size : Bird Preference and Seed Dispersal
Pranhana Kathuria. G K. Narendra Kumar and S. G. Hegde 1 86
Birds-Some Striking Behaviours
Aroop Chaudhury ^ 08
Two Unusual Nesting Sifes of the Redvented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cater)
R.N. Desai 190
Use of Line Transects to Estimate Indian Robin (Saxicobides fulicata) Population
at Pondicherry University Campus
B. Rajasekhar 191
Observations on Nest Building Behaviour ol Small Blue Kingfisher (Alcedo athis)
at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur
Girish Ananth 19 2
Observations on Heart Beat of Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps henqalensis
R.B. Singh 193
'Deflighting' Vultures to reduce Hazards to Aviation
R.K. Bhatnagar. A.K. Chakravarthy, R.K. Palta and R.B. Singh 194
195
196
Monogamy in Ashywren Warbler Prima socialis. How Much do Sexes Share
Domestic Duties?
S. Kanhikeyan 200
Physiological Timing of Seasonal Events in a Finch-Spotted Munia
Kanchan Pant and Asha Chandola-Saklani 202
A Study ot Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps bengalensis, in Relation to Permanent
Feeding Ground ot Vanasthalipuram, Hyderabad (A. P.)
R.B. Singh 203
Economic Ornithology
Insectivorous Birds and their Use as Biological Control Agents
Abraham Verghese and T.P Shhharan 207
Role ol Visual Scarers in the Management ot Bird Pests in Agriculture
Shakunthala Shdhara 2 1 2
Effect of Insecticides on Birds
R. Annamalai, V. Gunasekaran and S. Thirumurthi 216
Population Trends of Columbids in the Punjab Agroecosystem
Jaswinder S. Sandhu and PS. Santhu 216
Survey of Insectivorous Birds of Thalaimalai Forests
S. Thirvmurthi, R. Annamalai and V. Gunasekaran 217
Crop Loss Assessment due to Birds
A.K. Chakravarthy. M. Gopinath Rao and N.S. Bhat 219
Foraging Ecology of Pestilent Parakeets
Abraham Verghese 224
Foliage Damage to Areca, Areca catechu by Roosting ol Roseringed Parakeet.
Psittacula Kkameri
B.L. Visweswara Gowda, B. Shivayogeshwara and Prakash R. Naik 228
Status and Conservation of Avifauna of Aravalli Range and Mount Abu with
Special Reference to Depletion of Avifauna in the Last Twenty Five Years
indra Kumar Sharma 229
Parakeet Damage to Marigold Crop
PS. Sandhu and Jaswinder S. Sandhu 229
Avian Predatory Habit on FCV Tobacco Aphid Myzus nicotianae Blackman and
its Influence on Yield
B. Shivayogeshwara, S.P Nataraju, N.K. Krishna Prasad and Prakash R. 230
Naik
Bird Predation on the Termite, Odontotermes wallonensis in Cultivated Tracts
around Bangalore
D. Rajagopat and N. G. Kumar 232
vi
Birds Damage lo Pineapple Ananas comosus in Coastal and Hill Regions of
Karnataka
A.K. Chakravarthy and P. Batakrishna 233
Pesticide Hazards to Non-target Birds
M. S. Saini and V. R. Parshad 233
Relative Susceptibility ot Wheat Hybrids to Bird Damage
R.K. Bhatnagar, R.P. Palta and M. Raizada 234
Depredation ot Guava Fruits (Psidium gujava) by Birds at Mudigere,
Chickmagalur, Karnataka
K Krishnappa and J.B. Narendra Kumar 236
Plastic Bagging tor Controlling Bird Damage in Suntlower Heads
R.K. Bhatnagar, K.P Srivastava and R.K. Palta 237
Effect of Cultural Practices on Jungle Crow [Corus macrorynchos) damage to
Transplanted Paddy Seedlings in Hill Region ol Karnataka
PL Chandrappa and K. Krishnappa 238
Effects ot 4-Aminopyrtdine on Vultures
R.K. Bhatnagar, A.K Chakravarthy and R.K. Palta 239
'Watch-and-Ward': A Tool for Protecting Orange Fruits from Bird Damage
N.E. Thyagarajand Y.M. Somasekhara 241
Watch-and-Ward : A Method for Preventing Bird Damage on Sunflower
J.B Narendra Kumar and A.K. Chakravarthy 242
Relative Susceptibility of Maize Hybrids to Bird Damage
R.K. Bhatnagar 243
Behavioural Responses of Whilebacked Vultures (Gyps bengalensis) to
Coloured Lights
R.K. Bhatnagar, A.K Chakravarthy, R.B. Singh and R.K. Palta 244
Cultural Tool for Bird Pest Management in Sorghum {Sorghum vulgare)
Y. M. Somashekar and P i . Chandrappa 24fi
Sunflower {Helianthus annuus)Ctop Depredation by Pigeons and Doves in
Karnataka
A.K. Chakravarthy. E. Gangappa. Nagaraju and K Srihari 247
Eco-Biocontrol of Pest and Nuisance Birds at Agriculture Farms, Urban Areas
and Aerodromes in Western Rajasthan Thar Desert
Indra Kumar Sharma 249
VII
Late Contributions
Preliminary observations on Factors Governing the Selection of Wintering Sites
by Barheaded Goose (Anser indicus) in Karnataka, India
Taej Mundkur and S. Sridhar 25 1
The Avifauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: A Review and the Current
Scenario
ft Sankaran and L Vijayan 255
viii
ECOLOGY
and
CONSERVATION
A Decade of Conservation of the Great Indian Bustard
(Ardeotis nigriceps) at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
Ranjit Manakadan ■ and Asad R. Rahmanl
" Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbitl House. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023
Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002
Introduction
During the International Symposium on Bustards held at
Jaipur in 1980. apprehensions were raised that not
more than 15 Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps
survive in the whole of Andhra Pradesh (Pushp Kumar
1980 Pars. comm.). This figure was based on a rough
estimates collected by the Chiet Wildlife Warden, and not
on any actual sighting. In mid 1980s, the bustard was
'discovered in the grasslands near Rollapadu village in
Kurnool district (Manakadan & Rahmani 1989). Since then,
a number of conservation measures have been taken for
the bustards at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary . This paper
makes an overview of the conservation measures of the
pasts decade, the positive and negative results and
discusses the future implications and suggest
recommendations.
Study area
Rollapadu village is situated 18 km southwest of
Nandikotkur (15* 58' N & 78* 18' E ) on Nandyal road, in
Kurnool district. It lies in the plains between the Nallamalai
and Yerramalai ranges of the Eastern Ghats. The terrain rs
gently undulating with predominantly poor red soil. The
habitat is a mixture of grasslands, light scrub, scattered
trees, and crop fields. The main crops" of the area are
sorghum, cotton, groundnut, foxtail millet, redgram and
sessamum.
The region of semi-arid with an average annual rainfall
of 668 mm. Summer peaks at 42'C (April and May) and
winters are mild (17"C). Details of the sanctuary are given
by Manakadan & Rahmani (1989).
Conservation Measures
The following conservation measures were taken by the
Andhra Pradesh Forest Department tor the protection of
bustards and other wildlife:
1. Protection to the bustard: Initially five watchers were
appointed to prevent hunting of bustards. Two of the
watchers belonged to a community that had traditionally
hunted bustards and other wildlife in the area. These
watchers were very knowledgeable about the behavior
and movement of bustards. Presently, a forester, a
guard and nine watchers are posted at Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary.
I Establishment of core areas: Revenue land and some
private lands were acquired by the Forest Department
to establish core areas where human disturbance and
grazing were curtailed. The purpose of these
enclosures was to serve as breeding sites for the
bustard to build-up its numbers. Three enclosures of
320 ha, 120 ha and 40 ha were established, and were
demarcated by trench-sum-mound walls. For the last
one decade these enclosures are serving as safe
breeding sites of bustards.
3. Publicity and education: A publicity and education
campaign through pamphlets, press releases, TV and
roadside boards was launched by the Forest
Department to highlight the plight of th bustard. An
educational centre was set up at Rollapadu to provide
information about bustards and grassland fauna to
visitors. Through the concerted efforts of the Forest
Department, the Nandikotkur Bus Depot adopted
bustard as the mascot for its buses.
4. Declaration as a wildlife sanctuary: In 1989. an area of
614 hectares was declared as a wildlife sanctuary.
Results And Discussion
Positive aspects
1. Owing to protection and good publicity by the Forest
Department, hunting of bustards has completely
stopped in the sanctuary area and its immediate
environs. However, in spite of this protection and good
breeding success each year, the maximum number of
birds sighted each season remains more or less the
same (Table I) . This indicates that either the bustards
are being hunted during the non-breeding season when
they are subject to local movement, or the carrying
capacity of the Rollapadu grasslands with regards to
the bustard has been reached so birds are emigrating
to other areas. However, we have no evidence that
more bustards are being seen elsewhere. Movement ot
the bustard is an important aspect which should be
studied after marking birds and by telemetry.
2. The bustard has greatly benefited from the setting up of
enclosures. All the territorial cooks have their display
grounds inside or just outside the enclosures, where
human disturbance is minimum. Moreover, all the nest
located during the last 10 years were laid in the
enclosures. This is mainly due to lack of human
disturbance, increase in food supply through habitat
improvement, presence of necessary micro -habitats
such as chick hiding and resting places, in contrast to
I ho grazing lands where egg and chick are fully
exposed to natural elements. Many of the species
mentioned in Table II have also benefited due to
development of enclosures.
3. There ts now an awareness of the bustard at local and
state level due to publicity campaign. This has resulted
in a positive attitude among locals for bustard
conservation in particular and wildlife conservation in
general. Tourists from within the state, other states and
to a lesser extend foreign countries visit Rollapadu to
see bustard and other wildlife. School children are
brought from nearby areas to learn about nature
conservation.
4. Declaration of a wildlife sanctuary on the Rollapadu
grasslands has given more power to the Forest
Department to managed the grassland and its wildlife.
Now funds are released annually to improve tourist
facilities and for habitat protection. Without acquiring
the land and declaration of a sanctuary, it would have
been difficult to manage the area.
Negative Aspects
1 . Graziers complain of the loss of grazing lands for their
sheep, goats and cows. Their protests have resulted in
opening one of the core areas of 120 ha for grazing.
2. Continuous increase in the number of blackbuck have
resulted in crop damage to certain crops, especially in
the nearby fields. Farmers complain regularly about
blackbuck menace but the Forest Department is yet to
evolve a strategy to counter this problem,
3. The increase in the population of predators such as fox
and wild cat pose a threat to the bustard. The fox is
known to be a predator of bustard egg (Rahmani &
Manakadan, 1987). In 1992 a nesting hen was killed by
a jungle cat. and between 1988 and 1991, remains of
two cocks were seen by watchers which were probably
killed either by cat or by wolf.
Recommendation s
The Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the smallest
sanctuaries in India. Owing to its small size rt is easy to
manage, but his also makes it vulnerable to threats. If crop
damage problem is left unattended, it will increase
resentment among villagers and jeopardize the existence
of the sanctuary. Similarly any further increase in predator
populations will disturb the breeding hens. Hence constant
monitoring and scientific management are necessary.
Reasons for the lack of increase of the bustard
population over the years will have to be looked into. If it is
due to poaching outside the sanctuary, then protection will
have to be extended in a much larger area. If the carrying
capacity has been reached, then more enclosures will have
to be set-up.
Since the creation of more enclosures will conflict with
the needs of the locals, it will be first necessary to
encourage them to take other vocations like poultry, bee
keeping, mushroom farming or some cottage industhes
with the necessary financial support and technical
knowhow provided, so that there is less demand for
grazing lands. Incentives for small families for villages near
the sanctuary will also reduce the demand tor land for
human and human related needs.
Resentment among locals will further increase if
blackbuck crop damage problem is not tackled
immediately. As blackbuck is in Schedule I of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act. 1972. allowing its shooting will need
permission from the Central Government as well as some
changes in the law. We suggest that a crop damage
compensation scheme should be started by the Forest
Department for few years to see the reaction of villagers.
Secondly, every atleast 25% of the blackbuck population
should be removed and relocated. However, if both these
schemes fail, only then calling of blackbuck should be
allowed. Total removal can be justified if the purpose of the
sanctuary is 'bustard rehabilitation only', as was originally
intended. Similarly, removal of culling of predators such as
fox and jackal should be started on an experimental basis.
Lastly for the better management of the Sanctuary, it
would be necessary to establish a Range Forest Office
either at Rollapadu or Nandikotkur. At present, the ranger
operates from the Sirsailam-Nagarjunasagar sanctuary, a
good 180 km away. A forester (the head of the staff at
Rollapadu) has officially very little powers, so a Range
Forest Office at or near the sanctuary will result in better
administration of the sanctuary.
A ckno wledgement
This paper is a result of two projects of the Bombay
Natural History Society which were funded by the U.S. Fish
& Wildlife Service, and sponsored by the Ministry of
Environment. Studies at Rollapadu were done between
1983 and 1988 under the Endangered Species Project,
and ongoing studies are going on under the Grassland
Ecology Project. These studies would not have been
possible without the cooperation of the Andhra Pradesh
Forest Department. Special thanks to Mr. Pushp Kumar,
Mr. Jaganmohan Rao and Mr. Abdullah. We also want to
thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Curator of the BNHS. Dr. Jay
Samant, Director of BNHS and Prof. A.D. Musavi,
Chairman, Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim
University, for their encouragement and support.
References
Manakadan, R 8 A.R. Rahmani 1989. Rollapadu Wildlife
Sanctuary.J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 368-380.
Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan 1987. Interspecific
behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard. J.Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 84:317-331.
Rahmani. A.R. 1989. The Great Indian Bustard- Final
Report. Endangered Species Project. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Table 1 : Maximum number of Bustards recorded
during the last ten years
Year
Cocks
Hens
Total
1984
—
—
38
1985
—
—
—
1986
17
12
29
1987
17
' 24
41
1888
24
21
45
1989
—
14
—
1990
—
21
—
1991
—
15
—
1992
14
16
30
1993
20
•
—
Note Cocks • from total counts during
the flocking season
Hens - From number of nests
* Nesting on at the time of writing this paper
(September 1993)
Table 2: Major fauna that have benifited from the conservation measures for the Bustard
Species
Common Name
Scientific Name
Population estimate
1988 1992
Remarks
Black buck
Antilope cervicapra
17
c.200
Wolf
Canis lupus
2-3
2-3
Jackal
Cants aureus
Indian Fox
Vulpes benghalenses
c.6
c.34
Jungle cat
Felis chaus
•
•
Blacknaped hare Lepus ntgncollis
Common monitor
Lizard Varanus benghalensis
Lesser fiorican Sypheotides indica
Breeds inside enclosure
Breeds inside enclosure
Breeds inside enclosure
Benefitted from increased
vegetation cover and lack of
biolic pressures
Benefitted from increased
vegetation cover and lack of
biotic pressures
Benefitted from increased
vegetation cover and lack of
biolic pressures
Breeds in enclosure
Possible Impacts of Climatic Changes on Wetlands and Birds
'A.K. Sharma . "A.K. Chakravarthy and *S.SrIdhar
Meteorologist, Agromet Res, Unit, IMD, Jr Entomologist, AICORPO (Sunflower),
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
* Regional Co-ordinator, AWC. No. 10, Sirur Park Road, Seshadripuram, Bangalore 560 020
Introduction
There is increasing evtdence that rising emissions of
carbon dioxide. Methane and Nitrous oxide and other
radiatively active gases will lead to an increase in the
earth's surface temperature (Parry et al.. 1990). There may
be likely changes in the geographical distribution ot
existing patterns of climate. As a result, the composition of
the ecosystems that exist in each climatic zone is likely to
change. This will be disruptive to wetlands (Martin, 1990).
The possible impacts of global climatic changes on
wetlands and wetland birds is discussed in this paper. The
anticipatory measures for waterfowl conservalion and
sustainable development are suggested.
Material and Methods
Review on the subject has been extrapolated with
waterfowl as bio- indicators and suggestions have been
advanced.
Results and Discussion
Expected climatic changes
If emissions of greenhouse gases continue at their
present rates (Fig.t) computer model's of the earth's
climate predict thai global average surface temperatures
will rise by (1.5 to 4.5'C) by the year 2050. The critical
climatic changes projected for lower latitudes (0-30'N&S)
are warming of about 1 'C and increase in precipitation by
about 5-10%. In a warmer world, the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) would advance further
northward into Asia and Africa. H this happens, rainfall in
India would increase, but not necessarily in all parts of the
country. According to the latest report of Inlergovern mental
Panel on Climate Change. 1992, the rainfall in India will
decrease contradictory to the earlier report of Parry and
Carter. 1990. Whether the rainfall will increase or decrease,
wetlands will be affected. Rainfall could also be more
intense in its occurrence, propagating flood and erosion.
The short-footed wader birds. Stints Caltidris spp., Little
Ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius and Sandpipers of
Tringa spp. would be more severely affected than
long-legged waders like Blackwinged StiR. Himantopus
himantopus. Ruff, Phihmachus pugnax, etc. Increase in
potential evapotranspiration can be expected lo
accompany the increase in temperature. Marked water
stress may occur in areas where there is no accompanying
increase in precipitation. The Siberian Crane (Grus
leucogeranus). a threatened species uses its enormous
fleshy beak to dig in wet mud where it forages
predominantly on the tubers of sedges and the fleshy roots
of aquatic plants. If the mud is dry it is difficult for the
cranes to penetrate the substrate. Siberian cranes require
wide expanses of shallow water where root-tubers are
plentiful (Archibald and Landfried. 1 993). Disappearance of
shallow wetlands is one of the main causes for the decline
of Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis (Johnson et
al., 1993). It is interesting to know that in ihe Year 1987
which happens to be an El-Nino (Anamalous warming of
the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Peru) year the South
West Monsoon failed over India leading to dry condilions
(Table 1).
Wetlands not only help to control floods but they are
critical to biodiversity and to the lite-cycles of many bird
species. Due lo the climatic changes some of the inland
water bodies might enlarge in size and some might shrink
or disappear altogether. The shrinkage of freshwater
bodies either due to increased evapotranspiration of water
or siltation leads to a decrease in bird numbers. For
instance Waterfowl census in Kashmir Wetlands during
1992 revealed that in Mirgund and Hokera lakes, Pintail
{Anas acuta), Common Teal (Anas cr&cca). Grey Heron
(Ardea cinorea), Wigeon {Anas penelopo). Mallard (Anas
platyrhynchus). Gadwall (Anas strepetra). Redcrested
pochard (Netta rufina) and White-eyed pochard (Aythya
nyroca) decreased in numbers due to a lack of sustainable
water level. Little Grebe (Podiceps ruficollis) in Dal lake left
the wetland in February, 1993 as the waterlevel dropped
(Asian Wetland News, 1993).
In Karnataka. South India, Waterfowl totals at 81 tanks
counted every year between 1989-92 showed the lowest
totals in 1991 following the lowest rains in lhat period
(Fig. 1-2).
Meteorologists warn that the semi-arid to arid regions of
the world will be the most sensitive to climate change. The
unregulated river systems in these regions of the world with
inadequate development of basin storage will be especially
vulnerable (Rao and Sinha. 1991 ).
The number of Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) in
Gujarat, for example, shot-up following a bountiful rainfall,
and in years when rainfall was below normal, cranes
shifted to nearby Maharashtra and Karnataka (Fig.3) It
may be noted that of the 9 resident, endangered species of
waterfowl in India, habitats of 5 are in arid regions (Sridhar
and Srinivasa, 1993).
The major effects would be fell near the coastal areas
as the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones is
expected to increase, also Ihe mean sea level could rise by
about 30 to 50 cm (by the Year 2050, Ftg.4).
Coastal ecosystems would be threatened by inundation,
freshwater shortages and salt damages. These are fragile
ecosystems and will have a direct effect on the inter-tidal
zone ecosystems. The marshes would shift inlands. Some
species of waders using Ihe coast like Plovers (Charadrius
sp.). Storks (Species of Ciconia) might be affected by these
transformations. Although mangroves are known to
withstand tropical storms but they could also wither under
intensified onslaughts of tropical storms. If this happens,
majority of the fish species will be affected. This in turn
would affect the piscivorous birds like Gulls {Larus spp.).
Terns (Sterna sp.). Ducks (Anas sp.), Cormorants
{Phalacrocorax sp.) and Darter (Anhinga rufa).
In the Mekong delta (Cambodia) it is reported that 45%
of the Bertre province, 28% of Tien Giang province (GO
Long area) and 50% of Travinh Province are affected by
saline water intrusion leading to deltas becoming
wastelands, which were once frequented by wafer birds.
Deltas and intertidal ecosystems provide a lifeline for
millions of migratory birds and so are crucially important.
Further migratory routes may get affected as a result of
changes in the geographical distribution of existing
climates. In addtion to this higher temperatures in the
greenhouse world would lead to higher metabolic rates in
the birds which in turn could lead lo reduced tat storage
and consequently will affect migratory birds. (Peter
Symens. 1993)
Some of the important wetlands in India are Point
Calimere and Pulicat in the South. Bharatpur Bird
Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat,
Harikepattan in Punjab, Bramhaputra Valley in Assam, and
the Sunderbans in West Bengal. All these wetlands form a
lifeline for resident and migratory waterfowl and waders in
the Indian sub-continent. The major climatic factors and
likely impacts on the waterfowl species to be most affected
are indicated in Fig. 5.
Conservation measures
In view of the global climatic changes our strategy of
managing the wetlands and waterfowl musl also be
updated as follows :
1. Countries must work together as members of a
global society to promote cooperation and closely
collaborate with IWRB, AWB, BLI and other
international organ isalions. in protecting wetland
habitats for birds. The annual mid-winter waterfowl
census conducted by IWRB since 1987 presently
include 1862 wetlands (776 from India) of 30
countries in Asia, Australia and New Zealand. The
census data is critically important for indicating the
biological diversity, the actions required to pfotect
and manage wetlands on a sustainable basis.
Surely the Asian waterfowl census is the only way in
which waterfowl populations can be monitored on a
consistent basis. A careful and critical analysis of
census data over a period would enable early
predictions of the impact of global environmental
changes on wetlands.
2. Wetlands need advanced monitoring systems, such
as satellite remote sensing. Geographical
Information System (GIS) etc.
3. It may be desirable to initiate studies using the
technique of Genetic Engineering for transferring to
desirable genotypes elongation genes from
deep-water rices and sea water tolerance genes
from Mangrove species (Swaminathan, 1991). so
that paddyfields and mangroves continue to serve
as habitats for waterfowl.
Possible impacts of depletion of ozone layer, acid rain,
pollution with poisons and the loss of biological diversity of
birds need to be studied in the context of wetland
ecosystems.
Conclusion
There is no scientific doubt about the increasing
concentrations of the greenhouse gases. Also, there is a
near consensus on climatic change. Wetlands falling in the
sub-tropical areas will be affected more than the tropical
wetlands. In the tropical areas, coastal wetlands will be
more affected. Wetlands in the semi-arid and arid regions
will be the most affected. Environmental impact analysis for
endangered species of Spoonbill, Pelicans, Cranes,
Herons and Storks are urgently required.
Ackno wledgement
Encouragement received from the Indian Meteorology
Department (I.M.D.), New Delhi and the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore is gratefully acknowl-
edged.
References
Archibald, G. and Landfried, S„ 1993. Conservation
measures tor the Siberian Crane, 85-87. In: Moser, M.
and Vessem. J. Van (Eds.). Wetland and Waterfowl
Conservation in South and West Asia. IWRB Publication
No.25, pp.157.
Asian Wetland Bureau. 1993. Assessment ol Bird
populations in Kashmir's Wetlands. Asian Wetland
News. 5(2) and 6(1): 21-22.
Information Unit on Climatic Change. 1992. UNEP, pp.114.
Intergovernmental Panel on climate change 1990. "The
IPCC Scientific Assessment Cambridge University
Press" The IPCC Impacts Assessment. WMO/UNEP.
pp.245.
Johnson, J.M.. Perennou. C, and Crivelli, A.J., 1993.
Towards the extinction of the spot billed Pelican
{Pelecanus philippensis). 92-94. In: Moser. M. and
Vessem. J. Vain. (Eds.). Wetland and Waterfowl
Conservation in South and West Asia. IWRB Publication
No.25, pp.157.
Martin Ince, 1990. The rising seas. Earth Scan London.
Martin, P., 1990. Climatic change and World Agriculture.
Earth Scan Publications, pp.348.
Paity. Ml.. Porter. J.H. and Cartel. T.R.. 1990. CV\maV*c
change and Us implications lor Agriculture. Outlook on
Agriculture, 19(1) : 9-15.
Rao, N.H. and Sinha. S.K.. 1991. Sustainable
Development ol Water Resources lor Agriculture.
173-208. In: Shrivastava, N.S. (Ed.) "Glimpses of
Science in India". Malhotra Publishing House, New
Delhi, pp.673.
Sttdhat. S. and Srinivasa, T.S.. 1993. Endangered
Waterfowl of India. 96. In: Moser. M. and Vesem. J.
Ovan (Eds.). Wetland and Waterfowl Conservation in
South and West Asia. IWRB Publication No.25, pp.157.
Swaminathan. M.S.. 1991. Indian Agriculture and
Challenges. 25-48. In: Srivastava, N.S. XSIimpses of
Science in india", (Ed) Malhotra Publishing House. New
Delhi, pp.673.
Sridhar. S. and Srinivasa, T.S., 1992. Asian Mid-Winter
Waterfowl Science. Newsletter for Birdwatchers.
32(11412) :1 and 18.
Table 1. World winterng population of Petecanus philippensls
India (Johnson et al.)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
345
1738
1931
2922
:t:o
2055
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il»0 ItM HM t»0O 1110 ISM
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A B C
A - Concentration ot corbondioxide since 1 750. Almost all of ihe upward trend can be directly
attributed to human activity.
B - Concentration ot methane and effect of methane on radiative forcing in terms of CO?-equivalent since 1 750.
C - Concentration ot CFCs, in terms of CFCt 1 -equivalent and in terms of COy-equivaJent.
Source : Houghton et al. 'Climate Change, the IPCC Scientific Assessment", Cambridge. 1 990.
Fig. 2:
Waterfowl Population Trends in Karnataka
A years data 1969 to 92. in 81 tanks
Triauaarxli
1990 '99,1 1992
P'«" **•' Rainfall Wate'lowla Counted
6
70r~
R| 3 DEMOtSELLC CRANtS IS THE
INDI AS SUBCONTINENT
*UMIWoraLM*S
O -■*■»> • t-i"»
monsoon m the twviow VIA*
r i " "■■ *p up* «« — ^w
K4M
1990
2010
YEAR
Z030
2050
Ftp 4 Piotacwi ol S#j Lev* His
Fig.5. Important wetlands (or waterfowl in India and possible Impact of climatic changes on wetlands and
waterfowl.
Wetland area
Climatic changes/impact
r rd community to bo affected
1. RannofKutch
Reduced rainfall and increased evaporation
Surface water feeders
2. Kerala coast
No! c'oar
Not much
3. Point Calimere
Increased sea level salt water intrusion
Surface water feeders
4. Pulical lake
-do-
-do-
5. Sunderbans
Tropical storms, sea level rise
Ail communities
6. Bharatpur
Reduced rainfall and increased evaporation
Siberian crane and ducks
7. Harike Pattan
Reduced rainfall
Surface water feeders
Whitewinged Wood Duck {Cairina scutulata)
Conservation in Assam
Viable Habitat
Bibhab Kr. Talukdar and P.C. Bhattacharjee
Animal Ecology & Wildlife Biotogy Lab., Department of Zoology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati - 781 014, Assam
Introduction
The White Winged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata) of
South- east Asia is the most endangered species of
Anatidae in the world. The duck was described common
throughout South-east Asia (Baker 1921), but later.
Delacour (1959) described them as not rare, but never
numerous. The historical data on C. scutulata are
particularly good in India. The species was originally
confined to North-east India mainly to Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh (Green 1992). where it was abundant
in parts. It is one of the largest duck species, with males
slightly larger than females (Madge & Bunn. 1988). The
duck has been the subject of various conservation
measures since 1968 (Mackenzie & Kear. 1976). The duck
is seriously threatened in its distribution range due to
exploitation of the tropical forests on which they depend
(Kear & Williams, 1978; Collar and Andrew, 1988).
The shy Whitewinged Wood Duck is very difficult to
locate in natural habitats. The evergreen and
semi-evergreen, moist deciduous and some palchy rain
forests along with waterbodies of eastern Assam are the
natural abodes of the duck. In Assam the duck is mainly
observed in Dibru-satkhowa Wildlife Sanctuary comprising
650 sq km, Doomdooma Reserved Forest (RF) comprising
28 sq km. Joypoore RF comprising 108.69 sq km, Dangori
RF comprising 9.2 sq km and Phillobari RF comprising
3.18 sq km (Talukdar and Bhattacharjee, 1 993). Most of the
areas where Whitewinged Wood Duck (WWWD) is found,
is difficult to protect, because of extensive areas. So, to
find habitats the duck prefers within sanctuaries or
reserved fo'ests of Assam, where conservation can be
initiated, the present work was carried out.
Material and Methods
The study sites were the Dibru-saikhowa wildlife
santuary (WLS) (27.40N, 95...24E) at 90-100 m attitude
and Doomdooma RF (27.36N, 95.42E) at 100-150 m
altitude, situated in the district of Tinsukia, Assam (Map 1
and Map 2).
The study was conducted during various seasons of two
consecutive years. The data systematically recorded were-
1) Present and past reported sightings.
2) Types of disturbances to different habitats within
the study area.
3) Vegetation types of different habitats.
4) Important plant species which are of vital
importance as nesting trees.
5) Conditions of wetlands with special reference to the
various forms of biotic interferences.
Results and Discussion
The present work was mainly confined to the
identification of viable sites in Dibru-saikhowa Wildlife
Sanctuary and Doomdooma Reserved Forest of Assam.
Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary : Some of the salient
plant species forming the forest composition of
Dibru-saikhowa WLS are summarised in Table. 1 .
Among the above mentioned plants, Salix tetrasperma,
Mesua ferrea and Terminalis myriocarpa were identified as
nesting plants.
Dibru-saikhowa includes within its limit the merging of
lofty Lohit and Debang Rivers to form the mighty
Brahmaputra. The sanctuary is surrounded by the
Brahmaputra River in the north and Dibru river in the
south. The survey of the Dibru-saikhowa WLS showed that
a) There are three Forest Villages in the Sanctuary,
viz - (i) The Ragbi Laika and (it) Laika forest village
situated in the North-west part of the sanctuary, and
(iii) Dadhia forest village in the extreme South-west
part of the sanctuary. During summer, when most
part of the sanctuary is flooded, some villagers of
Laika and Ragbi-Laika move on boat through the
sanctuary in absence of any alternative route,
which disturbs WWWD feeding locations and other
wildlife.
b) The waterbodies in the WLS provide suitable
habitat to WWWD. The ducks utilises selected
waterbodies like beel - Kolomi, Dighali. Torali, Buri.
Thekera and some selected areas in and around
Nayanadi for resting and feeding.
c) The forest areas under Dighaltarang Beat of the
sanctuary still have some primary forests which
provides suitable cover for the WWWD.
Doomdooma Reserved Forest
The forest is dominated by Mesua ferrea and
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus. The RF is situated on the
north bank of Doomdooma River with Phillobari Tea Estate
to the south and Bordubi Tea Estate to the south-west. The
survey of the Doomdooma RF showed that
a) The WWWD is mainly spotted in "Littong - and
"Kakopalhar" forest range in the Doomdooma RF,
and the areas have the capability of supporting
breeding and feeding of WWWD.
B
b) Biolic interference is due to (odder and fuel-wood
collection and grazing.
c) A portion of the RF is used for cultivation.
d) Fishing in the wetlands on a regular basis interferes
with the various activities of the duck.
e) Logging reduces the number of nesting trees.
f) Egg collection, shooting and trapping ol the duck is
a direct hinderence to the population build-up.
Depending upon the frequency of spotting the WWWD
in various sites in Dibru-saikhowa WLS and
DOOMDOOMA RF, the following gradations were made
(Table.2)
Valuation basedon available and observed spotting
records on population size and habitat quality of the viable
sites in the study area, is presented in Table 3.
Valuation based on the available and observed dala on
types of disturbances in the viable sites of the study area,
is presented in Table. 4.
A rapid decline in the range of distribution and density of
Cairina scutulata in India has been observed in the last four
decades. At present the duck is mainly concentrated in
some localised areas of eastern Assam apart from few
areas of Arunchal Pradesh. From the present study and
past records, it is evident that both Dibru-saikhowa WLS
and Doomdooma RF are viable habitats for WWWD.
From the field observation, it could be distinctly seen
that Doomdooma RF has higher habitat quality value (11
and 12 out of maximum 20) than Dibru-saikhowa habitat
sites ( 4 to 11 out of maximum 20) which was the main
criterion (or conservation.
The present findings point out that the Doomdooma RF
is the better site (or the protection o( WWWD (or taking
immediate protection measuress. including preventing
biotic interferences. The immediate protection measures
which have been initiated in collaboration with the
Department of Forest, Govt, of Assam, are-
a) To upgrade the Doomdooma RF to the status of
WLS - which automatically gets better protection
from the adminstration.
b) A target oriented awareness programme to inform
the value of conservation of this endangered
species.
c) The WWWD should be declared as the State Bird
for active protection.
d) Steps to be taken up to restore the degraded forest
land.
e) A socio-economic survey on the fringe villages to
be initiated to find out the causes ol biotic pressure
and estimation of dependence on the RF.
The success in the protection of Doomdooma RF with
active cooperation and participation o( all Government and
non- government organisations of the area is at present the
only long term conservation measure tor WWWD
(Deohah).
References
Baker, E.C.S.. 1921. Indian Ducks and their Allies. 2nd
Edition. Bombay : Bombay Natural History Society.
Collar, N.J., & Andrew. P.. 1 988. Birds to watch. ICBP Tech.
Publ., No. 8
Delacour, J.. 1959. The Waterfowl of the World. Vol. 3.
Country Life, London.
Green, A.J.. 1992. The Status and Conservation of the
White Winged Wood Duck Cairina scutulata. IWRB
Special Publication No. 17.
Kear. J. and William. G., 1978. Waterfowl at risk. Wildfowl,
29:5-21
Mackenzie, M.J.S. and Kear. J.. 1976. The White Winged
Wood Duck. W/oYow/27;5-17.
Madge. S and Burn. H., 1988. Wildfowl. London :
Christopher Helm.
Talukdar, B.K. & P.C. Bhattacharjee.. 1993. Cairina
scutulata (White Winged Wood Duck): Conservation
Priorities in Assam. Proceedings of workshop on Avian
Conservation held at Coimbatore from 3-5 August 1993
(In Press).
(References as given by the authors. Ed.)
Table 1 : Salient Plant Species of Dibru-saikhowa
WLS.
Scientific name
Anthrocephalus cadamba
Artocarpus chaplasha
Lagerstroemia acerifolium
Terminalis myriocarpa
Terminalis chebula
Terminalis belerica
Sails tetrasperma
Bombax ceiba
Mangifera longipes
Mesua ferrea
Stereospermum chelonoides
Morus laevigata
Mallotus phillipinensis
Alstonia scolaris
Castanopsis sp.
Datbergis sisso
Leea crispa
Garcinia sp.
Arundo donax
Phragmites kakra
Local Assamese nam*
Kadam
Sam
Ajar
Hollock
Hilikha
Bhomora
Bher
Simalu
Urium
Nahor
Paroli
Bula
Sundarl
Sationa
Hingori
Sisso
Kath-thengia
Thekera
Nal
Khagori
9
Table 2 : Valuation of viable sites according lo frequency of spotting
NAME OF SITES
GRADE
REMARKS
Doomdooma RF:
"Litlong Range"
"Kakopathar Range"
Dibnj-saikhowa WLS:
"Kolomy Area"
■Dighati Beef"
Torali Beel"
"Buri Beel'
"Thekera Beel"
"Nayanadi Area"
3 Viable sites. Forest composition, habitat very suitable for WWWD
4 Important viable site. Habitat suitable, needs better conser-
vation and protection measures.
2 Viable site with water bodies. Disturbances due to movement
of villagers.
1 Occasional visiting site. Disturbances due to movement of villagers.
1 Occasional visiting site. Biotic interference due lo human adrvities.
2 Viable sitie in Dighaltarang Beat. Suitable habitat. Disturbances
due to illegal human activities.
3 Important site in Dighaltarang Beat. Habitat and the environment
is very suitable for WWWD.
2 Viable sites (or WWWD as feeding and resting. Movement of boats
creates disturbances.
1 - Occasional, 2 - Moderate. 3 - High. 4 - Very high
Table 3 : Habitat Evaluation
Criteria for Valuation
Sites ot importance to WWWD
Criteria
Valuatior
Range
Doomdooma Hh
A B
Dibru-sa
C
tnowi
D
E
WLS
F
GH
1 . Population
2. Habitat Quality.
a. Natural
b. Availability
Maximum valuation
of Waterbodies
(0-10) 4
(0-5) 4
(0-5) 3
(0-20)Total:11
5
4
3
12
3
2
4
9
2
2
3
7
1
1
2
2
3
3
8
32
41
43
6
" Valuation of population is based
" Valuation for Habitat Quality:
on tlocK/gn
up size.
(based on cover, food.)
Swabw,
= Not suitable, i - Less suitable, 2 - Moderate, 3
4 - Very suitable, 5 ■ Very much suitable.
"" A- "Littong Range", Doomdooma RF
B - "Kakopathar Range", Doomdooma RF
C • "Kolomy Area", Dibru-saikhowa WLS
D - "Dighali Beel", Dibru-saikhowa WLS
E - "Torali Beel Area", Dibru-saikhowa WLS
F - "Buri Beel Area". Dibru-saikhowa WLS
G - Thekera Beel Area", Dibru-saikhowa WIS
H - "Nayanadi Area", Dibru-saikhowa WLS.
Table. 4: Disturbance Evalution
Criterias for valuation
Srtes of importance to WWWD
Valuation Doomdooma
Criteria
RF Dibru-saikhowa
"WIS"
Range
A
B
C
D
b
I
GH
2
2
1
1
2
2
13
3
3
1
1
2
2
14
3
3
1
01
1
1
2
2
3
2
14
1. Disturbances caused by :
a. Fishing (0-4)
b. Fodder & Fuel wood collection 0-4
c. Cutting of old matured trees (0-4)
d. Movement of boats in summer (0-4)
(From April -October)
- Nil, 1 - Less, 2 « Moderate, 3 - High, 4 - Very high.
10
The Wetland Avifauna of Pulicat Bird Sanctuary, South India
Prakash Rao and K.K. Mohapatra
Bombay Natural History Society , Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road
Bombay 400 023
Introduction
There have been some studies on the coastal wetlands
in south- east India in recent years (Krishnamurthy and
Rao, 1970; Raman ef a/.. 1975; Sunderraj and Sanjeeva
Raj, 1987). Little has been studied on the ornithological
aspects of the wetlands in this region (Perennou and
Saniharam, 1 990). Pulicat lake is one of the most important
wetlands on India's eastern coast where hundreds of
migratory waterfowls congregate on its vast mudllats every
winter. Considering the importance of the lake for its natural
resources, the areas was declared a bird sanctuary by the
Andhra Pradesh forest department in 1976. As no detailed
information is available on the avifauna ol the area a study
was undertaken between 1989 and 1992 to record the
movement pattern, status and distribution of waterfowls in
the sanctuary.
Material and Methods
Pulicat Bird Sanctuary (pbs) Is a vast brackish to saline
lagoon with extensive mudflats. It is the second largest
brackish water lagoon in India, with an area of about 450
sq km of which 84% lie in the state of Andhra Pradesh
while the rest (the southern part) is in Tamil Nadu {Scott.
1989). The sanctuary lies in south coastal Andhra Pradesh
(13 25"— 13 55'N. 80 03' — 80 19'E) and is shallow with
large areas ol mudllats. The spindle shaped Snharikota
island forms the eastern boundary of the sanctuary which
separates the lagoon from the Bay of Bengal (Fig.1). Sea
water enters the lagoon from the northern end and flows
back into the Bay of Bengal from the southern side. The
water regime at PBS is mainly dependent on the
North-East monsoon and this has a prolonged effect on the
salinity of the lagoon. The lagoon is virtually dry in the
northern parts during summer (April-June). The N-E
monsoon during October and November covers most of he
sanctuary with water. The average annual rainfall for 1990
and 1991 was 1417 mm. Three major islands Venadu,
Irukkam and Atakanithippa and several smaller islands and
islets are seen in the northern part of the lagoon. The bulk
of the waterfowl of the sanctuary is seen in the northern
part along the Sulurpet-Sriharikota road which runs west to
east through the sanctuary. There is little seasonal
fluctuation in temperatures. Field studies were restricted to
ihe accessible regions of the sanctuary. Most waterfowl
concenlraled in the northern half of the sanctuary. Hence,
major field work was carried out here. Birds scientific name
and listing is after Ripley. (1982) and Ali and Ripley (1987).
Censusing
In order to assess the population and movement ol the
waterfowl in the sanctuary the following method was
adopted. A fortnightly total count of the main core area was
taken along the Suturpet-Sriharikota road, along a distance
of 10 km which formed the main transect. A smaller
transect of 2 km between Atakanithippa and Venadu
islands was set to take regular counts of the Flamingo
populations. During the counts, special emphasis was
given to some of the larger species which acted as
bio -indicators of the health of the wetland.
Banding
Extensive banding of birds was carried out in the coastal
mudflats ot the sanctuary. Birds were caught with the help
of mistnots and dap traps. Each of these traps were placed
along the shores of the sanctuary where there was good
congregation of waterfowl. Netting was carried out at night
for effective trapping. Each individual was ringed with a
BNHS ring. Various measurements of the birds like wing,
tail, bill, tarsus lengths, weight and moult were recorded
and the bird released within 1-2 hours of capture.
Results and Discussion
The abundance of waterfowl fluctuates mainly with the
prevailing water regime. The major groups of birds
encountered were Storks, Flamingos. Ducks. Shorebirds,
Gulls and Terns which formed the bulk of the waterfowl
wintering in the sanctuary. From 1988 a regular waterfowl
count was conducted as part of Ihe Asian Waterfowl
Census (AWC). The daia obtained over the last five years
indicated that Pulicat lake is a major wintering site for
Palaearcttc migrants (Table 1).
During the AWC of 1988, 83,806 waterfowl were
counted at the sanctuary (the highest in the past live years)
making it a wetland supporting Ihe second largest
concentration of waterfowl in India next only to Chilka lake
in Orissa. It may be emphasized that both these wetlands
are on India's eastern coast. A third very significant coastal
wetland on the eastern coast is the Point Calimere Wildlife
sanctuary in southern Tamil Nadu which also attracts vast
numbers of migratory waterfowl. Together these three
wetlands form part of a major migratory flyaway for migrant
waterfowl in the Indian subcontinent.
A total of 88 species of birds associated with wetlands
have been recorded from Pulicat Bird Sanctuary from the
BNHS study. Of these 33 species (37.5%) are resident, and
55 species (62.5%) were palaearcttc migrants. During the
study, a total ot 4012 birds of 50 species were banded from
the sanctuary. The major families represented in the
sanctuary included Pelicanidae (isp), Phoenicopteridae
(2 spp). Cicomidae (6 spp), Anatidae (10 spp),Charadriidae
(33 spp) and Laridae (9 spp).
11
Indicator Species
Three major families of walerbirds at PBS ad as
biological indicators of the quality of Puticat lagoon. A major
concentration of birds is seen during the migratory season
(October-March) and it is this period which is useful in
assessing trends in waterfowl populations (Fig.3),
Pelicankiae
Represented by one species the Spotbilled Pelican.
{Pelicans philipponsis), which is currently threatened, with
populations existing mainly in a few wetlands in Andhra
Pradesh and Assam. The sanctuary is a major foraging
ground for the species which breeds in the nearby
Nelapattu bird sanctuary. The Spotbilled Pelican is
concentrated mainly in the northern and north-west region
of Pulicat lagoon. Population figures show an increase in
December, and decline from January as the water in the
sanctuary recedes. A maximum count of 346 birds were
recorded from the sanctuary during the AWC of 1 992.
Phoenicoptendae
Two species are represented, the Greater Flamingo,
(Phoenicopterus roseus) and the Lesser Flamingo,
{Phoeniconaias minor). Of these, there is a significant
population of Greater Flamingo at the sanctuary.
Population trends suggest that the movement of the
species is dependent mainly on the north-east monsoon.
The core area of the sanctuary near Venadu island
supports the maximum number of flamingos through the
winter months. Over the years, numbers of the species
have dropped due to commercial fishing. Around
4000-5000 birds have been recorded here regularly every
year {Table 1). Lesser Flamingos are considerably fewer
and they are usually seen in the core area adjoining
Venadu island and not elsewhere in the sanctuary.
Charadriidae
The lagoon is one of the two major wetlands in
south-east India for migrating shorebirds Prater et a/.(1977)
Due to the vastness of the lagoon only a rough estimate of
the wader population was possible. The AWC count for
1991 showed about 16.000 waders for the sanctuary. This
is however onry an estimate as some inaccessible areas
could not be surveyed. The current study has recorded 33
species of charadriids for the sanctuary. Most of the waders
are distributed in the extensive mudflats along the
Shnharikota-Sulurpet road and near Tada in the
south-west part of the lagoon. The Little Stint(Ca'«d«s
minutus) is the commonest wader. The lagoon held one of
the largest concentrations of Avocet {Recurvirostra
avosetta) occurring in south India (845 counted during the
AWC of 1988). Species like Knot(Ca/*dris canutus), Eastern
Knot {Calidris lenuirostris). and Rednecked Phalarope
(Phalaropus bbalus) are comparatively rare and are new
records for Andhra Pradesh (Mohapatra and Rao. 1993).
During the study, information on recovery ol birds ringed
was obtained from four birds of two species. One notable
recovery was of a Polish Ringed Curlew Sandpiper
{Calidris testacea) recovered from Ihe mud flats of the
sanctuary on 19.01 .91 . Subsequently it was known that the
individual was banded in the Arctic Circle region of Russia.
Recovery from Little Stint indicted that they were banded
earlier in Point Calimere in Tamil Nadu and Kutch in
Gujarat.
Two possible factors may explain the fewer number of
recoveries from this wetland : i) Many sites remain
unexplored in the lagoon due to limited access and ii) Due
to changing wetland conditions in the lagoon there is
considerable mobility in the wateHowl population.
Extensive banding of waders from Pulicat sanctuary
suggested that a large number of shorebirds used the
lagoon as a major transient stopover on their way to olher
wetlands further south.
Analidae
Ten species occur in the sanctuary of which eight are
Palaearctic migrants. The anatids can be considered good
indicators of the health of a wetland. Species wintering at
Pulicat lagoon include Pintail (Anas acuta),
Garganey.(>lnas querquedula). Shove Her. (Anas
cfypeat a). Common Tea\.(Anas crecca), VJ\geon.(Anas
ctypeata). Common Jea\.(Anas crecca), Wigeon.(4nas
penelope) and Gadwall,(^nas strepera). In recent years the
Barheaded goose.(Ansaf indicus) has also been
represented in increasing numbers from the lagoon with
232 individuals recorded in January 1989 by Christian
Perennou and V Santharam for the AWC (Hussain. 1990).
Amongst ducks. Pintails constitute about 80% of the
population with about 12.500 birds recorded during the
AWC count in January 1 991 , All the duck species are seen
in the northern haft of the lagoon where the water recedes
enabling large congregations to forage in extensive
stretches of shallow water. The southern half of the lagoon
attracts fewer species of ducks and other waterfowl due to
the increased water level.
References
Ali. S. and S.D. Ripley. 1987. Compact Handbook ot the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Second Edition. Oxford
University Press. New Delhi.
Hussain. S.A., 1990. Wetlands and Waterfowl. Newsletter
for Birdwatchers Volume 2. Bombay Natural History
Society.
Krishnamurthy, K.N. and A.V.P. Rao. 1970. Fishing
methods of Pulicat Lake. J. Inland. Fish. Soc. India.. 11 :
1-15.
Mohapatra. K.K. and P. Rao,1993. Some wader records
from Coastal Andhra Pradesh. J. Bom nat. Hist. Soc,
(In Press)
Petennou.C. and V. Santharam, 1990. An ornithological
survey of some wetlands in south-east India. J. Bom
nat. Hist. Soc.,87 : 354-363.
Prater. A.J., J.H. Merchant and J. Vuorinen, 1977. Guide to
the identification and ageing of Holarctic waders. BTO
Guide 1 7. British Trust for Ornithology. Tring.
12
Raman,K..K.V.Ramakrishnan. S. Radhakrishnan and
G.R.M.Rao, 1975 : Studios on the hydrobiotogy and
benlhic ecology of lake. Pulicat. Bull. Dept. Mar. Sci.
Univ. Cochin , 4 : 855-884.
Ripley. S.D.. 1982.>1 Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society.
Scott.D.,1989.4 directory ol Asian wetlandsMCU
Publication.
Sunderraj, S.K. and P.J. Sanjeeva Raj. 1987. Polychaeta of
the Pulicat lake (Tamil Nadu). J. Bom nat. Hist. Soc. 84 :
84-104.
APPENDIX 1
Wetland Avifauna of Pulicat Bird Sanctuary
•
Species
status
Uitle Grebe.
Podiceps rufioollis
R
* SpotbiHed Pelican,
Pelecanus philippensis
R
" Uttle Cormorant.
Phalacrocorax niger
R
Lesser Frigate Bird.
Fregata minor*
S
• Grey Heron.
Ardea cinerea
R
Purple Heron,
Ardea purpurea
R
Large Egret.
Ardea alba
R
' Pond Heron,
Ardeola grayii
RM
* Cattle Egret.
Bubulcus ibis
R
" Median Egret.
Egrerta intermedia
R
• Little Egret.
Egretta garzetta
R
Reef Heron.
Egretta gularis
RM
' Night Heron.
Nycticorax nycticorax
R
Painted Stork,
Mycteria leucocephala
R
' Openbill Stork,
Anastomus oscitans
R
White Stork,
Ciconia dconia
M
White Ibis,
Threskiornis aethiopica
R
Black Ibis,
Pseudibis papulosa
R
Spoonbill.
Platalea leucorodia
R
• Greater Flamingo.
Phoenicopterus roseus
M
Lesser Flamingo,
Phoeniconaias minor
M
Barheaded Goose,
Anser indicus
M
' Pintail,
Anas acuta
M
Common Teal.
Anas crecca
M
Spotbill Duck.
Anas poecilorhyncha
R
Gadwall.
Anas strepera
M
' Wigeon,
Anas penelope
M
• Garganey.
Anas querquedula
M
■ Shoveller.
Anas dypeata
M
Common Pochard.
Aytha terina
M
Cotton Teal,
Nettapus coromandelianus PM
Pariah Kile,
Milvus migrans
R
Brahminy Kite.
Haliastur indus
R
Whflebelied Sea Eagl
a, Haliaetus leucogasier
R
Marsh Harrier,
Circus aeruginosas
M
Osprey.
Panolon haliaetus
M
Paragon* Falcon.
Falco peregrinus
M
Whawtreasted
Waterhen.
Amaurornis phoenicums
R
feata* Moorhen.
Gallinula chloropus
R
»Bf0a- Moorhen.
Porphyrio porphyrio
R
Fulica arra RM
Jacana. Hydrophasianus chirurgus R
Rostratula benghalensis R
Hmantopus himantopus M
Recurvirostra avosetta M
Collard Pratincole,
Clareola pratincola
M
Redwattled Lapwing,
Vanellus indicus
R
Grey Rover,
Pluvialis squatarola
M
Eastern Golden Plover
Pluvialis dominica
M
Large Sand Plover,
Charadrius leschnauttii*
M
Ringed Plover,
Charadrius hiaticula
M
Little Ringed Plover,
Charadrius dubius
M
Kentish Plover.
Charadrius alexandrinus
M
Lesser Sand Plover.
Charadrius mongokis
M
Whimbret,
Numenius phaeopus
M
Curlew,
Numehius arqvata
M
Blacktailed Godwit.
Ljmosa Hmosa
M
Spotted Redshank,
Tringa erythropus
M
Common Redshank,
Tringa totanus
M
Marsh Sandpiper.
Tringa stagnatilis
M
Greenshank.
Tringa nebularia
M
Green Sandpiper.
Tringa ochropus
M
' Wood Sandpiper.
Tringa glareola
M
• Terek Sandpiper,
Tringa terek
M
■ Common Sandpiper,
Tringa hypoleucos
M
■ Pintail Snipe.
Gallinago stenura
M
' Fantail Snipe,
Gallinago gaUinago
M
* Jack Snipe,
Gallinago minima
M
' Knot.
Calidris canutusM
M
' Eastern Knot.
Calidris tenuirostris*
M
' Little Stint,
Calidris minuta
M
• Temminckiis Stint.
Calidris temminckii
M
" Dunlin.
Calidris alpina
M
" Curlew Sandpiper.
Calidris testacea
M
" Ruff and Reeve,
Philomachus pugnax
M
' Rednecked Phalarope
Phalaropus lobatusH
M
Great Blackheaded
Gun,
Larus iohthyaetus
M
Brownheaded Gull.
Lanjs brunnicephalus
M
Blackheaded Gull,
Larus ridbundus
M
Whiskered Tern.
Chfidonias hybrida
M
* Black Tern.
Chtidonias nigerM
M
* Gullbilled Tern.
Gelochetidon nilotica
M
Caspian Tern.
Hydroprogne caspia
M
■ Common Tern,
Sterna hirundo*
M
' LitUe Tern.
Sterna albifrons
M
Lesser Pied
Kingfisher,
Ceryle rudis
R
Common Kingfisher,
Alcede atthis
R
Whitebreasted
Kingfisher.
Halcyon smyrnensis
R
R — Resident. M — Migrant. RM — Resident-Migrant. S —
Straggler
' - Species ringed during the current study
8 - New records for Andhra Pradesh
n
Table 1 : Waterfowl Population at Pulicat Sanctuary (1988-1992)'
1988-
1989-
1990"
1991
1992
Number of species
41
35
25
36
37
Total waterfowl
83806
69871
38498
38722
10902
Indicator Species
Spotbilled Pelican
27
69
274
42
346
Stork (3 species)
131
66
82
27
22
Flamingo (3 species)
5300
3100
5332
2200
3860
Ducks (7 species)
47397
21726
8831
17617
3400
Waders (33 species)
16363
42182
18609
16767
2289
Gulls and Terns (9 species)
25
820
298
576
128
* 1988-90 Figures taken from AWC annual reports. 1991-92 figures are from the
current study.
1-. Pw. 1.1*1
r«-i
• -. •• MM* 1 -
«■--■»-•— *-fW
jLmxa. «• i IfcJCM »a*a -..*~i.-ii
Fig 1 Waterfowl population
at Pulicat Bird Sanctuary
7b:.MD^i
Not- Mc
Months
14
A Preliminary Study on the Bird Community of Silent Valley Area
P. Pramod , Ramakrishnan Palat *, D.N. Mathew
'Dept. ot Zoology, Calicut University, Kerala
*Dept. of Zoology, Govt ArtsS Science College, Meenchantha, Calicut, Kerala
Introduction
A basic problem of field ecology is lo determine the
causes of abundance and distribution ol organisms with
relation to the environment. The aim of this work is to
obtain some preliminary observations on the relationship
between the vegetation structure and bird community in
certain selected areas in the Silent Valley forest. The
present study started in November 1992 and the data
presented here is for six months. The bird community of
different forests has been studied most intensively by
McArther & McArther (1 961 ). McArther & Peer {1 962). and
Cody (1966). Most of these studies were carried out in the
forests of western countries and Africa. The forest bird
community of South India has not been well studied..
Gaston (1980) and Ramakrishnan (1982) analysed the
bird community structure with relation to vegetation in
Silent Valley forest.
Material and Methods
Study area
The study area consisted of three sites of which one is
inside the Silent Valley National Park and the other two
near Mukkali. the nearest settlement. The Silent Valley
National Park is one of the core zones of the Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve, in Palakkad district of Kerala. H lies
between 11. 3e and 11.56N latitude, and 73 23 30 and
76.30eE longitude. The first site { sile A) is at an altitude
between 1015 m to 1100 m forest MSL and is a plateau
with steep slopes on three sides. The other two sites (sites
B & C) are at an altitude of about 600 m from the MSL. The
vegetation of site A is the typical west coast tropical
evergreen forest. Huge buttressed trees often reaching
upto 40m is a characteristic feature of the site A. The
common and dominant trees are Pataquium ellipticum.
Pataquium bourdillonii, Cullonia excelsa. ArJocarpus
heterophyllus, Cabphyllum elatum. Canarium strictum. etc.
5se B is a secondary mixed moist deciduous forest. Trees
reach between 20 to 40 m with abundant shrubby
jnderstorey vegetation. The common trees are Terminate
paniculata, Terminalia tomentosa. Albizzta odoratissimia.
Satmalia malabarica, Layerstomia lanceolate, etc. In the
•ntorstorey vegetation Helictes isora, Cledodendron
nbrtunafum are common. Site C is a teak plantation. This
a typical monoculture plantation with little ground
~e two methods : line transect (Haapanen. 1965;
Eaton 1964; and Gaston 1978) and point transect
haHna&onal Bird Censusing Committee Report, 1960) the
chosen for cunsusing birds. The transects were
and each one was 2 km long, passing through
al types of vegetation. The visibility was about 10 m
■ «**** s»oe m site A, and 20 m and 40 m on either sides
of the transects in sites B and C. respectively. The transect
counts were made between 6.30 to 9.30 and 16.00 to
19.00. A pair of Carl Zeiss binocular of power 10 x 50 was
used. Standard printed forms were used to note the data
during the census. To avoid possible bias due to the
differences in the time of observation alternate censuses in
opposite direction were done-
Results and Discussion
The total number of species observed in each site
during the study is given in Table 1.
Maximum number of species was observed in site B, a
deciduous biotope. Abundance of shrubby, understorey
vegetation along with the diverse plant species may be a
reason for this increased number. The minimum number
was in site C. This is a monoculture plantation, therefore
absence of diversity of vegetation reduced available
niches.
Number of species observed in each month is given in
Table 2. This table shows the number of species in the site
A during all the months was more or less constant. The
maximum fluctuation in the number of species is in the site
B and less in site A. This fluctuation may be due to the
microclimate of the evergreen ecosystem which regulates
itself to some degree, compared to Ihe low land deciduous
forest or any other biotope. Though the number of species
in the plantation (i.e. site C) showed some fluctuation in
these months, the data is not enough to make any
conclusion.
The Table 3 shows the total number of individuals
sighted in the 6 months of study in each sites. Though
more species were sighted in site B, more individuals were
recorded from site A. This may be due to the availability of
food in the evergreen vegetation. Blossomheaded
Parakeet. Small Green Barbel and Bronzed Drongo were
the most common species present in all the three sites.
The 7 raptors observed, were all from site A whereas only
two from site B and one from site C. Frequency of Malabar
Whistling Thrush and Black Bulbul was very high in site A.
Thirteen species were common to all the three sites and 21
species were sighted only in site A. Thirty- two species
were found common to site A and B, 36 species were found
common to sites B and C and 21 species were found
common to A & C.
Table 4 shows the change in the frequency of birds
common in all the three srtes.
Species diversity
Species diversity is related to the number of individuals
in each species of a particular habitat. In this study diversity
15
index is calculated by the Shannon-Weaver method.
According to this method
Diversity index H - - P, log P.
Pi is the proportion of the individuals in the ith species of
the total no. of individuals in the population.
i.e.. P, - n/N
Where n - no. of individuals in each species; and
N - total no. of individuals of that site
The diversity index calculated by the above method for
the 3 different sites are given in Table 5.
Site B had maximum diversity where as the site C had
the minimum. The deciduous biotope preserve maximum
diversity compared to the evergreen biotope. But many
endemic and very rare species were observed in the
evergreen site.
Similarity : Similarity index is calculated from the
number of species in each site and no. of species common
to two sites, using the following formula
Similarity index (Sim) - 2C / A + C
Where
A-number of species in site 1
B=number of species in site 2
C=number of species common to sites 1 & 2
Similarity index calculated by the above formula is given
in Table 6.
Similarity index value showed that site B and site C
were more similar than the other two combinations. The
main reason being that they are situated comparatively
nearer. The next better similarity is between A and B. as
both are natural forests.
This study is preliminary and in future, study of
vegetation pattern of these three sites, including number of
species, will be carried out. By studying the forest
architecture and the phonological changes, site
relationships with the changes in bird community structure
can be understood.
Ramakrishnan. P., 1983. Environmental studies on the
birds of Malabar Forest. Ph.D thesis submitted to
Calicut University.
Table 1: Total Number of Species observed In each site
Site
A
B
c
No. o(
Species
57
65
39
Table 2 : Number of species observed each
month In each site
Month
Sites
A
B
C
NOV
23
20
13
DEC
22
23
16
JAN
24
25
16
FEB
22
23
17
MAR
24
17
19
APR
22
18
18
Table 3 : Total number of birds observed In each site
Site
A
B
C
Total No.
of individuals
377
335
290
Table 4 : Frequency of Common birds In each site
Bird
Site
A
B
C
Blossomheaded Parakeet
2072
18/72
25/72
Small Green Barbet
8/39
17/39
14/39
Great Goldenbacked
Woodpecker
9/14
4/14
1/14
Bronzed Drongo
11/85
23/85
51/85
Black Drongo
10/43
22'43
11 43
References
Ali S.. 1984. Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press. New
Delhi.
Ali S.. and Ripley, S.D.. 1 968 - 1 974. Handbook ol the Birds
of India and Pakistan Vol 1-10. Oxford University Press.
London.
Ali S. and Ripley S.D., 1 983. A Pictorial Guide to the Birds
of Indian Sub Continent, Oxford University Press. New
Delhi.
MacArther.R.H. and J. W.MacArther.1961. On birds
species diversity. Ecology . 42: 594 -598.
MacArther, R.H.. J.W. MacArther and J. Peer. 1962. On
bird species diversity II. American Naturalist, 96: 167 -
174.
Table 5: Species diversity of each site
Sites H * - P. log P, ~~^~
Sites
A/B
B/C
A/C
A
-3.433
B
-3.5413
C
-2.799
Table 6: Similarity Index
Similarity index
0.6666
0.6923
0.5246
16
Appendix List of Birds
St Common Name Scientfic Name
Sites
No A
B C
1 Black Winged Kile Elanus Caeruleus •
2 Honey Buzzard Pefnis ptilorhynchus *
3 Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis .
i0
11
Montagu's Harrier Circus pyga/gus
Crested Serpent
eagle
Shahin falcon
Kestrel
Painted bush
quail
Travancore Red
spurtowl
Grey Jungle Fowl Gallus sonneratii
Jerdon's imperial
Spilorni cheela
Falco peregrinus
FaJco tinnunculus
Perdcula
erythrorhyncha
Gailoperdix spadicea
pigeon
12 Emerald Dove
13 Spotted Dove
14 Bluewmged
Parakeet
15 Blossomheaded
Parakeet
16 Roseringed
parakeet
17 Malabar lorikeet
18 Malabar Owlet
Ducula badia +
Chalcophaps indica ♦
Stfeptoplia chinensis -
Psittacula columboides-
P. cynocephala. +
P.krameri
Loriculus vernalis +
Glauddium radiatum -
19 Redwinged Crested
Cuckoo Clamator coromandus ■*
20 Jungle nightjar Caprimulgus indicus *
21 Green bee eater Merops orientalis +
22 Blue tailed BeeeaterM. Philippinus
23 Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis +
24 Green Barbel Megaliamaviridis +
25Crimson breasted
Barbel M.haemacephaJa +
26 Crimson throated
Barbet M.rubricapula
27 LessorGolden backed
Woodpecker Dinopium belgalense -
28 Greater Goldenbacked
Woodpecker Crysocolaptes lucidus +
29 Three Toed G. backed
30
31
35
Woodpecker
Heart spotted
woodpecker
Mahratta
woodpecker
Black headed
Cuckoo shrike
Oriole
Dinopium javense *
Hemicircus canenle +
Dendrocopos
m ah ratten sis
Coracina melanoptera -
36 Oriole Oriolus onolus +
37 Blackheaded oriole O.xanthornus
38 Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis +
32 India Pitta Pitta brachyura
33 Redrumped
swallow Hirundo daurica +
34 Large woodshnke Tephrodornis virgalus +
39 Bronzed Drongo D.aeneus +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
t +
+ +
+ +
+ +
40 Racket Tailed
Drongo
D.paradiseus
-
+
+
41 Grey Drongo
D.leucophaeus
+
•
•
42 Common Myna
Acridotherus trislis
•
+
+
43 Jungle Myna
A. fuscus
-
+
♦
44 Hill Myna
Gracula riligiosa
-
+
♦
45 Tree Pie
Dendrocitta vagabunda-
+
+
46 Orange minivet
Pencocotus flammeua ♦
+
-
47 Common lora
Agithenia tiphia
-
+
+
48 Fairy Blue bird
llrena puella
+
+
-
49 Gotdfronted
chtoropsis
Chloropsis aurifrons
+
+
-
50 Rubylhroated
Pycnonotus
Bulbul
malanicterus
+
-
+
51 Redwhiskered
Bulbul
Pjacosus
+
+
+
52 Redvented Bulbul P.cafer
+
+
+
53 Yellow browed
Bulbul
Hypsipetes indicus
-
+
-
54 Black Bulbul
H. medagascariensis
+
-
-
55 Spotted Babbler
Pellorneum ruficeps
+
+
56 Jungle Babbler
Turdoides striaius
•
+
+
57 Blackhead BabblerRhopocincIa atriceps -
58 Greyhead
Flycatcher Xulicicapa cydonensis •
59 Venditer Flycather Musicapa thalassina •
60 Nilgiri V Flycather M. albicaudata +
61 Paradise FlycatherTerp si phone paradisi -
62 Black & orange
Flycatcher
Musoicapa nigrorufa
+
63
Whitebellied blue
Flycatcher
M.pallipes
+
6-1
Rufous tailed
Flycatcher
M.ruf. Cauda
+■
6b
Brown Flycatcher
M.laiirostns
+
66
Blyth's reed
Acrocephalus
warbler
dumetorum
+
67
TickeH's leafwarbler Phylloscopus affinis
+
65
Greenish leafwarbler P. irochiloides
+
63
Franklin's wren
warbler
Prinia hodgsonii
+
70
Ashy wren warbler P.socialis
•
71
Orphean warbler
Sylvia hortensis
-
72
Blueheaded
MonticcJa
rock thrush
cinclorhynchus
-
73
Blue Rock Thrush M. solitarius
-
74
Whistling Thrush
Myiphoneus horsfield
+
75 Ground thrush
76 Blackbird
77 Forest Wagtail
78 Grey Wagtail
79 Yellow wagtail
60 Pied Wagtail
81 Thickbilled Flower
pecker
82 Tickell's Flower
pecker
83 White throat
84 Small sunbird
85. Purple Sunbird
Zoothera citrina
Turdus morula
Moiacilla indica
M.caspica
M.flava
M.maderaspatensis
Dicaeum agile
D.erythrorhychos
Sylvia curruca
Nectarinia minima
N.asiaDca
* ♦
+ +
86 Purple rumped sunbird N.zeytanica
17
Avifauna of Vembakkottai Water Reservoir — A Field Check List
R. Su0hakaran, A.P. Muthukumaran, S. Shenbagaraj, S. Murali and Alfred Mohandoss
Department of Zoology. Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College. Sivakasi (West) 626 124
Survey of birds and preparation of checklist have been
practised by naturalists to ascertain the status of bird
by
populations in an area. In the present investigation an
attempt has been made to survey the waterfowl and other
birds of Vembakkoftai reservoir situated about 15 km south
of Sivakasi 19-27- N. 77*49* E).
The birds were counted during August and September,
the last part of the monsoon, when the water level in the
reservoir was about 1.5 m. The data obtained were
classified and represented in the form of a checklist.
Check List
In the check list that follows the number in column (1 ) is
the serial number and the number in column (2) is that in
the -Handbook ol birds of India and Pakistan' ;common
names and scientific names are given in column (3). In
column (4) the status of the bird as recorded in the
handbook is given.
A few suggestions to conserve bird life here are as
follows :
Prevention of tree (Acacia) felling for fuel by
villagers.
Invasion of people (Srilankan refugees) to the
northern side of the dam should be prevented.
Grazing of cattle should be avoided.
More islets should be provided in the western side
for the birds to rest and feed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Planting of trees to attract roosting of birds should
be considered.
•
References
Ali. S. and S.D. Ripley, 1983. Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Compact edition. Oxford University
Press, New Delhi,
Birds of Vembakkottai Water Reservoir Field Checklist
SI Hand
No. Book No.
Name
No. Status
1 21 Spotbilled or Grey pelican
(Pelecanus philippensis) 157 R, LM
2 28 Little Coromorant
(Phalacrocorax niger) 25 R. LM
3 29 Darter or Snake bird
{Anhringa rufa)
3
4 36 Grey Heron
(Areda cinerea) 27 R
5 44 Cattle Egret
(Bubukus ibis ) 6 R
R.LM
R.C
H
R
R
R
7 60 Painted Stork
(Mycteria leucocephala) 83 R. LM
8 61 Openbill Stork
(Anastomus oscitans) 28 R. LM
9 69 White Ibis
( Threskiomis
melanocaphala) 22 R. LM
10 70 Black Ibis
(Pseudibis papulosa) 1 06 R
11 72 Spoonbill
(Plataea leucorodia) 13 PR. RM
12 97 Spotbilled duck
(Anas poecilorhyncha) 56 R, CM
13 133 Pariah Kite
[Milvus migrans) 1
14 135 Brahminy Kite
(Haliastur Indus ) 2
15 140 Shikra
(Accipiter badius) 3
16 311 Peafowl
(Pavo cristatus) 77
17 370 Lapwing
(Vanellus malabaricus) 35 R, IM
1 8 380 Little Ringed Plover
( Charadrius dubius) 1 7
19 430 Blackwinged Stilt
( Himantopushimantopus)
20 600 Crowpheasant
(Centropus sinensis)
21 720 Lesser Pied Kingfisher
{Ceryle rudis) 4 R
22 736 Indian Whitebreasted Kingfisher
(Halcyon sunyrnensis) 3 R, C, LM
23 756 Roller
(Coracias benghalensis) 6 R, C, LM
24 916 Common Swallow
[Hirundo rvstica) 22 C
25 963 . Drongo
{Dicrurus adsimilis) 17 R.C
26 1006 Indian Myna
(Acridotheres tristis) 32 R
27 1057 Jungle Crow
{Corvus macrohynchos) 11 R
28 1891 Pied Wagtail
(Motacilla maderaspatensis) 4 R. C
29 1938 House Sparrow
(Passe/ - domesticus) 9 R
r _ Resident; LM — Local Migrant; PR — Partly Resident;
PM — Partly Migrant; OM — Occasional Migrant; C —
14 R. LM
R
18
O) tPJ <r) (r)
Figure 1.
19
Status, Diversity and Decline of Waterbirds in Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, India
Prasanta Kumar Saikla and Parimai C. Bhattacharjee
Animal Ecology & Wildlife Biology Lab, Department ol Zoology, Gawhati University,
Guwahati-14, Assam
Introduction
Indian subcontinent represent 2094 torms belonging to
'l200 species of avifauna (Ripley.1982; Ali and Ripley,
1983). This abundance and diversity of avian community
obviously indicate the high ecological diversity of the
country. The sub-continent represents marine, estuarine
and inland wetland systems, which are all characteristically
different. In contrast to the wetland compositions of other
parts of the country, Assam represents only inland
wetlands. The diverse aquatic ecosystems of India
represent 417 forms (19.9%)betonging to 318 species
(26.5%) and 146 genera (36.5%) of the avifauna of the
sub-continent (Vijayan. 1986). The inland aquatic bird
diversity of India is represented by 10 orders and 24
families and all of them are represented in the wetlands of
Assam.
Some aspects of the avifauna of Assam, particularly on
distribution, status and ecology are available (Hume. 1877.
1880. 1888; Koelz.1925; Parsons.1939; Belts. 1947.1956;
Dey,1982; Ali and Ripley. 1983). Later, certain ecological
aspects of the aquatic birds have been worked out by Raj
ef. a/,1987. Saikia el al.. 1987. 1988. 1989. 1990a. 1990b
and Bhattacharjee el al. 1 988. There is no comprehensive
report on the status, diversity and conservation of the
wetland birds of Assam. The present paper mainly deals
with the present status of the wetland birds and their
diversity in Brahmaputra valley. Emphasis was also given
on the conservation problems of the wetland birds and their
habitat.
Material and Methods
The Brahmaputra valley lies between 25'44"-28'N
latitude and 89'41"E longitude. The valley covers 56274
sq km which includes the administrative districts of
Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh. Sibsagar. Jorhat. Nowgang,
Darrang, Kamrup, Sonitpur, Goalpara and Dhubri. The
valley has Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan on the north.
Bangladesh on the west, the Meghalaya in the south.
Nagaland in the south-east and the Tirap division of the
Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The fiver Brahmaputra
traverses through the valley covering more than 600 km.
There is a marked difference between the north and south
bank in its physiography. The valley is supported by a large
number of tributaries of Brahmaputra in both the banks,
which help in the formation of wetlands, oxbow lakes and
huge marshy tracts. There are also dense forest covers in
this tract. A significant characteristic of the Brahmaputra is
the innumerable riverine islands. One such island is Majuli,
the largest river island of the world. There are as many as
1394 registered and unregistered natural wetlands in
Assam, the majority of which are in the Brahmaputra valley.
Apart from the natural wetlands, there are a large number
of artificial wetlands made by Ahom kings between 16th
and 17th century. Some such wetlands are Jaysagar,
Sibsagar. Gaurisagar, etc.
Climate of Assam is divided into four periods : winter
(December-February). premonsoon (March -April),
monsoon (May-September) and retreating monsoon (late
September-November). Barthakur. 1966.
To determine the status and diversity and for the
identification of the conservation problems, the wetlands
were studied extensively throughout the Brahmaputra
valley and the Brahmaputra river bed, from 1985 January
to 1993 January. The condition of the wetlands, bird
species diversity and human impact on waterbirds were
recorded. The local inhabitants and traditional fisherman
were interviewed to arrive at a conclusion regarding the
trend and status of wetland and bird species.
Results and Discussion
Present Status Of Wetland Birds Diversity
From 1985 January to January 1993, the wetland bird
survey has been carried out in 66 major wetlands selected
on the basis of the high avifaunal diversity and high
productivity in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. Most of
the wetlands are situated within the distance of 10 Km from
Brahmaputra river except 5 man- made wetlands in upper
Assam areas. The undisturbed and large productive
wetlands were the richest wintering ground of migratory
waterbirds, whereas the marshy and patchy wetlands
supported large number of residential wetland bird species.
As many as 122 species of wetland birds of 19 families
were recorded. Out of these 42 were rare. 17. very rare. 54
common and rest 9 abundant (Table I).
Status of wetlands
The present status of wetlands were determined on the
basis of the level of eutrophication ( whether cultural or
natural ); intensity of human activities; sillatton; intensity of
fishing; vegetation cover and natural calamities on the
wetland ecosystems (Table II).
Most of the wetlands in the Brahmaputra valley are
covered by phytoplankton and aquatic hydrophytes
(Table-Ill). The human activity within and in the vicinity of
the wetland included agricultural practices, fishing and
creation of barricades. The other detrimental factors are the
brick factories, encroachment for settlements, establish-
ment of factories and construction of rails, roads and
highway.
20
Human impact on bird species
Both direct and indirect human impact on the wetland
bird species were delected. The direct adverse effect on
the avifauna were the netting, killing . and trapping of birds
throughout the year (Table- 1 1 1) .and the collection of eggs
and chicks in the breeding season. The indirect effect were
fishing and agricultural practices.
Ali and Ripley (1983) recorded 181 species of wetland
birds in Assam. The present survey revealed the absence
of 59 species of birds from the region, a reduction of
37.56% in a span of 40 years. Besides many species have
become rare or threatened.
Of the 22 families which were recorded in earlier survey.
ItM species from Phoenicopteridae, Haliornithidae and
Dromadidae remained undocumented in the present
survey. The higher number of species representing order,
as per earlier reports, were Charadriformes (65 species);
Anatidae(36 species) and Ardeidae (17 species). But at
present in Charadriformes only 40 species were recorded,
indicating a reduction of 23.76%. The number of species
has been reduced by 50% in case of Rallidae. and 75% in
other two families Threskiornithidae and Gruidae. The
other family-wise reduction of the species number are
Laridae (46.66). Alctdinidae (45.5%), Anatidae (27.7%).
Accipitridae (25%). Ardeidae (11.1%) and Ciconidae
(12.5%).
Most of the wader species population have shown
declining trend in recent years. Apart from that.nine species
belonging to this group. i.e.Th'nga terek viz., Numenius
arquata. Numenius phaeopus. Scolopax rusticola,
Ibidorhyncha stuthersii, Esacus magnirostris, Rostatula
benghlensis. Vanellus spinosus and Vanellus vanellus are
only rarely sighted. The Great Stone Plover. Eastern
Curlew. Ibisbill and Eastern Whimbrel have considerably
decreased and may disappear in near future. The only
recorded places of these birds are Kurua bee! of Kamrup
district. Namari wildlife sanctuary and Brahmaputra river
tract. The waders are easily trapped in mist nets laid in the
shoreline of the beels and rivers mainly during winter. The
breeding habitats and nests of the waders are destroyed
due to agriculture and occasionally by wild and domestic
animals.
Anatidae, the second largest wetland bird family in the
region, is facing serious problems from various angles. The
Ptnkheaded Duck. Rhodonessa cariophylaceae which has
been reported to be extinct and the Whitewinged Wood
Duck. Cairina scutulata are in the verge of extinction from
their natural habitats. The Cotton Teal.Weffapus
coromendalianus has become highly localised due to
destruction of nesting trees near water puddles. The Large
Whistling Teal. Dendrocygna bicolor which has been
declared as an endangered species by the Government of
India protection act 1972. has declined at an alarming rate
and could be sighted only in Majuli river island Panidihing,
BonJotoni and in some patchy areas of eastern Assam.
Apart from the residential birds, the migratory waterfowl
Anser anser, Anser indicus. Tadoma ferruguinea and Anas
cnacca are in great risk because of their table and market
value The distribution range of Barheaded Geese and
Greylag Geese has shrunk and they are found in the Char
area wetlands near Brahmaputra river of Kamrup. Sibsagar
and Jorhat district. In large numbers they occur only in
Kaxirange. Panidihing (proposed bird sanctuary) and
Misamari beel. Incidently, goose hunting in Brahmaputra
river tract is a lucrative sport. Of the 8 stork species
recorded previously in Assam only 7 could be sighted in the
present survey. The storks, Ciconia niger. Ciconia ckonia.
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and Ciconia episcopus were
found only in sanctuaries and national parks and in few
small pockets of Jorhat and Lakhimpur district. The species
of stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus. Ciconia niger and
Ciconia ciconia have been included in the international
endangered species list (King. 1981). The most urgent
need of stork conservation is in South-East Asia where four
of the globally threatened species are resident. The storks
are very sensitive to their habitats, in general, as they are
unable to adjust to sudden changes in habitat conditions
(Curry- Lindahl 1978). The Adjutant.Greater and Lesser
Storks were previously abundant in the Brahmaputra valley
but due to destruction of their breeding and feeding
habitats, they have become endangered. (See Wildlife
protection act 1972 of the Government of India in
Scheduled-I, Rahmani. 1989, and Luthin, 1987.)
In Threskiornithidae. four species were reported earlier
but at present only Glossy Ibis. (Plegadis falcinotlus) was
present in the misamari beel (janjhimukh) ol Jorhat district
and Panidihing of Sibsagar district. In Gruidae, only one
species Grus grus was sighted compared to 4 species
recorded previously. This is mainly due to the disturbance
factors prevalent in all the wetlands and sandy river bank.
Occasional killing of the crane has also been reported.
The residential birds are also facing decline. The
Ardeidae had only 15 species compared to 17 species
recorded earlier. The Purple Heron .Ardea purpurea. Grey
Heron, Ardea cineria and Great Whrtebellied Heron.Ardea
imperials have become highly localised and the last one
was found only once in Kaziranga and Pabitora wildlife
sanctuaries. These three species have become very rare
and require immediate conservation measures. The two
species of jacanas were found in the wetlands of Assam
but the Pheasant-tailed Jacana. Hydrophasianus chirurgus
confined to the wetlands where Giant Water Lily. (Eureale
ierox) were available. In the family Alctdinidae only 6
species have been sighted, out of 11 species recorded
earlier. The Storkbilled Kingfisher. Pelarogops capensis
has been very rare and only could be found in
Dibru-Saikhowa wildlife sanctuary, and the other species,
Ceryle lugubris was sighted only in Namari wildlife
sanctuary. The sole representative of Anhingidae, Anhinga
ruta was sighted very rarely in low numbers.
Conservation problem of waterbirds
The susceptibility of aquatic avifauna population to
changes in wetlands (Axell.1982; vljayan.1986), have
made them useful indicators of the ecological status of
wetland ecosystem. The records of 122 species of wetland
birds having diverse habitat requirement indicate that the
wetland of Brahmaputra valley have potentialities to meet
21
the necessary lite requisites. However.the species diversity
erf the wetland birds have declined in recent years. From
the field study, a number of problems associated with
wetland birds have been identified.
Alterations of habitat
The alteration of habitat is mainly caused by weed
menace, silt and human interference within the wetland
habitat. The most widely prevalent weed, Eichhomia
crassipes is found to grow and cover every puddle of
water, marshes, ponds and beels within the state, resulting
in the shrinkage of open water and accelerating
eutrophication. It was found that the increase in the open
water space and habitat edges had a direct impact in the
breeding activity of the residential birds as well as
increased the number of winter visiting migratory birds. .
Silt on the other hand has aggravated the main process of
wetland eutrophication. The cultivation of Boro paddy on
the beel margins and deforestation in the surrounding hills
of the wetlands, led to the silling up of wetland beds. Apart
from that, most of the beels are located by the sides of the
hills, particularly in Western Assam where the forests of the
hills are cut by settlers and timber smugglers, adding
directly lo the silting of wetlands. The feeding canals of the
permanent wetlands are blocked by embankments
construction which have led to the shallowing of the
wetlands. In, slow flowing water, dense population of
phytoplankton are symptoms of eulrofication (Moss, 1977).
The extensive cultivation, fishing and silting from the river
are also important detrimental factors of alteration of
wetland habitat. The wetlands are now being converted
inio large human settlement areas, brick making factories,
and rail and highway constructions.
Btird killing
The killing of the migratory and residential birds
continue throughout the year in the wetlands and river beds
of the Slate. For some traditional bird trappes. it is the only
source of livelihood. The high demand for wild birds has led
to the increase of bird trapping.
In rural areas the trapping of waterbirds are a regular
phenomenon. Artificial fights, decoy traps, and spears are
used. Besides, fishermen were also observed trapping
birds like Painted Snipe. Woodcock, Lapwings, etc. Thus
shooting and trappings are serious problems in welland
conservation.
Recommendations
Netting .trapping and shootingof waterbirds within Ihe
wetlands and Brahmaputra river trad must be stopped
immediately.
Closed seasons should be declared. Regulated fishing
should be advocated in the natural beel fisheries.
Some selected wetlands should be declared protected.
In Assam not a single natural wetland is protected for the
migratory birds. Local people should be educated on bird
conservation and
Wildlife protection act. Fishing and agricultural practices
near the wetland must be minimised.
Blockade of canals which feed the wetlands should be
slopped.
Welland and waterbird research should be encouraged.
Ack nowledgements
The Authors are grateful to DSTE, Government of
Assam and CSIR. New Delhi, for financial support. Thanks
are due to the villagers and fishery and other government
officials who helped in Ihe various slages of the sludy.
References
Ali.S and S.D.Ripley, 1983. Handbook of the birds ol India
and Pakistan, Oxford University Press. New Delhi.
Axell.H.E.. 1 982. Control of Reeds. Phragmites communis
at Minsmere. England. Page 44-50. In :D.A.Scott(ed)
Managing wetlands and their birds. International
Wetland and Waterfowl Research Bureau. Stimbridge,
Glos.. England.
Belts. F.N.. 1947. Bird life in Assam jungle. J.Bom. Nat.
Hist. Soc., 46: page 667-684.
1956 Notes on birds of Subansiri area.
Assam.J.Bom Nat. Soc., 53: page 397-414.
Bhattacharjee, PC. P.Sakia and U. Raj. 1988. Status of
welland and water birds of Lower Assam, outside Ihe
natural reserve Wetland and Waterfowl-Newletter
(BNHS) 1:29-31.
Curry-IJndahl Kai, 1978. Conservation and management
problems of wading birds and their habitats: A global
overview. In. Wading birds. Research Report No. 7 of
the National Audibon Society. New York. Page 83-97.
Dey. S.C., 1982. Studies on the hydrobio logical conditions
of some commercially imponanl lakes (beels) of
Kamrup district and their bearing on fish produclion.
North Eastern Council Scheme. Final report.
Hume. A.O.. 1 877 A first of birds of North Easlern Cacher.
Stray Feather, 5: 1-47.
, 1880. A second list of birds of North
eastern Cacher Stray Feather, 9: 241-259.
, 1888. The birds of Manipur. Assam.
Sylhel and Cacher Stray Feather, 11 : 1-353.
King. W.B., 1981. Endangered birds of the world. The
I.C.B.P. red data book. Washington DC. USA.
Smithsonian Inslilution Press.
Koelz. W.. 1925. New races of Assam birds. Jour. Zool.
Soc. tnd.,A: 107-214.
Luthtn. C.S.I 987.Status of and Conservation priorities for
the world siork species. Cokxial waterbird.. 10 (2):
181-202.
Moss, B„ 1977. Conservation problem in the Norfolk
Broads and rivers of east Agglia.
England-Phyloplanklon, boats and the causes of
turbidity. Biological Conservation 1 2 : 95-114.
22
Parsons, R.E., 1939, Notes on wild duck and geese in
Sadeya frontier tract Assam. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 41 :
422-426.
Rahmani, A. .1989. Blacknecked and Greater Adjutant
Storks in India SIS-Newsletter., 2 (1/2):3-6.
Raj. M„ B. Saikia and PC. Bhattacharjee, 1987. Status of
aquatic birds on the beels of Goalpara district, Assam,
outside the natural reserve. J. Trop. Ecol. (special
volume on Wildlife).. In Press.
Ripley. S.D.. 1982. A synopsis of the birds of India and
Pakistan, Oxford University Press.
Saikia, P. and PC. Bhattacharjee. 1989. Study of the
avifauna of Deeper beef a potential bird sanctuary of
Assam. Waterfowl Conservation in Asia. Procd. IWRB,
188-195.
1988. Observation on the winter migratory birds of
JaysagarTank, Assam. Hornbill (BUHS), (Accepted).
1989 Adjutant stork at risk in Assam. SIS-
Newsietter{\\JCU specialist), 2 (1 & 2): 6-8.
Saikia. P and Bhattacharjee PC. 1990. A preliminary
report on the status of Adjutant Storks of the
Brahmaputra valley. Assam. AWB- Newsletter
(accepted).
1990b. Nesting records of the Greater Adjutant
Storks in Assam. SIS-Newsletter (accepted).
Stevens. H.(1914-1915). Notes on birds on birds of Upper
Assam.J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.3 parts. Vol. 23.
23
Table I: Wetland birds recorded In the present study and their status
St Family/
No. Scientific Name
A. PODICIPEDIOEAE
1 Podiceps cristatus
2 Podiceps ruficotis
B.PELECANDIDAE
3 Pelecanus phUippensis
4 Pelacanus onocrotalus
c. PHALACROCORACIDAE
5 Phalacrocorax xarbo
6 Phalacrocorax niger
7 Phalacrocorax rutioolis
D. ANHINGIDAE
$ Anhinga mfa
E. AROEIDAE
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
F. CICONIDAE
24
25
Arde imperiah
Ardea gotiath
Ardea donerea
Ardeapurpuria
Egrettaalba
Egretta intermedia
Egretta garzelta
Bubulcvs ibis
Ardeola baccuspi
Ardeola grayii
NycOcorax nyxtixorax
Ixobrychus dnnamomeus
Ixobrychus flavivoMs
Corsaschius melonolophus
Ixobrychun sinensis
Anastomus oscitans
Ciconia episcopus
Ciconia ciconia
Ciconia niger
Ephippiorhynchus asiattcus
Leptoptilos dubius
Leptoptilos javarticus
26
27
28
29
30
G. THRESKIORNITHIDAE
31 Plegadis laldnellus
H. ANATIDAE
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Anser albitrons
Anser anser
Anser indicus
Dendrocygna javanica
Dendrocygna bicoior
Tadorna lerruginea
Tadorna tadorna
Anus acuta
Anus poecilorhyncha
Anus poecilorhyncha
hahngtoni
Anus platyrhychos
Anus strepera
Anus dypeata
Anus querquedula
Anus penelope
Neta rutina
Aythya ferina
Aythya nyroca
Aythya tutigula
Nettapus coromandelianus
English Name
Gr eatCreasted Grebe
Little Grebe
Spotbilled Pelican
Rosy Pelican
Large Cormorant
UtBe Cormorant
Indian shag
Darter
Great Whitebellied Heron
Giant Heron
Grey Heron
Purple Heron
Great Egret
Intermediate Egret
Little Egret
Cattle Egret
Chinese Pond Heron
Pond Heron
Night Heron
Chestnet Bittern
Black Biltern
Tiger Bittern
Yellow Bittern
Asian Openbiil Stork
Whitenecked Stork
Oriental White Stork
Black Stork
Blacknecked Stork
Greater Adjutant Stork
Lesser Adjutant Stork
Glossy Ibis
White Fronted Geese
Greylag Geese
Barheaded Geese
Lesser Whistling Teal
Large Whistling Teal
Brahminy duck
Common Shetdudk
Pintail
Spotbill Duck
Spotbill Duck
Mallard
GadwaJI
Shoveller
Garganey
Wigeon
Redcrested Pochard
Common Pochard
Whiteeyed Pochard
Tufted Duck
Cotton Teal
Status
r/HB
c/P.?
r/RLM
r/pv
r/RLM
A/RLM
vr/RLMB?
r/RLMB
vr/RB?
vr/v"
r/RB?
r/R
A/RLM
A/RLM
A/RLM
A/RLM
c/RLM
A/RLM
CRLM
c/RLM
vr/RLM
vr/R
vr/RLM
C/RLM
r/RLM
Vr/M
vr/P?
r/RLM
r/R
c/RLM
r/R
vr/P
C/M
C/M
A/RLM
r/R
C/P
r/P
A/P
c/r
C/RB?
/p
C/P
C/P
r/P
C/p
r/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
c/r
Remarks
Common in Kaziranga N.P. Orang W.L.S.
Observed only in Manas S Diplai
Pobitora S Manas
Reported only once in anas & Dipor b«>**l
During summer only
in Dikhowmukh Brahmaputra river tract
Largely breeding colony in Majuli Island
Orang&Majuli Island
Kaziranga
Orang and Majuli
National par k4 game sanctuaries Deepar be
Urban garbage centres
Wetland ol some districts ol Assam
Panicking & Jhanjmukh
Only in eastern Assam(Jaysagar)
Highly localised
24
J.
K.
53 Carina scutulata
54 Sarkidiomis melanotos
55 Mergus merganser
56 Mergus albellus
ACCIPITRIDAE
57 Haliastur inovs
58 Ichyophage ichthyaetus
59 Icthyophaga nana
60 Haliaeetus leucorythus
Circus aeruginosas
Pandion halialtus
Grusgrus
RaBus aquaticus
Amauromis phoenicurvs
Amauromis bicolor
GalUcrex cinerea
Gattinula chloropus
Fulica atra
M.
61
62
GRUIOAE
63
RALUDAE
64
65
66
67
68
69
JACANIOAE
70 Hydrophasianus chirurgus
7 1 Metophidius inJcus
CHARADRIIDAE
72 Vaneitus indicus
73 Vanellus cinereus
74 Vanellus spinosus
75 Vanellus vanellus
76 Pluvialis fulva
77 Charadrius dubius
78 Charadrius placidus
N. SCOLOPACINAE
79 Numenius arquata
80 Numenius phaeopus
81 Tringa stagnatikis
82 Tringa erythropus
83 Tnnga glareola
84 Xenus tarek
85 Tringa lotanus
86 Tringa hypoleucos
87 Tringa nebularia
88 Tringa ochropus
89 Calidris minuta
90 Gallinago solitaria
91 Gallinago gallinago
92 Scolopax rusticola
93 Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus
94 Phalaropus lobalus
O ROSTATUUDAE
95 Rostratula benghalensis
P RECURVIROSTRIDAE
96 toidomyncha struthersH
97 Himantopus himantopus
98 Recurvirostra avosetta
99 Esacus magnirostris
Q GLAREOLIDAE
100
101
R. LARIDAE
102
103
104
105
106
Glareola lecta
Glareola partincola
Lams tuscus
Larus ridibundus
Childonias hybridus
Slerna melanogastra
Sterna auranta
Whitewinged Wood Duck
Nakta
Eastern Merganser
Smew
Brahminy Kite
Greyheaded Fish-eagle
Himalayan Greyheaded Fish-eagli
Ringtailed or P alias's Fish-eagle
Marsh Harrier
Osprey
Eastern Common Crane
Indian Water Rail
Whitebreasted Waterhen
Elwe's Crake
Kora
Indian Moorhen
Coot
Phesani -tailed Jacana
Bronzewinged Jacana
Redwattled Lapwing
Greyheaded Lapwing
Spurwinged Lapwing
Peewit, Lapwing
Eastern Golden Plover
Little Ring Rover
Longbiiled Ringed Rover
Eastern Curlew
Eastern Whimbrel
Marsh Sandpiper
Wood Spotted Redshank
Sandpiper
Terek sandpiper
Common Redshank
Common Sandpiper
Greenshank
Green Sandpiper
Little Stint
Eastern Solitary Snipe
Common Snipe
Woodcock
Spoonbilled Sandpiper
Rednecked phafarope
Painted Snipe
Ibis bill
Indian Blackwinged Stilt
Avocet
Great Stone Plover
Small Indian Pratincole
Large Indian Pratincole
Lesser Blackbacked Gun
Blackheaded Gull
Indian Whiskered Tern
Tern
Indian River Tern
Vr/R Kasijan o* Kakopathar R.F. 4
Dibrusaikhowa W.LS.
Vr/RB? Observed once in Semina {Kamruc:
vr/P In Dhir beel
vr/p -do-
c/R Common in Western Assam
r/R
r/R LawkhowaW.L.S.
C/R Nests observed in Barpeta
C/M
r/RLM Dipor beel & Orang
Vr/MV?MuJuti Island (Kamalabari)
r/R
CR
r/R
c/RLM
c/R
c/M
C/R
c/R
Common in Dipor beed
c/R
c/P
r/R
Vr/P Panidihing
r/P
r/??
r/P
r/P
r/P
c/P
r/P
c/P
r/P"
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
r/P
r/P
Vr/pv/
A/P
Recorded in North Guwahati
r/R
Vr/P Observed only in Nameri W.LS.
r/RB?? Observed jhanjtmukh only
r/P Observed once in Brahmaputra river
r/R?? Observed in North bank (Kamrup Dist.,)
in the Brahmaputra river tract
C/BR
cm?
r/P
r/P
c/R
r/P
cm
25
1 07 Sterna acuticauda
1 06 Sterna f uscata
1 09 Sterna albifrons
S ALCIDINIDAE
110 Ceryteruds
1 1 1 Ceryte lugubris
112 Alcedoatthis
1 1 3 Atcedo menin ting
1 1 4 Pe/argopsis capensis
1 1 5 Halcyon smymensis
T MOTACILLIDAE
116 Anthus roseaetus
1 1 7 Anthus spinoletta
118 MotacHIa flava
119 MotacHIa citreola
1 20 MotacHIa caspica
121 MotacHIa alba
1 22 MotacHIa maderospatenssis
ABBREVIATIONS
C
A
f
Vr
M
LM
R
Common
Abundant
Rare
Very rate
Migratory
Locally migratory
Resident
Black bellied Tern
Sooty Tern
Little Tern
Lesser Pied Kingfisher
Pied Kingfisher
Small Blue Kingfisher
Blue- eared Kingfisher
Storkbllled Kingfisher
Whttebreasted Kingfisher
Vmaceousbreasted Pipit
Central Asian Pipit
Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail
Yellowheaded Wagtail
Grey Wagtail
Indian White Wagtail
Large Pied Wagtail
C/R
r/p
r/R??
C/R
r/R
cm
c/R
r/R
C/R
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/P
C/R
Observed only in Nameri
P
P?
B?
?
V
V?
Passage migrant
Migratory status unknown
Breeding not recorded
Residental status unknown
Newly recorded
Vagrant
Previously vagrant but now regular winter visitor
TABLE II: Wetland condition of Brahmaputra Valley located In ditferent districts of the region
S.L.WETLAND
No
DISTRICT
STATE OF
EUTROPHICATION
1. Uhitbeel DTiuoTi
2. Dhakra beel -do-
3 Diplai beel -do-
4. Rainy beel -do-
5. Dahar beel -do-
6. Jogra beel -do-
7. Chandakhula beef -do-
8. Chilar beef -do-
9. Nowkhowa beel -do-
1 0. Tariasara beel -do-
11. Sarashwar -do-
12. NancSni -do-
13. Doloni beel Goalpara
14. Tamranga beel -do-
15. Urpod beel -do-
16. Dhamor-rhijan beel -do-
17. Hasilabeel -do-
18. Kumaribeel -do-
19. Moitilang beet -do-
20. Podombari -do-
21.Chaklabeel -do-
22. Naitora sautora -Pi 1 do-
23. National *aulora.Pt 11 Kamrup
24. Ververy beel -do-
25. Chandubi beel -do-
26. Kukurmara beel -do-
27. Bildora beel -do-
28. Dipor beel -do-
29. Hugh beel -do-
30. Baghmara beel -do-
31 Ghotajan -do-
32. Gorjan -do-
33. Batha -do-
34. Slngimari Nalbari
Natural
Cultural
Cultural
Natural Cultural
Cultural & Natural
Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Natural & Cultural
Cultural
Natural
Cultural
Natural
Cultural
Cultural and Natural
Natural & Cultural
Cultural
Natural 8 Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
Natural
Cultural
Natural and Cultural
Natural and Cultural
Natural and Cultura
Cultural
Natural and Cultural
Natural and Cultural
Cultural
Cultural
S.LWETLAND
DISTRICT
STATE OF
No
EUTROPHICATION
35. Kapla
Uorpeta
Natural and cultural
36. Saulkhuwa
-do-
Natural
37. Baghmara
-do-
Natural
38. Hahchara
-do-
Cultural
39. Akara
-do-
Cultural
40. Bhella beel
•do-
Cultural
41.Boirabeel
-do-
Cultural and Natural
42. Kukarjan
-do-
43. Basimari
-do-
Cultural
44. Koimari beel
-do-
Cultural
45. Goronga beet
Nowgoan
Cultural
46. Monjhanji beel
Jorhat
Natural and Cultural
47. Boralimari
-do-
Natural and Cultural
48. Kokilamukh
•do-
Natural
49, Bogoriguri
-do-
Cultural and Natural
50. Sengaman
-do-
Cultural
51. Missamari
-do-
Cultural and Natural
52. Lawjan
-do-
Cultural and Natural
53. Gorkhowi
-do-
Cultural
54. Digholi
-do-
Cultural and Natural
55. Jelingitup
-do-
Cultural
56. I.No. Kawtmari
-do-
Cultural
57. Nagabeel
Golaghat
Cultural and Natural
58. Golabeel
-do-
Natural and Cultural
59. Dikhowmukh
Sibsagar
Natural
60. Rudrasagar pathar
-do-
Natural
61. Jerengapathar
-do-
Natural
62. Joys agar tank
-do-
Natural
63. Brahmputr rivertrac*
-do-
....
64. Dighali beel
Dibrugarh
Natural
65. Burhi beel
-do-
-do-
66. Kutomi beel
jo- Natural
26
TABLE III : Factor affecting conservation and
diversity of wetland birds
wetland
Dhir
DhaKra
Diplai
Rainy
Dahor
Jogar
Chandakhula
Chilar
Nowkhowa
Tariasora
Sarashwar
Nandini
Dolonl
Tamranga
Hasila
Urpod
Dhamor-rtiijan
Kumrl
Moililang
Podombari
Chakla
Nallora
saulora
Vefvery
Kukurmara
8ildora
Dipor
Hugti
Gorjann
Balha
Ghorajan
Singimari
Kapla
Saulkhowa
Baghmara
Hahchara
Akra
Bhelia Seel
Boira
Kuharjan
Basimarai
Goranga
missamari
morijhanji
go'khowi
dig hoi i
jelengitup
1 no kaowmari
nogabeel
galabeel
dikhowmukh
R.Sagr Pathr
Jereng Pathr
Joysagaf Tank
Brahmhaputra
%cover
Aquatic
hydrophyte
%culti
vaiion
Bird
kiling
(N,S1T1)
10
25
50
75
10
18
30
35
25
35
30
75
15
50
50
90
60
33
75
80
50
50
90
50
60
35
90
70
60
50
60
70
20
40
40
55
45
50
60
70
40
60
75
70
60
60
20
50
50
50
M
50
10
30
75
35
60
40
75
80
95
50
75
40
80
25
60
50
60
40
60
30
60
70
80
75
70
40
50
50
50
50
60
40
40
30
60
70
60
70
65
10
60
70
70
60
80
50
80
70
70
75
60
55
50
1
NFT
MRR
MRR
MRR
NOO
NOO
HOR
LOO
HFR
LFO
MOR
NFR
NOR
MOR
MRR
MFR
LRR
MRR
LFF
MRF
LFO
MRO
MRO
LRO
MRF
MFO
NFO
MFO
MFO
NFO
MFO
RFR
ROO
ROR
OFR
ROF
ROR
ROR
MOR
HOR
nfo
mtr
mlo
mff
mrf
mrf
hrf
mfr
mfr
mff
NFO
NOO
HR
Fishing
diturbance
intensity
+ +
+ + +
+ ♦ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
* » *
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
++*■
♦*♦
+*♦
t-t-t
+++
++♦
+++
■+++
+++
++♦
♦++
+++
+++
♦*■♦
+*+
♦♦♦
+♦♦
+++
+++
++
+♦
+++
+
(N 1 S 1 T 1 ) N1 = Netting ; St = Shooting; T1 = Trapping
O: Occasional Practice; F: Frequent; R: Regular Practice
H; Carried out mof e Than 40 days
M; Carried out 20 - 40 days
L; Carried out less that 20 days
n: No activity
+++ = High; ++ - Moderate; + Low
Table IV: Percentage of species reduction in each
family of wetland birds
SI. Family
Number ot Species Recorded Percent
Past Present reduction
1 Podcipodiae 2
2 Petecanidae 2
3 Phalacrocoracidae 4
4 Anhingidae 1
5. Ardeidae 17
6. Ciconidae 8
7. Threskiofnithidae 4
3 Anatidae 36
9 Accipitridae 8
10 Ratlidae 12
1 1 Gruidae 4
1 2 Jacanidae 2
13 Charadriidae 37
14 Rostatulidae 1
1 5 Recurvirostridae 5
1 6 Dromedidae 1
1 7 Haliornithidae 1
18 Phoenicopteridae 1
19 GlareoJidae 2
20 Laridae 15
21 Alcedinklae 11
22 Motacillidae 7
fotaT 181
2
2
3
25
1
15
11
7
12.5
1
75
26
27.7
6
25
6
25
1
50
2
23
40.5
1
4
20
100
100
100
2
2
46.6
6
45.5
7
T22"
27
Frugivorous Birds and the Conservation of Dry Evergreen Forest
D. Narasimhan, John Mathew, Kavln Paulraj, S.M. Selvarathlnam and P. Dayanandan
Scrub Society. Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Madras 600 059
Introduction
What interactions between frugivores and truits
characterise the different types of forest vegetation of
India? What roles have frugivores played in the origin,
dispersal and maintenance of different forests ? In this
report we examine the relationship between birds and fruits
of the Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest (TDEF) {Champion
and Seth, 1968) TOEF was once a luxuriant tow forest
along the coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu. Of an estimated 2,00,000 km 2 that can support this
forest type only about 1% is now covered with vegetation
which is in various stages of degradation {Gadgil and
Meher-Homji, 1986).
Dayanandan and Christopher (1990) suggested that
birds played a dominant role in shaping the present
features of the TDEF. Recently, Narasimhan (1991) made
an exhauslive study of the flora of Chengalpattu district, a
region typical of the TDEF. Snow (1 981 ) has given a world
survey of tropical frugivorous birds and their food plants.
The birds of this region and some aspects for their biology
are known from publications and our own observations in
relating fruits to frugivores we seek to outline the basic
approach necessary to fully comprehend the long
evolutionary relationships between birds and plants in the
TDEF as well as olher forest types of India.
Material and Methods
Fruits of the TDEF have been collected from different
localities and analysed for Iheir size, morphology, shape,
pigmentation and pulp quality during the past five years.
Birds of this region are known from the publications of
Siromoney (1971). Besides personal observations,
information on birds that consume fruits was also obtained
from Ali and Ripley (1968-74) and Ali (1972).
Results and Discussion
The Chengalpattu district has 1063 angiosperm species
(Narasimhan, 1991). Of these. 808 are dicotyledons. About
82% of these dicots are native plants, the remaining being
exotics, a the 664 native dicots 180 are woody plants. In
this study we have analysed the fruit-frugivores relationship
as it occurs among the woody native plants. If is interesting
to compare the present record of plants in this region with
that of Meher-Homji (1974) who recorded a total of 127
plants typical of the TDEF including 103 woody plants.
Figure 1 summarises the characteristics of fleshy fruits
in the district. 1 30 out of the 1 80 woody native plants (72%)
possess fleshy fruits. These include 70 berries and 60
drupes. Pepos of cucurbits and syconia of Moraceae are
included among the berries. Thus, the TDEF is
characterised by 54% benies and 46% drupes. The
predominant colour of the fruits is red (48%) followed by
black or dark purplish fruits (31%). About 14% of fruits are
yellow or orange in colour while a small fraction of 7% are
pericarp or mesocarp while about 5 are large, hard and
fibrous. Large quantities of fleshy fruits are produced by
Ziztphus oenoplia. Allophyllus serratus. Ficus bengalensis,
F.religiosa, F.amplissima. F.hispida, Benkara malabarica.
Hugonia maystax, Tarenna asiatica. Securinega lucopyrus.
Grewia rotundifolia, Azadirachta indica, Memecyuclon
umbellatum, Flaoourtia indica. Carmona retusa. Ehretia
ovalifolia, Psilanthus wightianus and Dendrophthoe falcata.
Among the non-woody plants the following species
provide abundant brightly coloured fleshy fruits: Cissus
vitigenia, C. quadrangularia, Cyphostemma setosum.
Telbcora acuminata and Melolhria maderaspatana.
The following species do not possess fleshy fruits but
display brightly coloured arillate seeds that might attract
birds: Drypetes sepiaria. Maylonus emarginatus. cadaba
fruticosa. and the introduced Pithecellobium dulce. The
common non- woody climber Abrus precalorius has red
seeds with a black spot but we have not observed birds
swallowing these seeds.
Figure 2 displays distribution of size of fleshy fruits in the
TDEF. 84% of the fruits are less than 2 cm in diameter
while most fruits (72%) are less than 1 cm in diameter.
Large fruits between 3 and 8 cm do occur but these are not
always fleshy. Some of them are fibrous and others fairly
hard for birds to feed on. Such large fruits that may be
eaten by birds or most probably by bats are: Crateva
magna, Atalantia monophylta, Pamburns missbnus,
Pleiospormium alatum, Catunaregam spinosum. Gardenia
residenifera and Zizlphus xybpyrus. The fruits of Morinda
coresia, and Capparis zeylanica are large in size and are
readily consumed by birds. Large and brightly coloured
fruits are also found among non-woody climbers such as
Coccinia grandis and Trichosanlhes tricuspidata.
Table 1 lists 20 common birds known to consume fruits
in TDEF. The exclusively frugivorous Common Green
Pigeon is a local migrant and not very common in this
region. Among the birds that feed on fruits about 12 are
residents while the Rosy Pastor, Large Cuckoo-Shrike and
Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike are winter migrants. The
families of birds that feed on fruits include: Columbidae,
CuculkJae. Capitonidae. Orblidae, SturnkJae, CorvkJae,
CampephagkJae. Irenidae. PycnonotkJae and
Muscicapidae (Timalinae). In comparison with the number
of species of birds recorded in India (about 1200)
Tambaram area, monitored over a period of 50 years, is
known to have about 150 birds. Thus, only 20 out of 150
birds are actively involved in seed dispersal in this region.
28
However, these frugivores occur in abundance in this as
well as most other regions ol India.
Several authors have discussed seed dispersal and the
relationship between fruits and frugivores in the tropes
(Morton. 1973; Snow, 1971. 1981). Snow (1981) dis-
tinguished seed predators such as some pigeons and
parrots and parakeets from legitimate frugivores. The latter
digest pericarp or other soft parts of the fruit but void seeds
without any damage either by regurgitation or defecation.
Further, the legitimate frugivores could be specialised or
unspecialised birds. The specialists feed on larger fruits
rich in fats and proteins. The fruits of the nonspecialists are
generally smaller in size, less nutritious, mostly consisting
of carbohydrates stored in a watery fluid. Investment of
resource in these fruits are considered to be less, resulting
in abundant fruits that attract many different kinds of birds
even to a single species of plant.
Considering that 72% of the fruits are less than 1 cm in
diameter the TDEF appears to attract mostly unspecialised
frugivores. Our initial analysis reveals that almost all these
small fleshy fruits are rich in carbohydrates and do not
store proteins or fats in any significant quantities. There
appears to be no one to one relationship between a plant
and a frugivore; fruits of a single species is consumed by
different species of birds. Fruiting in the TDEF is observed
in both wet and dry seasons which in turn is related to the
occurrence of the southwest and retreating southwest
monsoon regimes that characterise this region. Birds are
attracted to fruits of Glycosmis mauritiana and Hugonia
mystax in September while a large number of birds visit
Ziziphus oenoplia, Benkara malabarica and Albphyllus
serratus in January-February. Neem, Grewia orbiculata
and Lannea coramandelica offer abundant fruits in the
summer.
The larger fruits with harder pericarp mentioned above
may be more likely consumed by bats rather than birds. We
have observed bat consumption of Pamburvs mission's,
Alalantia monophylla, Catunaregram spinosa, Gardenia
resin'ifera, and Potyahhia hngifolia. Fruits of Fhus
benghalensis are eaten by a variety of birds as well as
bats. The TDEF once supported large number of Manikara
hexandra. and Chbroxybn swietenia. These have now
become very rare due to deforestation. The agents of
dispersal of these fruits are now known. Indeed what now
remains of the TDEF in about 1% of its original home might
represent primarily those woody plants that were dispersed
by unspecialised birds.
The woody components of the TDEF that we find today
are likely to have survived because they possess fruits
dispersed by a large number of unspecialised birds. These
birds could carry seeds to short distances where the plants
get established.
However, since most of the birds active in this region are
found throughout India they could disperse seeds to
successive sites and thus spread them over a large area.
Most woody plants of the TDEF are also found in the
adjacent deciduous and thorn forests.
That a number of seeds of the TDEF are dispersed by
birds can be readily seen even today by the presence of
plants such as Ficus and tamarind. Plants that grow, (tower,
and fruit in such niches include Atlantia monophylla,
Azadirachta indica, Capparis zeylanica, C.brevispina.
Mohnda pubescens, Securinega leucopyrus. Ziziphus
oenoplia, Psilanihes wightianus and Sansevieria
roxburghiana.
A detailed study of frugivory may reveal evolutionary
relationships that have characterised the birds and plants
of the different forest types of India. The importance of
birds in conservation of a vegetation type is clearly brought
about by the example of the Madras Christian College
Campus. The campus has been protected for nearly 60
years from encroachment and .deforestation. This has
resulted in the establishment of a secondary but rich
vegetation primarily of plants of the TDEF in about 360
acres of land which was practically barren 60 years ago. ft
is possible to re-establish such vegetation merely by
protecting a large area and allowing the task of introducing
native plants to the birds.
References
Ali. S.. 1979. The Book o/ Indian Birds. BNHS. Oxford
University Press, Madras.
Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 1968-74. Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of
Forest Types of India. Publication Division of India,
Delhi.
Dayanandan, P. and J. Christopher, 1990. Relationship
between the seed-dispersing birds and the origin of the
Tropical Day Evergreen Forest. Pachaiyappa Plant
Science Research. Forum Newsletter, No. 2.
Gadgil, M. and V.M. Meher-Homji, 1966. Role of protected
areas in conservation. In: Conservation for Productive
Agriculture, eds. V.L. Chopra and T.N. Koshoo. ICAR.
Mehur-Homji. V.M., 1974. On the origin of the Tropical Day
Evergreen Forest of South India. Int. J. Ecol. Environ.
Sci.. 1 : 19-39.
Morton, E.S., 1973. On the evolutionary advantages and
disadvantages of fruit eating in tropical birds. Amer.
Naturalist, 107 : 8-22.
Narasimhan, D., 1991. A Floristic Study of the Flowering
Plants of Chengalpattu District, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D.
Thesis, Madras University.
Siromoney, G., 1971. Birds of Tambaram Area and
Water-birds of Veda nt hang al. Scientific Report No. 2.
Department of Statistics, Madras Christian College.
Snow. D.W.. 1971. Evolutionary aspects of fruit-eating by
birds. Ibis, 113 : 194—202.
Snow, D.W.. 1981. Tropical frugivorous birds and their
food plants: A world survey. Biotropica. 13 : 1-14.
29
Table 1 : Frugivores observed tn the tropical dry evergreen forest
Common green pigeon {Treron phoenhoptera)
Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea)
Common Hawk Cuckoo {Cuculus varius)
Piedcrested Cuckoo {Ctamator jacobinus)
Coppersmith (Megalaima haemacephafa)
Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus)
Greyheaded Myna (Stumus malabancus)
Blackheaded Myna [Stumus pagodarum)
Rosy Pastor (Stumus roseus)
Indian Myna [Acridothetos tristis)
House Crow (Con/us splondons)
Jungle Crow (Corvus maeromynchos)
Tree Pie {Dendrotitta vagabunda)
Large Cuckoo-Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae)
Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike {Coracina melanoplera)
lora (Aegithina tiphia)
Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jcosus)
Redvented Bulbul (Pycnonotus caf&i)
Whitebrowed Bulbul {Pycnonotus lut&oJus )
Whiteheaded Babbler (Turdioides affinis)
Total No- *•<* BUc * V*iowi©f»nQ« WMUPW"
■■ Batrtoi Wk Drupas
F-3 l Colour of fleshy ftuils in trop»cal dry evergreen forest
100 -j — jj-
LM-nc
PR-c
PR-c
LM-nc
PR-c
LM-c
LM-c
LM-c
WV-nc
PR-vc
PR-vc
PR-vc
PR-c
WV-nc
WV-c
PR-c
WV-vc
PR-vc
PR-vc
PR-vc
Si*e Range (cm)
Fig.2 Si/e dtslnbution ol fleshy fruits in tropical dry evergreen forest
30
Conservation Priorities of the Whitewinged Wood Duck, Carina scutulata in India
H.S.A. Yahya
Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. UP
Introduction
The Whitewinged Wood Duck (WWWD) was common in
parts of North- east India till the beginning of this
century. Thereafter, there has been a steady decline in its
population. In Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur districts of Assam
its number declined from around 1900 to an estimated 44,
(Green 1992). The main reason for their decline being the
indiscriminate poaching/shooting and habitat loss.
Green (1992. 1993) has documented in detail the past
and present distribution of this critically endangered bird
and has also discussed various reasons affecting their
population. I have had the opportunity of discussing the
problems of WWWD with Dr Andy Green at Slimbridge in
1992 and in 1993 undertook a pilot survey to collect
first-hand information on the status and habitat of WWWD
in five key sites of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Tables 1
& 2). Two successive surveys were carried out between
February (dry season) and May (wet season).
Material and Methods
The methodology has been described elsewhere
(Yahya. 1993a & b) and findings are summarized in
Tables- 1 & 2.
Results and Discussion
It is encouraging that out of 65. now estimated from
India (Green. 1992), we could see 26 and heard 8 (Tables
1 & 2) in about 40 days of intensive search. Maximum
existing population of WWWD were seen in Doom Dooma
and Dibru- Saikhowa WLS.
Although 3 key sites were surveyed in Arunachal
Pradesh, no first hand report of any WWWD was obtained
except calls of only one WWWD near M-Pen Nala in
Namdapha Tiger Reserve. While some suitable habitats in
D'Ering and Pakhui WLS were recorded. Mehao WLS
should not be regarded as a key site now. While 65
WWWD estimated by Green from India may be an
underestimation, a report of 200 pairs from Assam by the
Forest Department is an over estimation. The present
rough estimation of WWWD in both Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh is around 100.
Habitats of the WWWD are severely depleted and
nowhere it is 100 percent free from human pressure (Table
2). None of the sites visited has adequate number of trees
sutabfe for nesting. Depletion and fragmentation of habitat
and poaching of young'eggs appears to be the main
masons tor such a low population of WWWD. Poaching
anj s«ing of adult WWWD are continuing. Choudhury
(1933) oted one such case and I personally know several
Arunchali Bheel is a suitable habitat for WWWD but
quarrying selective logging and shikar by locals are
common here.
WWWD may also get affected by diseases spread by
affected WWWD from aviaries and Min Zoo. which escape
and mingle with the wild population.
Owing to heavy use of chemicals in Tea Estates, the
adjoining feeding habitats of WWWD may be polluted.
Conservation Priorities
— The first and foremost task is to save the existing
habitats from further depletion and encroachment.
Some sort of fencing has to be done at the
vulnerable sites (such as Ubhata. Liltong and
Namholong).
— The second important effort should be to locate
nesting pairs and protect the eggs/young from
poaching. At suitable locations (such as Littong.
Namholong and Digholtrang) artificial nest boxes
can be supplied and monitored for long term study.
— More man power is needed to check all sorts of
illegal activities in WWWD habitats. The Littong and
Kakopathar Forest Range may be declared as
WWWD sanctuary. Attempt should be made to
modify /modernize the existing captive breeding
centres and only healthy WWWD stocks should be
maintained.
An intensive awareness campaign has to be launched
to make the conservation plan of WWWD a real success.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the British Ecological Society. UK for a
small grant under Grant No.985 and to Dr Andy Green
(WWT Slimbridge) for encouraging the study. Several of
the managers of William and Magor Tea Estate Company
provided local help and hospitality during the field
study.MrA. M. Khan. President. Assam Valley Wildlife
Society arranged necessary permission for visiting
Arunachal Pradesh and his suggestions during surveys
were very useful. I am also indebted to Prof. A.H. Musavi,
Chairman C.W.O. for allowing me to use some of the
Centre equipment and to Dr Asad R. Rahmani for peer
referring drafts. Mr Rashid H. Raza and a number of
officials and field staff of the Assam & Arunachal Pradesh
Forest Departments were helpful.
31
References
Choudhury. A.. 1993. A nesting site of WWWD in Assam.
Newsletter IWRB-TWRC, No.3, Jan. 1993.
Green, A.J., 1992. The status and conservation of the
WWWD. IWRD Special Publication, No. 17.
Green, A.J.. 1993. The biology of the WWWD. Forktaitpy. B
: 65-82.
Table 1. Sight records of white winged Woodduck in parts of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
St
No.
Location
Habitat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Colony, Guijan Range. Dibrusaikhowa WLS. Tinsukia Dist. 27.34 N 95.20 E
Littong Forest Beat Block 4, Doom Dooma, 27.36 N 95.42 E
Namhotong. Littong Beat. Doom Dooma. 27.36 N 95.42 E
Ubhata Kakopathar Forest Range. Doom Dooma. 27.35 N 95.41 E
Koliapani Bheel Dighottrong Range. Dibro-Saikoja WLS. Tinsukia. 27.38 N 95.26 E
Boori Boori Bheel-Dkjhattrong Range. Tinsukia Dist., 27.38 N 95.21 E
River tributory
Secondary evergreen forest
Secondary evergreen forest
Secondary evergreen forest
Swamp
Secondary evergreen forest
Table 2. Call records of white winged Woodduck during 1st and 2nd phase survey
Location
Habitat
1 . Littong Forest Range, Doom Dooma. 27.36 N 95.42 E
2. Koliapani Bheel. Digholtrang Range
3. M. Pen Nala. Namdapha Tiger Reserve
Secondary evergreen forest
Swamp
Secondary evergreen forest
Population and Wetland Habitat Preference of Waterfowls at Kota
Rakesh Vyas
2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar, Kota 324 005, Rajasthan
Introduction
A sian mid-winter waterfowl census is trying to assess the
''large scale trends in population changes, in species
distribution and identification of important wintering sites of
migratory and resident waterfowls in the Indian
subcontinent. After seven years, still large gaps exist in the
census data as central and eastern India is poorly
represented in the counts. This study is the first effort
towards assessment of monthly population fluctuation of
resident and migratory waterfowls with their preference of
habitat in Kota area of South West Rajasthan. The
importance of such dala has been emphasized by Vijayan
(1986) to assess the relative importance of artifidal
wetlands supposed to be adequate substitutes for the
vanishing natural ones. Information available on the birds
of Kota was meagre, therefore this study was undertaken.
Material and Methods
The study area is situated on the western end of Malwa
plateau and forms a part of South East Rajasthan which
comprises the districts of Kota, Baran. Jhalawar.
Chittaurgarh and Banswara. Kota and Jhalawar area
consists of stony uplands but the Chambal river and its
tributaries have formed an alluvial basin in the parts of Kota
and Baran district. This area occupies some 13000 km 2 ,
with roughly, the same climate and cultivation pattern. The
area is dotted with natural and man-made wetlands ranging
from large/medium size dams to small village tanks,
including the canal system originating from Kota barrage.
These were situated at (75'C 52" E. 25' 10" N) and details
are in Table 2. The study was conducted for 36 months
starting from July 1989, undertaking over 200 field trips to
selected wetlands atleast once every month. All these
wetlands were covered twice or more during the peak
migratory season i.e. November to March. On each visit all
the birds were counted specieswise with as much accuracy
as possible.
Table 1 gives the waterbirds and wetland dependent
bird species recorded during the study period. The record
of water depths and vegetation growing in the wetlands
was kept for the study period. The site details are provided
in Table 2. Control graph of monthly population fluctuation
has been presented in Fig. 1 for 17 important waterfowl
species. The annual average number of each species in
the year 89-90 has been used as the control, for comparing
the monthly averages of 90-91 and 91-92. Fig.2 shows the
annual average number of most abundant waterfowl
species on each of the wetlands. It shows why certain
wetlands are preferred by certain waterbirds.
Ninety three waterbird species and 7 wetland
dependent bird species were recorded during the three
year period, from the study area. Forty three species of
waterbirds are resident whereas 56 are migrant or locally
migratory.
In all, 13 types of migratory ducks were recorded, out of
which bulk of the population belonged to 6 species i.e.
Pintail. Anas aula. Common Teal. A.crocca. Common
Pochard. Aylhea ferina. Tufted Pochard, A.fuligula,
Shoveller, Anas clypeata and Brahminy Duck. Tadorna
f&rruginea. Comb duck. Sarkidiornis melanotos and Lesser
Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna javanica were seen in large
congregation in the months of January- February, Cotton
Teal. Nettapus coromandelinus and Spotbilled Duck. Anas
poecilortiyncha have a preference for shallow, vegetation
filled wetlands, where they were seen in small flocks of
5-50 birds. A flock of Greylag Geese, Ans&r anser
comprising of 17 to 56 individuals wintered at Abheda tank
every year. Barheaded Geese, Anser indicus is more
widely distributed.
Greatcrested Grebe, Podheps crislatus was found on
deeper waterbodies like, Alniya dam in almost constant
number (Approx. 70 every year). They arrived early and left
early (October to January) in the migratory season. Little
Grebe, P.njficollis have no specific preference and was
found on all waterbodies in small number throughout the
year.
All the three types of Cormorants, Phalacrocorax spp.
were found in and around Kota but only Small Cormorants,
P.niger were residents while the other two were locally
migratory depending upon the water conditions.
Among the storks, White Stork, Ciconia ciconia was
rarest with only one sighting. Black Stork, Ciconia nigra
and Blacknecked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticvs have
also been occasionally seen during winters. Greater
Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus were seen on Alniya
every summer.
Two types of migratory cranes. Common Cranes, Grvs
grus and Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoids virgo (occasional
autumn passage migrant) have been recorded from Kota.
Sarus Crane, Grus antigone was frequently sighted on the
wetlands and cultivated fields on the margins of the city.
They breed in the reed marshes close to the city. Coot,
Fulica alra is the most abundant waterbird (upto 6000) at
Ummedganj, Alniya and Abheda.
A variety of waders and plovers, resident as well as
migratory were recorded from the study area.
Among the waders, Ruff, Ph'thmachus pugnas was
most abundant in the area because of their preference for
cultivated fields along with water-logged areas close to the
wetlands. The noteworthy plovers and waders for their
rarity were Golden Plover, Pluvialis fufva. Lapwing,
Vanellus vaneJIus, Spurwinged Plover, V.spinosus and
Avocet, Recurviroslra avocetta. The waders breeding
successfully on the wetlands of Kota were Blackwinged
33
Still. Himanlopus himantopus. Great Stone Plover, Esacus
magnirostris. Redwattled Lapwing. Vanellus indicus. and
Little Ringed Plover. Charadhus dubius.
Indian Skimmer. Rynchops albicollis is a rare summer
visitor seen on the muddy islands ol Alniya dam. Three
types ol raptors and 4 types of kingfishers, which are
considered wetland dependent birds, have been recorded.
Wetland Habitat Preference
Greatcrested Grebe. P. cristatus have a preference for
deep, open waterbodies and Ihus were seen only on Alniya
dam. White Pelican. Petecanus onocrotalus and Dalmatian
Pelecan, P.crispus were also seen on open waters of
Alniya and Ranpur. These species do not prefer the
waterbodies with lots of floating vegetation as that may
hinder their diving and feeding (Grebes) or netting the
shoals of fishes (Pelecans). Large Cormorant and Shag
were found on deep waterbodies while Small Cormorant
were present on all wetlands as they can feed even in
shallow water. Herons and Egrets were distributed on all
wetlands, except that bitterns and Pond Heron preferred
waterbodies with cover. Little Egret. Egretta garzetta and
Cattle Egret. Bubulcus ibis have a preference for shall
lower parts or even dry banks and agricultural fields. Storks
do not show any specific preference for any wetland and
depending on their choice of food, can be found on all
waterbodies as well as irrigated fields (particularly
Whitenecked Stork). A clear niche selection was observed
in 3 types of Ibises. Glossy Ibis, Piegadis faldnellus fed in
18 to 24 inches deep water. White Ibis. Threshkiornis
melanocephalus in shallow banks while Black Ibis.
Pseudibis papulosa on dry ground near the water's margin
or agricultural fields.
Diving ducks were invariably present on deep, open
waterbodies like Alniya dam. Ranpur tank and Ummedganj
Canal area and dabbling ducks showed a preference for
the waterbodies where vegetation cover, grasses and
weeds are present. On open waterbodies they were
restricted to shallow banks. Among the resident ducks,
Comb Ducks showed a preference for water-logged
grassdelds. Spolbilled Duck tor open shallow waterbodies
and Cotton Teal for weed-covered shallow waters.
Common Coot. Fulica atra was found in great
abundance and olher floating vegetable matter. The
Waders congregated in good numbers (flocks of 100-1000
individuals) at the time of spring migration on the shallower
waterbodies and on city nullahs with large drying margins
where stilts, sandpipers. Redshanks. Godwit and Curlew
assemble in large numbers. Otherwise smaller numbers
were present on all waterbodies and water-logged fields
throughout winter and around the city.
Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus and Blackwinged
Stilt, Himantopus himantopus were present on all city
nullahs and in the vicinity of the wetlands. Golden Plover,
Pluvialis fulva and Spurwinged Plover. Vanellus spinosus
have preference for the shores of Alniya dam. River Terns,
Sterna auranlia were found in large numbers at Alniya and
Ranpur whereas Whiskered Tern .Chlidonias nybntfa were
commoner at Abheda and Ummedganj.
Twenty one resident waterbirds breed in and around
Kota Table 1).
This is the first population study of waterbirds of Kota
and any comparable data from the same geographical
region is Karera Bustard Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh
(Rahmani, 1991). Among the migratory ducks, large
congregations of Pintail, Anas acuta. Common Teal
A.crecca, Common Pochard, Aythea lerina and Tufted
Pochard . Aythea fuligula arrived on the wetlands ot Kota.
Tufted Pochard and Common Pochard were the first to
arrive in late September and leave by January end.
Common Teal. Pintail and Shoveler arrived in mid-October
and remained till mid-April. The peak numbers of Anas sp.
were seen during December to February while Aythea sp.
peaked earlier by mid-November. The number of shoveler
has gone down in the last two years for no apparent
reason. The Garganey, A.querquedula were passage
migrants during (all and spring return migration.
The Redcrested Pochard.. Netta rufina and Wigeon,
Anas penelope were irregular visitors. Pigeon arrived in
smaller number (50). According to Ali and Ripley. Gadwal
{Anas strepera) is the commonest duck of central India but
barring few exceptions (Alniya and Abheda, 1990) this has
seldom been sighted. Same is true for Mallard. Anas
platyrhynchus, which was seen at Alniya in 1991. The
average population of resident ducks is low (5-50) and
state The number of Spolbilled Duck had risen in the
summer of 1991 because smaller waterbodies in remote
areas were dry due to poor monsoon in 1991, and
perennial waterbodies like Abheda and Ummedbanj
became the refuge for all resident ducks. The average
population of waterbirds like Egrets, Jacanas and resident
waders remained static excepting Blackwinged Stilt which
congregated in larger numbers on the waterbodies in
summer for breeding. The absence of breeding sites
(trees) near the wetlands is a deterrent for all tree nesting
waterbirds like storks, Spoonbills. Larger Egret and Grey
Heron, Night Heron. Cattle Egret and Little Egret. The
ground nesting species are relatively common in summer
and pre-monsoon months showing an upswing in their
numbers.
River Tern .Sterna aurantia the commonest tern showed
constant average population, with an increase during
summer, when they congregate at Alniya and Ummedganj
(dry canal bed) to breed. Greater Flamingo
.Phoenicopterus roseus arrived in flocks of upto 100
individuals during summer months at Alniya and left with
the arrival of monsoon. The White Pelican. Pelecanus
onocrotalus arrived from mid to late winter on larger
waterbodies like Alniya and Ranpur and continue to be in
the area till mid May.
Suggestions
The perennial wetlands are of greater importance for
resident waterbirds. These are numerically getting
depleted; and hence, must be conserved.
34
Creation of nesting sites for tree-nesting waterbirds is
recommended. Tree cover in the catchment of the wetland
will tackle the problem of siltation and water recharge.
Exploitation of Typha reeds must be regularised so as to
reduce the habitat toss of certain resident waterbirds.
Drainage of smaller wetlands for illegal housing or
cultivation must be stopped.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr. Asad. R .Rahmani for his comments
on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
References
Ali, S. and Ripley. S.D., t983. Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press.
Perennou. C. and Santharam, V., 1990. An ornithological
Survey of some Wetlands in South East India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.. 87 : 354-353.
Rahmani. A.R.. 1991. Birds of Kerala Bustard Sanctuary.
Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 88 :
172-194.
Santharam. V.. Menon. R.K.G.. 1991. Some observations
on the Waterbird Populations of the Vedathagal Bird
Sanctuary. Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 31 : 11-12. 6-8.
Vyas. R.. 1990. Status of endangered Resident species of
Waterfowl at Kota. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 30 :
9-10.6-7.
Table 1 : Waterfowls and Wetland dependent Birds of
Kota
1 "Grebe. Podiceps ruficollis
2 Great Crested Grebe. P. cristatus
3 Great White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus
4 Dalmatian Pelican. P. crispus
5 Great Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo
6 Indian Shag, P. lusocollis
7 Utile Cormorant. P.niger
8 Oriental Darter. Anhinga melanogaster
9 C<nnamon Bittern. /. cinnamomeus
10 Blackcrowned Night Heron. Nycticorax nycticorax
n Pond Heron .Ardeola grayii
12 Egret . Bubulcus ibis
■3 Smatad (Little Green) Heron . Butorides striatus
_ ■£% Egret. Egretta garzetta
'5 tr— n n ed ia t o (Smaller) Egret. E. intermedia
=y* . E. aba
!7Pa»pto Heron. Ardea prpurea
^ Grwf Heron A cinerea
"* Srty H»ron, Ardea purpurea
*3 Partad Saork .Myctaria leucocephala
M tam Opwtofl. Anaslomus oscrtanus
2* Sacx Sac* .Cconta nigra
(WtUe-necked) Stork .C.episcopus
24 Blacknecked Stork .Ephipphrhynchus asiaticus
25 Blackheaded (White) Ibis , Threskiomis aethhpica
26 Black Ibis , Pseudibis papulosa
27 Glossy Ibis . Plegadis falcinellus
28 White Spoonbill . Ptatalea leucorodia
29 Greater Flamingo , Phoenicopterus roseus
30 Lesser Whistling Duck (Lesser Tree Duck) .
Dendrocygna javanica
31 Greying Goose. Anseranser
32 Barheaded Goose .A.indicus
33 Rubby SheWuok .Tadorna ferruginea
34 Comb Duck .Sarkidiornis melanotos
35 Indian Cotton Teal .Nettapus coromandelianus
36 Eurasian Wigeon, Anas penelope
37 Gadwall . A.strepera
38 Common (Green- winged) Teal , A.crecca
39 Mallard . A.platyrhynchos
40 Spotbilled Duck , A.poecitorhyncha
41 Northern Pintail . A.acuta
42 Garganey , A.querquedula
43 Northern Shovelr , A.clypeata
44 Redcrested Pochard , Netta rufina
45 Common Pochard Aythya ferina
46 Ferruginous Duck , A.nyroca
47 Tufted Duck . A.fuligula
48 Common Crane. Grus grus
49 Crane . G.anttgone
50 Demoiselle Crane. AnthropokJes virgo
51 Slatybreasted Rail. Rallus striatus
52 Whitebreasted Waterhen , A.phoenicunjs
53 Moorhen . Gallinula chloropus
54 Purple Swamphen . Porphyrio porphyrio
55 Common Coot. Fulca atra
56 pheasant-tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianuschirurgus
57 Bronzewinged Jacana , Metopidius indicus
58 _ Painted Snipe, Rostratula benghaiensis
59 Stilt . Himantopus himantopus
60 Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta
61 Great Stone Plover . Esacus recurbirostris
62 Little Pratincole, Glareola lactea
63 Northern Lapwing,. Vanellus vanellus
64 Yellowwattled Lapwing . V.malabaricus
65 White-tailed Plover . V.leucurus
66 Spurwinged Plover . V.spinosus
67 Redwattled Lapwing . V.indicus
68 Golden Plover. Pluviali apricaria
69 Grey Plover. P.squatarola
70 Litlle Ringed Ptover , Charadrius dubius
71 Kentish Plover .C.alexandrinus
72 Blacktailed Godwit , Limosa limosa
73 Bartailed Godwrt. L.lapponica
74 Curlew, Numenius arquata
75 Spotted Redshank, Tringa erylhropus
76 Redshank. T.totanus
77 Marsh Sandpiper, T.satagnatilis
78 Greenshank . T.nebularia
79 Green Sandpiper. Torchropus
80 Wood Sandpiper . T.glareola
81 Common Sandpiper , Aclrtis hypoleucos
82 Common Snipe , Gallinago gallinago
35
83 Little Stint , Caltdris minuts
84 Temminck's Stint. C.temminckii
85 Dunlin. C.alphina
86 Ruff . Philomachus pugnas
87 Great Blackheaded . Gull Larus ichthyaetus
88 Brownheaded Gull. L.brunnocehalus
89 Blackheaded Gull , L.ridibundus
90 Whiskered Tern, Childonias hybrida
91 Indian River Tern , Sterna aurantia
92 Blackballed Tern . S.melanogaster
93 Indian Skimmer , Flynchops albicollis
Wet Land Dependent Water Bird Species
94 Osprey, Pandion haliatus
95 Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosus
96 Imperial Eagle. Aquila heliaca
97 Lesser Pied Kingfisher. Ceryle rudis
98 Common Kingfisher, Alcedo atlhis
99 Storkbilled Kingfisher. Pelargopsis capensis
100 Whitebreasted Kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis
'Breeding waterbirds of Kota
Table 2. Details of the wetlands of Kota
Name of the
wetland
Type of the wetland
Distance
from the
Kota city
Catchment
Submer-
gence
(Hectare)
Depth
max/min
(metres)
Vegetation
Abheda tank
Alniya dam
Man man tank
Medium size dam
6kms
23kms
Not known
201.35 km 2 "
20
1210*
4/1.5
10/1
Emergent & floating.
grass, sedges
Floating algal strands.
weeds
Boating algal strands,
weeds
Submerged/floating
algae, weeds
Uprooted floating
emergent & submerged
Lakhawa tank
Village tank
11 kms
2.35 km 2 *
80*
5/Dry
Ranpur tank
Ummedganj
Village tank
Canal/seepage pools
17kms
8 kms
4 km 2 *
No known
130*
15
2/Dry
2.5/1 (Pools)
3/Dry (Canal)
' Approximate
+ Official record
'5 i Ca*a ami *» (apmi j ■■■«
36
-
: i • i&: a ' ** * j 1 1 i t < » « i * 4 I •
hi.
n
cr
Mil iltll * * • 4 2 14 14 2
ll#4 t • * J « « J • t * j
a
l\
9
'■-
37
iUr
I
A ii
a
: ? '
i
z si
Lb
I
if *
"a ;-
\ tiling BNlk fcb»I* I
s
!
a
I
Sft
Island Size and Forest Bird Distributions in the Andaman Islands
Prlya Davldar", Thiollay J.M.",Yoganand T.R.K." and Nlraj Joshl*
'Salim Ali School of Ecology and environmental Sciences.
Pondicherry University, Kalapet , Pondicherry 605014
'Laboratoire D'Ecologie Ecole Normale Superieure . Paris , France
A survey was conducted of forest birds in 28 islands of
''different sizes in the South Middle and Utile Andamans.
Vagile genera and species were excluded from the
analyses. Thirtynine species of forest birds were recorded.
Island size was important in determining the number of
species. Large islands (90sq km)had all 39 species whereas
Islands less than 1sq. km had only 27 of the 39 species.
Raptors were the most sensitive to island size. Islands
smaller than 0. 1 Sq km had only 18 species, and 21 species
were not recorded on small islands at all. This showed that
for conservation of forest bird diversity, only islands greater
than 1 sq km are important and for the raptors this area
should be greater than 1 sq km.
Winter Waterfowl Population at Myani Bird Reserve
Dr. V.R. Bhagwat
Associate Professor in Biochemistry .Government Medical College ,Miraj4l6 410
A freshwater reservoir near Myani town in the district
**Satara, Maharashtra is a regular site for winter migratory
waterfowl. The site is a typical wetland habitat. Bird counts
have been done at the site regularly in January every year
since 1 990. The counts were carried out in mornings on foot
using a pair of 8 x 40 binoculars. The data indicated marked
fluctuations in total number of birds, while there was a slight
change in the total species spotted. The results indicated
that more studies in relation to light, climate, biological and
physical factors have to be carried out. Possible reasons for
population fluctuation of waterfowl at the site have to be
idenlif ied before conservation measures can be suggested.
39
Nesting Mortality of Birds in an Open Woodland and Scrubland Near Bangalore
S. SrWhar* and Praveen Karanth"
'No 10, Sirur Park B Street. Seshadripuram, Bangalore 560 020
"Student, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore
Introduction
The Indian tropical lorests are disappearing at an
alarming rate. The problems laced in commercial
timber, rapid extension ol rail and road networks, extension
of agriculture into forest areas, growth and demands of
mega cities and towns, Hydroelectric projects are exerting
considerable pressure on the bird communities.
Ecologists need to know about the breeding rates and
nest mortality of birds so that they understand how
effectively the population survive under various conditions.
Of particular importance in the context of open
woodland and scrubland, are nesting studies to identify
species whose breeding success are threatened and
elucidate conservation measures Therefore, 1987 a study
in an open woodland and scrubland was initiated.
Material and Methods
An open woodland area located 50 km south west of
Bangalore City (77* 16' E. 13* 45" E) was the major study
area and another piece of scrub about 8 km west of the
open woodland was the second study area. The main
study area was made-up of secondary forest habitat with a
open woodland, wedged between a stretch of over 2 kms
along a seasonal river bed and agricultural farms
characterised by coconut, mulberry, areca, mango,
banana, sugarcane and vegetable gardens. The second
study area is situated about 8 km west of the main study
area where most species of ground nesters were studied in
the scrub land of 5 sq km.
We recorded the Nesting data of Birds in detail for 5
years from Jan 1988 to Dec 1992. Peak breeding seasons
on all birds were also recorded. Nests were located by
discretly watching the movement of the birds from a
distance. Birds at nest were observed without disturbance
using a 8 x 40 binoculars from blinds erected early in the
morning or from a parked vehicle. Photographs of most bird
species studied were also taken using a 300 mm telephoto
lens lo analyse the types of nest, clutch, size, egg colour
and pattern.
Regular field notes on individual, seasonal and
ecological differences in nest structure, site preference by
different species were maintained. The average number of
days spent by the parents in nest construction, egg laying,
duration of incubation, care of nestlings, and the length of
nesting period for each species studied, were also
recorded. The number of broods, the state at which the
nest failed, the interval between the destruction of Ihe nest
and renesting were recorded.
As typical of such studies, we could not always witness
the loss of an egg or nestling; hence we relied on
circumslantial evidence to interpret our conclusion.
Normally a nest seen undisturbed with eggs or heallhy
chicks on a particular day but found empty, a day or two
later, were attributed to predation.
For most avian species, it is almost impossible to trail
fledgings once they leave the nest. For Ihis reason studies
of avian reproduction generally concentrate on survival
rates and nesting success only through the fledging of
young (Ricklefs.1969). We have presented our
observations upto fledging of young from the nest.
The average life span of all nests attempted each year
and progressive destruction of active nests by predators or
other factors at any stage of the nesting for five separate
years were recorded for analysing the nest survival dala of
individual species. Vegetation type and nesting data were
recorded by walking and where necessary additional spots
within the study area were frequented. The natural history
and nesting data have come from our own field
observations.
Results and Discussion
A total of 394 nests belonging to 40 species of birds
were recorded during the study period. However, results of
only 201 nests are included for analysis of in this paper.
Out of 201 nests, only 50 reported success and the
remaining 151 nests failed. Thus 75.13% of all nesting
attempts failed. We again separated the mortality at egg
stage from the mortality at chick stage.
Predation
Predation accounted for 66 % nest losses, at bolh egg
and chick stages 42% at the egg stage and 24% at
nestling stage that are lost are lost to predators.The most
frequent cause of eggs and nestling mortality is predation
of complete clutches and complete broods. Therefore the
rale of an egg or nestling is nol statistically independent of
its nesl-mates. The second most common cause of nest
mortality was human intervention (15%)(TaWe 6). Having
identified predation as major cause of the egg and nestling
mortality, the seasonal distribution of predation was
examined.
Rainfall
The reasons for wide annual fluctuations in predation
rate are unclear at present. One interesting environmental
factor is the amount of rainfall received and the timing of
the rainfall. For example in the case of White spotted
Fantail Flycatcher, which has a fairly synchronised
breeding season; the nest failure was less after the
pre-monsoon showers (Sridhar et at. 1989). but was
relalively high before the pre-monsoon showers.
40
Rainfall can influence nest predalion by (1) the density
or activity of nest predators. (2) the availability of alternate
food source for the predators. (3) the time budgets and
nest vigilance of parents, and (4) vegetation cover
surrounding the nests (Woolfenden. 1974).
Synchronous nesting
Horn (1968) fell that if the birds produce their young
during a short interval of time, predator appetites might be
saturated quickly, as a conveyance, individuals might attain
a higher probability of keeping their offspring alive than if
nesting asynchronously. If there were sufficient resources
for all predators at a short period than the individuals might
have a higher success rate. The success rate will be
influenced by predator density.
At least 6% of the nest predalion is directly attributed to
predatory birds (bird of Prey; Crow; Coucal; Malkoha). We
feel that few other nest failures were due to the activity of
these predators. In several instances, the confrontation
and mobbing of these predators by the nesting birds was
observed. Several behavioral studies have suggested that
mobbing responses may be provoked by the predator in
order to attract or obtain information about the prey and its
nest(Smith 1969.Smrth 1984. Mclean et al. 1987). Since
the density of predators were higher than normal as
noticed by the frequent mobbing of predators by the
nesting birds, nesting mortality was also relatively higher in
the study area.
Grouping births
The reasons for fluctuations in predalion rate are
unclear at present. One interesting phenomenon was
'grouping births' in time as a response to predalion.
Most of the birds studied had a short synchronised
breeding season. This relatively synchronised breeding
season extends from April to August, with June and July as
peak nesting season. Individuals may be able to reduce
per capita predalion on dependent offspring by Grouping
Births in time. If the birds produce their nestling during a
short time interval, predator appetites might be satiated
quickly, as a consequence, individuals might attain higher
probability of keeping their offspring alive than if nesting
asynchronously (Pullman & Caraco 1978). For example.
the Indian Robin and the Yellow wattled Lapwing have a
short synchronous breeding season and almost all the
nests were found during April. The two species exhibited
considerable breeding success (Table 2 and 5 ).
In contrast the Whtteheaded Babbler had asynchronous
nesling and the breeding season extended from March to
September without any peak nesting period. This species
exhibited utter nesting failure, probably due to this
phenomenon. Similarly the Purple rumped Sunbird
exhtorted asynchronous nesting cycle extending from
February to November with disastrous nesting results. The
nesting season lapers off by September, one possibility is
the necessity of completing postnuptial molt and the olher
being competition for food resources from winter migrants.
Variability in reproductive success could proximately
arise from any combination of variation in four principle
factors (1) clutch size (2) loss of eggs or nestling through
predalion (3) human interference which in turn vary with
annual differences in environmental variables such as
humidity, food availability and vegetation cover
(Woolfenden. 1974). However, the overriding cause of
annual variation in reproductive success apparently lies in
variable predation rates, as observed in the study area.
ft is possible that some species were exposed to
pesticides while feeding in cultivated tracks, surrounding
the study areas (Beehler.er a/ 1987). In natural areas, such
instability may be caused by drought or through predation.
but in our sludy area, breeding results were good in certain
years only. We can analyse the effect of disturbances in
past by comparing similar data from populations with that
from other undisturbed areas.
Peak nesting season
The overall chronology is summarised in Table 7 which
emphasised that all birds actively nest during June-July.
For reasons incompletely understood, the nest cycle of
mos! birds are timed to coincide wilh south west monsoon.
The Table shows that maximum number of nests were
observed in June-July. However the 'potential nest life
span" varied between 32 days to 48 days for different
species from the day nest construction started to the day
the nestlings left the nest in case of altricial birds and 28 to
32 days in case of precocial birds in the study area. The
table reveals that the ratio of failure due to predation was
lower from June onwards and the higher in May and
June; maximum nests were found in June followed by May
and July. This illustrates that the peak breeding season is
coincided with the onset of south west monsoon.
Nest Type and Nest Site Quality
Birds were, classified as per the type of their nest
(Tables 1 to 5). in order to get an inkling on the different
types of nesling and individuals differences in competitive
ability to locale the nest at a safer place. It was found that
the proportion of success increased with the ability of the
species to effectively conceal its nest or camouflage the
eggs in ground nesters. The nesting type influences a
species reproductive success through nesf
conspiciousnoss or crypticity and quality of nesl site
(Alatalo et at 1986). For some birds crypticity and an often
solitary existence may be a response to predalion
(Tinbergen et ai. 1 967). Our data reveals that the open cup
shaped nests and partly hidden nests accounted higher
mortality rate than hidden cavity nesters and ground
nesters of certain species, that could effectively conceal
their eggs on the ground.
Cosf of living in Groups
The Whiteheaded Babblers live in cooperative groups.
Grouping might exact a cost in terms of predation. Groups
41
might be more conspicuous than solitary to a predator
searching at a distance depending on the predator's
sensory mode and activity (Vine, 1973.) lor some prey
crypticity and open solitary existence may be a response to
predation (Tinbergen et a/.. 1967; Pulmanm and Mills,
1977). To investigate this, we analysed the nesting data ol
the White headed babbler.and found that the reasons lor
the utter failure ol nesting in White headed babbler is
perhaps due to the above phenomenon.
In addition, intra group nest destruction is known to
occur in complex group and groups containing several
males as in Arabian Babblers (Zahavi 1974). Since
Whiteheaded Babbler exhibits similar social behaviour and
lives in complex groups (Gaston and Perrins.1974). it is
possible that the low success rate in the study area lor this
species is due to destruction ol nests by babblers
themselves, than from other predators. Zahavi strongly
(eels that some losses are attributable to inter group
conflicts rather than predation.
Quality ol Nest Site
Since nest predation is the single most important factor
influencing breeding success, under natural conditions, the
effect ol high quality nest site is likely to compensate lor
reduction in quality of other factors. For example, in Pied
Pycatcher, the single most important criterion may be nest
site quality (Alatalo et al 1986). Nest predation was the
farmost important factor reducing breeding success in the
Pied Flycatchers (Alatalo and lundberg 1990). Based on
the nest site properties, they were able to predict with 79%
accuracy the nest suffering from predation or being
successful. The nest cavity as protection against predation
might be especially important for the Pied Flycatcher where
an incubating female runs the risk of being taken by a
predator herself (Haartman 1971). Alleast in 3 instances,
the breeding parent was killed by a bird ol prey in the study
area (Table 6). But other lactors ol nest site quality might
be important too. There are several cues for the breeding
pair of which nest site quality is most important (Termin et
a/.. 1989)
Quality ot Territory
We also considered the question whether the territory
quality and size in the study area influenced reproductive
success. Example of benefits (other than lood) ol an
increase in territory size in Great Trt helped in decreased
predation by Weasels and spacing out reduces predalion
and nestlings (Krebs, 1971). In our main study area.
problems are slemmed Irom human perturbations, such as
extension ol agriculture in to forest areas, cattle gracing
and tree felling. This has resulted in decreased diversity of
the flora. Because of this seemingly edge effect, we feel
that the nesting mortality was higher in our study area.
Analysing 24 studies involving 7788 nests, (Nice 1957}
reported that the success rate ol open nests ol altricial
birds ranged from 38 to 77% ( average 49%). But in our
study area the success rate was around 24% only. One of
the reasons being the decreased diversity ol flora, that has
reduced the quality of the territory of the breeding birds. For
instance. We noticed two pairs of White-eyes nesting
simultaneously just 15 feet apart. We observed that the
male white eyes of these two nests indulged in day long
all-out territorial battles while the females were left to attend
to the nest all by themselves. In normal circumstances. We
have observed the male white eye alloleeding the female
at nest during the first days of hatching.
Since the nestlings are unable to the rmo regulate for four
to five days after hatching, the females had difficulties in
raising the young on their own. due to the reduced
assistance from the mate counterparts. We feel thai long
dislance between two nests of the same species could
decrease the aggressive interaction between the two
males. Interestingly both the nests failed; one at egg stage
and the other at nestling stage! This demonstrates that
quality and size of the territory can influence reproductive
success (Andersson and Wickland, 1987).
Maintenance of diversity contributes to forest health by
providing more varied habitats, quality nesting sites and
food resources for the wild birds. All these factors
disscussed in this paper, independently or cumulatively
influenced the nesimg mortality of the birds in the study
area.
Data from the nesting birds, has increased our
understanding of how competition for high quality nest sites
and nest predation influence the relative breeding success
of the birds.
Given the tremendous awareness and concern for
environmental problems, and fragile nature of our avifauna,
current emphasis on bird conservation should be extended
to study ol breeding biology of birds in a given area, to
enable researchers to make qualitative predictions in
future.
Clearly such studies are of great importance in the
management and conservation of birdlife on earth.
References
Alatalo, R.V. and Lundberg. A. 1986. The Sexy Son
hypothesis; Data from the Pied Flycatcher (Ficedufa
hypoleuca), Anim Behav34; 1454-1462
Alatalo. R.V. and Lundberg, A. 1990. Polyterritorial
polygyny in the pied Flycatcher, in Advances in the
Study of Behaviour. (P.J.B. Slater ed) Academic Press
NY
Andersson. M and Wickland G.G. 1987. Clumping versus
Spacing Out; experiments on nest predalion in
Fieldfares ( Turdus pilaris) Anim. Behav 26, 1207-1212.
Beehler. B.M, Raju K.S.R. Krishana & Ali. S. 1987. Avian
Use ol Man disturbed forest habits in the eastern Ghats,
India. Ibis 129. 197-211
Gaston and Perrins, 1974. The relationship of habitat to
groupsize in the genus Turdoides, 16th Intenat. Ornithol.
Congr. AbstP109
Haartman L Von. 1971. Population Dynamics in Avian
Biology. Vol 1 ( D.S. Farner and J.R. King eds) Aca.
Press. NY pp 391 -459
42
Horn. H.S.1968. The adaptive significance of Colonial
nesting in the Brewer.s black bird Eupgus
cyanocephalus. Ecology 49, 682-694.
Krebs. J.R. 1971. Territory and breeding density in the
Great Tit [Parus majoi) L. Ecology 52. 2-22.
McClean. I. G. Smith, J.N.M. and Stewart, K. G. 1986.
Mobbing behaviour, nest exposure and breeding
success in American Robin, Behaviour 96: 171-186.
Nice. M.M. 1953. Nesting Success in aftricial birds. Auk,
74:305-321.
Puliam. H.R. and Coraco, T. 1978, Living in groups: is there
an optimal group size. Behav Ecology, Black Well Scm
Pub. 122-147
Pulliam, H.R. and Mills. G.S.1977. The Use ol space by
wintering sparrows. Ecology 58, 1393 - 1399
Ricklefs, R.E. 1969. An analysis ot nesting mortality in
birds. Smiths. Contrib. Zool 9: 1-48
Sridhar.s. Govindarajan.V. and Papanna. H.B. 1989.
Breeding behavior ol the White-Spotted Fan tail
Flycatcher. News letter tor Bird Watchers 3-5, 526, vol
xxix.
Smith. N. G. 1969, Provoked release of mobbing, a hunting
technique of micrastur factora. Ibis 111:241-243.
Smith. R.J.F. 1986. Evolution of alarm signals: Role of
benefits of retaining group members of territorial
neighbors. Amer. Natur. 128: 604-610.
Taylor. R.J. 1979, The Value ot Clumping to press when
detetability increases with group size. Amer. Natur. 113.
299-301
Termin, H. and Jakobsson.S. 1989, Female reproductive
success and nest predation in poh/territoriat wood
Warblers ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix) Behav. Ecol.
Socoibiol. 23: 225-231
Timbergen, N. Impekoven. M and Frank 0. 1967. An
experiment on spacing out as a defence against
predalon. Behaviour 28: 307 - 321 .
Vine ,1. 1973. Detection of Prey flocks by predators. J.
Theor. Biol. 40: 207-210
Woolfenden. G. E. 1974. Nesting and survival in a
population of Florida Scrub Jays. Living bird 1 2: 25-49
Zahavai. A. 1974, Communal nesting bt Arabian Babbler: a
case of Individual selection.. Ibis 116:84-87
Table 1 : Open cup (attached statint) nests
Table 2: Hidden cavity nest
Rl
%of
No.
Bird species
success
1.
bra
2.
Red vented Bulbul
7.14
3.
White eye
12.5
4.
Yellow eyed Babbler
14.2
5.
Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrflte
20
6.
White Browed Fantail Flycatcher
20.8
7.
Red Whiskered Bulbul
27
8.
White Browed Bulbul
Ave rg age
50
20.75
SI.
No.
Bird species
%of
success
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pied Bush Chat
Magpie Robin
Tckeirs Blue Flycatcher
Grey Trt
Indian Robin
Average
20
42
50
66
35
Table 4: Hidden Pendulous nests (Warblers)
Table 3 : Open Nests (Partly Hidden)
SI.
No.
Bird species
% of success
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
White headed Babbler
Black Drongo
Bay Backed Shrike
Tree Pie
Golden Fronted Chloropsis
Average
22
50
50
21.71
SI.
No.
Bird species
% of success
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Southern Ashy Grey Warbler
Tailor Bird
Indian Wren Warbler
Ashy Wren Warbler
Streaked Fantail Warbler
Average
10
16.6
28.5
50
19.2
Table 4A: Open pendulous nests (Sunblrds)
SI.
No.
Bird species
%of
success
1.
2.
3.
Tickell's Flower Pecker
Purpled Rumped Sunbird
Purple Sunbird
Average
18
25
18.7
43
Table 5: Ground nests (Altrlclal)
Table 5A: Ground nests (Precocalal)
SI.
No.
Bird species
%of
success
1.
2.
3.
Redwinged Bush Lark
Indian Pipit
Rolous tailed Finch Lark
Average
25
33.3
50
285
SI.
No.
Bird species
%ol
success
1.
2.
3.
4.
Red Wattled Lapwing
Yellow Wattled Lapwing
Jungle Bush Quail
Grey Partridge
Average
20
40
66
50
42
Table 6 : Failure Analysis
SI.
No.
1.
2.
3
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Reasons (or failure
Abandoned at construction stage
Cut by firewood collector / grass cutter
Vandalism
Trampled by sheep/cattle
Predated by crow/coucal/Mal koha
Predation of eggs during incubation by an unknown predator
Predation of chicks by unknown predator
Breeding parent killed by a bird of prey
Other reasons
(a) Flash floods
(b) Wind dislodges branch with nest
(c) Cat eats chicks
<d) Ploughing of fields
(e) Snake predates chicks
Total
No. of nests failed
14
12
5
3
7
60
37
3
2
3
1
2
2
151
Table 7 : Failure rate by moving average method
Jul
5m
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Total nests
Jan
Feb
9
Mar
19
Apr
29
36
44
39
18
5
1
1
Number of
nests failed
due to
predation
6
9
15
23
19
16
9
2
Failure rate %
66
47
51
63
43
41
50
40
Bird Attracting Wild Flora of Sidderbetta, Tumkur District, Karnataka State
C.G. Kushalappa and V. Bhaskar
Department of Forestry, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-560065
Introduction
"The subject of bird-plant association has received very
' little attention in India. Recently Subramanya and
Radhamani (1993) reviewed the Indian literature on bird
and bat pollination. According to them, a total ol 58 bird
species from 16 different families and 4 orders have been
observed pollinating 93 species . ot flowering plants
belonging lo 34 families and 20 orders. Malvaceae.
Fabaceae, Myrtaceae. Bignoniaceae and Verbenaceae are
reported to produce bird flowers and are the most
ornithophilous plants of India. Certain plant species like
Bombax ceiba, B. incignae and Erythrina variegata and
E.srrtota are visited by 50 different species for nectar.
Mistletoes (Loranthaceae) are probably one of the well
studied groups of ornrthophilus plants. Of the 93 species of
plants pollinated by birds over 80% of them are frequented
by more than one bird species (Subramanya and
Radhamani. 1993) indicating the generalised relationship
between birds and plants. They also stated that though
nectar is a good source of energy it is a poor supplier of
protein and hence they probably derive their protein
requirement by consuming animal matter.
In this paper, we have attempted to provide the
dependence of birds for nectar and fruits as a possible
source of carbohydrates, fats and proteins with a particular
reference to the flora of Sidderbetta in Tumkur district.
Material and Methods
Extensive floristic surveys were conducted in
Sidderbetta from 1985 to 1992 to collect plants during all
seasons and observations were recorded on the
phonological characters. The list of bird attracting plants
were confirmed from the earlier reports of Ali (1932) and
Subramanya and Radhamam (1993). More plants were
added based on authors' observations.
Sidderbetta is the tallest hill in Tumkur District known for
its medicinal plants (Bhaskar and Kushalappa. 1993). The
average annual rainfall is about 750 mm with peak during
July - October.
In order to study the distribution of bird attracting plants
in relation to different habitats the hill was classified into
four different habitats based on distinct altitudinal, edaphic
and biotic factors. The altitude ranged from 750 meters at
the foot of the hill to 1272 meters at the top of the hill.
Shorea Grove (SG) consisted of a dense canopy mainly of
evergreen tree Shorea roxburghii, sheltering a large
number of undergrowth species. The foot hill (FH) was
mostly scrub with Anogeissus latilolia, Lagestromia
pan/Mora, Terminate paniculata, interspersed among
Lantana or often grassy patches wherever rocky strata
existed. The slope and valley (SV) mostly consisted of
Gardenia latifolia. Vitex altissima. Sterculia urens, Grewia
spp.. Ficus spp., interspersed with grassy patches. The hill
top (HT) vegetation rarely consisted of trees such as
Memecyton umbellatum, Sterculia guttata etc in patches
but mostly rocky interspersed with grassy moist patches.
Results and Discussion
In the present study, 285 wild species of flowering plants
from Sidderbetta are reported. These plants fall under 76
families of which Fabaceae is the most dominant with 43
species followed by Rubiaceae(17). Asteraceae (12),
Euphorbiaceae(lO). Acanthaceae (9) in order. Totally 51
plants in Skfderbetla are found to attract birds for nectar
and twentyone for fruits and the remaining eleven species
attract birds for both nectar and fruits.
Table 1 shows that most bird attracting plants are
present on higher and middle levels ot the forest canopy
compared to the lower levels. In addition, most of these
plants are perrenial in nature and are regularly available for
the birds to feed on.
ft we look into the distribution of the bird attracting plants
in different habitats it is evident that slopes and valleys
have the largest number of bird attracting plants (27)
compared to other habitats. The number is least on the top
of the hill i.e. HT (4) which may be due to the relatively poor
distribution of plants on the top of the hill. Even on the foot
of the hill the number is small, perhaps due to large scale
deforestation and invasion of weeds. Although Shorea
Grove (SG) represents a small area of about 1 00 acres, the
number of bird attracting plants is large compared to the
total area of the hill.
From these findings it is evident that the slopes and
valleys have the largest number of plants that attract birds
for fruits and fruit trees yielding nectar and also a higher
number of plants that attract birds for nectar. The Shorea
Grove had the highest number of bird attracting plants for
nectar. These results indicate that bird - plant interaction is
very high in the valleys. Shorea Grove, and it is moderate
on the foot hills but is lowest on the top of the hill.
Prasad el al. (1982) have reported 132 species ol birds
from Devrayanadurga State Forests in Tumkur district
which lies in close proximity to Sidderbetta State Forests.
48 bird species (33%) of Devaryanadurga are dependent
on plants for nectar or for fruits. 16 species are nectar
feeders and 1 1 feed on fruits and the remaining 21 feed on
both nectar and fruits. This study indicated the importance
of this bird-plant interrelationship in a deciduous forest
ecosystem which is very similar to Sidderbetta. Similar
studies need to be undertaken in Sidderbetta to
substantiate that this is an important habitat biologically
that needs protection .
45
References
Alt. S.. 1932./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 35: 573-605.
Bhaskar. V. And C.g. Kushalappa 1993. Dhanvantri's
Treasure House.decea/i Herald. 28.8.1993.
Prasad, J.N., S.Karthikeyan. T.S. Srinrvasa and
S.Subramanya., 1992. Birds ol Devarayanadurga Stale
Forest. Newsletter for birdwatchers., 32(142): 10-12
Subramanya.S.. and T.R. Radhamani., 1993. Pollination by
birds and bats. Current Science. 65(3): 201-209.
Table 1 : Distribution ol different species of bird
attracting plants In four different habitats In
Sidderbetta
PLANT FORM
FH SG
SV
HT TOTAL
TREES
SHRUBS
CLIMBERS
EPIPHYTES
14 ^T^ 26
8 3 19
t - 5
3 1 4
(FH) FOOT HILL (SG) SHOREA GROVE (SV) SLOPES AND
VALLEY (HT) HILL TOP
Table 2: Distribution of nectar and fruit yielding plants
In the four habitats in Sidderbetta
HABITATS
FOR
FOR
FOR
TOTAL
NECTAR
FRUITS
BOTH
FH
3
5
4
11
SG
10
1
1
12
SV
6
14
5
27
HT
1
3
1
5
21
23
11
Table 3 : Bird Attracting Flora of Sidderbetta
SI Botanical name
no
Distr.
ibution
Plant
form
A. Plants that attract Birds for Nectar
1 Aristofochia indica
2 Bauhinia racemosa
3 Butea monosperma
4 Canavalia virosa
5 Calatropis gigantea
7 Celestrus paniculata
8 Cochlo'ospermum religiosum
9 Firmianacolorata
10 Gloriosa superba
11 Helectris isora
12 Kalanchoe pinnata
13 Legerstromia parvitlora
14 Mitragyna parvitlora
15 Pongamia pinnata
16 Pierocarpus marsupium
17 Schleichera oleosa
18 Shorea roxburghii
19 Vnex altissimma
B. Plants that attract Birds tor their
20 Biidelia retusa
21 Catunaregam spinosa
22 Cipadessa bacoifera
23 Cordia wallichiana
24 Diospyros melanoxylon
25 D. montana
26 Ficus amplissima
27 F. auriculata
28 Fbenghalensis
29 Frrncrocarpa
30 Gardenia latifolia
31 Gymnosporia wallichiana
32 Physalls minima
33 Phoenix humilis
34 Santalum album
35 Securinega leucopyros
SG
CL
SV
TR
FH
TR
SG
CL
FH
SH
SG&SV
CL
SV
TR
SV
TR
SG
CL
SG&SV
CL
HT
SH
SV
TR
SG
TR
FH
TR
SG
TR
Sv
TR
SG
TR
SG
TR
fruits
SV
TR
FH
SH
FH
SH
SGSHT
SH
FH
TR
SV
TR
SV
TR
SV
TR
SV
IH
SV&HT
TR
SV
TR
SV
SH
SV
SH
SV
SH
FH
TH
FH
SH
SI Botanical name
no
36 Solanum nigrum
37 Syziphus cumini
38 Zyziphus mautitiana
39 Z.rugosa
40 Z.xytopyrus
41 Bombax ceiba
42 Capparis zeytanica
43 Canthium parviflora
44 Denof ophthoe falcata
45 Elylrathe parasitica
46 Gmelina arboiea
47 Ixora arborea
48 Lantana camera
49 Madhuca indica
50 Viscum articulatum
51 V-ramosissimum
Distr.
Plant
ibution
torm
SV
SH
SV
TR
SV
SH
HT
SH
SV
SH
Nectar and fruits
SV
TR
SV
SH
FH
SH
SV
PA
HT
PA
SG
TR
FH
TR
FH
SH
FH
TR
SV
PA
SV
PA
46
Avifaunal Survey of Forest Reserves in Mahadayi Valley, Western Ghat
During April-May 1993
J.C. Uttangi
36, Mission Compound, Dharwad580 001
Introduction
An extraordinary diversity of bird species still prevails in
*Vhe hill forests of Western Ghats in Karnataka. But, only
a few detailed published accounts about them are found.
Birdwatchers, naturalists and surveyors in the past, notably
J. Davidson, Salim Ali and W. Koels and others who carried
out bird surveys in South Konkan, North Canara. Mysore,
Goa and also neighborhood of Londa in Khanapur Taluk
published bird lists concentrating more on taxonomy. Due
to lack of proper scientific knowledge on river ecology and
water management some pristine evergreen biotopes in
Western Ghats were lost to power projects and mines in
Karnataka. The present survey was aimed at determining
the diversity of bird habitats and bird specialists of
Mahadayi valley in Western Ghats and to publish records
to assist with the conservation of important forests in the
Valley. So far, no systematic study has been made of the
Avifauna of the moist and evergreen forests of this valley.
The paper deals with the survey of birds in relation to their
habitats and their distribution in the valley. A checklist of
birds recorded during the survey is furnished.
Material and Methods
The five main survey areas in the Valley, namely :
1) Chapoli, 2) Kabnali, 3) Gavali, 4) Krishnapura and 5)
Telewadi are shown in Map III. The survey was carried out
during early morning hours of April and May 1993. On
roads negotiable with jeep, bird counts were taken at
intervals of 1-2 km regularly. The total number of survey
Irips worked out to be at the rate of two trips for each forest
reserve, that is 10, regular trips and 2 review trips
amounting to 12 trips in all.
The total survey time in each of the five survey areas
was as follows :
Areas of Chapoli — 17th & 18th April (2 days Jamboti
camp)
Areas of Kabnali - 24th & 25th April (2 days Jamboti
camp)
Areas of Gavali - 28th & 29th April (2 days Shiroli
camp.)
Areas of Krishnapura - 5th & 6th May (2 days Shiroli
camp)
Areas of Telewadi - 1 7th & 18th May (2 days Armode
camp)
Review Trips - 26th & 27th May (2 days Anmode camp)
Birds were recorded along roads between 1) Khanapur
and Jamboti ( 1 8 km), 2) Between Jamboti and Anmode (30
km) and between 3) Anmode and Londa-Gumji (40 km).
Photographs of vegetation, flowers and fruits found in the
valley along with birds in their natural surroundings
wherever possible were taken. In situations where it was
impossible to penetrate and find access to the bird it was
identified from the call. Local people were consulted about
the proposed power project in the valley. The manganese-
mine pit area in Jamgaon was also visited and surveyed.
Results and Discussion
Distributional patterns
A total of 112 different species of birds belonging to 42
families in the 5 forest reserves of Mahadayi Valley were
recorded. Families of birds which were found to be the
most dominant in the area were Pycnonotidae (bulbuls);
Muscicapidae (flycatchers); Columbidae (doves) all having
7 species each followed by Turdidae (thrushes) with 6
species and Campephagidao (cuckoo -shrikes); Picidae
(woodpeckers); and Timalidae (babblers) with 5 species
each; and Sturnidae (mynas); Irenidae (leafbirds);
Psittacidao (parrots); Cucutidae (cuckoos) and Bucerotidae
(hornbills) with 4 species each. Others such as Dicaeidae
(flowerpeckers) and corridae (crows) were found with 3
species each. The remaining families have either 3, 2 or 1
species.
(A) The Chapoli Forest Reserve
This reserve with an altitude of 1995 feet msl. has an
area of nearly 6.403.00 acres and includes villages like
Jamboti. Chigale. Kapoli. Amgaon and Kanakumbi. It lies
between two river basins, namely. Malaprabha in the
north-east and Mahadayi in the south-west. The Goa road
separates the two river basins. The former flows
east-wards to join Bay of Bengal and the later that is
Mahadayi to the Arabian Sea. The soil is red and the terrain
is open. The scattered Zizyphus/Carissa scrub attracts
Babblers. Bulbuls, Doves. Mynas and Bee-eaters. Down
towards Mahadayi river the 15 km distance from Jamboti to
the dam site forms the core area along which in the
southern compartments of Chapoli-Amgaon area touching
the river bank is a dense moist -deciduous forest coupled
with secondary moist-mixed deciduous species. Since they
are grown in an undulating terrain the edaphic and biotic
factors have helped them to come up very near to
semi -evergreen type. In these canopies live many insects,
butterflies and birds. We saw /heard on the 17th and 18th
of April (1993) Peafowl, Grey Junglefowl, Yellowbrowed
Bulbul. Pied Hornbil I, Malabar Whistling Thrush,
Goldenbacked Woodpecker, Large Green Barbel. Black
Bulbul and Storkbilled Kingfisher. On the ground early in
the morning we saw Greyfronted Green Pigeon. On ridges
and level grounds deciduous trees like Can/a arborea.
47
Emblica officinalis were predominant. On streams and river
banks ever-green species like Cinnamomum zoylancium,
Symptocos canarana and Mang'tfera indhaMc were
stocked. The tree composition is made up of Terminalia
belerica. Tpenhulata. Dabergia latHolia., Ficus sp.. Randia
dumetorum and shrubs like Carissa carandes,
Clerodendron and Helicteres isora with climbers like
Wagatea sp. and Acacia intsia. We saw Peafowl.
Greyfronted Green Pigeon. Emerald Dove,
Blossomheaded Parakeet and heard Fairy Blue Bird,
Scimitar Babbler. Grey Junglefowl and also saw a
Storkbilled Kingfisher. On streams and river banks
evergreen tree species like Cinnamomum zeylanicum,
Symplocos canarana and Mang'tfera indica were stocked.
Pug marks of Panther, Bison. Barking Deer and Sloth Bear
on soft soil were observed. Frequent low gruff and gruntling
sounds coming from a distant valley were also heard. Their
natural abodes still exist in and along the river valley close
to the dam site.
to the height and diversity of the flora. Junglefowl and Red
Spurfowl dwell in the thickets.
(D) Krishnapura Forest Reserve
ft is about 1470 acres at an altitude of 300-350 feet
(msl) with Bhimgad. Jamgaon, Abnal and Dongargaon as
its hamlets. Bird fauna is as much the same as found in the
neighbouring reserve Gavali. We visited this reserve on the
5th and 6th May 1993 and recorded Rufous Babbler,
Scimitar Babbler, Blackheaded Babbler, and they are
important from the conservation point of view as they are
old-world species like the kingfishers, hornbills and
woodpeckers. The area also holds a good population of
Turdidae (thrushes). Muscicapidae (flycatchers). Irgnkiae
(leaf-birds), and Dica&dae (flowerpeckers). The trees
dominant in the area are Syzygium cumini, Holigarna
arnottiana. Terminalia tomentosa and the river bank
species Calophyllum apelalum and Hopea weightiana.
(B) The Kabnali Forest Reserve
It is nearly 2.013.140 acres of open scrub land mixed
with cultivated land, between the Khanapur-Jamboti road
and Mahadayi River basin, with hamlets like Dhangarwada.
Kokanwada. Kabnali. Kirwale etc.. looks denuded. Apart of
the river Malaprabha flows through this area. It lies at an
altitude of 1986 feet (msl). This area was surveyed on 24th
and 25th April 1993. Large flocks of Redwhiskered Bulbul
and small number of Redvented Bulbuls were seen. At
lower levels in scattered bushes Whitespotted Fantail
Flycatcher, lora. Magpie Robin and Bush Chat were seen
moving with the Bulbuls. Other birds which we observed in
the open scrub were Thickbilled Flowerpecker, Bush
Warbler. Small Minivet. Cuckoo-Shrike and a couple of
Spotted Doves. From the border of the private lands of
Kanakapura a secondary growth of underwood trees mixed
with scrub and grass-forest begins where. Tckell's Blue
Flycatcher was sighted. Hornbills were seen on trees along
the forest edge at Rangarook and Jungle Babblers in large
Zizyphus bush. We saw a Whitecheeked Bulbul perched
on a twig behind the tree Dillenia pentagyna.
(C) Gavali Forest Reserve
It is situated at an altitude of 2040 feet (msl) in the
upper basin of Mahadayi. Much of its eastern area facing
the Khanapur Jamboti is bamboo, but. the core area along
the river side has thick vegetation of Diospryos montana.
Holigarna amottinana, Syzygium cumini. Terminalia
chebula. T.peniculata and Careya arborea and other
evergreen species. On the 28th and 29th April 1993, we
recorded Redwhiskered Bulbul. Black Bulbul.
Rubythroated Yellow Bulbul, Purple Sunbird. Thickbilled
Flowerpecker, Yellow Tit. Shama. Blackbird, Racket-tailed
Drongo, Heartspotted Woodpecker. Large Green Barbet,
Malabar Grey Hombitl, Laughing Thrush and others.
Towards Khanapur -An mode road the terrain is gradually
elevated and is filled with Zizyphus scrub and clumps of
bamboo. Few, under wood trees were also present adding
(E) The Talewadi-Hemmadaga Forest Reserve
It is 4080 acres and is located at an altitude of 2055 feet
(msl) in the southern region of Mahadayi Valley in
Khanapur Taluk. Being very close to the border of North
Canara Division the bird fauna of that two regions namely
Belgaum and Castle-rock overlap here. From conservation
point of view the spot is important. This area was visited
and surveyed on the 17th and 18th of May 1993. All the
important bird families such as. Turdidae (thrush),
Timalidae (babbler), Campephagidae (cuckoo -shrike).
Muscicapidae (flycatcher), Dhaedae (flowerpecker),
Irenidae (lealbird). Picidae (woodpecker). Columbidae
(dove), Nectahnidae (sunbird) and even common bird
families like Pycnonotidae (bulbul). Sturnidae (myna) were
found. Impressed with such rich diversity of birds in the
reserve we could not resist going there again for the
•econd time on the 26th and 27th May 1993.
Conservation outlook
The main pressure affecting the bird population in the
area is hunting especially doves, peafowl, junglefowl and
hornbill in kabnali and other adjoining areas of Londa and
Khanapur. Grazing and habitat destruction along forest
edges continue. In one of the compartments of
Hemmadaga-Londa area we saw cattle grazing almost in
the core area of the jungle. The 20 km width belt of forest in
the western region of Khanapur is the only area in Belgaum
District that still looks pristine. The practice of cutting down
mature and dried up trees in certain areas of
Talewadi-Hemmadaga continues. In the interest of birds
like woodpecker, barbet and parakeet which nest in the
holes of such dried tree they should not be cut at all. Much
cause for concern is the recently proposed hydroelectric
project in the Valley. It will engulf all the forests over an
area of more than 2 km 2 near Krishnapura. Gavali and
Talewadi. By any means, it cannot be recreated. Loss of
these habitats will further severely affect altitudinal
migrants during winter. Warblers are a group of birds which
prefer to move to the southern tropes during winter
4a
season. This and other reasons enumerated above very
well justify cancellation of the dam to be buitt in the valley.
There is a need to increase research activities on florist*;
composition and protection efforts including plantation
schemes.
Effect of Hydro-electric Project in Mahadayi Valley
Ecologically, wild species in nature are inseparably
interlinked with their environment. They cannot be
separated without being damaged or destroyed.
Particularly trees cannot be handed over to axes or left to
the mercy of the engulfing water heights. Nearly one lakh
hectares of forest area in Western Ghats has been already
consumed and along with it a large size of wildlife habitat
by way of mines and power projects. Now eyes are on to
Mahadayi Valley. The plan is to produce 300 megawatts of
electricity by spending nearty Rs.325 crores. This will take
away more than 330 hectares of forest area. It will turn info
a small town. Further about 2000 hectares will vanish for
human habitation. This will naturally lead to severe
ecological imbalance in Malnad Districts. Hence the
proposed project should be abandoned in the interest of
promoting research, education and wildlife study for future
generation.
Conclusions
Being ecologically a sound component of the natural
system, the hydro-power project proposed should be
cancelled to avert the impending disaster to the evergreen
forest bbtopes of Mahadayi. More conservation -
education programmes be organised and implemented to
curt) illegal hunting.The Khanapur-Anmode 30 km road
should be closed for heavy traffic vehioles. The manganese
mining contract be not extended after it terminates in 1995.
Cattle grazing should be controlled through effective
measures. Aging and dried up trees should be preserved.
Cattle breeders should be asked to live outside the reserve
areas. Improvements and conversion of roads should also
be stopped. More fruit trees should be included in
plantation schemes.
The entire piece of Forest land with a width of nearly 20
km in the west of Khanapur Taluk with road boundaries
such as Jamboti -Khanapur road in the north;
Khanapur-Anmode road to the east of Mahadayi;
Khanapur-Gunji-Londa road to its further east and the
Londa-Anmode road touching the border line of North-
Canara Division be declared a Sanctuary.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to the OBC for their survey grants
which made this study possible. I am also grateful to Sri.
AN. Yellappa Reddy. Special Secretary. Govt, of
Karnataka. Dept. of Ecology & Environment for sharing his
knowledge on conservation outlook. I also thank Profs.
Hegde.G.R. & Shivatingaradhya of the Karnataka
University for their plant identification; and Sri. Hagargi.
NT. for his photography. Specially my thanks are due to
the entire staff of Forest Depts. of Dharwad and Bekjaum,
the D.C.Fs; A.C.Fs; and the R.F.Os of Londa and Khanapur
ranges for their kind co-operation and assistance rendered
from time to time during the entire survey.
Appendix 1
Annotated checklist of birds seen In the forest reserves of Mahadayi Valley
In Western Ghats April & May 1993
SPECIES
ABUNDANCE
B C
ALTITUDE HABITAT
(FEET)
D
1.
Common Myna
Acridotherus trystis
5
2.
Brahmny Myna
Stemus pagodarum
1
3.
Greyheaded Myna
Sturnus pagodarum
1
4
Jungle Myna
Acridotheres fuscus
3
5.
Red vented Bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer
2
6.
Redwhiskered Bulbul
Pycnonotus jocosus
3
7.
Whitecheeked Bulbul
Pycnonotus leucogenys
-
e.
Blackbubul
Hypsipetes madaga-
/
9.
Yellowbrowed Bulbul
Hysipetes indicus
-
10.
Rubythroated Yellow Bulbul
Pycnonotus melanicterus
-
2
2
6
15
50
-
400-2000
f. c,e
1
500-2040
f. c
1
1995-2055
c
5
1995-2055
b,c-
3
400-2000
a.d..f
4
1995-2050
d. b
1
2055
b.
2
1995-2055
a. b
1
2050
-
2040
b.
49
11. Whitebrowed Bulbul
Pycnonotus luteolus
1 2. Litllespider Hunter
Archnothera longiro-ttris
13. White-Eye -
Zosterops palpebrosa
14 Purple Sunbird
Noctarina asiatica
15 Small Sunbitd
Noctarina minima
16 Purplerumped Sunbird
Nectarina zeylonca
1 7 Thickbilled Flowerpecker
Dicaeum agile
1 8 Tickell's Flowerpecker
Dicaem erythrorhyncus
19 Nilgiri Flowerpecker
Dicaeum concohr
20 Yellow Waglail
Motacilla llava
21 Velvetfronted Nuthatch
Silta frontalis
22 Spotted Grey creeper
Salpornis spilonotus
23 Grey til
Parus major
24 Southern Yellowcheeked Tit
Parus xanthogenys
25 Pied Bushchat
Saxicola caprata
26 Magpie Robin
Copsychus saularis
27 Shama
Copsychus malabaricus
28 Malabar Whistling Thrush
Myiophoneus horsefieldii
29 Whitethroated Ground Thrush
Zoothera citrina
30 Blackcapped Black Bird
Turdus morula
31 Smallbilled Mountain Thrush
Zoothera dauma
32 Tickell's Blue Flycatcher
Musicapa tickelliae
33 Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher
Musicapa Albicaudata
34 Black and Rufous Flycatcher
Musicapa nigrorufa
35 Whitebellied Blue Flycatcher
Musicapa pattipes
36 Paradise Flycatcher
Terpsiphone paradisi
37 Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher
Rhipidura albicolis
38 Blacknapped Monarch Flycatcher
Monarcha azurea
39 Common lora
Agethina tiphia
-
1986
c.
1
2055
b.d.
6
1995-2055
f.b
2
500-2000
e,f
2
2055
b.
1
1995-2055
e.l.
2
500-2000
b.c.d.e
1
1995-1986
b.c
4
2055
b.
-
1995
c.
1
1995-2055
a.b .
1
2055
b.
2
1900-2000
b. c. f.
2
1800-2050
e.f,
2
1980-2010
e.f.
2
1900-2000
d.f.
1
2055
b.c.d
-
500-1000
a.
1
2055
b.d.
•
2040
a.b,
-
2040
b.
2
1900-2000
d, b.
1
1995
c.a,
1
1900-2000
a.b.
1
2055
b.c.
2
1995-2055
d,
1
1995-2055
a.b.f
1
2055
a
4
500-2000
b.c!
50
GMftomad Chloropsis
OMamttrt aurifrons
2
-
jwdon's cMoropsis
Qtoqpss cochin-chinensis
-
FwnBtMtxrd
*mpm i
-
SmadUnvel
f^muocotus cinamomeus
1
ScarW Minivel
^mnevcotus flamm&us
-
■ ■■bulbed Minivel
fleacrocoft/s erythropygius
-
Lanjs Cuckoo Shrike
ft*!!" 1 !? novaehollandae
1
MMn Cuckoo
Ckoananf'S passerinus
-
Cbnmon Hawk Cuckoo
Cacubs var/us
-
Common Indian Cuckoo
Gemfcis micro ptervs
1
SeoVheaded Cuckoo Shrike
Ccraona melanoptera
-
«oeJ
Eadynamis scobpacea
1
House Crow
Corvid splendens
1
JonoJeCrow
Gcrrus macrorhyncbs
■
Mice Bellied Tree Pie
Qmtdnxitta leucogaslra
1
Southern Large Racket
Med Drongo
Cterus paradis&us
•
-
Black Drongo
. s macrocercus
-
1
neec rested Drongo
Dourus holteniotus
-
-
■fctjiloJ Swallow
liejnda smiihii
2
-
tested Tree Swifl
ffceeprocne longipennis
-
-
GneSen Oriole
O&us onb/us
3
1
- Indian
Back-Headed Oriole
Oea4.3 wanthomus
•
-
•fcnrtspotted Woodpecker
H»ne»cus canento
1
-
^tow-Fronted
*ad Woodpecker
n»des mahrattensis
1
1
Umr GoWenbacked
Oecpurn benghalens
1
-
VMe Breasted
Stack Woodpecker
Of m 1 1 ii 1 1 javensis
-
1
ftjfaws Woodpecker
Ml »| ri 1 1 1 1 1 • brachyurus
1
-
Owwen-Sreasted Barbet
3
1995-2055
a. b,c
-
2050
a.b
2
1995
a,b
3
1995-2000
b,c,f
2
2000
b, c. d, f
1
1995
d
1
1980-2000
b, c
-
2000
a.b
1
2055
a. d
1
500-2000
a.b.c
1
1995
b.c
-
1995
b.1
1
1980-2000
f. e, g
1
2040
etb
2
1980-2055
b,c
1
2040-2050
a. b, d
1
1000-2000
d.b
1
2055
d
-
1995
g
1
2055
b
4
2000
b. c.d
1
2055
b
2
1900-2000
a.b
1 2040-2055 a, b
1 2055
a.b
1 1995-2050 a.b
2055 a
51
Megalaima haemacephala
2 3 1
10
2
500-2000
a. b, c. f
68.
Large Green Barbel
Mogalaima zeylanica
2 2 1
1
3
2000-2055
a. b, c, f
69.
Malabar Grey Hornbill
Tocus griseus
1 1
-
-
1
500-2000
b.c
70.
Common Grey Hornbill
Tocus birostris
2
1
3
4
500-2000
b.cf
71.
Indian Greal Pied Hornbill
Buceros bicornis
1 ;
-
2
1
500-2000
a.b
72.
White-Breasted
King Fisher
Halcyon smyrnensis fusca
1 1
-
1
•
1995-2055
b.g
73.
Stork -Billed Kingfisher
Pelargopsis capensis
i
-
-
1
2000
a,b
74
Indian Roller
Coracias benghalensis
-
-
-
1
2055
d,e
75
Rufous- Backed Shrike
Lenius schach erythronotus
-
•
■
1
2055
d
76.
Southern Crow Pheasant
Centropus sinensis
•
1
•
1
1980
b.e.f
77.
Southern Blossom-
Headed Parakeet
Psittacula cynocepha
2
-
-
5
500-2000
b.cf
78.
Roseringed Parakeet
Psittacula kremeri
2 :
2
-
1
1900-2000
b,f
79.
Indian Lorikeet
Loriculus vemalis
2
-
1
-
1995
a,b,f
80.
Alexandrine Parakeet
Psittacula eupatrica
-
-
1
1
1900-2000
b.c.1
81.
Western Turtle Dove
Slreptopalia orientalis
1
•
1
•
1995
c.f
82.
Roufous Turtle Dove
•
Streptopelia sp.
2
1
1
2
1986-2000
d.cf
83.
Spotted Dove
Streptopelia chinensis
1 '
1
1
2
500-2000
b.d,f
84.
Greyfronted Green Pigeon
Treron pompadora affinis
5 !
\
-
-
1986-1995
b.f
85.
Maroon Backed
Imeprial Pigeon
Ducula badia
1
•
1
-
1996-2000
a,b,f
86.
Nikjtri Wood Pigeon
Columba elphinstoni
2
-
1
-
2055
a.h
87.
Emerald Dove
Chalcophaps indica
2
•
1
1
1995
a.b
88.
Indian Pea Fowl
Pavo cristatus
2
-
-
1
2000
a.b
89.
Grey Jungle Fowl
Gallus sonneratii
■
1
1
2
1995
b.d
90
Red Spur Fowl
Galbperdix spadicea
-
-
-
2
2055
d
91.
Barn Owl
Tyto alba
•
•
•
1
2055
c
92.
Nightjar
Caprimulgus asiaticus
-
1
-
1
2055
b.d
93.
Brown Wood Owl
Strix leptogrammica
-
1
-
2000
b
94.
Wynaad Laughing Thrush
Garrulax delesserti
1
-
1
-
1900-2000
a.b
95.
Roufous Babbler
52
Turdoides subrufus
96. Whiteheads Babbler
Turdoides affinis
97. Jungle BabWer
Turdoides striatus
98. Scimrtar Babbler
Pomatorhinus schisticeps
99. Blackheaded Babbler
Rhopocichla atriceps
100. Chestnutheaded Bee-Ealer
Merops leschenaulti
101. Green Bee-Eater
Merops oriental's
102. Bluebearded Bee-Eater
Nyctyomis athertoni
103. Southern Trogen
Harpacles fasciatus
104. Wren Warbler
Prinia socialis
105. Hoopoe
Upupa epops
106. Cattle Egret
Bubulcus ibis
107. Pond Heron
Ardeola grayii
108. Whitenecked Stork
Ciconia episcopus
109. White breasted Water-hen
Amaurornis phoenicurcus
1 1 0. Redwatt led Lapwing
Venellus indicus
111. Black Eagle
letinaetus malayensis
112. Pariah Kite
Milvus migrans
Forest Reserves Codes
A-CHAPOLI:(Chapoli. Jamboti. Amgaon, Chigale.
Kapoli & part of Kanakumbi localities)
B-KABNALI: (Kabnali, Kirawale. Dhangar. Rangarook.
Dongarwadi, Manlurga, and roadside localities between
Jamboti and Khanapur)
C-GAVALI:(Gavali. Pasoli. Hanbarga. Rawatwad.
Shiroli, Tipoli & Gunji localities)
D-KRISHNAPURA: (Krishnapura, Bhimgad. Jamaon,
Abnal, Dongargaon & other localities towards Gunji &
Londa)
E-TALEWADI: (Talewadi. Parli, Devgaon, Hemmadaga,
Hambarwadi & other roadside localities between Londa &
Anmode)
5
6
7
1995-2055
b, c. d. 1
-
-
6
2050
f
5
-
-
1986
b.d
•
4
3
1900-2000
a.b
-
-
4
1995-2055
a, b.d
-
-
2
1900-2000
b.d
2
3
1
1986-2000
b.d.f
-
1 1
-
2040
a.b
-
1 2
•
2040
a.b
1
1
■
500-2000
e.f
2
-
•
1980
e.f
3
2
-
2055
d. e
-
1
1900-2000
9
10
•
-
1986
e
•
2
2055
g
-
1
2055
e
-
1
2050
h
-
.
1986
h
Habitat codes
a - Primary forest (Bankside); b - Secondary forest; c -
Forest edge; d - Zizyphus/8amboo scrub; e - Agricultural/
Deforested area; f - Roadside trees; g - Waterbody (river);
h - Aerial
SITE CODE: 15°41' & 15°30' S. longitude & 74 D 8' East
latitude., ALTITUDE
Note : The bird species listed above were identified
both from their distinct calls from viewing through a pair of
binoculars (8 x40 ). The bird list is also the first ever to be
recorded from the Reserve Forests of Mahadayi River
Valley within civil limits of Khanpur Taluk. District Belgaum.
Western Ghats (India). A few birds photographed in their
natural habitats are appended.
53
Map ol India
Showing Karnakarta Stale Boundaries
3
5-1
Density of Water Birds at Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
C. Venkatraman and S. Muthukrishnan
Department of Zoology. Presidency College
Madras 600 005
on
A ro.gh a considerable amount of wetland research
*e*acs in India, majority of the reports are on selected
-«*l known sites (Wolstencroft et at, 1989).
•hangal water bird sanctuary has been existing
Irom 1936; but very lew scientific studies have
conducted here. Observations of Spillet (1966) is the
r available detailed account about the sanctuary.
^ ■ VJ m (1956). Krishnan (1961), Aslam (1966). Badran
Saldana (1976) and Santharam and Menon (1991)
•■••all made interesting observations.
The density and diversity of water birds are influenced
'ail. temperature, humidity and cloudiness (Custer
anc Osborne, 1977; Goss-custard, 1985; Teylor and
•efeox. 1985 and Briggs and Holmes. 1988). Rainfall has
yeaf influence on the Magpie Geese population (Baylis,
VM91 and cold weather causes many fowls to leave
■stands (Salmen, 1988). Water depth is reported to
*«nce the population of migratory water birds (Sayre,
WM: Poysa, 1989 and Vijayan. 1990).
Hence, ihe present work was undertaken to study the
_JMf bird population in relation to rainfall, temperature,
taenidity and water level of the lake in the Vedanthangal
'd sanctuary.
Material and Methods
Sudy Area
Vedanthangal is situated about 50 km to the South-West
* Madras and is 120 m above mean sea level. It is about
SO luns inland from the Bay of Bengal and receives about
ID of rainfall per year; mostly from the North-East
■onsoon between October and December. The lake
comprises an area of 30 hectares (Fig.3). A long bund
along the western side impounds the water and is bordered
Of agricultural lands. Apart Irom the huge Maduranthagam
■link, there are about 60-70 smaller tanks scattered
•round this sanctuary. Four small canals feed the
idanthangal tank. Thirteen species of birds nest in this
(Table 1) on Barringtonia acutangula groves in the
beds. They become submerged when tank fills up.
leaving only the top branches exposed. Originally this tank
■as 550 Barringtonia trees (Krishnan, 1961). The Tamil
Xadu Forest Department planted Accacia nihtica and now
taw* are more than 5000 trees (Paulraj, 1 984).
The present work was conducted from October 1992 to
Aori. 1993. The climatic data were collected from the
aafleorological station at Maduranthagam (Table 2).
A watch tower on the top of a bund was the main
censusing station. A pair of binoculars (10 x 80) mounted
=r a stand was used. Counts were made by slowly
■canning the colony from one end to the other. The count of
birds returning to roost in late evening was done using the
block method (Howes and Bakewell, 1989).
Results and Discussion
The climatic and hydrographic data and the number of
birds found during the study penod are given in Fig.1. The
delayed North- East monsoons started in November, 1992
and gradually filled the tank. The arrival of birds started in
late October and attained peak at February, 1993. When
the water level became low during April, 1 993 almost all the
birds left the sanctuary. Significant correlation (r-0.8217)
was obtained between the water level and the bird
population. Other climatic factors viz., temperature
(r«-0.620 for maximum and -0.976 for minimum), rainfall
(r*- 0.2675) were negatively correlated with bird
population. The peak observed during January and
February. 1993 was due to the continuous arrival and
breeding of birds. In the consecutive months the population
declined with the reduced level of water. Linear regression
analysis showed a clear picture of the relationship between
water level and bird population (Fig.2). Availability of
suitable nesting sites, dispersal pattern of the young,
differential rate of fledgling survival and changes in the
environmental condition also influence the species number
as observed by Santharam and Menon. (1991).
Cormorants and Grey Herons arrived earlier at this
sanctuary and they accounted for 75.56% and 24.44% of
the total bird population during October 1992. This
composition was altered by the arrival of more Cormorants
during November 1992. During December, the Cattle Egret
composition reached its peak (53.78%) and the next
dominant was Cormorant (32.74%) During January and
February 1993, these two species were predominant and
Grey Heron. Openbilled Stork, White Ibis, Cormorants were
in smaller proportions. Remarkably almost all the Cattle
Egrets left this sanctuary during March 1993 and the
dominant ones were Cormorants and While Ibis. Dabchick
composition increased remarkably during April, 1993 but
the Cormorants were still dominant (Table 3).
Except a few species, almost all the birds bred during
this season (Table 1 ). The Grey Pelicans, which are not
regular visitors of the sanctuary began nesting in fairly
good numbers. Unfortunately, when the water level
became lower they left Ihe eggs and flew to favourable
places. Out of 5 pairs of Painted only one succeeded in
breeding. Similar observations were made by Santharam
and Menon (1991) for 1990. Cattle Egret does not breed in
this sanctuary during this season. But Krishnan (1961)
recorded that some negligible proportion breed, and further
reported that they use this sanctuary mainly to roost. The
present work and earlier observations (Santharam, 1987,
1988, 1989 and Santharam and Menon, 1991) indicated
that the Cattle Egret was a winter visitor to the sanctuary
and their movements are regulated by monsoons.
Observations on the cormorants indicated that they are the
55
good breeders here as they are present throughout. Earlier
reports mentioned that Little Egrets are the most numerous
nesting birds ot this sanctuary (Krishnan, 1961 and Spiltet.
1966). Now they are on the decline. During the present
study, a second clutch ol Oponbilled Stork was observed,
but it failed to hatch due to low water level and poaching.
Conservation Problems and Suggestion
Recent changes in the land use and crop growing
patterns in the neighbourhood ol Vedanthangal are
noteworthy. Several fields adjacent to the tank have been
left fallow. In others crops like Paddy and sugarcane, have
given way to crops such as groundnut. This may restrict the
foraging habitat available for shallow feeders such as
Egrets. White Ibis. etc. As pointed by Krishnan (1961,
1978) and Spillet (1966). birds of Vedanthangal greatly
depend on the nearby wetlands. paddyfiekJs and
scrubjungles. Mere protection given at the nesting site
alone cannot ensure conservation of the heronry.
Although this is called "Vedanthangal water bird
sanctuary', it does not come under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 section 18. Fishing, grazing and bird hunting in
the sanctuary by local people are frequent. Paulraj (1984)
opined that stern action could not be taken against the
misusers by the Forest Department as this lake does not
belong to them. The lake and canals should be deepened
every year to impound sufficient water. Provision of a dry
stone wall around the entire sanctuary may protect it from
cattle grazing.
References
Aslam, S.M.A., 1966. Working plan for Chingleput Division
1 966-75, pp.68-71.
Badran. C.A.R.. 1961. Vedanthangal Water-bird sanctuary
(In Tamil). Booklet published by Tamil Nadu Forest
Department, pp.29.
Baylis. P.. 1989. Population dyunamics ot magpie geese in
relation to rainfall and density: Implications for harvest
models in fluctuating environment. J. Appl. Ecology, 26 :
913-924.
Briggs. S.V.. and J.E. Holmes. 1 988. Bag size of water fowl
research in New Southwales and their relation to
antecedent rainfall. Australian Wild Life Research, 15 :
459-468.
Custer. T.W. and R.G. Osborne. 1977. Wading birds as
biological indicators: 1975 Colony survey. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Washington. D.C.
Goss-Custard. J.D.. 1985. Foraging behaviour of wading
birds and the carrying capacity of estuaries. In:
Behavioural ecology: Ecological Consequences ot
adaptive behaviour (Eds. R.M. SibJy and R.H. Smith).
Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford, pp.169-188.
Howes. John and D. Bakewell, 1989. Shore bird studies
manual AWB Publication No.55. Kuala Lumpur, pp.362.
Krishnan. M., 1961. Vedanthangal water bird sanctuary.
Tamil Nadu Forest Department. Publication, pp.29 (In
Tamil).
Krishnan, M.. 1978. The availability of nesting material and
nesting sites as vital factors in the gregarious breeding
ol Indian Waterbirds. J 8om.Nat.Hist. Soc.„ 75:
1143-1152.
Paulraj, S. 1984. Studies on Vedanthangal bird sanctuary.
Project Report Final Part, pp.132.
Poysa. H. 1989. Effects of grouping on foraging
exploitation and dynamics in dabbling ducks, pp.30. In:
Proc. ot 8th Int. Waterfowl Feeding , Ecology
Symposium, Rbe. Denmark. 18-21. September 1989.
pp.48.
Saldana. A. 1976. Working plan for the Chingleput Forest
Division. Tamil Nadu Forest Department, parts 78 to 88.
Salmon, D.G. 1988. Wildfowl counts in the U.K. Wildfowl
39:155-163.
Santharam, V. 1987. The pond heron — its local
movements. Newsletters for bird watchers, XXVIII (9 &
10): 4-6.
Santharam, V. 1988. Further notes on the local movements
of the pond Heron. Ibid, XXVIII (1&2) : 8-9.
Santharam. V. 1989. More on the local movements of
cattle egrets and pond heron. toid.XXIX (1&2) : 8.
Santharam. V. and R.K.G. Menon.. 1991. Some
observation on the waterbird populations ol the
Vedanthangal bird sanctuary. Ibid, XXXI (11&12) : 6-8.
Sayre. W.M. and W.D. Rindle.. 1984. Comparison ot
habitat use by migrant sores and Virginia rails. J. Wild.
Manage. 48(2) : 599-605.
Spillet. J.J. 1966. A report on wildlife survey in South and
West India. J. Bom.Nat.Hist.Soc.., 65 (3) : 633-663.
Teylor, J.A and D. Tullock. 1985. Rainfall in the wet-dry
tropics. Extreme events at Darvin and similarities
between years during the period 1870-1973 —
inclusive Australian Journal of Ecology, 10 : 281-295.
Thangam, E.S. 1956. Working plan for Chingleput Forest
Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department, page 65 to 74.
Vijayan. V.S.. V. Lalitha. V. Sridharan, N.K. Ramachandran,
S. Bhupathy and C. Sivasubramanian. 1990.
Comparative abundance of waterfowl in Keoladeo
National Park, pp.115. In: Proc. of Seminaron Wetland
Ecology and Management BNHS Keoladeo Bharapud
23-25, Feb. 1990, pp.154.
Wolstencroft, A.J., S.A. Hussain and C.K. Varshney. 1989.
A Directory of Asian wetlands, IUCN. pp.367-505.
Table 1 : A list of breeding waterbirds of Vedanthangal
Common Name
Scientific Name
Little Egret,
Smaller (Medium)
Large Egret.
Grey Heron,
Pond Heron,
Little Cormorant,
Large Cormorant.
Darter.
White Ibis.
Spoonbill.
Spottedbilled or
Grey Pelican.
Painted Stork,
Openbilled Stork,
Egretta garzetta
Egret. E. intermedia
Ardea alba
Nycticorax nycticorax
Ardeola grayii
Phalacrocorax niger
Phalacrocorax carco
Anhinga rufa
Threskiornis aethiopica
Platalea leucordia
Pelicans philippensis
Mycteria leucocephala
Anastomus oscitans
56
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57
Table 3 : Percentage Composition of various birds during the study period
B.rd
es
Month
Spec
October
Novemoer
December
J.mu.iry
hebruary
March
April
GH
24.44
06.10
02.21
1.81
1.25
00.68
10.00
OBS
-
-
01.76
4.29
5.12
07.36
-
WI
-
-
05.96
3.99
4.01
31.82
19.09
Gl
-
-
00.84
0.53
0.43
-
—
SB
—
—
01.62
1.32
1.12
0.35
_
C
75.56
71.60
32.74
43.07
47.04
59.35
41.62
CE
-
22.00
53.78
44.99
39.01
—
—
P
-
—
01.06
—
—
—
—
D
-
-
00.02
-
—
—
29.09
PS
-
-
-
—
0.12
0.03
-
GP
-
-
-
-
1.76
0.07
-
DR
-
-
-
-
0.14
0.34
-
GH
- Grey Heron
OBS-
Openbilled Stork
WI- While
Ibis
Gl
- Glossy Ibis
SB -
Spoonbill
C - Cormorant GE
-Cattle Egret
P
- Pintail
D -
Dabchick
PS - Painted Stork
GP
- Grey Pelican
DR -
Darter
Fig. 1 : Climatic taciors and bird popuialon in ihe Vedarflhangal Bifd Sartcluan/
TOW. BAl»**U 1*«N
ffl#EBATlfl( C(M*|
rtuf n»T\»E C (*%■ J
»»TTH lEvEl mi
REV»jrvE ■•Ala'*' (%»
NO. C* B«D9 (N rXKOAHCO!
N D .' f U A
tCNTHS SCO
58
Fig 2 Regression oi Bird Popuiaiion
VS water Level
No. of birds in Thousands
10 r*
8
1.0 2.4
Water level (m.)
r -0.821. a- -1450, (?- 2407. n - 8
2 8
34
Fig. 3 : Vedanthangal Sancluary Tank
Distribution ot trees and grouping ot birds
4-
'J' w r
9* r °° r J Q F s /«
LEGEND
o-o survey line
Q=£ bund
water spread area
central core
HUM Acacia trees
I : Bamngtonia trees
e : Egrets
C ; Cormorants
n : Night+Herons
g: Grey Herons
o : Openbitled Stork
5 : Spoonbills
w: White Ibis
p; Pelicans
scale : J mm = 3690 mm Tank area 29 5 Hoc
60
Decline of Green Pigeon Treron phoenicopters in Coorg District
in the Last Three Decades
B. B. Bopalah
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore 560 089
/"^reen Pigeons are local migrants to the Malnad areas
^-^during the post monsoon season (September-
October). They come in small flocks and congregate on
large fruit-bearing trees like the Ficus sp. Their abundance
in the last three decades are given in Table 1. This clearly
shows that the Green Pigeons have become a very
threatened bird in Coorg; the main reason being
indiscriminate shooting, as their flesh is very tasty.
The game is believed to have started in the later part of
the last century by the British coffee planters who had
thousands of acres of coffee plantation, lot of leisure and
plenty of guns and ammunition. They later started
supplying the guns and cartridges to their butlers who used
to shoot the poor creatures in mass, cook and serve as a
prestigious delicacy. Gradually the locals picked up the
taste and the merciless killing continued with the availability
of improved guns and cartridges. One can still hear some
people boast about shooting down 10-12 or more birds in a
single shot (mostly from 12 bore guns with cartridges
loaded with chilled shots).
Observation behaviour pattern (Table 2) have shown
thai Green Pigeon after feeding on fruits tend to bask on
exposed trees, thus making them vulnerable to hunters.
Table 1 : Pigeon Depletion In Coorg
Decade
1961-70
Abundance
Very Abundant
>200 pigeons
/Ficus tree
1971-80 <1QG/Ficustrti
1061-02
Between 10 and
20/ Ficus tree
Remarks
Post British era:
Land less fragmented.
Effect of shooting
less fett
Land fragmentation.
Felling of trees
in plantation areas.
Easy availability of
ammunition.
High fragmentation
of land. High exploitation
of wild fruiting trees.
Mors number of hunters.
Exploitation of the bird flesh through hunting has increased
over the last three decades as given in Table 1. due to land
fragmentation (thus increasing the number of unit hunting
areas), improved ammunition and high population
(consequently more number of hunters). As a result Green
Pigeons are a threatened species here.
Today one can hardly see a flock of even ten and
seldom hear the pleasing whistle from their flute like voice.
An environment conscious visitor to the Western Ghats
certainly miss, these whistling visitors. It is urged through
this paper that shooting of Green Pigeons be banned,
otherwise this pigeon may also go the way of Passenger
Pigeon.
Table 2: Behaviour pattern of Green Pigeon
BStWMfl
0630-08.00 a.m. Arrival to the
foraging tree in
Behaviour panern Remarks
08.00-09.00 a.m,
small flocks,
from the roost
Active foraging
(if left undisturbed)
09.00-10.00 a.m. Move to bare lofty
trees after feeding,
in ones and twos;
utters whistling call.
and cleans the
beak and feathers;
basking in the interm
ittent morning sun, of
the monsoon
10.00-£3.00p.m. Fly to dense forest
canopies
03.00-06.00 p.m. Arrival to foraging
tree and basking
After 06.00 p.m.
in sun (evening);
the morning
sequence repeated.
Here arrival is
preceded by a
few birds first
(scouts?)
Roosting
Whistling and
call seldom
heard
Difficult to locate
due to high
obliteration
among foliage.
Most vulnerable
to shooting, as
they are exposed.
Seems to enjoy
mild drizzle at
this post-feeding
phase.
Difficult to locate,
except by the
typical spiral
droppings on
ground below
Again vulnerable
to shooting,
but few birds
on alert
Occurs very
silently and
difficult to locate
61
Preliminary Study on Ecology of Aquatic Birds in Chilika Lake, Orissa
S.K. Kar 1 and H.K. Sahu 2
1 Research Officer (Wildlife). Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa
7-Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar
2 Junior Research Fellow. Forest (Wildlife) Camp. Krushna Prasad Garh. Parikud. Puri 750 032
Introduction
Chilika lake in Orissa. covers 1100 sq km and is the
largest brackish water wetland in the country. The
Ramsar convention. 1971 notified Chilika lake as one of
the intern ationally important wetlands. The Chilika lake is
connected to the Bay of Bengal at its North-east through a
narrow opening and subjected to minor tidal fluctuations. It
receives fresh water from the major rivers like Daya and
Bhargavi and several small local streams. The total area of
the wetland was declared as a closed area under Orissa
Forest shooting rules during 1973. Since December, 1987
the Nalaban island which is one of the most potential
submerged islands, covering 15.53 sq km has been
declared a Wildlife sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act. 1972. This wetland abounds with a variety of aquatic
flora (Adhikary and Sahu. 1991 and 1992; Patnaik. 1973)
and fauna (Annandale. 1915; Sarma et a/., 1980; Patnaik,
1986; Rao. 1987; Murthy. 1987; Murthy and Rama Rao.
1989; Directorate of Fisheries. 1970) including 150 species
of migratory birds (Dev, 1992; Hussain. 1988; Khachar.
1966; Kar. 1992).
Material and Methods
Till now. no detail systematic study has been carried out
on the avifauna of Chilika lake. A research project on the
"Ecology of aquatic birds in Chilika lake" has been
implemented since November. 1992 by the Wildlife Wing.
Forest Department. Government of Orissa with financial
assistance from Government of India.
Results and Discussion
Study conducted during the last migration season
indicated that above 0.6 million migratory birds visited this
wetland. Majority of migratory birds included Anseriformes.
Gruiformes, Charadrirformes. Cconiiformes. Pelecani-
formes. Podicipitiformes. Falconiformes and Coraciiformes.
Due to the huge congregation of aquatic birds in this area.
special emphasis was given to collect data from the
Nalaban Sanctuary (15.53 sq.km. area) and its peripheral
areas. Aim of the present report is to give preliminary
account of the status, composition, distribution, food and
feeding, activities and migration pattern etc. of the aquatic
birds in the Chilika lake. It also emphasize that there is
need to undertake intensive study on the ecological inter-
relationship between physico-chemical properties of water,
silt deposit, floral and faunal composition and above all the
'socio- economic' problems to preserve its rich biodiversity.
The present study was conducted between November
1992 and March. 1993.
Physical Characteristics
During rainy season Nalban island gets submerged,
with average depth of 1 .5-2.2 m of water. Then, in winter
water level ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 m. There was no rainfall
in the area from November to February. During the end of
March there was little rains amounting to 0.5 cm.
During the study period, the maximum air temperature
recorded, ranged from 21 "C to 34'C and the minimum
ranges from 18'C to 25'C. The water temperature ranges
from 18*C to 27*C. The relative humidity ranges from 75%
to 82.2%.
Chemical Parameters
Since Chilika is a brackish water lake, the salinity varies
in various months. In the intensive study area the salinity
varied from 1 .0 ppt to 7.8 ppt. In other areas of the lake the
maximum salinity was 7.9 PPT and the minimum was 1.4
PPT during this period.
The chemical analysis of water for testing other
important parameters is yet to be started for this project.
Biological Parameters :
Microphytes - 7 species of major aquatic macrophytes
have been identified from the Nalaban area which
comprises of floating forms, submerged forms and
emergent vegetation.
Several algal forms like Gracilaria lichenoides. Chara
sps. and other submerged forms like Potamogeton
pectinatus. Naja faveolata and Hydrilla verticillata form the
major food of migratory water fowl.
Microinvertebrate
Molluscs were the common macro invertebrates
observed in the mud as well as in the weed samples.
Arthopods and Annelids were also found in both the
samples but in lesser numbers.
Fishes and herpetofauna
By periodical collections and by occasional
observations the different species of fishes, amphibians
and reptiles were recorded.
Ecology Of Aquatic Birds
In this study major emphasis was given on the aquatic
birds and particular importance is given to the waterfowl
species of Anatidae and Rallidae which formed the major
62
winter visitors. A brief account of orderwise population of
aquatic birds during these months is given in Table I.
The order — Anseriformes formed 68.67% of the total
population followed by Gruiformes (13.48%).
Pelecaniformes (0.81%), Podicipediformes (0.05%).
Falconiformes (0.03%) and Coraciiformes (0.01%).
During the study period the habitat types of the birds of
Chilka has been broadly classified into the following
categories.
1 . Shallow water covered with weed (0.5-1 .5 m)
Pelican, Dabchick, Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Egrets.
Herons. Purple Moorhen.
2. Shallow Clear water (0.5-1 .5 m)
Pintail, Gadwall. Shoveller, Brahminy Duck.
Spotbilled Duck. Flamingo.
3. Deep water (1.5 m ♦)
Coot. Common Pochard. Tufted Pochard. Pigeon,
Redcrested Pochard. Grebe.
4. Shore area
All waders, Stork. Ibises. Kingfishers.
5. Grassy land
Barheaded Geese and Greylag Geese for feeding.
6. Rocky lands
Cormorants. Herons. Egrets, Raptor birds for
feeding.
7. Prawn cultivated pens (0.1-1.5 m)
Majority of the birds mainly for resting and feeding.
Since this is the first season for this study, elaborate
analysis on the habitat preference has not been carried
out. However, from the available data it was found that, out
of 335 observations the birds were seen utilising shallow
water for 245 times followed by the shore area.
Major food of Anatids and Rallids were aquatic
macrophytes and the macroinvertebrates.
Ringing / Banding Of Birds during the Migration Season
Thirty four aquatic birds belonging to 3 families
(Anatidae. Charadriidae and Laridae) were captured and
ringed (Table-ll). During ringing operations inside the
Nalaban Sanctuary, a Caspian tern — (Hydroprogne
caspia) was captured on 1.1.93. h had a ring with the
engraving EB 386947 MOSKWA. After recording its
measurement and weight the bird was released. The
details about its place of ringing and organization has to be
ascertained from BNHS, Bombay.
Mid-winter Waterfowl Census
Mid-Winter waterfowl census was conducted in it*
Nalban Sanctuary and in the peripheral areas indudkig
Gerasar during 21-23rd January. 1993. A total of 6.51.43S
birds were counted.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Wildlife Wing of Forest
Department, Orissa; Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, for financial support.
Reefrences
Adhikary. S.P. and Sahu, J.. 1991. Studies on the
Tricbodesmium Bloom of Chilika lake, East Coast of
India. Phykhs, 30(U2): 101-107.
Adhikary, S.P. and Sahu, J., 1992. Distribution and
seasonal abundance of algal forms in Chilika Lake, East
Coast of India. The Japanese Jour, of Limnology. 53(3):
197-205.
Annandale, N„ 1915. Fauna of Chilika lake. Reptiles and
Batrachia. Mem. Ind. Mus. 5(2) : 167-174.
Dev, U.N.. 1992. A case for conservation of Chilika as a
water bird sanctuary. Wll News Letter. 7(2) : 14-22.
Hussain, S.A., Mohapatra. K.K. and AH, S. 1984. Avifaunal
profile of Chilika lake: A case for conservation. Bom.
Nat Hist. Soc. Technical Report, 4 : 46.
Kar, S.K., 1992. Chilika: An Overview. Sanctuary. 12(4) :
19.
Khachar. K.S.. 1966. Chilika Lake. A Pilot Survey of
banding possibilities. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc, 63(2) :
290-297.
Mohapatra. K.K. and Hussain, S.A., 1988. Chilika: The
Pride of our wetland heritage. A. state-of-art report by
Orissa Environmental Society: 89-95.
Murthy, T.S.N., 1987. Herpetofauna of the Chilika lagoon,
Orissa. India. British Herpetological Society Bulletin
No.21.
Murthy, T.S.N, and Rama Rao, K.V.. 1989. An addition to
the ophidian fauna of the Chilika lake. India — Typhlops
Acutus (Dum & Bibr) with notes on its current
distribution. 77ie snake. 21 : 101-102.
Pattanaik, P.K.. 1986. On the spatial distribution of
Zoolplankton in Chilika lake (Brackish water lagoon).
Geobios New Reports, 5 : 31-34.
Patnaik. S.. 1973. A study of the aquatic plants of Chilika
lake Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India., 43(B) I & II : 53-65.
Rao. D.G.. 1987. Ecology of Mebbenthos of Rambha Bay
in CHilika lagoon. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 29(1 &2) :
74-85.
Sarma. A.L.N. Satpathy. S. and Rao. D.G.. 1981. Phytal
Macro and Mebfauna of Chilika Lake. Ind. J. of Mar. Sci.,
10:61-65.
63
TABLE 1. Population of Aquatic Birds
Order
November 1992
December 1992
January 1993
February 1993
March 1993
Podicipediformes
400
450
505
370
300
Pelecanitormes
4,650
5,040
5.330
5,000
4,660
Ciconirformes
27.600
28.350
28.883
20.300
15.870
Anseriformes
2,58.790
4.25.180
4.47.371
1.85,800
40.790
Gruiformes
70.700
82.670
87.810
40.350
10,000
Charadrirformes
50.400
67I.360
84.236
35.900
12.770
Falcon rtormes
185
196
200
170
150
Coraciitormos
90
92
100
66
40
TABLE - 2. Ringing/Banding ol Birds during the migratory season
I. ORDER ANSERIFORMES
i. Family : Anatidae
Sex
M
F
Pintail
Anas acuta
3
-
3
Gadwall
A strepera
4
4
Wig eon
A. Penelope
6
4
2
Shoveller
A. Clypeala
7
4
3
II. ORDER
CHARADRIIFORMES
I. Family
CharadrikJae
Grey Plover
Pluvialis aquatarola
1
Large Sand Plover
Charadrius leschenaullii
2
Blacktailed Godwrt
Limosa limosa
1
Red Shank
Tringa totanus
2
Green Shank
T. nebulaha
1
Little Stint
Calkins minuta
1
Dunlin
C. alpina
5
•
II. Family
Laridae
Brownheaded Sea-gull
Larus bnjnnicephalus
Total
1
34
64
Avifaunal Diversity in Different Vegetation Types of Eastern Ghat
of Andhra Pradesh
B. Rathinasabapathy * and S. Asokan "
" Coimbatore Zoological Park. Pioneer House. Peelamedu. Coimbatore-641 004
"A.V.C. College, Mayiladuthurai- 609 305
Introduction
"The Eastern Ghat of the Visakhapatnam district, Andhra
' Pradesh, supports rich avifauna that include Himalayan
relics as well as lowland humid forest forms not found in the
surrounding plain regions. The Ghat is a low, often plateau
like mountain that runs parallel to the coast facing the Bay
of Bengal. The average highland area stands about 900 m
above sea level, but some of the higher peaks in the North
rise above 1500 m. (Ripley et. at., 1987).
Two of the great interests in the region were the
discovery of the first peninsular population of the Tree
Sparrow. Passer montanus (Krishna Raju and Price, 1973)
and the first record of the Little SpkJerhunter, Arachothera
longirostris. The Visakhapatnam Ghat often referred to as
the northern circars, is the one where the mountain chain is
the broadest, highest and probably richest in animal life. Ali
and Ripley.1983 and 1985; Price.1977.1979 and 1987;
Krishna Raju 1985. 1987 and 1989.Ripley.1978; Rtpley and
Beechler.1985; Ripley etal.. 1987; Beechler et. a/., 1987,
recorded a number of bird species new to this region. The
most important single effort to survey avifauna of the
Eastern Ghat was made by the Verney Expedition of the
Bombay Natural History Society (Whistler and Kinnear.
1932-39). The survey brought out seven endemic
sub-species of birds from the Ghat. Subsequently, this
region was visited by Abdulali (1945 & 1953) who added
considerably to ils list of avian fauna, especially those that
were found in the open country and plains of this region. So
far 300 species of birds have been recorded from the entire
Visakhapatnam Ghat (Krishna Raju, 1985). The avifauna
here is threatened by the encroachment of modern
civilization. From the review of the above literature it was
inferred that studies on census, diversity and relationship
with (he vegetation is wanting. Hence the present study
was attempted on the birds of natural forests and plantation
areas.
15-18 hrs. In each habitat four censuses were conducted
from each of the two fixed points per month. At each
census all birds that were found 10 m. on either side was
recorded. Next, by using 6 mist nets (3x12m 2 ) in each
habitat, birds were trapped and counted.
Analytical Method
The bird species diversity (BSD) was calculated using
the Shannon -Wiener index (H'J (Krebs.1 972) :
H= X nlogrt
m
where S' represents the number of species, and n denotes
the proportion of the total number of individuals of rth
species
Species richness (SR) was calculated using Gleasons
(1922) formula.
SR =
S-1
log e N
where S=Number of species, Loge N is the natural
logarithm of total number of individuals of all species in the
count.
To discuss the compostional similarity between the
habitats, Jaccard's (1908) index of similarity (J) was
applied. This index refers to the ratio of number of species
shared to total species numbers among the various entities
compared :
J =
Nc
N1 +N2-Nc
where, Nc - Number of species in common,
N1 - Number of species in the first entity,
N2 - Number of species in the second entity.
Material and Methods
The study was carried out from February to July 1 988 in
the North Eastern Ghat of Andhra Pradesh. The study area,
lying at 18'27'N, 82'50'E. had four sites viz., Vizag of
Visakhapatnam district, Thatipudi, Pacinimarripalem and
Thammapuram of Vizinagaram district. Five different
habitats were recognised as (1). Dry deciduous forests
(Habitat I) (2). Scrub jungle (Habitat II) (3). Eucalyptus
(Plantation area I) 4. Cashew (Plantations area II) and 5
Teak (Plantation area III) (Fig. 1). The birds were sampled
in two ways. One, by point census to determine the
number of species which coexist and two, a 1 00 m transect
was chosen in each habitat to census birds for half an
hour. The census was taken between 07-10 hrs. and from
Results and Discussion
Habitats and bird species abundance
The samples from different habitats provided an insight
into the colonization of birds. The least disturbed and
structurally the most complex habitat was surrounded by
agricultural fields. The total number of bird species
supported by the various types of habitat corresponded
with the complexity of the vegetation as inferred from the
respective total number of bird species viz., 52. 43. 39. 32.
and 27 for the dry deciduous forest, plantation area I, Scrub
jungle, plantation area II and plantation area III.
respectively (Table 1). Beechler et at. (1987) while
reporting on the structure and composition of different
65
forest types of the North Eastern Ghat at Andhra Pradesh
had observed a correlation between abundance of the bird
species and the complexity of the vegetation structure. The
authors attributed the difference in the bird species
composition to the differences in the microhabitat among
the sites. Further, they had stated that the reason for the
poor bird species composition in the teak plantation to the
simple structure and monocuttural make up of the
plantation.
In the present study, the diversity values (H') were found
to be higher in forested areas than in plantation areas
(Table. 2). Beechler et a/.. (1987) also observed a higher
bird species diversity in forested areas viz., patchy ravine
forest and tropical moist deciduous hill forest than in the
plantation areas, namely, coffee and teak. They opined that
the bird species diversity was a function of complexity of
vegetation structure.
BIRD SPECIES RICHNESS
The species richness value (SR) in the study area
varied from 5.t8 to 13.68 in the five habitats studied. The
maximum value was recorded for the dry deciduous forest.
In general, the plantation areas had comparatively lower
values. This might be due to the richness of food items in
forests with complex vegetation. James and Warner (1982)
while studying the community diversity in tropical bird
communities of Central Panama had suggested that the
species richness was related to the vegetation structure.
SIMILARITY INDEX
The similarity index in the present study varied from
0.30 to 0.87 (Fig.2) with the lowest value during summer
months (April- July) than in other months and that might be
due to the lesser availability of food.
Some birds as Streptopelia chinensis, Dicrurus
adsimilis, Corvus macroynchos. C.splendens. Acridotheres
tristis. Psitlacula krameriand Eudynamys scolopacea were
observed both in forest and plantation areas. This indicated
that these species were highly adaptable.
The reduction in size of the forest is expected to lead to
the loss of some species (Mac Arthur and Wilson, 1 967). In
the present study area it was observed that the dry
deciduous forest was being destroyed by forest felling for
fuelwood and other products. It had already affected
population of large birds, such as Peafowl (Pavo crislatus)
and Indian Pied Hornbill {Anthracoceros malabaricus)
which were locally extirpated from most forest tracts in
Pacinimarripalem during the last 10-15 years (Krishna
Raju. per com.). Price (1987) working earlier around
Lammasinghi had also reported that several bird species
are likely to disappear if the forest cover is lost.
The present study clearly indicated that natural forests
which have complex diversity of plant species can support
a greater diversity of birds than plantations which are often
monocultures dominated by single plant species. It is,
therefore, suggested that steps should be taken to prevent
the existing tracts of the forest of the Eastern Ghat from
exploitation by local people as it is pertinent that the unique
avifauna of this area should be protected.
Ackno wledgements
We are thankful to Shri Krishna Raju, Hon. Sec.,
APNHS for his field guidance and constant encouragement
and to Dr. N.V.K. Ashraf for his valuable suggestions and
critically going through the manuscript.
References
Abdulali, H., 1945. Birds of the Visakhapatnam district. J.
Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc, 45(2): 333-347.
1953. More about Visakhapatnam birds J.Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc., 51 (3):746-747.
Ali.S,, and S.D. Ripley.. 1983 Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakisthan, Compact Edn. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
, 1985. Environmental and distributional studies
of birds of the Eastern Ghats. India. Project summary.
Beechler, B.M.. K.S.R. Krishna Raju. and Shahid Ali., 1987.
Avian use of men-disturbed forest habitats in the
Eastern Ghat of Andhra Pradesh, India. Ibis, 129:
197-211.
Gleason, M.A.. 1922. On the relation betweeen species
and area. Ecology 3: 156-162.
Jaccard. P., 1904. Nonvelles recherches surla distribution
ilorale. Bulletin delo Societe Vandoise des science
naturelles. 44:223-270.
James. F.C., N.Wamer. 1982. Relationship between
temperate forest bird communities and vegetation
structure. Ecology 63: 159-171.
Krebs, C.J.. 1972. Ecology. The experimental analysis of
distribution and abundance. New York: Harper and Row.
Krishna Raju, K.S.R., 1982. Report of the preliminary
ecological survey of the Eastern Ghats. Project
report-WWF-lndia.
, 1985. Checklist of birds of Visakhapatnam
region Andhra Pradesh Nat. Hist. Soc.
Krishna Raju, K.S.R.. and T.O. Price, 1973. Tree sparrow
Passe/ 1 montanus in the Eastern Ghats J.Bom. Nat. Hist.
Soc.. 70(3):557.
Krishna Raju, K.S.R., 1989. Survey, status and distribution
ecology of birds of the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Project report submitted to
DOE.
MacArthur. R.M. and E.D. Wilson. 1967. The theory of
island Biogeography. Princeton University Press
Princeton. N.J.
Price, T.D., 1977. Eastern Ghats of India - an endangered
area. Hornbill, July/Sept. 1977: 11-13.
, 1979. The seasonality and occurence of birds in
the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J.Bom. Nat. Hist.
Soc.. 76 (3):397-422.
66
. 1987. The impact o( the toss ot forest on the birds
ol the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. JBNHS (In
Press).
Ripley. S.D., 1978. Changes in the bird fauna of a forest
area: Simlipal hills, Mayurbhanj district and Dhenkanal
district. Orissa. J.Bom. Nat. Hist Soc., 75(3): 570-574.
Ripley.S.D. and B.M. Beechler. 1985. A new sub-species of
the babbler Malacocinola abbotti. From the Eastern
Ghats. India Bull. Brit. Om. Cong., 105: 66-67.
Ripley, S.D.. B.M. Beechler. and K.S.R. Krishna Raju.
1987. Birds of Visakhapatnam Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh. JBomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., (In press)
Whistler. H. and W.B. Kinnear. 1932-1939 The verney
scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats. Ornithological
section. J.Bomb. Nat. Hist Soc.. 16 parts Vols. 34-39.
Fig. 1 : Eastern Ghat (Study Sites)
£3 DECIDUOUS FOREST
f— [ SCRUB JUNGLE
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TV PLANTATION AREA II
— , CASHEW
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=3 Hetalroap
67
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SIMILARlT/ INDEX VALUE
Juir
Fig. 2 : Dendrogiam showing the similarity (or bird species as
expressed by ils index value, of the various habitats
ol study area during February to July 1988
Check List of the Birds on the Madras Christian College Campus from 1990-1993
Senthan M Selvarathlnam, John Mathew, Amardeep M. Devadason and Leeta Madhavan
The Scrub Society. Madras Christian College. Tambaram, Madras 600 059
Introduction
"The Madras Christian College Campus comprises ol 365
' acres o( mixed vegetation, inclusive of the native, dry
evergreen plants and the introduced species. Such a
variety of plant life naturally encourages a wealth of
avitaunal species. Introduction of exotics and plants from
other vegetation types have enhanced the density of green
cover The checklist of Barnes (1 939) refers to a time when
the vegetation was primarily dry evergreen; a total of 83
bird species were recorded. Siromoney's checklist (1971)
containing 149 species included observations made when
the introduced forest tract was well established. Since
1971, several changes have occurred in the Campus. The
advent of the spotted deer (Axis axis) in the mid-seventies
has had its impact on the vegetation. Large scale
deforestation of a native tract has necessitated a
redistribution of bird species. With these in mind, a fresh
checklist has been prepared.
Materials and Methods
This study has been essentially qualitative. Field trips
were undertaken atleast thrice a week customarily in the
mornings between 6.30 and 9.30 a.m. and were sometimes
supplemented by evening trips. Binoculars of
magnifications 8 x 40 and to x 50 were used. Special
observations, if any. were recorded. Identification of
species was facilitated by useful guides. Bird watching was
also conducted at night on occasion, with the aid of
torches, and when available the headlights of a motor
cycle. For identification, Ali and Ripley (1968). All (1981)
and Woodcock (1983) have been referred.
The abbreviations used tor various species on the basis of
their occurrence are ;
PR
-
Permanent Residents
LM
—
Local Migrants
WM
-
Winter migrants
WV
-
Winter visitors
VC
-
Very Common
c
-
Common
s
-
Sporadic
NC
-
Not Common
R
-
Rare
1 . Little Grebe - Podtceps ruficollls (Pallas) LM-NC
II Order : Pelecaniformes
Family : Phalacrocoracidae : Cormorants and Daners
1 . Little Cormorant -
Phalacrocorax niger (Vieitlot) WM-NC
III Order : Ciconiiformes
Family : Ardeidae : Herons. Egrets and Bitterns.
1 . Pond Heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes)
2. Night Neron - Nyeticorax nycticorax
(Linnaeus) PR-C
3. Grey Heron - Ardea drier ea (Linnaeus) WM-NC
4. Cattle Egret - Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) LM-C
5. Little Egret - <IEgretta garzetta (Linnaeus) LM-C
IV Order : Falconiformes
Family : Acoipitridae
1 . Common Pariah Kite - Milvus migrans
(Boddaert) LM-C
2. Blackwinged Kite - Elanus caeruleus
(Desfontaines) LM-C
3. Brahminy Kite - Haliastur Indus (Boddaert) LM-NC
4. Crested Honey Buzzard - Pernis
ptilorhynmchus ruflcollis (Lesson) LM-NC
5. Shikra - Accipiter badius (Gmelin) PR-C
6. Booted Hawk Eagle - Hiereatus pennatus
(Gmelin) LM-R
V Order : Galliformes
Family ; Phasianidae : Partridges.
Pheasants, Junglefowl, Quails.
1 . Grey Partridge - Francolinus pondicerianus
(Gmelin)
PR-C
In order to understand the basis of habitat preference,
the Campus has been mapped. Fig.t provides the general
layout of the campus while Fig. 2 indicates the relative
distribution and abundance of vegetational tracts.
VI Order : Gruiformes
Family : Tumicidae : Button and Bustard Quails.
1 . Common Bustard Quali - Turnix susciator
(Gmelin) PR-C
Family : Rallidae : Rails. Coots
1 . Whitebrested Watemen -Amauromis
phoenicurus (Pennant) WV-NC
2. Watercock or Kora - Gallicrex cinerea (
Gmelin) LM-R
VII Order : Charadriitormes
Family : Charadriidae
Sub-family : Charadriinae : Plovers
t . Redwattled Lapwing — Vanellus indicus
(Boddaert) WV-NC
2. Yellowwattled Lapwing — Vanettus
malabaricus (Boddaert) LM-S
Sub-Family : Scolopacinae : Curlews,
Sandpipers. Snipes
1 . Wood or Spotted Sandpiper — Tringa glareola
(Unnaeus) WV-C
2. Fantail snipe - Gallmago gallinago (Unnaeus) WV-C
Results and Discussion
The birds observed over the period ol study are as listed
below :
I Order : Podtcipedi formes
Family : Podicipitidae : Grebes
VIII Order Columbiformes
Family : Columbidae : Pigeons, Doves
1 . Blue Rock Pigeon - Columba Uvea (Gmelin) LM-R
2. Spotted Dove - StreptopeUa
ohinensis (Scopoli) FR-VC
3. Little Brown or Senegal Dove -
StreptopeUa senegalensis (Unnaeus) LM-NC
69
IX Order : Psittadformes
Family : Paittacidae : Parrots
1 . Roseringed Parakeet - Psiltacula krameri
(Scope*)
PR-C
X Order : CucuWormes
Family : Cuculidae : Cuckoos
1 . Pied Crested Cuckoo - Clamator jacobinus
(Boddaert) LM-C
2. Common Hawk-cuckoo - Cuculus
varius (Vahl) LM-C
3. Plaintive Cuckoo - Cacomantis passerinus
(Vahl) WV-NC
4. Koel - Eudynamis scolopacea (Linnaeus) PR-VC
5. Crow -pheasant or Coucat - Centropus sinensis
(Stephens) PR-C
6. Small Greenbilled Malkoha -
Rhopolytes virdirostris (Jerdon) PR-NC
XI Order : Stringitormes
Family : Stringidae
Sub-Family : Tytoninae : Barn owls
1 . Barn or Screech Owl - Tyto alba (Scopoli) PR-NC
2. Indian Great Horned Owl - Bubo bubo
(Linnaeus) PR-NC
Sub-family : Striginae
1 . Spotted Owlet - Athene brama (Temminck) PR-C
2. Collard Scops Owl — Otus bakkamoena
(Pennant) PR-NC
XII Order : Capri mulgiformes
Family : Caprimulgidae: Nightjars
1 . Common Indian nightjar - Caprimutgus
asiaticus (Laiham) PR-NC
XIII Order : Apodilormes
Family : Apodidae
Sub-family : Apodinae : Swifts
1 . Palm Swift - Cypskirus parvus (Liechtenstein) PR-C
XIV Order : Coracrformae
Family : AJcedinidae : Kingfishers
1 . Pied Kingfisher - Ceryle ruds (Linnaeus) LM-NC
2. Smallblue Kingfisher -
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus) LM-NC
3. Whitebreasted Kingfisher -
Halcyon smyrnensh (Linnaeus) PR-C
4. Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher
- Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus) LM-R
Family : Meropidae : Bee-eaters
1 . Small Green Bee-eater - Merops orientalis
(Latham) LM-C
2. Bluetailed Bee-eater - Merops philippinus
(Linnaeus) LM-C
Family : Coraciidae : Rollers
1 . Roller or Blue Jay -
Coraoias benghalensis (Linnaeus) PR— C
Family : Upupidae : Hoopoes
t . Hoopoe - Udupa epops (Linnaeus) PR-C
XV Order : Piciformes
Family : Capitonidae : Barbets
1. Crimsonbreasted Barbet
- Megalaima haemacephala (Muller) PR-C
Family : Picidae
1 . Gotdenbacked Woodpecker -
Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus) PR-C
XVI Order : Passeriformes
Family : Pittkfae
1 . Indian pitta - Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus) WV-C
Family : Alaudidae : Larks
1 . Redwinged Bush Lark - Miratra
erythroptera (Blyth) PR-C
2. Ashycrowned Finch-Lark
- Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli) LM-NC
Family : Hirundinidae : Swallows
1 . Common Swallow - Hirundo rustica
(Linnaeus) WV-C
2. Redrumped or Straited Swallow
- Hirundo daurica (Linnaeus) PR-NC
Family : Laniidae - Shrikes
1 . Rufousbacked Shrike - Lanius schach
(Linnaeus) PR-NC
2. Brown Shrike - Lanius cristatus
(Linnaeus) WV-NC
Family : Oriolidae - Orioles
1. Golden oriole - Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus) LM-C
2. Blackheaded Oriole - Oriolus xanthomas
(Linnaeus) WV-R
Family : Dicruridae : Drongos
1. Black Orongo- Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein) PR-C
2. Whftebellied Drongo - Dicrurus
caerulescens (Linnaeus) WV-NC
Family : Artamidae : Swallow -shrikes
I . Ashy Swallow Shrike -
Artamus fuscus (Vieillot) PR-NC
Family : Sturnidae : Starlings and Mynas
1 . Indian Myna - Acridotheres tristis
(Linnaeus) PR-VC
2. Brahminy Myna -
Slurnus pagodarum (Gmelin) LM-C
3. Greyheaded Myna - Sturnus malabaricus
(Gmelin) LM-NC
4. Rosy Pastor - Stumus roseus (Linnaeus) WV-R
Family : Corvidae - Crows. Pies. Jays
1 . House Crow - Corvus splendens (Vieillot) PR-VC
2. Jungle Crow - Corvus
macromynchos (Wagler) PR-VC
3. Tree Pie -
Dendrodtta vagabunda (Latham) PR-C
Family : Campephagidae : Cuckoo-shrikes and Minivets
1. Blackheaded Cuckooshrike -
Coracina meianoptera (Ruppel) WV-NC
2. Small Minivet - Pencrocotus cinnamomeus
(Linnaeus) PR-NC
3. Large Cuckoo-Shrike
- Coracina novachollandiae (Gmelin) LM-NC
4. Common Wood Shrike - Tephyrodornis
pondicerianus (Gmelin) WV-NC
Family : Irenidae
t . kwa - Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus) PR_C
Family : Pycnonotidae
1 . Redvented Bulbul - Pycnonotus cafer
(Linnaeus) PR-C
2. Redwhiskered Bulbul - Pycnonotus
jacosus (Linnaeus) PR-C
3. Whitebrowed Bulbul - Pycnonotus luteolus
(Lesson) PR-VC
Family : Muscicapidae
Sub-Family : Timalinae : Babblers
1 . Whlteheaded Babbler - Turdoides atfinis
(Jerdon) PR-VC
2. Rufousbellied Babbler - Dumetia hyperythra
(Franklin) PR-C
3. Yelloweyed Babbler - Chrysomma sinense
(Gmelin) LM-C
Sub-family : Muscicapinae
1 . Paradise Flycatcher - Terpsiphone paradisi
(Linnaeus) LM_NC
70
2. Tickell's Blue Flycatcher - Muscicapa
fic*etfi'ae(Blyth)
3. Redbreasted Flycatcher - Muscicapa
parva (Bechstein)
A. Bluethroated Flycatcher -Muscicapa
rubeculoides (Viyors)
5. Brown Flycatcher - Muscicapa
latitrostris (Rattles)
Sub-Family : Sylvimao : Warblers
1 . Ashy Wren-Warbler - Prinia socialis
(Sykes)
2. Jungle Wren-Warbler - Prinia
sylvatica (Jordan)
3. Streaked Fantail Warbler - Cisticola juncidis
4. Tailor Bird - Orthoiomus sutorius (Pennant)
5. Blyth's Reed Warbler - Acrocephalus
dumetorum (Blyth)
6. Dull Greenleaf Warbler - Phyiloscopus
trochiloides
Sub-Family : Turdinae : Thrushes and Chats
1 . Magpie Robin - Copsychus
saulartus (Linnaeus)
2. Indian Robin - Saxicoloides fuficata
(Linnaeus)
3. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush
- Zoothera dtriana (Latham)
4. Pied Buschat - Saxixola caprala (Linnaeus)
Sub-Family : Motaclllidae : Pipits and Wagtails
1 . Forest Wagtail - Moladlla indica (Gmelin)
2. Large Pied Wagtail - MotacMa
maderaspatenis (Gmelin)
3. Paddytield Pipit - Anthus
novaeseelandiae (Gmelin)
Family : Nectariniidae : Sunbtrds
1 . Purplerumped Sunbird - Nectarinia
zeytonica (Linnaeus)
2. Purple Sunbird - Nectarinia asiatica (Lathem)
3. Loten's Sunbird - N. lolenia (Linnaeus)
Family : Pkxeidae : Weaver birds. Munias. Sp
Sub-Family : Ploceinae : Weaver Birds
1 . Baya Weaver Bird - Phceus phi/ippinus
(Linnaeus)
2. Whitebacked Munia - Lonchura striata
(Linnaeus)
3. Spotted Munia - Lonchura punctutata
(Linnaeus)
4. Blackheaded Munia - Lonchura malacca
(Linnaeus)
Sub-Family : Passerinae : Sparrows
1 . House sparrow - Passer domesticus
(Linnaeus)
WV-NC
WV-NC
WV-NC
WV-NC
PR-NC
PR-C
PR-NC
PR-C
WV-C
WV-C
PR-C
PR-C
WV-NC
PR-NC
WV-C
PR-C
WV-NC
PR-VC
PR-C
PR-C
arrows
PR-C
PR-NC
PR-S
PR-NC
PR-S
Thus 105 species of birds belonging to 16 orders were
recorded. They represent 37 families.
Figure indicates the relative distribution and abundance
of vegetational tracts, as mentioned earlier. Behavioural
trails is the bottom line for habitat preference. As such, the
Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) is most commonly found in
the exotic, deciduous, avenue patch of Tabebuia rosea on
the Principal drive and its surroundings. The Spotted
Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola) is restricted to the paddy fields
while the Dabchick (Podiceps ruficollis) occurs only in the
winter. Alternatively, other bird species like the Koel
(Eudynamis scobpacea), the Roseringed Parakeet
(Psittacula kramert) and the Whiteheaded Babbler
(Turdokfes affinis) ubiquitous. Knowledge ol such
distributions enabled us to make fairly accurate predictions
of bird occurrence.
That the area under study is rich in avifaunal distribution
is evident from the number ot species recorded in each list
made of the region (Guindy National Park with a much
larger land area of 2.8 sq. miles has relatively fewer
species - 123). It is true that to Siromoney (1971 )'s list of
149 species have been added species like the TickeH's
Blue Flycatcher, the Water cook, the Streaked Fantail
Warbler, the Blackheaded Munia and the Tree pie.
However, the decrease in the number of species on
Campus since the 1 971 list indicated that deforestation has
definitely influenced bird diversity. Loss of habitat has been
a causative reason contributing to he disappearance of
many of our feathered friends. This comparison underlines
the necessity to preserve and protect what is left of the
natural habitat, which in turn will sustain a diverse life.
References
Ali. Salim., 1981. The Book of Indian Birds (11th Edition).
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Oxford University Press.
Ali, Salim and S.D. Ripley., 1968. Handbook of the birds ol
India and Pakistan, Vol. 1 to 10. Oxford University
Press.
Barnes, A.M., 1939. Birds observed in and near Tambaram,
Chinglepul District, South India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc, 40 : 467-476, 744-747.
Siromoney. G..1971. Birds of Tambaram Area and Water
Birds of Vedanthangal (Paper presented at a seminar.
Department of Zoology. Madras Christian College).
Woodcock, M.W.,1983. Collins Handguide to the Birds of
the Indian Sub-continent. Collins. St. James Place.
London.
71
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Project Bustard : Last Chance to Save the Great Indian Bustard
Asad R.Rahmanl
Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002
••©auction
fW Groat Indian Bustard, Ardeotis nighceps is one of
• Tm rarest birds of the world. It was prevalent in the short
pas plains of Uttar Pradesh, north of Tamil Nadu, Sind in
»avsan and in the west of Orissa. Unrestricted shooting
destruction of grasslands exterminated the bustard
mm Most of its range. By the 1980s it survived in small
in Madhya Pradesh. Rajasthan, Gujarat.
intra. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. After the
tional Conference on Bustards organized in 1 980 by
and Wildlife Society of India, based at Jaipur, all
states look conservation steps and eight protected
were established (Rahmani. 1987. 1989). In the mid
bustard population was estimated to be between
d 1500. with haH of the birds surviving in Rajasthan
0mtman\. 1989).
Imo extensive surveys in 1993 in the Thar and regular
■to b bustard sanctuaries in Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat.
Pradesh and Maharashtra showed that bustard
have drastically declined in Madhya Pradesh.
and Raiasthan while the population was stable in
iu (Andhra Pradesh), and increasing in Nannaj
■Mi mi Mi Q
the Great Indian Bustard, three more species of
occur in India: the Houbara. Chlamydoles
mmmwta, the Lesser Florican, Sypheotides indha and the
Mnc* Fbrican, Houbaropsis bengalensis{M\ & Ripley,
9SS Although, this paper deals mainly with the Great
mar Bustard, conservation of other Indian bustards is
tfscussed.
Madhya Pradesh
The results showed that the bustard declined all over its
range. The greatest decrease was seen in Karera and
Ghatigaon bustard sanctuaries which were specially
established for the protection of this species. In Madhya
Pradesh there were four known bustard areas: Karera,
Ghatigaon. Pohri and Panna. In the mid 1980s, the total
bustard xpulation ' n Ihese four areas was estimated to be
around 50, with Karera and Ghatigoan having 30- 35 birds,
but since the late 1980s there has been a progressive
decrease of bustards in these sanctuaries. In Karera, not
more than five birds were found. Even territorial males
which were seen for many years, and as long as villagers
remember, were not seen during the display season in
1993. Condition of Ghatigaon was as bad as Karera. The
Forest Range Officer, in charge of bustards at Ghatigaon
saw only two birds in six months.
Gujarat
In Gujarat, by 1980s the bustards had become
extremely rare and survived only in two districts i.e. Bhatiya
in Kalyanpur taluka of Jamnagar, and Abdasa and Mandvi
talukas of Kutch. There was stray record from
Surendranagar district. Total population in the whole of
Gujarat was estimated to be between 20 and 30 bustards.
During the last ten years, bustard number declined by
almost fifty percent. In 1990, a small bustard sanctuary of
100 ha was established near Lala village where breeding
was noted. In the Bhatiya area of Jamnagar district, where
the Gujarat Government is planning a bustard sanctuary,
five birds were seen in 1983. It is doubtful if the population
can recover from such low numbers.
I and Methods
I993 first survey of the Thar desert and Kutch was
between 2 February to 10 March, and second
11 July to 31 August. During June-July 1992,
and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra and
of Gujarat were surveyed. In addition to these
surveys, regular visits were made to Nannaj,
Karera and Ghatigoan. Additional information
ehered from the staff of Grassland Ecology Project
at Rollapadu, Nannaj and Bannt (Kutch) and by
personnels of the forest departments.
ttoaaatts and Discussion
Paptiatcn estimates of Great Indian Bustard in the
Ks and in 1 992-93 are given in Table I.
aW '•suits of the present surveys were compared with
m$m -«*C studies belween 1981 and 1989 (see Rahmani,
^R 1969: Rahmani and Manakadan. 1990).
Maharashtra
Nannaj area in Solapur district of Maharashtra has
shown the most satisfactory increase in the bustard
numbers, mainly because the Forest Department provided
good measures to protect its grassland habitat. In 1 981 , the
maximum number seen was only eight. Since then
successful breeding has been observed, and by August
1993. there were 37 bustards. This increase was due to
successful breeding and immigration from surrounding
areas.
Andhra Pradesh
Rollapadu bustard sanctuary in Kurnool district has also
shown positive results, thanks to effective protection to the
bustard and its grassland habitat, especially during the
initial stages of establishment of the sanctuary. Territorial
males and successful breeding were sighted every year.
However, there appears to be some laxity in protection
when the birds go out. hence the increase in the bustard
number is not as projected. Reports of bustard shooting by
rich vehicle-borne poachers from Hyderabad could be one
73
of the reasons why the bustard numbers have not further
increased. During 1987-88, around 50 bustards were
estimated in the Rollapadu grasslands, and the present
estimate (in 1993) is also the same.
Kamataka
In Karnataka, bustards are chiefly seen around
Rannibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary and Guttal plantation in
Dharwad district. However, as the sanctuary itself is not
very suitable for bustards due to excessive growth of
eucalyptus, the birds are seen outside the sanctuary in
grazing land which surfer from over-exploitation.
Rajasthan
During 1980s, more than half of the bustards in India
were present in Rajasthan. mainly in the Thar desert
(Rahmani. 1989; Rahmani and Manakadan, 1990). in nine
districts: Kota, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jalore. Pali, Bikaner,
Jodhpur. Jaiselmer and Barmer (Vardhan & Goriup, 1980).
Now, all over the Thar desert, bustard population has
drastically declined (see Table I). In some areas, e.g.
Diyatra. Bap. Sam. Sudasari, the bustard numbers have
halved, or disappeared, e.g. Khuri, Miyajlar.
The bustard is still reported from a large area in the
western Thar desert (mainly Jaiselmer district) but in
Nachna, Ramgarh. villagers reported bustard poaching by
outsiders. Most of these rich poachers hunt lor Houbara
and Sandgrouse, but also shoot the Great Indian Bustard.
The most surprising decline was seen in Sam-Sudasari
areas of the Desert National Park in Jaiselmer. under
Forest Department, with better protection than other core
areas (e.g. Miyajlar, Khuri. Sotto) of the Park, where the
population between in 1986 and 1993. reduced from 25
bustards, to five (Forest Department guards however,
claim up to 125 bustards!).
Reasons for decline
1. Destruction of breeding areas
Destruction or alteration of grassland habitat is
perphaps the most important reason for the decline of
bustards in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka.
Conservation success depends on protection to adult birds
and to their breeding areas.
2. Disturbances
There is no bustard area in India which is free from
human disturbance. Like grazing, cultivation, and activities
linked lo increase in human population. Some of these are
listed in Table II.
3. Shooting
At Karera, Ghatgaon. Nannaj, etc., poaching of bustards
is under control, but shooting appears to be play ing a
major role in decimation of bustards of the Thar desert.
All the four species of bustards found in India have the
highest legal protection but implementing the law more
strigently to eliminate poaching is crucial. The habitats of
the bustards are not well protected and (his constitutes the
biggest threat to bustards. Therefore, our major
conservation efforts have to be addressed to habitat
protection especially breeding grounds.
Project Bustards
The grasslands and deserts are under-represented in
the protected area network in our country. The studies by
Rodgers and Panwar (1988), Endangered Species Project
and Grassland Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural
History Society have identified many potential areas which
could be developed as new sanctuaries.
There is a need to have a nationally coordinated
conservation project for the Indian bustards and their
habitats. Hence a 'Project Bustard' is suggested.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on the work done under various
projects funded by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services during
the last ten years, namely the Endangered Species
Project, the Florican Project, and the Grassland Ecology
Project. I am thankful to US Fish & Wildlife Service, and
specially to Mr David Ferguson and to Prof. Mark Behan. I
am also grateful to the Oriental Bird Club and Cygnus for
funding the first survey of the Thar desert in 1993. Special
thanks to Mrs Carol Inskipp. Conservation Officer of OBC.
The second survey of the Thar desert in 1993 was funded
by WWF- India, under their Community Biodiversity
Conservation Movement (CBCM). I am grateful to
WWF-lndia. and to Dr S.P. Sinha, Consultant. CBCM
Programme. Studies in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh were done
under the Grassland Ecology Project.
I want to thank forest department officials of Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. I also want to thank my
colleagues Messrs. Ranjrt Manakadan. Jugal Kishor Tiwari.
Satish Kumar. Salim Javeed. V. Natarajan, N. Rao, Ravi
Sankaran. Goutam Narayan. Special thanks to Prof. A.H.
Musavi. Chairman. Centre of WildlHe & Ornithology. A.
M.U.m Aligarh; Dr Jay Samant, Director. Bombay Natural
History Society; Mr J.C. Daniel, former Curator of BNHS,
and Mr Paul D Goriup of Nature Conservation Bureau. U.K.
Lastly, my special thanks to Mr Mehboob Alam. driver,
for being with me in all the surveys and sharing my
frustations and trials in search of the elusive Indian
bustards.
References
Ali. S. & Ripley. S.D.. 1969. Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan., Vol I. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Goriup. P.O. & Vardhan, H„ 1980. Bustards in decline.
Tourism & Wildlife Society of India. Jaipur.
74
Rahmani. A.R., 1986. Status of Great Indian Bustard in
Rajaslhan- (Technical Report No. 11. pp 34. Bombay
Natural History Society.
Rahmani, A.R., 1987. Protection to the great Indian
bustard. Oryx 21(3): 174-179.
Rahmani. A.R.. 1989. The Great Indian Bustard: Final
Report. Endangered Species Project, pp 234. Bombay
Natural History Society.
Rahmani, A.R., & Manakadan. R.. 1990. Past and present
distribution of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps (Vigora) in I India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc,
87(2): 175-194.
Rahmani, A.R., Narayan. G.. Rosalind. L. Sankaran. R..
Ganguli-Lachungpa. U., 1991. Status of the Bengal
florican Houbaropsis bengalensis in India. J. Bombay
Nat Hist. Soc.. 88(3): 349-375.
Sankaran. R.. Rahmani. A.R.. Ganguli-Lachungpa, U..
1992. the Distribution and Status of the Lesser Florican
Sypheotides indica <J.F. Miller) in the Indian
subcontinent. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc, 89(2):
156-179.
Sankaran. R. 1991. Some aspects of the breeding
behaviour of the Lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F.
Miller) and the Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis
(Gmelin). Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the University of
Bombay.
Table 1 : Population Estimates of Bustard In the 1980s and 1992-93
State
Area
Earlier numbers
In 1992/93
20-25 (1983 -86)
4-5 (1993)
12-15 (1983-85)
3-5 (1993)
10-15(1983-84)
Not surveyed but
few still survive
5 -10 (in 1988)
Not surveyed
5 seen (1984)
None seen in 1993
but still survives
1 seen (1984)
5 in 1981
10-13 (1981)
40 -45 in 1991
8 (1981-82)
None
5-8 (1981 -84)
Sin 1992
50 (1987-88)
50(1992-93)
5-10(1984-85)
5-6(1991)
8-10(1984-86)
8-10(1991 -92)
30 seen in 1986
None in 1993"
13 in 1986
4 In Feb. 1993
None in July 1993
11 In 1983
6 (n Feb 1993
None in July 1993
25 -30 In 1986
5 In Feb 1993
15 in July 1993
14 in 1986
None in 1993
5 In 1986 "
None
Madya Pradesh
Gujarat
Maharashtra
Andra pradesh
Karnataka
Rajaslhan
Karera.
Ghaligaon
Phori
Panna
Bhatiya
Lala
Nannaj
Karmala
Kamuni
Rollapadu
Rannibennur
Sorsan
Sonkhaliya
Diyatra
Bap
Sam-sudasah
Khun
Miyajlar
Upto 90 reported by the Forest Department
Reported by the Forest Department
Table 2 : Specific disturbances to Bustard Santurles/ Areas
Name
Type of Disturbance
Migratory measures
unra
Construction of canal
Mont
Ghatigaon
Construction of railway line
and canal
None
Pohri
Construction of gas pipeline
Compensation
Nannaj
Plan of a Spinning Mill
Plan cancelled
DNP
Construction of a canal
None
Lala
Prosopis plantation
Plantation stopped
75
Factors Affecting Waterbirds in Chikmagalur
D. V. Glrljashankar, Girish and M.N. Shadakshari
C/o Janamitra Press, Chikmagalur
Introduction
In May, the Fisheries Department teases out tanks around
•Chikmagalur for fishing. The impact of fishing on birds is
reported in this paper.
Material and Methods
To study the impact of fishing on birds, observations
were recorded at monthly intervals from October '92 to April
'93 with a pair of 7 ± 50 and 8 1 30 binoculars. Birds were
categorized into : viz.. Waterfowl, Waders. Surface- water
Foragers and Scavengers. Although observations were
recorded on several tanks, detailed observations were
confined to the 8 tanks.
Results and Discussion
From October to January observations were designated
as 'before fishing' and from February to May as 'after
fishing'. Not all increase or decrease or changes in bird
species composition and numbers could be ascribed to
fishing However, in some cases of birds the changes were
dear and couW be ascribed to fishing operation alone. Only
such cases are dealt with here. For instance, the size of
nesting territory of Pheasant -tailed Jacana as a result of
the fishing activity in other tanks.
Thus 20 species of waterfowl. 4 of Waders and 2 of
surface-water foragers were recorded between
October^anuary. i.e. before fishing. After fishing only 5
species of scavengers were observed in all the 8 tanks. An
estimated average number of birds (n=8) recorded before
fishing was 294 (mean of 4 observations) per tank
compared to four (only scavengers) after fishing.
It may be noted that Painted Stork and Spoonbill
recorded in tanks of Chikmagalur are the two species
considered endangered in India (Sridhar and Srinivasa,
1992).
Fishing depleted the waterfowl food and aftected
plantlife, surface -water foraging, and nesting of resident
species. Piscivorous species like cormorants abandoned
the tanks.
The changes that are taking place in freshwater tanks
are undoubtedly increasing the area of conflict between
birds and men. Certainly there is a need to regulate fishing
and leave some tanks for waterfowl alone.
Chakravarthy and Tejasvi (1993) have recorded a total
of 59 species of water birds in freshwater tanks in this
region. Planting of trees in the watershed areas, desilting
and creation of perch and nesting sites in certain tanks and
maintenance of shallow water zone and share space would
help sustain waterbirds in and around Chickmagalur town.
References
Chakravarthy, A.K. and Tejasvi. K.P.P., 1993. Birds of Hill
Region of Karnataka: An Introduction. Navabharath
Entrprises. Seshadripuram. Bangalore, pp. 148.
Sridhar. S. and Srinivasa. T.S.. 1992. Waterfowl Census -
The Karnataka Scene. Newsletter lor Birdwatchers,
32(11 & 12): 1-2.
76
Checklist of Birds of Shimoga and Gudavi
K.V. Gururaja , N.A. Aravlnda" and V. Raghunatha
n 90(8), Jail Road, Shomoga
"-INCHARA", Chitpadi. Udipi
039
Scavenger Vulture
Neophron percnoplerus
Family
; PODICIPEDIDAE
040
Crested Serpent
001
Little Grebe
Podiceps ruficollis
Family
Eagle
: FALCONIDAE
Spilornis cheela
Family
: PHALACROCORACIDAE
041
Kestrel
Fateo tinnunculus
002
Cormorant
Phalacrocorax carbo
003
Indian Shag
Phalacrocorax luscicollis
Family
: PHASIANIDAE
004
Little Cormorant
Phalacrocorax niger
042
Grey Partridge
Francolinus pondicerianus
005
Darter
Anhinga rufa
043
Grey Jungle Fowl
Gallus sonneratii
044
Common Peatowl
Pavo crista! us
Family
:ARDEIDAE
006
Grey Heron
Ardea cinerea
Family
: Rallidae
007
Purple Heron
Ardea purpurea
045
Little Crake
Porzena parva
008
Pond Heron
Ardeola grayii
046
Baillon's Crake
Porzana pusilla
009
Cattle Egret
Bubulcus ibis
047
Ruddy Crake
Porzana fusca
010
Smaller Egret
Egretta intermedia
048
Whitebreasted
011
Large Egret
Ardea alba
Waterhen
Amaurornis phoenicurnus
012
Little Egret
Egretta garzetta
049
Moorhen
Gallmula chloropus
013
Night Heron
Nycticorax nycticorax
050
Purple Moorhen
Porphyrio porphynb
014
Chestnut Bittern
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
051
Coot
Fulca atra
015
016
Yellow Bittern
Black Bittern
Ixobrychus sinensis
Ixobrychus f lavicollis
Family
: JACANIDAE
052
Pheasanttailed
Family
: CICONIIDAE
Jacana
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
017
Open bill Stork
Anastomus oscitans
053
Bronze winged
018
White necked
Stork
Ciconia episcopus
Jacana
Melopidius indicus
Family
:THRESKIORNITHIDAE
Family
: ROSTRATULIDAE
019
White Ibis
Threskiornis aethiopica
054
Painted Snipe
Rostratula benghalensis
020
Black Ibis
Pseudibls papulosa
Family
: Recurvlrostridae
021
Spoonbill
Platalea leucorodia
055
Blackwinged
Family
: ANATIDAE
Stilt
Himantopus himanlopus
022
Lesser Whistling Tea
Dendrocygna javanica
Family
023
Pintail
Anas acuta
024
Common Teal
Anas crecca
056
Indian Courser
Cursorius coromandelicus
Spotbilled Duck
Anas poecikjrhyncha
057
Small Pranticole
Glareola lactea
026
027
Garganey
Cotton Teal
Anas querquedula
Nettapus coromandelianus
Family
CHARADRIIDAE
028
Comb Duck
Sarkidiornis melanotos
059
Redwattled Lapwing
Venellus indicus
059
Yellowwatlled Lapwina Vanellus malabaricus
Family
ACCIPITRIDAE
060
Little Ringed Plover
Charadrius dubius
029
Blackwinged Kite
Elan us caeruleus
061
Green Sandpiper
Tringa ochropus
030
Blyth's Baza
Aviceda jerdoni
062
Wood Sandpiper
Tringa glareola
031
Honey Buzzard
Pernis ptilorhyncus
063
Common Sandpiper
Tringa hypoleucos
032
Pariah Kite
Milvus migrans
064
Sanderling
Calidris alba
033
Brahminy Kite
Haliastus indus
065
Little Stint
Calidris minutus
034
Shikra
Accipeter badius
035
Lesser Spotted Eagle
Aquila pomarina
Family
LARIDAE
036
Whrtebacked Vulture
Gyps bengalensis
066
Whiskered Tern
Chlidonias hybrida
037
Pale Harrier
Circus macrourus
067
Indian River Tern
Sterna aurantia
038
Marsh Harrier
Circus aeruginosis
068
Common Tern
Sterna hirunda
77
Family
COLUM8IDAE
Family
CORACIIDAE
069
Pompadour
Treron pompadora
104
Indian Roller
Coracias benghalensis
070
Yellowlegged Green
Family
UPUPIDAE
071
Pigeon
Blue Rock Pigeon
Treron phoenicoptera
Columba II via
105
Hoopoe
Udupa epops
072
Turtle Dove
Streptopelia tranquelarica
073
Pied Imperial Pigeon
Ducula bicolor
Family
BUCEROTIDAE
074
Green Imperial Pigeon Ducula aenea
106
Common Grey
075
Rulous Turtle Dove
Streptopelia orientalis
Hornbill
Tockus birostris
076
Spotted Dove
Streptopelia chinensis
107
Malbar Grey Hornbill
077
Emerald Dove
Chalcophaps indica
108
Matbar Pied Hornbill
108
Malbar Pied Hornbill
Anthracoceros coronatus
Family
CAPITONIDAE
Family
: PSITTACIDAE
109
Large Green Barbet
Megalaima zeylanica
078
Roseringed Parakeet
Psrttacula krameri
110
Small Green Barbet
Megalaima virkJis
079
Blossom headed
111
Crimson throated
Parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephhala
Barbet
Megalaima rubricapilla
060
Bluewinged Parakeet
Psrttacula columbokJes
112
Coppersmith
Megalaima haemacephala
081
Indian Lorikeet
Loriculus vernalis
Family
PICIDAE
Family
: CUCULIDAE
113
Rufous woodpecker
Micropternus brachyurus
082
Piedcrested Cucoo
Clamator jacobinus
114
Lesser Goldenbacked
083
Brain Fever Bird
Cuculus varius
Woodpecker
Dinopium benghalense
084
Cuckoo
Cuculus canorus
115
Great Black
085
Indian Plaintive
Woodpecker
Drycopus javensis
Cuckoo
Cacomantis merulinus
116
r
Mahralta's
086
Koel
Eudynamys scobpacea
Woodpecker
PicokJes mahrattensis
087
Sirkeer Cuckoo
Taccocua leschenaulti
117
Heartspotted
088
Coucal
Centropus sinensis
Woodpecker
Hemiciccus canente
Family
0B9
: STRIGIDAE
Bain Owl
Tyto alba
118
Blackbacked
Woodpecker
Chrysocolapte festivus
090
Spotted Owlet
Anthene bramna
119
Larger Goldenbacked
Woodpecker
Chrysocolaptes lucidus
Family
091
: PODARGIDAE
Ceylon Frogmouth
Batrachostomus monilinger
Family
120
: P1TT1DAE
Indian Pitta
Pitta brachyura
Family
: CAPRIMULGIDAE
Family
121
: ALAUDIDAE
092
Common Nightjar
Caprimulgus asiaticus
Blacker owned
Family
: APODIDAE
Finchtark
Eremopterix nig rice ps
093
Alpine Swift
Apus melba
122
Malabar Crested
094
House Swift
Cypsirus parvus
Lark
Galerida malabarica
096
Crested Tree Swift
Hemiprocne longipennis
Family
: HIRUNDINIDAE
123
Dusky Crag Martin
Hirundo concolor
Family
: ALCEDINIDAE
124
Swallow
Hirundo rustica
097
Lesser Pied
125
House Swallow
Hirundo tahitica
Kingfisher
Ceryle rudis
126
Wiretailed Swallow
Hirundo smithill
098
Common
127
Indian Cliff Swallow
Hirundo f luvicola
Kingfisher
Alcedo atthis
128
Redrumped Swallow
Hirundo gaurica
099
Storkbilled
Kingfisher
Petargopsis capensts
100
White- breasted
Family
: LANIIDAE
Kingfisher
Halcyon amyrnensis
129
Grey Shrike
Lanius excubitor
130
Rufous Backed
Shrike
Lanius schach
Family : MEROPIDAE
131
Brown Shrike
Lanius cristatus
101
Chestnut headed
Bee -eater
Merops leschenautti
Family
: ORIOL1DAE
102
103
Bluetailed Bee -e ate
Green Bee-eater
Merops philippinus
Merops Orientalis
132
133
Golden Oriole
Blackheaded Oriole
Oriolus oriolus
Oriolus xanthornus
78
Family : DICRURIDAE
134 Black drongo
1 35 Whitebellied Drongo
136 Bronzed Drongo
137 Racket-tailed Drongo
Family: ARTAMIDAE
138 Ashy Swallow Shrike
Family: STURNIDAE
139 Greyheaded Myna
140 Brahminy Myna
141 Rosy Pastor
142 Common Myna
143 Jungle Myna
144 Hill Myna
Dicrurus adsimilis
Dicr urus caerulescens
Dicrurus aeneus
Dicrurus paradiseus
Artamus fuscus
Sturnus malabaricus
Sturnus pagodarum
Sturnus roseus
Acridotheres tristis
Acridotheres fuscus
Gracula religiosa
Family : CORVIDAE
145 Indian Tree Pie Dendrocitla vagabunda
146 White Bellied Tree Pie Dendrocitla leucogastra
147 House Crow Corvus splendens
148 Jungle Crow Corvus macrohynchos
Family : CAMPEPHAGIDAE
149 Common Wood
Shrike
1 50 Large Cuckoo Shrike
151 Black Headed Cuckoo
Shrike
152 Scarlet Minivet
153 Small Minivet
Tephrodornis pondtcerianus
Coracina novae holl and iae
Coracina melanoptera
Pericrocotus flammeus
Pencrocotus cinnamomeus
Family : IRENIDAE
154 Common tora
155 Gold Fronted
Chloropsis
156 Goldmantled
Chloropsis
157 Fairy Blue Bird
Family : PYCNONOTIDAE
1 58 Ruby throated Bulbul
159 Redwhiskered Bulbul
160 Red Vented Bulbul
161 White Browed Bulbul
162 Yellow Browed Bulbul
163 Black Bulbul
Aegithina tiphia
Chloropsis aurifrons
Chloropsis cochinchinensis
Irena puella
Pycnonotus melanicterus
Pycnonotus jocosus
Pycnonotus cafer
Pycnonotus luteolus
Hypsipetes indicus
Hypsipetes
madagascariensis
Family : MUSCICAPIDAE (Sub Family : TIMALINAE)
164 Slatyheaded Scimitar
Babbler
1 65 Blackheaded Babbler
1 66 Yelloweyed Babbler
167 Common Babbler
1 68 Large Grey Babbler
1 69 Rufous Babbler Turdoides subruf us
1 70 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus
171 Quaker Babbler Alcippe Poioicephala
Pomalominus reeficollis
Rhopoctchla atriceps
Chrysomma sinense
Turdoides caudatus
Turdoides mateolmi
Sub Family: MUSCICAPINAE
1 72 Redbreasted Flycatcher
173 Whitebellied Blue
Flycatcher
1 74 Tckeirs Blue Flycatcher
175 Nikjiri Flycatcher
176 Grey Headed Flycatcher
1 77 Whitethroated Tantail
White Spotted Flycatcher
1 78 Paradise Flycatcher
1 79 Blacknaped Flycatcher
Sub Family: SYLVIINAE
1 80 Streaked Fantail Warbler
181 Plain Wren-Warbler
182 Jungle Wren-Warbler
183 Ashy Wren-Warbler
184 Tailor Bird
1 85 Grasshopper Warbler
186 Great Reed Warbler
187 Blyth's Reed Warbler
188 Chilchaff
189 Plain Leaf Warbler
Muscicapa parva
Muscicapa pallipes
Muscicapa tickelliae
Muscicapa albicaudata
Culiocapa ceylonensis
Rhipidura albogularis
Terpsiphone paradisi
Hypothymis azurea
Cisticola juncidis
Prinia subflava
Prinia sylvatica
Prinia socialis
Orthotomus sutorius
Locus te Ha naevia
Acrocephalus stentoreus
Acrocephalus dumetorum
Phylloscopus collybrta
Phylloscopus inornatus
Sub Family : TURDINAE
190 Magpie Robin
191 Shama
192 Pied Bush Chat
193 Indian Robin
1 94 Blueheaded Rock Thrush
1 95 Or angeheaded Ground
Thrush
Family : PARIDAE
196 Grey Tit
197 Yellowcheeked Tit
Family : SITTIDAE
1 98 Chestnutbellied Nuthatch
1 99 Velvetfronted Nuthatch
Family : MOTACILLIDAE
200 Tawny Pipit
201 Paddy Field Pipit
202 Nilgiri Pipit
203 Forest Wagtail
204 Yellow Wagtail
205 Yellowheaded Wagtail
206 Grey Wagtail
207 Pied Wagtail
208 Large Pied Wagtail
Copsychus saularis
Copsychus malabaricus
Saxicola cap rat a
Saxicoloides f ulicata
Monticola cinclorhynchus
Zoothera citrina
Parus major
Parus xanthogenys
Sitta castanea
Sitta frontalis
Anthuscampestris
Anthus navaeselandiae
Anthus nilghiriensis
Motacilla indica
Motacilla f lava
Motacilla citreola
Motacilla caspica
Motacilla alba
Motacilla
maderaspatensis
Family : DICAEIDAE
209 Tickell's Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrohynchos
Family
: NECTARINIIDAE
210
Purplerumped Sunbird
Nectar in ia zeylonica
211
Small Sunbird
Nectarinia minima
212
Lot en's Sunbird
Nectarinia lotenia
213
Purple Sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica
79
214 Yellowback*) Sunbird
215 LiTIte Spider Hunter
Family: ZOSTEROPIDAE
216 White-Eye
Aethopyga siparaja
Arachnothera
longirostris
Zosterops palperbrosa
Family : CHARADRIIDAE
235 Golden Plover
236 Green Shank
237 Fantail Snipe
Family: LARIDAE
236 Blackbellied Tern
Pluvialis dominica
Tringa nebularia
Gallinago gallinago
Sterna acuticauda
Family : PLOCEIDAE
Sub family : PASSERINAE
217
House Sparrow
Passer domesticus
Sub Family : PLOCEINAE
218
Bo/a
Ploceusphilippinus
219
Streaked Weawer
Ploceus manyar
Sub Fa
mlly : Estrldlnae
220
Avadavat
Estrilda amandava
221
Whitethroated Munia
Lonchura malabarica
222
Whitebacked Munia
Lonchura striata
223
Spotted Munia
Lonchura punctulata
224
Blackheaded Munia
Lonchura malacca
Family : PHASIANIDAE
225 Bed Spur Fowl
Galtoperidix lunulata
BIRDS OF GUDAVI : By V. Raghunatha
Family : ANATIDAE
226 Wigeon Anas penelope
227 Shoveller Anas cfypeata
Family : ACCIPITRIDAE
228 Crested Hawk Eagle
229 Greyheaded Fishing
Eagle
230 Indian Longbilled Vulture
231 Montagu's Harrier
Family : PHASIANIDAE
232 Painted Partridge
Family : TURNICIDAE
233 Bustard Quail
Family : RALLIDAE
234 Banded Crake
Family: COLUMBIDAE
239 Imperial Pigeon
Family : PSITTACIDAE
240 Alexandrine Parakeet
Family : CUCUL1DAE
Ducula badia
Psittacula euptria
Spizaetus cirrhatus
Ichythyophaga ichthyaetus
Gyps indicus
Circus pygargus
Francoltnus pictus
Turnix suscitator
Rallina eurizonoides
241
Indian Cuckoo
Cuculus imcropterus
242
Small Green Billed
Malkoha
Rhopodytes virkjirostris
Family
STRIGIDAE
243
Mottled Wood Owl
Stris ocellata
244
Brown Wood Owl
Strix leptogrammica
Family
: APODIDAE
245
Whiterumped Swift
Apus pacificus
Family
: PICIDAE
Little Scalybellied Green
Woodpecker
Picus
myrmecophoneus
Family
ALAUDIDAE
Redwinged Bushlark
Mirafra erythroptera
248
Ashy crowned Finchlark
Eremopterixgrisea
Family : MUSCICAPIDAE
249 Franklin's Wrenwarbler
250 Dull Green Leaf Warbler
251 Black Red Start
252 Malbar Whistling Thrush
253 White Throated Ground
Thrush
254 Black Bird
Prima hodsonii
Phyllescopus trochiloides
Phoenicurus ochruros
Myiophonus horsfieldii
Zcothera citrina
Turdus morula
Family : DICAEIDAE
255 Thickbilled Rower Pecker Dicaeum agile
256 Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides affinis
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Mr K.V. Chandrakantha and Miss K.V.
Suma who helped in valuable guidance and corrections.
80
Checklist of Birds Around Damoh Town, Madhya Pradesh
A. KHER* and P. khare"
'Asst. Prof, of Botany, Govt. Girl's College. Damoh. "C/o Khushal Chand Jain, Behind Purana Thana.
Damoh. Dist. Damoh 470 661 (M.P.)
P\amoh town is in the north-west ot Madhya Pradesh. It
■-'is between 23'30' and 24*15' north latitude and Irom
79*15' east to 79" 45' east longitude. Damoh is 341 feet
above sea level and the average annual rainfall is 1133
mm. As no previous ornithological study had been reported
from this region, the present work has been undertaken
with a view to explore the avifauna of Damoh.
The study was initiated in October 1992. Tanks, ponds,
river banks and forests were surveyed. Seventy eight bird
species sighted are listed in the checklist. This list is not
complete for two reasons: Firstly, one year is yet to be
completed from the date the study started; Secondly, there
may be several other species which may not have been
seen till date. In the checklist, first 30 species are very
common. Approximately 30 species are water-birds
including Painted Stork. Spoonbill. Openbilled Stork,
Blacknecked Stork. White Ibis and River Tern. A single
Spurwinged Plover ( Vanellus spinosus) and a pair of Great
Stone Plover (Esacus magnirostris) were sighted once in
dry environs.
Checklist Of Birds Around Damoh Town
1 . House Sparrow,
2. Jungle Crow.
3. House Crow,
4. Indian Myna,
5. Pied Myna.
6. Brahmlny Myna.
7. House Swift,
8. Redrumped Swallow,
9. Dusky Crag Martin,
10. Common Pariah Kite,
11. White Scavenger
Vulture,
12. Bengal Vulture,
13. Roseringed Parakeet,
14. Blossom headed
Parakeet,
15. Small Green Bee-eater,
16. Redvented Bulbul.
17. Black Drongo.
18. Redwattled Lapwing,
19. Common Babbler,
20. Spotted Dove.
21. Ring Dove,
22. Rufousbacked Shrike,
23. Indian Robin,
24. Blue Rock Pigeon,
25. Hoopoe,
26. Roller
27. Cattle Egret.
28. Large Egret.
29. Median Egret,
30. Pond Heron.
31. Magpie-Robin,
Passer domesticvs
Corvus macrorhynchos
Corvus splendens
Acridotheres tristis
Stumus contra
Stumus pagodarum
Apus affinis
Hirundo daurica
Hirundo concolor
Mitvus migrans
Neophron percnopterus
Gyps bengalensis
Psittacuta krameri
Psittacula cyanocephala
Merops orientalis
Pycnonotus cater
Dicrurus adsimilis
VaneUus indicus
Turdoides caudatus
Sireprcpelia chinensis
Streptopelia decaocto
Lanius schach
Saxiooloides fulicata
Columba livia
Upupa epops
Coracias benghalensis
Bulbulcus *is
Egretta alba
Egretta intermedia
Ardeola grayii
Copsychus saularis
32. Large Cormorant.
Phalacrocorax carbo
33. Indian Shag.
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis
34. Grey Heron,
Ardea cinerea
35. Whitenecked Stork,
Ciconia episcopus
36. Black Ibis,
Pseudibis papulosa
37. White Ibis.
Threskiornjs aethicpics
38. Dabchick,
Podiceps nj/icollis
39. Rearrested Pochard,
Nefta rufina
40. Sarus Crane,
Grus anbgone
41. Indian Moorhan.
Gallinula chloropus
42. Whitebreasted
Water hen.
Amaurornis phoenicurus
43. Pheasant-tailed Jacani
. Hydrophasianus chirurgus
44. Bronzewinged Jacana.
Metopidius indicus
45. Blackwinged Stilt,
Himantopvs himantopus.
46. Pied Kingfisher.
Ceryle rudis
47. Small Blue Kingfisher.
Alcedo attNs
48. Spoonbill.
Platalea leucorodia
49. Painted Stork.
Mycteria leucocephala
50. Openbilled Stork.
Anastomus oscitans
51. Blacknecked Stork,
Xenorhynchus asiatkus
52. Cotton Teal,
Nettapus coromandeUanus
53. Purple Moorhen.
Porphyrto porphyrio
54. Coot.
Fulica atra
55. River Tern,
Sterna auranba
56. Whitebreasted
Kingfisher.
Halcyon smymens/s
57. Yellow-wartled Lapwing
Vanellus malabarkus
58. Blackwinged Kite.
Elanus caeruleus
59. Brahminy Kite.
Haliastur indus
60. Shikra.
Accipiter badius
61. Common Peafowl,
Pavo chstatus
62. Koel.
Eudynamys scolopacea
63. Crow -Pheasant,
Centropus sinensis
64. Coppersmith.
Megalaima haemacephala
65. Common Grey Hornbill
Torkus birostris
66. Mahratta Woodpecker,
Picoides mahrattensis
67. Wiretailed Swallow,
Hirundo smithii
68. Golden Oriole,
Oriolus orlolus
69. Tree Pie,
Dendrocitta vagabunda
70. Large Cuckoo-Shrike,
Coracina novaehollandae
71. Blue Rock Thrush.
Monticola soli tonus
72. Reds tan.
Phoenicurus oohruros
73. White Wagtail.
Motaalla alba
74. Purple Sunbird.
Nectarinia asiabca
75. Blackballed Finch-Lark
Eremopterix grisea
76. Rufoustailed Finch-Lark, Ammomane's phoenicurus
77. Whitethroated Munia,
Lonchura malabanca
78. Red Munia,
Esthida amandava
81
Distribution and Habitat Preferences of Pheasants in Forests of Garhwal Himalaya
Dinesh Kumar Sharma and Asha Chandola-Saklani
Reproductive & Wildlife Biology Unit . PostBox45, HNB Garhwal University., Srinagar Garhwal 246 174
Cxtensive and Intensive studies on pheasants at different
^altitudes in different forest types of Garhwal Himalaya
indicated five endemic pheasant species. Among them
Monal (Lophophorus impejanus 2700-3500m) Koklas
(Pucrasia macrolopha 2300-2800m) and Ghir (Catreus
wa//jcn«l500-180Om) are restricted in distribution with
limited tolerance to environmental factors while Kaleej
{Lophura leucomelana, 400-2300m) and Red Jungle fowl
(Gallus gallus, 400- 1200m) are widespread in distribution.
Our data on sighting frequency indicated that Koklas
which is not enlisted as an endangered species in the
IUCN red data book and Indian wildlife protection Act-72'80
appears to be as endangered as Monal (less than Chir in
our area).
The Monal Pheasant was found to inhabit three types of
habitats (temperate evergreen (TEG), subalpine and
alpine) dividing its time along these habitats on daily and
annual scale. Alpine and subalpine habitasts constitute the
summer habitat and TEG the winter. The pheasant prefers
Rhododendrons shrubs and dense grasses of
Ringal-Koklas prefers TEG. temperate moist (TM) and
temperate mixed deciduous (TMD) habitat types & shares
TMD with Kaleej. Chir was the least sighted pheasant and
prefers open grassy rocky terrain and chirpine habitat
types. Kaleej was observed in almost all habitat types from
subtrophical to temperate excepting the pine pure forest
tyes.
Intensive observations on Whitecrested Kaleej [Lophura
leucomelana leucomelana) in subtropical habitat type
indicated that maximum sightings for Kaleej were made in
subtropical mixed deciduous (STMD) habitat
(63.24*6.09%) individual/sighting). In crop fields (CF)
28.35+7.8% ind/sight., in subtropical open scrub (STOS)
18.98+5.28%ind./sight.. in subtropical mixed pine (STPP)
individual were not sighted. STMD was used by the
pheasant for breeding, feeding roosting & for shelter
purposes while CF was only used for feeding purposes.
Carrissa sp.. Murrayya sp.Rhus sp. ate the most favored
shrubs for breeding cover and feeding purposes. This type
of information are prerequisite for the development of
management plans & for management of Kaleej pheasant.
The authors thank DoEn, MAB. Govt, of India for the
financial assistance.
82
Vanishing Migratory Birds of Kawar Lake (Begusarai), Bihar :
Conservation and Management
UP. Sharma
Post Graduate Department of Zoology, Bhagafpur University. Bhagatpur 8 12 007, Bihar
Introduction
K^any limnologica! studies have been made in India
'"'(Das and Srivastava. 1956: Michael. 1969; Munawar,
1970; Bhatnagar and Sharma. 1978; Rai and Dutta
Munshi. 1979; Prakash et at. 1983; and Singh. 1986). but
no comprehensive information is available on the
ecological niche favourable to birds population and its
conservation and management except Ali. 1945; Ali &
Futehally. 1967; Ali & Ripley. 1983; Ripley. 1982; Vijayan,
1986. Mukherjee, 1969 and Gountlett, 1971.
Material And Methods
Study area
Kawar lake (Begusarai). Bihar is situated at 25" 80* NL
and 87' 40' EL at an altitude of 166 m (Das. 1989). Its
importance as wetland habitat was realised recently and
was declared "Bird Sanctuary' in 1987 by the Government
of Bihar under section 37 of the Wild Life Protection Act,
1972. The Department and Ministry of Environment, Forest
& Wild Life. Government of India. New Delhi, has also
selected and identified this lake as one of the sixteen lakes
(wetlands) for its conservation and management. This is an
ox-bow lake formed by the meandering action of the
channel of the river Burhi Gandak. a tributary of the river
Ganga(Fig.l).
The lake's morphometry and physico-chemical
characteristics were studied using standard methods
(APHA. 1 989; Adoni et at., 1 985 and Trivedy & Goel. 1 984).
Bird habit, habitat, number and seasonality were studied by
regular visits to the lake as suggested by Das (1990).
Results and Discussion
Physico-chemical Characteristics
The physico-chemical complexes operating in the
Kawar lake established its eutrophic character. The
eutrophication process is slow, but progressively may lead
to terrestrial isat ion. The annual average physico-chemical
characteristics observed have been shown in Table 1.
The physico-chemical and biological diversrtic
parameters of the lake are the major regulatory force in
determining the population density of the birds.
Forty eight (22 + 26) species of migratory and
residential birds, respectively, have been found associated
with Kawar Lake. Out of them Ciconiformes,
Pelican if ormes and Passeriformes contributed substantially
to the bird population of the lake throughout the year. The
Anseriformes and Charadriformes were the main migratory
birds orders which foraged here during the winter. These
have given in Tables 2 and 3.
Bird Migration in Kawar Lake
The bird migration has been categorised into (1) winter
migrants (2) summer migrants and (3) passage migrants.
Birds visiting the lake between November and February
are the winter visitors. Some residential and migratory birds
breed or remain in the lake in summer and are called
summer visitors. Some pass through Kawar lake in
November and are called passage migrants.
The Kawar lake acts as resting place for winter migrants
such as cormorants, spoonbill, harrier, osprey. falcon,
waders, shrikes, warblers, wagtails and other resident birds
such as spotbill teals, ducks and 1 6 other species including
the rare Falcated Teal from Manchuria.
The Falcated Teal {Anas fatcata) are scarce in number.
However, they are found in small groups of 4 to 8 along the
lakes and wetlands of North Bihar including Kawar lake in
March. There are 6 types of terns and 5 types of gulls
including the rare Pink Slenderbilled Gull. Among warblers,
there is the uncommon Smoky Leaf-warbier and Eastern
Grasshopper Warbler. In the spring, the Kawar lake, other
wetlands of North Bihar and Koshi Barrage areas are the
major routes of the migratory birds.
The dabchick. cormorant, kingfisher and herons are the
resident birds.
The skimmers, terns and gulls are winter visitors to
Kawar lake and Kashi barrage. The common Blackheaded
Laughing Gull. Larus ridibundus and the Yellowlegged
Herring. Larrus argentatus are familiar here. The
Blackbellied Tern, Sterna melanogaster is associated with
these lakes, swamps, tals, chaurs and reservoirs. The Little
Cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger reproduce during
monsoon in the freshwater lakes, ponds and swamps of
North Bihar. The Darter, Anhinga melanogaster is a
freshwater bird found frequently in the lakes and swamps
of North Bihar.
Suggestions
Many species have disappeared from the Kawar lake
and adjoining wetlands of North Bihar. Several of these
birds were reported by Hodgson (1946).
For conservation, managemeni and protection of the
birds of Kawar lake areas should be surveyed and species
composition, diversity, abundance and distribution of birds
and other biota must be recorded. Physico-chemical
factors should be obtained regularly. The lake and its
adjoining areas should be protected by fencing. The areas
of regular fishing should be fixed. Encroachment of the lake
should be slopped. The aquatic weeds must be controlled.
83
A porton of the lake needs to be declared a protected
am and human exploitation should be stopped (Table 4).
Altar careful observation and analysis, it has been found
thai the vanishing and extinction of the migratory birds
fauna from the Kawar lake and mainly due to the following :
Sudden climatic change
New diseases
Reduced breeding potential
Human interferences
Habitat change
Poaching, hunting, catching and killing
Agricultural exploitation of the lake and
its adjoining areas
Commercial and recreational exploitation
of the lake
Reclamation and encroachment of the lake for
Governments planning
Lack of proper legislation and administrative
lapses
Lack of proper environmental education and
training of the people.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to the Ministry of Environment and
Forest and Wildlife, New Delhi for extending financial grant.
References
Adoni. A.D.. Joshi, G., Ghosh, K., Chourasia, S.K.,
Vaishya, A.K.. Yadav. M. and Verma, H.G.. 1985. Work
Book on Limnolgy. Pratibha Publishers. Sagar.
Ali. Salim. 1945. The Birds of Kutch, Oxford University
Press. Bombay.
Ali. Salim and Laeeg Futehally. 1967. Common Birds,
National Book Trust. New Delhi.
Ali, Salim and Ripley. S.D . 1983 Handbook of Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compiled Edition of 10 volumes,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Apha. 1989. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Waste Water. 17th Edition. Am. Publ. Hlth.
Assoc., New York. USA.
Bhatnagar. G.P. and Sharma. C.P.. 1978. Physico-chemical
features of sewage polluted lower lake. Bhopal. Proc.
Int. Symp. on Environ .... agents and their biological
effects. In Heredity Supplement. II : 163-166.
Das. P.K.. 1990. "Aves" In — Collection and Preservation of
Animals (Ed. M.S Jairajpuri). Z.S.I. Calcutta.
Das, S.M. and Srivastava. A.K., 1956. Quantitative studies
of freshwater plankton, correlations between plankton
and Hydrobio logical factors. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.. 26(4)
: 243-254.
Das. S.M., 1989. Handbook of Limnology and Water
Pollution. South Asian Publisher, New Delhi, 143 p.
Gountlett, F.M.. 1971. Durgapur Barrage as a Water Bird
Habitat. Journal Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc, 68 : 619-632.
Hodgson. B.H., 1946. Various papers on the fauna of
Nepal, Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal. 18(2) : 32-45.
Michael. R.G.. 1969. Seasonal Trends in Physico-chemical
factors and plankton of freshwater fish pond and their
role in fish culture, Hydrobiologia, 33(1 ) : 144-160.
Mookherjee. A.K., 1969. Food habits of water Birds of
Sunderbans. Journal Bom. Nat Hist. Soc. 66(2) : 345.
Munawar, M., 1970. Limnological studies of freshwater
pond of Hyderabad. India. 1, The Biotope,
Hydrobiologia. 35(1) : 127-162.
Prakash. S.. Joshi, M.C. and Karmachandani. S.J., 1983.
On the trophic condition ol Govindgarh lake in Madhya
Pradesh, J. Scientific Research, 23 : 369-370.
Rai. D.N. and Datta Munshi, J.S. 1979. The influence of
thick dating vegetation (water. Hyacinth : Eichhornia
crasipes) on the physico-chemical environment ol
Freshwater Wetland. Hydrobiologia. 62(1) : 65-67.
Ripley. S.D., 1982. A Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.
Singh. S.R., 1986. On the trophic characteristics of Dah
lake (Ballia), Biol. Bull of India, 8(2) : 125-135.
Trrvedy, R.K. and Goel, P.K., 1984. Chemical and
Biological Methods for Water Pollution Studies,
Environmental Publ. Karad.
Vijayan, VS.. 1 986. On conserving the Bird fajuna of Indian
wetland Proc. Indian Acad. Science (Animal Science.
Plant Science Suppl.), November, 1986 : 91-101.
Table 1 : The range of different physico-chemical
parameters of the Kawar Lake (Bequsarai). from
October 1991 to November 1992
Parameters
Minimum
Maximum
Depth (cm)
13.3
3473
Transparency (cm)
125
2404
Atm. Temp. ('C)
204
33.0
Water Temp. ("C)
18
310
PH
5.0
75
Conductivity (m mho)
140.0
730.00
DCv(mg/L)
1.20
800
FC02 (mg/L)
000
10 40
Carb Alk (mg/L>
0.00
37.60
Bicarb Alk (mg/L)
72 80
295 00
Total Hardness (mg/L)
62.00
182 00
Calcium Hardness (mg/L)
4300
120.20
Magnesium Hardness (mg/L)
15.40
96 00
Calaum (mg/L)
17.28
45.96
Magnesium (mg'L)
375
23.42
Chloride (mg/L)
6 40
32.00
Silicate (mgt)
684
35.71
Sodtum (mg/L)
1680
55.76
Potassium (mg/L)
1.23
3.15
Nitrate (mg/L)
0.30
1.38
Phosphate (mg/L)
0.00
0035
Soil Sandy Loam with rich humus, fertile,
suitable for luxuriant eutrophication.
Water source Rains between July to September every year.
During flood it gets water also
from Burhi Gandak.
Transparency January to July transparent water and we can
see the forest-like macrophyiic structure.
84
Table 2 : List of Migratory Birds in and around Karwar Lake (Begusarai]
Genus Species
Common Local Name
1
Pbtato leucoratea
SpoonMt Of KhurpiadaMI
2
Anser anser
Greylag Goose (Kaj)
3
Anser indicus
Barheaded Goose
4
Anas acuta
Pintail (Dighaunch)
5
Anas poealorhyrtcha
SpotW Duck or Grey Duck (Kapiia)
6
Anas creca
Common Teal (Kern)
7
Anas strepera
Gadwall (Malkai)
8
Anas querquedula
Garganey (Khaira)
9
Nett a rufina
Redcrested Pochard (Lalsar)
10
Fulica aira
Coot (Sarair)
11
Gallinago stonura
Pintail Snipe
12
Gal Imago gallinago
Pintail Common Snipe (Chaha)
13
Gallinago mmime
Jack Snipe
14
Ardea anerea
Grey Heron
15
Anlhropodos virgo
Demoiselle Crane
16
Tandorna terruginea
Ruddy Shekluck or Brahrrwiy Duck
17
Circus macrourus
Pale Hamer
16
Pluvialrs dominika
GokJen Plover
19
Cuculus micropterus
Indian Cuckoo
20
Cuculus pofeocephalus
Small Cuckoo
21
Purvialis apncana
Golden Plover (Ttthi)
22
Circus aeruginous
Marsh Harrier (Safed Sira)
Table 3 : Lis! of Non-Mtgratory Bird Species in and around Karwar Lake (Gegusarai). Bihar. India
Genus Species
1
Podiceps rufficollis
Little Grebe (Pandubi)
2
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis
lnc*an Shag
3
Phalacrocorax niger
Little Cormorant (Pankowwa)
4
Phalacrocorax carbo
Large Cormorant
5
Ardea cinerea
Grey Heron (Kubid or Khaira)
6
Arcead purpurea
Purple Heron (Khair)
7
Ardea alba
Large Egret (Bagula)
8
Babulcus ibis
Cattle Egret (Gai Bagula)
9
Egretta garretta
Little Egret (Bagula)
10
Egretta gularis
Indian Roof Heron
11
Ardea insignis
Great Whitedollied Heron
12
Ardeota grayii
Pond Heron (Andha Bagula)
13
Egretta intermedia
SmaHer or Medium Egret (Bagula)
14
Anastomus oscitans
Openbellied Stork (Ghonghail)
15
Threskiarrismolanocephala
White ib*d (Mandul)
16
Gallicrex anerea
Water Cock (Kora)
17
Porphyno porphyho
Purple Moorhen (Karian)
18
Ceryle rude
Pied Kingfisher QBhobima)
19
Hinjndo smithii
Wiretailed Swallow
20
Hirundo rustica
Kastern Swallow (Ababeel)
21
Hirundo ttuvtcola
Clifl Swallor
22
Pelecanus phillipensis
Grey Pelican (Bhairwa)
23
Denarocygno fawanica
Lesser Whisling Teel (Silli)
24
Holister Indus
Brahminy Kite (Dhobia Cheel)
25
Moiopidius indus
Bronzewinged Jacqna (Karauwa)
26
Postralula bengalenss
Pintail Snipe (Ra| Chala)
85
4 : Conservation and Management Strategies
for Kawar Lake (Begusarai). Bihar. India,
for development of the "Bird Sanctuary"
A CONSERVATION
(i) Protection :
Notification of the areas, lancing, zoning of fishing
areas
(ii) Maping :
Maping of lake and its catchment areas
(iii) Landscape Planning :
Beaut if icat ion, land use pattern, afforestation and soil
conservation
(iv) Hydrology :
Planning of water inflow & outflow, siltation ratio etc.
(v) Encroachment Removal :
Man made Barricades removal & encroachment
stoppage
(vi) Eulrophication Abatement :
Stopping sewage and other pollutants coming to lake
(vii) Aquatic weed Control :
Auatic weed control — Biological and Mechanical
(viii) Identification ;
Govt's identification and notification in their action
plans, Enumeration of flora and fauna
(ix) Fishery Development :
Fishing in limited sectors with modern technology
(x) Environmental Awareness :
People's environmental awareness education by
posters, audio- visuals, seminar etc.
I. MANAGEMENT
(i) Pollution Abatement action plans
(ii) Conservation of Biological resources available in
the lake
(iii) Landscape Development
(iv) Afforestation in the periphery of the Lake
(v) Aquacufture Development
(vi) Data collection and survey
(vii) Specific problem tor identification
(viii) Organisation and administrative machinery for
systematic management
(ix) Necessary legislation by the Government and its
implication
40
..,*.•"■'"-* . >.-
• ■■■ t,"^/' - -;...-.. ... ..-..-- -ff.
V I
1* •
i y ROAO --.-_•/== J
I VILLAGE — •
U '.
N^^f
'"■- I
A ft
KAWAR ""^9 .]
/ \ "•-
LAKE
\ i
*• f *
V,
•1
■
• '!
(V_;
_,,,,,.»
<-.:: -.\ -— ... ^
• H
(" T7-r J ]$
/ 1
■j jt' '•'••. r\ /!
J
}»
Wf J KM
H * v.. s ■■//
Id
rij. lK-w.rL.kr
86
Birds of the Scrub Forest Around Madras City
Ramanan. A. Rajaram and V. Shantaram
Madras Naturalists' Society. 36, 4th Main Road, R.A. Puram, Madras 600 028
"The scrub jungles along the Coromandel coast are a
1 highly endangered ecosystem. This is also a favoured
habitat (or the Great Horned Owl (Bubo bubo). We have
made observations on the birds of the scrub jungle areas
around Madras with special references to this species. The
maximum number of birds seen in a suitable area was six
and this area is heavily disturbed.
In general, the specialized scrub birds are decreasing in
numbers at the places where human incursion is on the
increase. In modified habitats, the number of species is
usually more but the number of specialized species
decrease.
Changing Habitats of Birds in Dakshina Kannada District
N.A. Madhyastha
Department of Zoology, Poomaprajna College. Udupi576 101, Kamataka
|™\akshina Kannada District (O.K.) has a geographic area
^of 8441 sq km with a straight coast lines of about 141
km. The varied elements of the landscape of the district
offer a variety of habitats for both migratory and resident
birds. 350 species of birds of which 49 migratory have been
identified. Of late, many habitats of birds in the district are
severely changed, affecting bird life.
The sandy sea shore with some rocky patches all along
offer an ideal habitat for the following important migratory
birds: Larvus brunnicephalus. Stoma caspicum. Sterna
hirundo, Pluvialis squatarola, Pdominica. Charadrius
mongolus, C.dubius. Arenaria interpres, Tringa
hypoleucos. T.orchropus, Tneularia. T.totanus, T.terek.
Calidris alba, Recurvirostra avoseita and Haematopus
astraleous. Unfortunately, al many places the sea shore is
experiencing an intense erosion and as a measure to
prevent this erosion granite boulders are being dumped on
the sandy shore. This has altered the basic structure of the
shore, adversely affecting the feeding grounds of the shore
birds.
The D.K. district produces a third of all the tiles
produced in the country. The top soil of agricultural land is
being excavated for the purpose, which leaves behind vast
stretches of wastelands. The disturbances of agricultural
lands have affected the following birds: Pluvialis dominica.
Glareola lactea. several species of Tringa. Bubulcus ibis,
Galerida malabarica. Dicrurus adsimilis. Merops orientals.
Acridotheres tristis. Vanellus indicus, Egretta intermedia,
E.gularis, E.garzetta.
Extensive deforestation and loss of tall trees have
affected forest birds. The birds such as Haliaectus
leucogaster. Sarcogyps calvus. Gyps bengalensis.
Anthrococerus coronalus which nest on tall trees have
become very rare and are likely to disappear rf proper
conservation measures are not carried out.
The D.K. district has a few mangrove complexes and
many large mud flats. An attempt to convert these mud
flats into mangrove forest is tried. Apart from other effects,
this attempt would certainly come in the way of feeding by
shore birds particularly N.arguata. N.phaeopus, T.totanus.
Tnebularia, Tglareola. Calardis alba. Another major
habitat disturbance is that of marsh lands. The birds
affected by the loss of marsh lands are Ixobrychus
cinnamomeus, l.flavicollis, Butorides sthatus. Amaurornis
phoonicurus, and Prinia socialis.
High population density (319 per sq km), rapid
industrialisation and extensive urbanisation are changing
the bird habitats in the district. The local authorities should
not encourage these activities.
87
Ranganathlttu Bird Sanctuary
S.G. Neglnhal
Kalpavriksha, 643, 9th Main, 2nd Cross, Basaveswaranagar, III Stage, III Block
Bangalore 560 079
Introduction
Ranganthittu is small, silent, scenic place, where the
tamous Kaveri river bifurcates and its one branch flows
into a small reservoir formed by a weir constructed across
the flowing waters by one of the well-known kings of
Mysore known as Kantheerva Wodeyar. nearly 400 years
ago (1645-1648). The impounding of the flowing waters
encircled higher lands in the wide river-bed forming a
number of small islets which got covered by the nvarian
vegetation consisting of Terminalia arjuna (Arjun),
Syzygium spp. (Jamun), Salix sp. (Indian Willow).
Pongamia pinnala (Indian 8eech tree), Vitex spp.,
Pandanus sp. (Screw-pine), Ficus spp., Pithecetlobium
duke (Vilayati-imbili), bamboos, reeds and grass
caesalpineae, prickly shrubs, etc.
Water birds have been flocking for breeding between
June and November. A favorable niche is created for the
heronry birds to breed on the insulated islets, surrounded
by deep waters that offer natural protection against the land
predators like the mangoose. land monitors, jungle cats,
civet cats, toddy cats, monkeys, etc. Even man. cattle and
his pets are kept away from reaching the islets due to deep
waters. In addition, another essential and important
requirement of the breeding birds vi2. food is made
available both in the impounded waters and in the
surrounded irrigated paddy fields.
Further the vegetation along the river banks and on the
islets provide the nesting materials.
The credit for getting Ranganathittu declared a bird
sanctuary in July 1940 should go to our inte mat ion ally
famous ornithologist, the late Dr Salim Ali. During his
survey of the birds of the then Mysore State in 1940 as
summoned by the Government of Mysore, Dr Salim Ali
accidentally came across this heronry and was naturally
amazed to see the spectacular congregation of the water
and water birds for breeding on the islets in the midst of the
swollen Kaveri river. On returning to Mysore the same
evening he prevailed upon the Government of Mysore to
declare Ranganathittu a bird sanctuary (Ali and Ripley,
1968).
The Heronry Birds
The main breeding season of the heronry birds at
Ranganathittu is from June to November. Fourteen species
of birds congregate here for breeding as detailed below :
(Neginhal. 1983 and 1992).
1 . The Large Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
2. The Indian Shag [PJusticallis)
3. THe Little Cormorant (P. niger)
4. The Darter or Snake-bird {Anhinga rufa)
5. The Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia)
6. The Large Egret {Egretla atoa)
7. The Median Egret {Egretta intermedia)
8. The Little Egret (Egretla grazetta)
9. The Cattle Egret {Bubulcus ibis)
10. The paddy bird or Pond Heron (Ardeola grayii)
1 1 . The Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax)
1 2. The White Ibis ( Threskiornis aethiptea
13. The Openbilled Stork (Anastomus oscitans)
14. The Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea)
These birds do not come together to breed. The Darters,
the Little Cormorants and the Night Herons come earlier in
the season followed by the Openbilled Storks, Egrets,
White Ibises and Spoonbills. The Purple Herons come for
breeding quite late in the season - infact alter the main
breeding season of the other heronry birds is over.
When the water and wader birds leave the Sanctuary
after breeding, the Sanctuary welcome yet another series
of interesting birds to breed but not on a grandose scale as
of the earlier birds, as detailed below :
Other Breeding Birds :
Eastern Purple Herons (Ardea purpurea)
There was no record of the breeding of these birds
earlier at Ranganathittu till I discovered the breeding in
1977. These birds breed away from the main heronry from
January to June.
Great Stone Plovers (Esacus magnirostris) and the
Indian River Tern (Sterna aurantia)
These breed on the small exposed rocks when the river
recedes after the rains. The eggs are laid in the
depressions of the rocks.
Indian Cliff Swallows (Hirundo fluvicola)
These nest on a single vertical stone standing at the
upstream of the river. About 150 to 200 birds nest here.
Streaked Weaver Birds (Ploceus manyar)
These birds breed after the rains on the vegetation
hanging down on the islets.
Other interesting birds
The Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis). The Large Pied
Wagtail {Motacilla maderaspatensis), Munias (Lonchura
spp) are the other birds seen after the rains. Recently some
Painted Storks (Mycteria leuicocephala) were seen nesting
here which was not observed earlier This shows that there
is some definite change in the conditions of the
88
Ranganathittu environs. The Common Peafowl [Pavo
cristatus) breeds on Ihe main island.
In winter the migratory birds like the Lesser Whistling
Teal (Dendrocygna javanica), the Osprey (Pandbn
haliaetus) and the Pale Harrier (Circus macrourus) visit the
Sanctuary. The locally migratory birds viz. the Whrtenecked
Storks {Ciconia episcopus) and the Spotbill Duck(^nas
poecitorhyncha) visit trie sanctuary in summer.
Prey Birds
The Shikra (Accipiler badius). the Crested Serpent
Eagle (Spibmis cheela) and the Brahminy Kite {Haliastur
indus) are the prey birds observed in the Sanctuary.
Predation
Crows (both Corvus macrorhynchos and C. splendens)
cause heavy damage to the eggs and the nestlings ot the
breeding birds. The Brahminy Kite {Haliastur indus) is also
sometimes observed snatching the nestlings. The Bonnet
macaques {Macaca radiala) used to swim in the river and
reach the breeding colonies to pillage the eggs. The wildlife
wing of the Forest Department did an excellent job in
trapping these and releasing them in far-off forests. So now
this damage is not observed.
Other Depredations
Annually the water from the KRS dam is released on a
very large scale which washes oft the nests, eggs and the
nestlings that are found on the lower portions of the
vegetation. In 1 991 the floods washed off even some of the
islets and rivarian vegetation on which the heronry birds
used to breed. Nearly two lakhs tourists visit this sanctuary
every year. The birds are disturbed when the tourists go
very near the breeding birds, inviting crows to come to
pillage the eggs. Infact crows follow the boats!
References
Ali. Salim and Ripley. S.D., 1968, Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, Vol. I, Bombay Oxford Univ. Press.
innal. S.G.. 1983. The Birds of Ranganathittu.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 79 (3): 581*593.
Neginnal. S.G.. 1992. Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary then
and now Myforest, 28(3).
89
Habitat Preference of Birds of Neria
H. Venkateshwara and B.K. Sharalh
Division of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University
Mangalagangothh 574 199
Introduction
Studies on habitat preference ot birds are valuable (or
developing appropriate conservation strategies. In the
present survey a preliminary attempt was made to analyse
the nature of habitats preferred by certain birds of the Neria
Forest.
Material and Methods
The field study was undertaken for one month (i.e. from
30th Jan to 25th Feb. 1993). The Neria Forest selected for
the survey is located at the foot of the Western Ghats in
Belthangady Thaluk of Dakshina Kannada District and
covers about 4.000 hectares. The vegetation consists of
evergreen tropical forest and plantation of rubber, areca.
coconut, etc. The annual rainfall is 190 inches and the
temperature ranges from 18'C to 32'C.
A transect of 1 km length was laid in the low elevation
(100-150 m) strata of the study area covering most of the
habitat types. The study area could be broadly divided into
the following three types :
Type I (Open): Habitat is degraded with scanty
vegetation, mostly grass. Here the human activity is the
greatest.
Type II (Bush): This is partially degraded habitat; with
Bamboo, Ixora and a few herbs. Human activity is
moderate.
Type III (Forest): This consists of secondary and
regenerated forest with trees not more than 15 years old.
The human activity here is negligible.
Nearly 30% of the area covered in the study constituted
type-l habitat. The type-ll had about 20%. About 50% was
occupied by Typo-Ill habitat. Ten points were marked along
the transect with a distance of tOO m between two points.
The field for sighting the birds extended to about 50 m
on either side of the transect. The birds were sighted by
tracking both during morning and evening hours (6 a.m. to
10 a.m. and 4 p.m. to 6 p.m.). At each point sighting was
made for about 12 min. All the birds sighted during this
period were identified and recorded in the field notebook.
The observation was continued for about 2 hours to cover
the 10 points.
Results and Discussion
Sixty one species of birds were found to occur here. Of
these, 19 were found to have a definite habitat preference
(Table- 1) and hence were consistently occupying either of
the three habitats. Further 7 species viz., Dicrurus adsmilis
(Black Drongo), Loriculus vemalis (Indian Lorikeet),
Dicrurus paradiseus (Racket -tailed Drongo), Corvus
macrohynchos (Jungle Crow), Pyenonotus cater
{Redvented Bulbut). Pericrocotus flammeus (Scarlet
Mmivet). and Arachnothera longirostris (Small
Spiderhunter), were found to prefer the open habitat (Type
1). Noctarinia zoylonica (Purplerumped Sunbird),
Galloperdix spadicea (Red Spuriowl) and Pyenonotus
melanicierus (Blackheaded Rubythroated Yellow Bulbul),
Aegithina tiphia (Common lora) (five species) were seen in
bushy habitat (Type II).
Of the remaining birds, two species. Rhopocichla
atrtceps (Blackheaded Babbler) and Dicaeum
erythrorhynchos (Ttckell's Flowerpecker) were occupying
both bush and forest type of habitats. Similarly another four
species like Oriolus oriolus. Treron phoenicoptera
(Common Great Pigeon), Pynconotus jocosus
(Redwhiskered Bulbul). Pycononotus priocephalus
(Greyheaded Bulbul) were occupying both open and bush
type of habitats. Interestingly, Hypsipetes indicus (Yellow
browed Bulbul) was found to prefer equally the open, bush
as well as the forest type of habitats.
The study showed greater richness in the bush type
rather than the other two types. An example of the feeding
habits of the birds in the three habitats does not suggest
any definite relationship. The tentative conclusion
therefore, is that habitat preference of a group of species is
by no means an indication of their feeding habits.
Acknowledgements
We wish to record our gratitudes to Prof. S.N. Hegde.
Head of the Applied Zoology, Zoology Division, Mangalore
University. Mangaiagangothri.
90
Table 1 : Habitat-wise distribution of birds In a study area, I.e. The Nerla Forest
S.No. Name ot the Bird
Point Nu
mbers
Total
Habitat
preferences
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
1 Black Drongo
2
3
3
1
2
2
13
1
2 Blackheaded Babbler
4
9
13
2+3
3 Rubythroated Yellow Bulbul
4
4
20
13
10
4
6
3
8
72
2
4 Common lora
1
2
2
1
5
1
12
2
5 Fairy Blue Bird
2
1
11
5
3
1
23
2
6 Golden Oriole
3
12
5
7
6
1
34
1+2
7 Green Pigeon
2
3
6
11
1+2
8 Indian Lorikeet
13
10
9
1
2
2
2
2
3
42 1
9 Purplerumped Sunbird
1
2
5
7
11
12
16
•5
1
4
64
2
1 Racket-tailed Drongo
2
5
3
1
2
13
1
11 Red Spurfowl
1
3
2
3
2
11
2
12 Redvented Bulbul
7
1
2
2
12
1
1 3 Redwhiskered Bulbul
6
5
4
13
3
31
1+2
1 4 Jungle Crow
7
4
1
2
14
1
15 Scarlet Minivet
5
4
6
3
2
2
22
1
16 Small Spiderhunter
1
6
2
1
3
2
2
2
19
1
1 7 Tickell's Ftowerpecker
2
3
7
5
16
13
10
4
12
10
62
2+3
18 Yellowtxowed Bulbul
4
5
8
7
5
6
6
2
3
46
1+2+3
19 Greyheaded Bulbul
10
11
6
9
8
8
9
7
2
6
76
1+2
Habitat 1
- Open Type;
Habitat 2
- Bush lype;
Habitat 3
- Forest type
91
Avifauna of Udhampur (Jammu & Kashmir) District
Santanu Barman
C-1. Bagha Jatin, Raja S.C. Mullick Road, P.O. Regent - Estate. Calcutta 700 092 .West Bengal
Introduction
/
Udhampur is a hilly town of Jammu & Kashmir with th«
Tawi river (lowing across. Udhampur has four seasons:
Winter (December to March). Spring (April to June).
Monsoon ( Jury to September ) and Autumn ( October to
November ). H snows in the winter in the surrounding
areas, except Udhampur. Perphaps this is the prime
reason for the concentration of so many species of birds
ranging from the Tits, Chats. Thrushes, to the Longbilled
Vultures and Himalayan Griffons in this pocket.
The altitude of Udhampur is 630 m, situated in the
32'54e north and 75'09e east. The temperature varies
between 41.5'C (June), and -01.6'C (January). The rainfall
as recorded between this survey period was found to be of
a maximum of 521 mm/month, (recorded in Jury '93) and a
minimum of 0.7 mm/monthry (recorded in November '91 ).
The Survey Period was from October 1st 1991 to July
31st of 1993. A checklist of the birds sighted during this
period is enclosed herewith.
Udhampur district, falls in the Lower Himalayan Range.
Lying between the Pirpanjal and Siwalik ranges the district
of Udhampur is an unique spot experiencing two specific
zones - the snowfall area, and the non snowfall area. To the
north of the Udhampur district flows the Chenab river, and
the Tawi river directly crosses the survey area. The
vegetation is sub-tropical Pine forest with moist temperate
forest at higher altitudes immediately above this region.
Material And Methods
The survey of the avifauna of this area was undertaken
for a period of 22 months. The birds were observed from
very close quarters and almost all species have been
photographed. Deserted bird-nests, egg shells, and
feathers havw been collected. A list of 136 species of birds
belonging to 42 families along with their status and
occurence is presented in the checklist. The birds were
identified by the books referred below.
Results and Discussion
Some interesting findings
January - February when Udhampur normally finds cold
winter climate, abruptly on January 27th, a warm wind
began to blow as if signalling the arrival of Spring. Two
days after, on the 29th. Spring arrived much too early.
Consequently the Semul ( Red Silk Cotton ) trees bloomed
profusely and Blossomheaded Parakeets. and
Indian-Hawk Cuckoos filled the air with joyful shrills.
February 17th - Udhampur witnessed a severe hailstorm
with speedy wind. Winter returned again, as Spring
vanished, bringing life back to a state of cold and chill.
Change in food items
Trouts, tadpoles, frogs, tree frogs, and toads - are the
food of Kingfishers and Pond Herons. During scarcity of the
above, insects supplement the diet.
July 1 2th '93 - A fledgling of the Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus
microptenjs) was being regularly fed by a Drongo (Dicrurus
adsimilis) foster mother. The chick remained on a branch
and declared its presence with a sharp shrill, shaking its
wings and voraciously swallowing all that the Drongo
mother brought.
A Common Babbler (Turdoides caudatus) was found
feeding the chick of a Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator
jacobinus). The Cuckoo was observed sitting in association
with 4-5 Babbler chicks. Both the feeder and the fed
responded to each other very normally. This was noted on
the 22nd of July 1992.
June 1tth '92 • A Grey Tit's (Parus major) nest was
discovered in an electric switch box. When I found the
chicks they were 15 to 20 days old and numbered 4 or 5.
As I brought out a chick for a close look, it flew away from
my hand. The Tit's nest was destroyed the day after.
A close examination of the nest revealed its compositions:
mongoose hair, soft grass and vegetable matter, with dry
twine. The nest was soft and much like a sparrow's nest.
The chicks survived, and was found to be frying with the
mother bird.
Large concentrations of Cattle Egrets (Bubuhus ibis)
have been noted arriving at Udhampur from the early
weeks of March. The birds arrived in large numbers,
ranging from 300 to 500. Sometimes small numbers of
Little Egrets (Egretta garzetta) also arrived. The Cattle
Egrets would remain till end of March or early April and
maintained a regular routine of arriving at their roost soon
after sunset, and left every dawn to nearby fields and
marshes, where they spent the day.
References
Ali.S. and Futehally.L.,1970.Commor) S/rds.N.B.T.
AILS, and Ripley.S.D.,1968.Hand Book of the Birds Of
India and Pakisthan. O.U.P. Vol 1 to 10.
Ali.S. and Ripley.S.D. 2nd Ed. Compact Edition (1-10 vol.).
O.U.P. Vol 1to 10.
Ali.S. 11th Ed. The Book Of Indian Birds ..B.NM.S. Vols 1to
10.
Ali.S., 1 949 Indian Hill Birds. O.U.P. Vol.1 to 1 0.
Woodcock.M.. 1983. Collins Handguide to the Birds of the
Indian Sub-Continent. Collins.
92
Appendix
Avifauna of Udhampur (Jarnrnu & Kashmir) List of Birds Recorded During the Period :
1 st October 1 991 to 31 st July 1 993
> "<
Scientific Name
English Name
Status
Qccurance
'-*- y
Accipitridae
Milvus migrans
2
Elanus caeruleus
i
Accipfter badius
Gyps bengatensis
&
Neophron pef cnopter us
t
Gyps himalayensis
'
Gyps indicus
I
Aquila nipatensis
rwnty
Falconidae
1
Falco linnunculus
=amily
Phasianidae
Hl
Francolinus francolinus
Coturnis coturnix
Famity
Rallidae
12
Amaurornis phoenicurus
Patiah Kite
H
Blackwinged Kite
LM
Shikra
LM
Whitebacked Vulture
R
Scavenger Vulture
LM
Himalayan Griffon Vulture
LM
Longbilled Vulture
R
Tawny Eagle (Immature plumage) M
Kestrel
Black Partridge
Grey Quail
Whitebreasled Water hen
LM
fl
R
F
S
S
F
S
s
F
O
s
s
o
S.B
Family : Charadriidae (Charadriinae)
Vanellus indicus
Red Wattled Lapwing
Family : Columbidae
Ciolumba livia
Blue Rock Pigeon
R
IS
Streptopelia chinensis
Spotted Dove
R
H
Streptopelia decaocto
Collared Dove
M
a
Streptopelia tranquebarica
Red Turtle Dove
LM
n
Streptopelia Senegal en sis
Little Brown Dove
M
Family
Psittacidae
■
Psittacula krameri
Roseringed Parakeet
R
20
Psittacula eupatha
Alexandrine Parakeet
R
21
Psinacula cyanocephala
Blossomheaded Parakeet
M
22
Psinacula himalayana
Slatyheaded Parakeet
M
Family
Cuculldae
2a
Eudyn'amys scolopacea
Koel
M
24
Cenlropus sinensis
Coucal
25
Cuculus varius
Common Hawk- Cuckoo
M
■
Clamator jacobinus
Piedcrested Cuckoo
M
27.
Cuculus micro pterus
Indian Cuckoo
M
■
Taccocua leschenaultii
Sirkeer Cuckoo
M
c
C.B
F.B
B
S,B
F
F
F.B
B
F.B
(extremely
are)
B
B
B
O
uly : Strigidae (Striginae)
.''- Glaucidium cuculoides
West Himalayan Barred Owlet R
FMnily : Caprimulgidae
Caprimulgus asiaticus
Family . Apodidae (APodinae)
Apus affinis
Indian Nightjar
House Swift
M O
(presently not found)
93
SI. No.
Scientific Name
English Name
Statu
Occur ance
Family : Alccdmidae
32. Halcyon smyrnensis
33 Ceryle rudis
WhJielxeasled Kingfisher
Pied Kingfisher
LM
M
F.B
Family : MeropkJae
34.
35.
/
Mer ops orientaHs
Merops philipptnus
Little Green Bee-eater
Bluetailed Bee-eaier
M
M
B
B
Family : Upupidae
36.
Upupa epops
Hoopoe
RF.B
Family i Bucerotida
37.
I
Tockus biroslris
Grey Hornbill
M
Family : Capitonidae
36 Mogalalma zeytanica
39 Megalaima asiatica
40. Megalaima haemacephala
Green Barbel
Bluethroated Barbel
Crimsonbreasted Barbet
M
M
M
B
F.B
Family : Picidao
41.
42.
Piooides auriceps
Dinopium benghalense
West Himalayan Brownfronted
Pied Woodpecker
Golden backed Woodpecker
M
M
Family : Hirundinidae
43. Hirundo rustica
44. Hlruocto smilhii
Common Swallow
Indian Wiretailed Swallow
R
M
F
Family : Laniidae
45
46.
Lanius schach
Lanius excubitor
Rofousbaoked Shrike
Indian Grey Shnke
R
c
extremely rare
Family : Oriolidae
47.
Oriolus oriolus
Golden OricJe
M
B
Family : Dicruridat
48
Dicrurus adsirrWIis
North Indian Black Drongo
M
B
Family : Stumldae
49
50.
51
52.
53.
Slurnus pagodarum
Acridotheres trilis
Acridotheres (uscus
Acridotheres gingianus
Sturnus vulgaris
Brahminy Myna
Common Myna
Jungle Myna
Bank Myna
Kashmir Starting
M
R
M
M
B
C
C.B
extremely rare
Family : Corvidae
54
55.
56.
Corvus splendens
Corvus macrortiynchos
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Sind House Crow
Himalayan Jungle Crow
Tree Pie
R
R
R
s
C
c
Family : Campephagidae
57. Tephrodornis pondicerianus
58. Coracina novaehoflandiae
59 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
60 Pericrocolus flammeus
Sind Wood Shrike
Cuckoo Shrike
Small Mlnivet
Scarlet Mini vet
M
M
M
s
extremely rare
S
S
Family : Pycnonotidac
61. Pyconotus cater
Redvented Bulbul
R
C.B
94
si. ho.
Scientific Name
English Name
Status
Occurance
62.
Pycnonotus leucogenys
Whitecheeked Bulbul
LM
F. B
63.
Hypslpetes madagascariensis
Black Bulbul
M
Family
: Muscicapidae (Timaliinae)
64
Turdoides strialus
Jungle Babbler
R
C
65
Turdoides caudatus
Common Babbler
LM
s
66
Pellorneum ruliceps
Spotted Babbler
LM
o
67
Chrysomma sinense
Yelloweyed Babbler
LM
S.B
Family
: Muscicapidae (Muscicapinae)
68.
Terpsiphone paradtsi
Paradise Flycatcher
M
B
69
Rhipidura albicollis
Whites potted Fantail Flycatcher
M
O
70
Muscicapa leucomalanura
Western Slaty Blue Flycatcher
M
F
Family
: Muscicapidae (Sylviinae)
71
Phylloscopus occipiialis
Large crowned Leal Warbler
M
F
72
Seicercus xanlhoschistos
Greyheaded Flycatcher Warbler
M
s
Family Muscicapidae {Turdinae)
73.
Turdus merula
Black Bird
extremely rare
74
Copsychus saulans
Magpie Robin R C
75 .
SaxiccJa caprala
Pied Bush Chat
M
F
76.
Saxicda lorquala
Indian Collared Bush Chat
M
F
77
Saxicola ferrea
Dark Grey Bush Chat
M
F
78
Cercometa lusca
Brown Rock Chat
M
79.
Chaimar:ornis leococephalus
Whitecapped Redstart
M
80.
Rhyacornis fuliginosus
Plumbeous Redstart
M
81.
Saxicoloides fulicata
Indian Robin
LM
B
82.
Myiophoneus caeruleus
Himalayan Whistling Thrush
M
C
83.
Turdus feai
Fea's Thrush
M
O
84
Montlcola solilanus
Blue Rock Thrush
M
85.
Turdus boul
Greywinged Black Bird
extremely rare
86.
Turdus. viscivorus
Missel Thrush
M
Family
: Podichipedidae
87.
Podiceps ruficollis
Little Grebe
R
c.o
Family
; Phalacrocoracidae
85:
Phalacrocorax carbo
Large Cormorant
extremely rare
Family
: Ardidat
89
Ardeola grayii
Pond Heron
R
F
90.
Bubulcus ibis
Canle Egret
LM
F
91
Egretia garzetta
Li trie Egret
M
s
92.
Egretla alba
Large Egret
M
Family
: Phaslanidae
93.
Francolinus pondcerianus
Grey Partridge
R
o4c
94.
Bambisicola fytchii
Bamboo Partridge
R
95
Galtoperdix spacicea
Redspur Fowl
R
95
SI. No.
Scientific Name
English Name
Status
Occur an ce
Family
Cuculidae
96
Cuculus canorus
Cuckoo
M
F
97.
Sur niojlus lugubris
Indian Drongo Cuckoo
M
o
Family
'icidae
96.
Jynx torquilla
Kashmir Wryneck
extremely rare
Family
Muscicapidae (Muscicapinae)
99
Muscicapa lencomelanura
Western Slaty Blue Flycatcher
M
s
100.
Muscicapa sundara
Western Rutousbellied Niltava
M
101
Culicicapa ceylonensis
Greyheaded Flycatcher
M
102.
Rhipidura hypoxantha
Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher
M
103.
Alsenax ruficaudus
Ruloustailed Flycatcher
M
s
Family
Muscicapidae (Sylviinae)
s
104.
Bedypterus lulerovenlris
Brown Bush-Warbler
LM
105.
Pirnia social is
Northern Ashy Wren-Warbler
M
106.
Prinia bochanani
Rutousfronted Wren-Warbler
M
F.B
107.
Prinia subflava
Indian Wren-Warbler
M
s
106.
Prinia criniger
Himalayan Brown Hill Warbler
M
s
109.
Phyfloscopus inornatus
Yellowbrowed Leal Warbler
M
s
110
Phylloscopus collybrta
Brown Chiff Chaff
M
s
F.B
111
Onhotomus sutorius
Tailor Bird
R
Family
Muscicapidae (Turdinae)
112.
Zoothera dauma
Smallbilled Golden Mountain
Thrush
M
O
113.
Monlicolla rufiventris
Chestnutbellied Blue Rock
Thrush
M
O
Family : Paridae (Parinae)
114. Parus major
Kashmir Grey Tit
R. LM
Family : Cerlhidae
115. Certhiafamiliaris
Kashmir Tree Creeper
M
Family : Motacillidae
116 Anthus novaescelandiae
North-Western Paddy Field Pipit LM
FamHy : MotecHlidee
117. Motacilla crtreola
1 1 8. Motacilla madraspatensis
110. Motaalla flava
120. Motacilla alba
Blackbacked Vellowheaded
Wagtail
Large Red Wagtail
Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail
White Wagtail
M
M
M
M
O
s
s
s
Family : DicaekJae
1 21 . Dicaeum tgnipectus
Firebreasted Ftowerpecker
extremely rare
Family : Nectarinidae
1 22. Nectarinia asiattea
1 23. Aethopyga siparaja
Sind Purple Sunbtrd
Yellowbacked Sunbird
F,B
O
Family : Zoateropidae
124. Zosterops palpebrosa
Indian White-eye
LM
F.B
Family : Ploaeidae (Passerinae)
125. Passer montanus
1 26. Passer domesticus
Tree Sparrow M
Kaahmir House Sparrow R
O
c
96
S 1 NO.
Scientific Name
English Name
Status
Occurence
Family : Ploceidae (Ploceinae)
127. Ploceus manyar
Indian Streaked Weaver Bird
M
B
Family : Ploceidae (Estrildinae)
1 28. Lonchura malab arica
•29. Lonchura punctulata
Whitethroated Munia
Sponecf Munia
H
M
O
S,8
Family : Fringillidae (Fringillinae)
Carduelis spinoides
tarpodacuserythrinus Common Rosetinch M F
Himalayan Green Finch
M
: Emberizidae
Emberiza etas
Metophus lath ami
Himalayan Rock Bunting M
Crested Bunting M
O
o
New Inclusions
Family -. Muscicapidae (Turdinao)
134. Tvjrdus unicolor
Ticket's Thiush
M
Family : Muscicapidae (Sylviinaej
135. Seicercus ourkii
136.
Phylloscopus afflnis
Western Blackbrowed
Flycatcher Warbler
TickeUS Leaf Warbler
K'
M
s
97
Wetlands of Shimoga City
K.V. Guru raja
90 (8). Jail Road, Shimoga -577201
Ohimoga city, srtuated amidst the once dense forests of
^Matnad area was known as "Queen of Malnad". Now
the forest tracts have been reduced to a few reserve forest
zones such as Shetyhalli. Bhadra. Sharavathi.
Mandagadde and Gudavi
Shimoga has about 15 wetlands, two of which are
described below:
/. Navale Tank
ft is situated 3 km from Shimoga towards North,
encompassing about 5 acres of area. Currently about 40%
of the area is filled up by water hyacinth and Besharam
plants, and remaining is clear water for water fowls. This is
an unprotected tank.
I observed around 39 waterfowl species and 60 species
of terrestrial birds during November and December in 1991
and 1992. Of the birds observed. Sanderling was sported
only once and Baillon's Crake twice, at this tank.
2 CHalnalli Tanks
This is a group of small and medium tanks, srtuated
about 5 kms from Shimoga. towards south-east. The total
area is about 4.5 acres. The main wetlands of this tank are
as follows.
(a) Tyaware Chatnalli Tank
It has an area of 2.5 acres. Dried parts of about 20%
has been used for cultivation. Though this is unaffected by
external pollution, poachers kill Lesser Whistling Teals,
Coots and Purple Moorhens. This tank is also an
unprotected one. 70% of the tank is filled with Water
hyacinth and Congress grass. In this tank, I have observed
10-15 species of waterfowl. Besides, Indian Courser and
Openbilled Storks were observed once.
(b) Ghondhi Chatnalli
It has an area of 2.5-3 acres. This tank is away from the
main road and is surrounded by a village. Just 10% of the
tank has clear water and other parts are full of grasses and
Water hyacinths. Poaching is common. Many waterfowls
are found here.
For the conservation of these wetland ecosystems the
following measures are suggested
Fence the tank to protect from encroachment and
poaching. Erect name boards for all the major tanks,
depicting brief description of avifauna.
Create a general awareness among the people, about
this ecosystem.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the members of Shimoga Birdwatchers
Club and to my brother K.V. Chandrakantha for their
cooperation and assistance rendered in the field.
98
Ecological Study of Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Using Remote Sensing Technology
Uday Pancholi
Gujarat Ecological Education 8 Research Foundation, CM, 194-3, Sector-30, Gandhinagar 382 032
Introduction
T"he Nal Sarovar Wetland is a targe natural lake of
1 irregular shape. It is situated at a distance ot about 64
km from Ahmedabad. It falls in the administrative
boundaries of Ahmedabad and Surendranagar districts.
The nearest town is Vekaria, where the inspection bunglow
of Forest Department is located.
The Nal Sarovar is often a seasonal lake. As rt is a
natural depression, lake receives rain water from all the
surrounding areas by small nalas. branch of river Bhogavo
and Bamni river. The water table of the lake varies from
year to year and season to season. It mainly depends on
the rainfall in the catchment area of the lake. The maximum
water depth is 2 m.
This large wetland is ecologically very unique. After
monsoon, it is full ot aquatic vegetation, invertebrates and
fishes. These make the Nal Sarovar an ideal wintering
habitat for large number of birds of various species.
The waterfowl census figures of January - 1992 are
given in Table 1 .
The wetland ecosystem of Nal Sarovar is recognised as
internationally important wetland under the guidelines of
the Ramsar Convention by the Government of India. The
Government of Gujarat, declared 115.00 sq km ol the lake
area as Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary in the year 1969 vide
notification No. GH/KH.'381/WLP/1068/74322-P. dated
08.04.1969. and another 5.82 sq km of area was added by
notification No. AKH/238/82/1 082/261 21 -V2. dated
27.12.1982, comprising the total area of 120.82 sq km.
For better management ot the sanctuary and improving
the habitat of migratory waterfowls, ecological study is very
essential. It is essential to know the area of lake under
water, area occupied by aquatic vegetation, depth of the
water at various places and other ecological parameters
affecting the ecology of the wetland. This is not possible by
any direct method as the area is very large and easy
movement is not possible. Therefore, use of remote
sensing technique has been made to study some of the
ecological parameters of Nal Sarovar bird sanctuary.
Objectives
(a) To attempt the assessment of water spread in the
Nal Sarovar bird sanctuary
(b) To attempt the assessment of area occupied by
aquatic vegetation
(c) To study other ecological parameters
(d) To grve necessary suggestions for the better habitat
management of the sanctuary through remote
sensing techniques.
Material and Methods
Primarily this study was limited to the Nal Sarovar bird
sanctuary area, which falls in the premises of Ahmedabad
and Surendranagar districts. After extensive field visits it
was also decided to study the surrounding area of the
sanctuary, as these areas are also important for the
waterfowls. Some of these areas are roosting, nesting and
feeding grounds of the waterfowls and wetland associated
birds. Management practices in the surrounding area is
also likely to effect the ecosystem of the sanctuary.
Data Used
Satellite data
For this study LISS - II data of the Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite (IRS) — IA used.
The management map of sanctuary showing latitude,
longitude, roads, villages and sanctuary boundary is used
for preparing base maps .
Equipment Used
PROCOM-2
In this study PROCOM-2 is used for enlarging satellite
data to the mapping scale of 1:50,000. This instrument is
composed of a projector, data carrier, zoom lens, beam
deflector, control box. working surface and supporting
frame. This sturdy desk-top instrument enables the user to
enlarge and scan transparencies of satellite data.
This projector illuminates the transparency placed in the
data carrier. The data carrier can be moved in the
orthogonal directions, thus permitting the operator to roam
visually across the scene. The zoom enlarges the projected
image to the desired scale and the front surface mirror of
the beam deflector direct the light beam on the working
surface (Table 3).
Air conditioner
An air conditioner is used to maintain the optimum room
temperature, while working on PROCOM-2 to avoid any
damage to satellite imagery from heat.
Light table
For viewing the transparencies and other cartographic
work a light table is used.
Drafting machine
The universal drafting machine of KILBURN is used for
the preparation of final maps.
99
Cartographic materials
Cartographic materials like rotring pens, tracing films,
clutch pencils, measuring scales etc.. are used to prepare
the final maps.
The various aspects covered here in the chapter of
methodology includes procedure of selection of remote
sensing data, mapping scale, ground truth collection,
classification adopted, final mapping, area calculation, area
computation and accuracy estimation etc. The details of
each step of methodology is given as under :
Selection of remote sensing data
The primary objective of IRS is to provide the systematic
repetitive acquisition of high revolution multispectral data of
the earth's surface under constant illumination conditions.
IRS is operating in circular sun -synchro nous near polar
orbit at an inclination of 99.02 degrees at an altitude of
approximately 904 km., descending node. The satellite
circles the earth every 103.2 minutes completing 14 orbits
per day. Entire earth is covered by 307 orbits during 22
days cycle.
The IRS launch time was so chosen that the descending
nodal time, i.e. local time, is realised, around 10:25 a.m.
The IRS payload consists of two Linear Imaging Self
Scanning Sensors (LISS).
L1SS -2 I : Consist of a camera operating in four bands
in the 0.45 — 0.86 micron spectral region, wtth geometric
resolution of 72.5 cm and a swath of 148.48 km.
LISS - II : Consist of two cameras operating in the four
bands in the 0.45 — 0.86 micron spectral region with a
geometric resolution of 36.35 m each with a swath of 74.24
km. The combined swath of the two cameras, allowing a
1.5 km. overlap between them, is about 146.90 km. The
cameras of IRS operate in pushbroom scanning mode
using CCD linear arrays of 2048 elements. Remote
sensing technique has given the synoptic view of the entire
Nal Sarovar area and its landuse pattern, drainage pattern
and habitat distribution {see Table 2).
Results And Discussion
Study showed that much of the potential wetland habitat
remains outside the legal sanctuary boundary. It was also
observed that most of the islands do not show any
vegetation cover. The only island having thick vegetation
cover was Dhrabla. There are very few pockets of
vegetation in and around the sanctuary and the dominant
tree species was Prosopis julifbra.
The surrounding area of the existing sanctuary
boundary, which remains submerged during the monsoon
months is also very important area for the waterfowl
management. This area shows good growth of aquatic
vegetation. It provides tubers, grasses, seeds and benthic
fauna particularly from the muddy area, which is being
used as food by many bird species. Moreover, this area is
roosting and nesting grounds of many migratory and
resident birds. Therefore, it requires legal protection, and it
is suggested that this area should also be included in the
sanctuary. So, keeping in mind the construction of two
check dams at proposed site, proposed sanctuary
boundary is shown in Fig. 1. Thus the total area of
proposed sanctuary comes to 335.31 sq.kms.
Repeated monitoring of these classes through remote
sensing in every season and correlating this with waterfowl
census will be helpful in designing appropriate habitat
improvement plans.
References
Alt, S. and Ripley, S.D., 1983. The Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan, compact edition. Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Anonymous. 1990. Wetlands of India— A Directory.
Government of India, Forests and Environment
Department, New Delhi.
Hancock, James. 1 984. The Birds of the Wetlands, Croom
Helm Ltd., Australia.
Harrison. C.J.O.. 1978. Bird Families of the World. Harry N
Abrams incorporated. New York.
Howes, J. and Bakewell. D„ 1989. Shorebird Studies
Manual., Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
Hussain. S.A.. 1988. Wetland in India — An overview.
Wetland and Waterfowl Newsletter, 1 : 49.
Odum, E.P.,1971. Fundamentals of Ecology., 'Saunders'.
London, U.K.
Patel. G.A.. Ramani, K.R.. Suthar, D.C.. 1990.
Management Plan for Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary —
1990-2000. Forest Department. Gujarat State. India.
Table 1 : Water Fowl Census Figures January 1991
Sr. No. Group
No. of
Estimated
Species
No. ct Birds
1
Grebes
01
738
2
Pelicans
03
42877
3
Ducks & Geese
20
25074
4
Rails, Coots & Crakes
05
19292
5
Jacanas
01
144
6
Cormorants & Darters
03
785
7
Herons. Egrets & Bittern*
10
8010
8
Storks
05
590
9
Ibises & Spoonbills
04
12062
10
Flamingos
02
10413
11
Cranes
03
32548
12
Waders-Shore Birds
35
63836
13
Gulls
05
2576
14
Terns & Skimmers
07
1983
15
Kingfishers
02
65
16
Other Species
12
3252
Total
118
224245
100
Table 2 : Details of Remote Sensing Data Used
#
Beam deflector
: Aluminized front surface plane
mirror of 40 x 40 cms
: 60-300 mm telemacro zoom
#
Satellite
: IRA-IA
Lenses standard
Sensor
: Linear Imaging Self Scanning
(LISS)-II
with 2 x teleconverter
28-80 mm, 200 mm
*
Path
: 32
Projector
: Modified scientific model
Row
: 52
with 24 V - 250 V halogen
Sub Scene
: B1
lamp and heat filler
1
Data Product
: False colour composite (FCC)
Cooling
: 2 path, adjustable in projector
Bands
: 2,3.4
auxiliary blower for data
Date of pass
: 04-01-1992
carrier
Projection distance
: 2.1 m. folded for convenient
operation
Table 3 : Main Specification of PROCOM-2
Working area
: 81 x 100 cms
Magnification
: 6 x - 28 x using 60 — 300 mm
# Power
: 110 -240 Watts
lens
3 x - 1 4 x using 2 x tele-
S
ze
: Height 138 cms
Width 81 Cms
Length 157 cms
converter
29 x - 72 x using 28 - 80 mm
lens
Weight
: 84 kgs
upto 1 00 x using optimal lenses
V
ewtng mode
: Reflected front projection
^: :
^''^ i '
. (\ ■ 'ft> *) \
• r t
101
Birds Recorded During a Visit to the Desert National Park, Rajasthan
Harkirat Singh Sangha and Manoj Kulshreshtha
B-27, Gautam marg. Khatipura. Jaipur 302 012
Introduction
The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan with an
' area of 3162 sq km in the Thar Desert was formed in
1981 for the protection of the unique flora and fauna of the
Thar Desert. In the strict sense it is not a national park as
there are villages inside the DNP. But there are core areas
of 500-1000 hectares where human interference and stock
grazing is banned. The topography of the DNP is varied —
fixed and shifting sand dunes, interdunal valleys and vast
flat gravel areas. Most of the desert is covered with
Lasiurus. stndicus grassland and Acacia and Euphorbia
scrubland. Ak (Cahtropis procera), Kair {Capparis decidua)
and Phog {Calligonum poll igono ides) are the common
shrubs. At some places the landscape is dotted with Khejri
(Prosopis cineraria) and Jal (Salvadora persica) trees.
The climate is harsh with rainfall between 100-115 mm
and droughts are frequent. June is the hottest month and
temperature is as high as 50' Celsius. Hot winds and dust
storms are common in summer. January is the coldest
month and temperature may fall down to 2" Celsius.
Material and Methods
Observations were made from a four-wheel drive mostly
in and around core areas of Sam, Sudasri. Khuri and
Miajalar. The DHP was traversed for four days in June,
1993.
Results and Discussion
A total of 29 specie were observed. All the birds were
resident except Btuecheeked Bee-eater. Which is a
summer visitor and breeds in the desert. This report details
the species observed and their relative abundance at the
hottest period of the year.
Systematic List
1 Tawny Eagle, Aquila rapax.
2. King Vulture, Torgus calvus.
3. Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps bengalensis.
4. Scavenger Vulture. Neophron percnopterus.
5. Short-toed Eagle, Circaelus gallicus.
6. Laggar Falcon, Fafcojugger.
7. Grey Partridge, Francolinus pondicerianus.
8. Grey Quail, Cotumix cotumix.
9. Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigrtceps.
10. Chestnutbellied Sandgrouse, Pterocles exustus.
1 1 . Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba livia.
12 Collared Dove. Streptopelia decaocta.
1 3. Spotted Owlet. Athene brama {Only heard).
14. Bluecheeked Bee-eater, Merops suporciliosus.
15. Small Green Bee-eater, Merops oriental's.
16. Mahratta Woodpecker, Picoides maharattensis.
17. Blackcrowned Finchlark. Eremopterix nigriceps.
18. Desert Finchlark. Ammomanes deserti.
19. Indian Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor.
20. Indian House Crow, Corvus splendens.
21. Raven, Corvus corax.
22. Whitecheeked Bulbul, Pycnonotus leucogenys.
23. Redvented Bulbul. Pycnonotus cafer.
24. Common Babbler. Turdoides caudatus.
25. Purple Sunbird, A/ecfarin;a asiatica.
26. Indian House Sparrow. Passer domesticus.
27. Yellowthroated Sparrow, Petronia xanthocollis.
28. Whitethroated Munia, Lonchura malabarica.
Acknowledgements
We thank Chief Wildlife Warden of Rajasthan and staff
of the DNP for their help.
102
Sighting of Eastern Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha bimaculata (Blyth) in Kutch
Jugal Klshor Tiwari
Bombay Natural History Society. Hombill House. SB. Singh Road
Bombay 400 023
The Eastern Calandra. Lark Melanocorypha bimaculata
was sighted in Kutch by Himmatsinhji on 5 February
1960 on the mudflats near Bada village (Mandvi taluk). He
saw several flocks (about 100 birds), of which one
specimen was obtained (JBNHS 57:408). One specimen
was collected by Dr Salim Ali in December (Handbook',
Vol.5, p.29). Himmatasinhji again came across
M.bimaculata on January 10. 1966 near Sherdi village in
an uncultivated field in Mandvi taluk. During periodic
bird-density estimation of BNHS Grassland Ecology
Project. Chhari-Phulay "Banni", I came across this lark on
the following dates in 1992 :
1) November 27 — Census path I; 20 birds: at 15 meter
distance: B.17 hrs.; open grassland.
2) November 29 — Census path III: 1 bird; at 20 meter
distance: 8.37 hrs.; open grassland.
3) December 30 — Census path II; 5 birds; at 35 meter
distance; 8.20 hrs.; open grassland.
I had failed to see this bird during the BNHS Bird
Migration Project in which I participated in and around the
Charri dhandh in 1990-91.
Occurrence of Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) in Kutch
Jugal Klshor Tiwari
Bombay Natural History Society. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road. Hombill House
Bombay 400 023
On November 23, 1992 I saw two Whitenecked Stork
Ciconia episcopus at Tuga dam. Pachham Island,
Kutch: The Whitenecked Stork is distributed practically all
over India, but it seems to be extremely rare in Kutch. Ali
(1945) did not come across it during his survey as also
during his subsequent visits to Kutch. According to Roberts
(1991) this stork is very rare in Pakistan and he does not
make any mention of its recent occurrence in Sind.
particularly lower Sind, just across the border with the
Great Rann of Kutch. On the other hand
Dharmakumarsinhji (1955) mentioned that it was found in
Saurashtra,
The occurrence of the Stork in Kutch could only be
termed accidental.
References
Ali, Salim. 1945. The Birds of Kutch, Oxford University
Press.
Dharmakumarsinhji. R.S., 1955. Birds of Saurashtra, Times
of India Press.
Roberts. T.J.. 1991. The Birds of Pakistan, vol.1, Oxford
University Press, Karachi.
103
Great White Pelican Pelicanus onocrotalus Linnaeus Recoveries from Kutch and
Rajkot Districts of Gujarat
Jugal Kishore Ttwarl
Bombay Natural History Society. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Hornbill House
Bombay 400 023
T"he Great White Pelican Pelicanus onocrotalus Linnaeus
' is partly resident in Kutch. and was first discovered
breeding in the Great Rann of Kutch in 1960 (Ali. 1960). K
is mainly a winter visitor to Pakistan (Smd. Baluchistan)
and north India.
In this note two ring recoveries are reported, one from
Abdha Jheel in the Banni grassland. Kutch. and another
from Paddhari village near Rajkot. Gujarat. Two more ring
recoveries reported from Gujarat earlier by other workers
are also included (Varu and Khatri. 1992). The details are
given in Table- 1.
I am thankful to Mr S.N. Varu for pointing out the news in
Spanish', and to Dr A.J. Crivelli. Scientific Director, Slatica
Biologkjue De la Tour Du Valat Le Sambuc 13200 Aries,
Camargue, France who very kindly provided the delails of
recovery.
References
Ali. S., 1960. Flamingo city revisited: Nesting of Ihe Rosy
Pelicans Pelicanus onocrotalus Linnaeus in the Rann of
Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc „ 57 : 412-415.
Varu. S.N. and Khatri, M.B., 1992. Recovery of a Russian
Ringed Rosy (White) Pelicanus onocrotalus Linn, in
Kutch Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2) : 246.
Table 1
SI.
No.
Ring
No.
Date of
ringing
Place of
ringing
Date of
recovery
Place of
recovery
Mode of
recovery
Ring found by
Ring
reported
by
1.
Moskwa
KK-0163
15-07-1982
Ily Delta
Lake
Balkash
Kazakhstan
45.22N/74.08
P
February
1988
Kamleshwar
Dam
GirW.LS.
Found
dead
Ravi
Chelam
2.
Moscwa
KK-2398
29-07-1990
-do-
10-11-1990
Medisar
Reserved
Forest N iron a
Kutch
-do-
Ali
Mohammad
Manjothi
Forest Guard
S.N. Varu
& M.V.K.
Khatri
3.
78 JC
09-07-1992
-do-
07-11-1992
Abdha Jheel in
Ihe Banni
Grassland.
Kutch
-do-
Mutva
Saibana &
Mizan
Author
4.
KK-3439
09-07-1992
-do-
26-02-1993
Jhilaria Pond
Poddhan village
neat Rajkot
•do-
Caught alive
by the villagers
Author
104
Conserving the Kole Wetlands - A Potential Ramsar Site from Southern India
P.O. Nameer
Regional Co-ordinator, Waterfowl Census Kerala, College of Forestry,
Kerala Agricultural University. Vellanikkara-680 654
Introduction
Wetlands of Kerala are perhaps the least studied
ecosystems ornithologicalry. This is evident from the
literature. Studies on Kerala birds have a greater inclination
towards the Western Ghats region (Hume, 1876. 1878;
Ferguson, 19t5a, 1915b, 1915c and 1916; Alt, 1935.
1969). The ornithology of Kerala wetlands started receiving
attention after Neelakantan's extensive explorations.
(Neelakantan. 1969. 1970, 1981, 1982; Neelakantan eta!,
1981; Neelakantan and Sureshkumar. 1981). Uthaman and
Namassivayan (1991) did intensive study on the birdlrfe at
Kadalundi estuary.. This study also came out with many
interesting observations (Namassivayan et a/., 1989;
Namassivayan (1992). However, studies on waterfowl got
an impetus after the inception of the Asian Waterfowl
Census (AWC)in 1987. The Kole Wetlands was practically
unknown to the birdwatchers before the inception of AWC.
Location
The Kole Wetlands covering an area of 13,632 ha are
spread over Thrissur and Malappuram districts extending
from the northern bank of Chalakudy river in the South to
the southern bank of Bharathapuzha river in the North. The
area lies between 10*206 and 10'40/N latitudes and 75"58'
and 76'11'E longitudes . The name Kole refers to the
peculiar type of cultivation practice carried out from
December to May. Kole'. a Malayalam word, indicates
bumper yield or high returns if floods do not damage the
crop (Johnkurty and Venugopal. 1993). The rice cultivation
in Kole had been started as early as 18th century after
reclaiming the Thrissur kayal lands (backwaters) by
erecting temporary earthern bunds.
Physiography
Physographically the area is a product of fluvial
estuarine agencies modified by human activities. The area
consists of extensive flat land surface interspersed with
uplands. Kole is saucer shaped with lowlands at the centre
with elevation gradually increasing towards the fringes.
The Kole Wetlands are lowland tracts located 0.5 to 1m
below msl. Major portion is flat and remains submerged for
about six months. These were formerly shallow lagoons
which gradually got silted up. The flood waters in Kole
areas are mainly brought by two rivers. Kechery and
Karuvannur which finally drain into the sea.
A network of main and sub canals conned the different
regions of the Kole to the rivers. Being a flood plain, water
level may rise as high as 5.5 m during peak south-west
monsoon.
Climate
In the Kole region, the temperature varies from 21 'C to
38'C, with high humidity. The area receives both
south-west and north-east monsoons. The mean annual
rainfall is 2757 mm.
Material and Methods
The avifauna of Kole Wetlands were monitored since
1989. In 1992 and 1993. comprehensive surveys have
been undertaken. The observations are reported in this
paper.
Results and Discussion
A total of 159 birds including passerines have been
recorded from Kole Wetlands, out of which 30% are
migrants (for a complete checklist see Nameer. 1992;
Nameer, 1993). Sixty five species of waterbirds (in 13
families) and four migratory raptors have so far been
recorded from Kole Wetlands (Table 1 ).
About 40% of the birds counted from Kole Wetlands
belong to Laridae (eight species) followed by Ardeidae
(24%; 13 species) and Anatidae (22%; six species).
Though Charadridae has the maximum number of species
(18) it accounts for only 8%. PodicipkJidae. Pelicandidae.
Phalacrocoracidae, Ciconidae, ThreskiornthkJae. Rallidae.
Jacanidae, Recurvirostridae and Glareolidae account for
the rest 6% (Fig. «).
The important families, based on the total number of
birds seen, for the period 1989 to 1993 are given in Fig. 3.
This figure also showed that Anatidae, Ardeidae.
Charadridae and Laridae are the important families at the
Kole Wetlands.
Little Cormorant, Pond Heron, Cattle Egret, Little Egret.
RedewaTtled Lapwing, Kentish Plover, Spotted Sandpiper,
Green Sandpiper, Common Sandpiper, Little Stint,
Temminck's Stint, Brownheaded Gull, Blackheaded Gull
and Whiskered Tern have been recorded in all the five
years at Kole Wetlands and could be considered as the
commonest waterbirds.
Out of 159 species, 22 are not included in Birds of
Kerala (Ali. 1969). They are Masked Booby, White Stork,
Spoonbill. Pintail Duck, Comb Duck, Coot, Blackwinged
Stilt, Oriental Pratincole. Grey Plover. Ringed Plover.
Temminck's Stint. Sanderling, Herring Gull. Sandwitch
Tern. Plain Sand Martin, Starling, Desert Whealear, Black
Redstart, Blackheaded Yellow Wagtail. Yellowheaded
Wagtail and Red Munia. Except Comb Duck. Plain Sand
Martin and Starling, other species have been reported
earlier from other parts of Kerala (Ali, 1962; Gaston, 1979;
Jaira) and Sanjeevkumar. 1990; Namassivayan and
105
Sivaprasad. 1981; Narayanakurup, 1989. 1990;
Neelakantan. 1970; Neelakantan, 1982; Neelakanlan and
Sureshkumar. 1981; Sashikumar. 1990. 1991; Ulhaman
and Namassivayan, 1991).
Comb Duck {Sarkidioruis melanotos) was first seen on
17 January 1993 at Kole Wetlands (PK. Ulhaman, pers.
comnv). There were (our lemale birds. Three lemale Comb
Ducks were again seen on 21 February 1993. There is no
previous sight record ol Comb Duck from Kerala.
Plain Sand Martin (Rparia paludicola) was seen on 10
January 1993 at Kole Wetlands (V. Sanlharam. pers.
comm.). There is no prior sighting of this species from
South India.
Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a migrant and has not been
recorded from South India. Starling was first seen on 19
November 1988 at Kole Wetlands and its presence was
later confirmed on 10 January 1993 (PK. Uthaman, pers.
commn.).
A Spotbilled Pelican {Pelicanus philippensis) was seen
during the 1993 count (10 January 1993) which incidentally
was the first sighting record after a gap of 77 years from
Kerala. Later, a flock of 12 birds were seen on 15 January
1993 at Kole Wetlands.
Apart from Spotbilled Pelican, olher endangered
waterfowl viz. Oriental Darter. Watercock and Blackbellied
Tern have also been reported from Kole Wetlands, out ol
the nine resident endangered waterfowl (Perennou, 1990)
four were seen from Kole Wetlands.
A tern roost has been located at Kole Wetlands, where
nearly 25.000 terns were counted. This may be one of the
largest tern roosts in the country.
Conservation
Kole Wetlands is one of the largest and most important
wetland of Kerala and is also the most threatened wetlands
in the State. Reclamation of land and change in land use
pattern are the most serious problems. The paddy fields
are being converted to coconut, arecanut. and banana
plantations and other cash crops at an alarming rate. The
marshes are being 'developed' and new constructions are
cropping up. At many places the wetland has been
converted to brick-kilns, which has become a profitable
small scale industry. Added to this, large scale poaching
and trapping of birds and fishing are also going on. Out of
Ihe 12 pelicans seen on 15 January 1993. two were killed
by the poachers.
The indiscriminate use of pesticides has been found to
affect the migrant bird population which visit Kerala
wetlands from September to April. The pesticides besides
affecting the birdlife indirectly, were also being usedas bait
poisons to capture edible birds. Besides, setting fire to the
natural vegetation is also adversely affecting the breeding
habitats of Rallidae. Sylviinae. Ptoceinae and Estrildinae.
The avian community not only plays an important role in
controlling insect pests and other harmful organisms but
also increases the fertility status of the soil through their
droppings. Unless immediate measures are taken there
could be a series of ecological, economical and social
problems.
Recommendation
Since Kole Wetlands satisfies most of the Ramsar
Convention Criteria (viz., Criteria 1, 2a. 2b. 2c. 3a. 3b, 3c;
Rose, 1990) it deserves the status of a Ramsar Site, which
if granted.Kole will be the first Ramsar Site from South
India.
References
Ali. S.. 1935. The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc., 37 (4):
Ali, S., 1962. Migratory wagtails in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc.. 59(1): 294-6.
Ah. S„ 1969. Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press.
New Delhi. 444 p.
Ferguson, H.S., 1904(a). The Birds of Tranvancore with
notes on their indification. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc.. 15:
249-64.
Ferguson, H.S., 1904(b). The birds of Tranvancore with
notes on their indification. Ibid.. 15: 455-74.
Ferguson. H.S., 1904(c). The birds of Tranvancore with
notes on their indification. Ibid.. 15: 654-73.
Ferguson, H.S..1905. The birds Travancore with notes on
their indification. /oid'. l 16:1-l8.
Gaston, A.J., 1979. Birds observed at Cheruthuruthy.
J. Kerala Nat. Hist. Soc. 2 : 27-30.
Hume, A.O., 1876. A first list of the birds of the Travancore
Hills. Stray Feathers, 4: 351-405.
Hume. A.O., 1878. A second list of the birds of the
Travancore Hills. Ibid. 7: 33-39.
Jairaj. A P. and Sanjeevkumar, V.K., 1990. Occurence of
Spoonbill in Kerala. J.Bombay Nat.. Hist. Soc.. 87 (2):
290.
Johnkutty. I. and Venugopal, V.K., 1993. Koleland of
Kerala. Kerala Agricultural University. 68 p.
Namassivayan. L. and Sivaprasad, PS., 1981. Black
Redstart in Kerala. Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 21
(2&3): 7.
Namassivayan, L, Uthaman, PK. and Venugopatan. R„
1989. Four additions to the birds of Kerala. J.Bombay
Nat Hist. Soc. 86 (3): 458-60.
Namassivayan, L. and Venugopalan. R.. 1989. Avooet in
Kerala. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc.. 86 (3):447.
Nameer, P.O.. 1992. Birds of Kole Wetlands, a survey
report NEST. KFRI and KFD.
Nameer. P.O., 1993. Birds of Kole Wetlands, survey report
II. NEST KFRI and KFD.
Narayanakurup, D.K. 1989. Sight records of storks and Ibis
in Kerela. J. Bombay Nat Hist Soc. 86(2): 239.
Narayanakurup. D.K., 1990. Masked Booby from Kerala
Ibid., (3): 449.
106
Neolakantan. K.K., 1969. Occurence of the Terek
sandpiper Kerala. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 66 (3): 623.
Neelakantan, K.K.. 1970. Occurence of Sanderling in
Kerala Ibid, 67 (3): 570.
Neelakanlan, K.K., 1981. The brownwinged tern: an
addition to the birds of Kerala. Ibid,. 79 (3): 667-68.
Neelakantan, K.K., Sreenivasan, K.V. and Sureshkumar.
V.K., 1981. The Crab plover in Kerala. Ibid.. 77 (3): 508.
Neelakantan, K.K. and Sureshkumar, V.K., 1981.
Occurence of Blackwinged stilt in Kerala. Ibid., 77 (3):
510.
Perennou, C, 1990. Species to look for in India. Newsletter
lor Birdwatchers, 30 (5&6): 10.
Rose. P., 1990. Manual for International Waterfowl Census
Co- ordinators, IWRB., pp. 29-30.
Sashikumar. C. 1990. Blacktailed godwit and Large Indian
Pratincole - Two new records from Kerala. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc., 87(2): 296.
Sashikumar, C. 1991. Occurence of Indian Shag m Kerala.
Ibid. 88 (3): 442.
Uthaman, P.K., 1990. Spotbill duck in Kerala. Ibid. 87 <2|-
290.
Uthaman, P.K. and Namassivayan, L, 1991. The birdlrfe of
Kadalurtdi estuary. Blackbuck, 7 (1): 3-12.
Uthaman. P.K. and Namassivayan, L. 1992. Three
additions to the Birds of Kerala with a repeat sight
record. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 89 (2):250.
Table 1 : Population trend of avifauna at kole wetlands from 1989 to 1993
SI.
Family/Species
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
Total
No.
PODICIPEDIDAE
1.
Little Grebe
_
_
2
38
18
58
PELECANIDAE
2.
Spot-billed Pelican
PHALACROCORACIDAE
-
-
-
-
1
1
3.
Indian Shag
-
-
—
4
4
4.
Little Cormorant
21
4
10
263
390
688
5.
Oriental Darter
ARDEIDAE
■■
—
-
2
6
8
6.
Black Bittern
—
•
2
2
2
6
7.
Yellow Bittern
-
_
4
4
8.
Chestnut Bittern
_
_
8
_
8
9.
Night Heron
-
—
—
6
7
13
10.
Pond Heron
1020
310
750
2495
1406
5981
11.
Cattle Egret
4
18
10
4248
112
4392
12.
Little Green Heron
—
—
_
2
1
3
7
13.
Reef Heron
—
_
7
14.
Little Egret
503
127
450
1385
2770
5235
15.
Intermediate Egret
-
65
1100
93
606
1864
16.
Great Egret
-
50
110
18
67
245
17.
Purple Heron
—
2
2
9
32
45
18.
Grey Heron
-
-
_
13
4
17
Ul ARDEIDAE
1
-
-
2537
1546
4084
CICONIDAE
19.
Openbilled STork
_
43
_
161
11
215
16
3
20.
Whitenecked Stork
_
_
_
4
12
21.
White Stork
3
_
_
THRESKIORNITHIDAE
22.
White Ibis
_
_
1
26
27
ANATIDAE
23.
Lesser Whistling Teal
-
50
30
100
5350
5530
107
SI.
Family Species
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
Total
No.
24.
Comb Duck
—
—
—
—
336
336
27.
Gargany
-
1500
250
-
7887
9637
28.
Common Teal
RALUDAE
"
"
20
20
29.
Ruddy Crake
—
-
-
2
2
4
30.
Whiiebreasted Wale men
-
25
60
22
4
111
31.
Watercock
-
-
-
1
-
1
32.
Indian Moorhen
—
-
-
1
-
1
33.
Purple Moorhen
—
-
-
7
268
275
34.
Coot
JACANIDAE
™
"
9
2
11
35.
Pheasant -tailed Jacana
—
-
6
2
62
90
36.
Bronzewinged Jacana
RECURVIROSTRIDAE
'
10
1
5
5
37.
Blackwinged Still
GLAREOUDAE
6
33
130
68
—
237
38.
Little Prattoncole
-
93
100
1085
42
1278
39.
Oriental Pratincole
CHARADRIDAE
—
—
10
"
"
10
40.
Redwattled Lapwing
31
20
25
50
30
126
41.
Golden Plover
264
-
100
205
352
921
42.
Ringed Plover
-
-
-
2
-
2
43.
Lrttleringed Plover
42
-
520
241
724
1527
44.
Kentish Plover
13
21
150
6
58
248
45.
Lesser Sand Plover
20
20
-
15
111
166
46.
Large Sand Plover
-
51
25
-
-
76
47.
Curlew-
-
-
21
-
21
48.
Redshank
-
2
25
1
-
28
49.
Marsh Sandpiper
10
-
10
32
2
54
50.
Greenshank
-
10
25
13
13
61
51.
Green Sandpiper
32
-
150
132
44
359
52
Spotted Sandpiper
15
34
150
421
579
1199
53.
Common Sandpiper
47
34
210
173
26
490
54.
Pintail Snipe
-
-
-
5
—
5
55.
Common Snipe
-
4
1
17
1
22
56.
Little Stint
9
25
400
287
200
921
57.
Temminck's STint
I.ARIDAE
11
21
120
42
103
297
58.
Lesser Blackbacked Gull
-
-
-
-
95
95
59.
Brownheaded Gull
19
4
2
7
250
282
60.
Blackheaded Gull
480
20
200
1599
28
2327
61.
Whiskered Tern
143
20
210
2642
10000
13015
62.
Gullbilled Tern
331
-
225
4
5000
5560
63.
Caspian Tern
-
-
-
-
16
16
64.
Little Tern
-
-
4
-
-
4
65.
Blackbellied Tern
ACCIPTTRIDAE
™
"
"
1
1
66.
Marsh Harrier
-
-
-
16
16
32
67.
Pale Harrier
-
-
-
2
1
3
68.
Pied Harrier
-
-
-
2
—
2
69.
Osprey
-
-
-
1
2
3
70.
Brahminy Kite
-
-
—
—
58
58
108
Fig 1 . Distributation of Important Families at Kole Wetlands
Percentage
LEGEND
faun iv r,nnFR
1-PODICIPIDIDAE
2-PELICANIDAE
3-PHALACROCORACIDAE
4-ARDEIDAE
6-CICONIDAE
6-THRESKIQRNITHIDAE
7-ANATIDAE
8-RALLIDAE
9-JACANIDAE
10-RECURVIR0STRIDAE
ll - QL A nCOL I D AC
12-CHARADRIDAE
13-LARIDAE
J u
J L
13 4 7 12 11 3 8 10 5 9 1
Familly codes
109
Fig. 2. Year-wise Distribution Pattern of Important Families
lti» |*M
a h
m
L
im
\ni
it
I
I
f-
Family code
110
Bird Mortality on Roads in Punjab
ManjH S. Dhfndsa, Harjeet K. Salnl & Jaswlnder S. Sandhu
All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural Ornithology
Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana 141 004
hJl an Y birds frequent roads (or feeding on spilled grains
'•'or dead animals or lor other purposes and are
exposed to mortality from vehicles. From t989 to 1991. we
conducted 138 surveys covering a total road length of 7304
km in Punjab to record roadside bird mortality. While
travelling in a jeep or car at 50 to 60 Kmph, we counted all
birds found killed on the road and its sides.
An total of 399 birds belonging to 27 species were found
killed on the roads surveyed. Mortality was the highest in
Whitebacked Vulture. Gyps benghalensi$(29.3% of total
kilts) followed by House Crow. Corvus splendens (26.1%).
The other species often killed on roads included Common
Myna. Acridotheres tristis (6.5%), Ring Dove. Strelopelia
decaocto (5.8%). House Sparrow. Passer domesticus
(5.0%). Crow Pheasant, Centropus sinensis (3.5%), Barn
Owl. Tyro aba (2.3%) and Pied Myna.Stumus contra
(2.3%).
Status and Habitat Requirement of Yellowthroated Bulbul
S. Subramanya, J.N. Prasad' and S. Karthlkeyan"
HPHT Scheme, J. Block. University of Agricultural Sciences. GKVK Campus. Bangalore 560 065
13, 8th Cross, J.P Nagar i Phase, Bangalore 560 076
24. Opp. Banashankari Temple. 8th Bfock. Jayanagar P.O.. Bangalore 560 082
Yellowthroated Bulbul, Pycnonotus xantholaemus
Jerdon a species endemic to South India is one of the
least studied species with virtually no information on its
status, habitat requirement and threats and disturbances to
its survival, keeping this in view the information gathered
from a survey of 26 localities has been presented.
Yellowthroated Bulbul was principally seen on boulder
strewn hills with vegetation ranging from southern tropical
thorn scrub, dry deciduous forest to moist deciduous forest.
From a comparison of hills where Yellowthroated Bulbul
was recorded with those where the species was not
recorded, it was evident that total denudation of vegetation
and quarrying were the two most serious factors leading to
the local extinction of the species through habitat loss.
Observation on the feeding habits of Yellowthroated
Bulbul indicated that the species fed predominantly on
berries and significantly a great majority of berries were
taken from shrubs than trees. Yellowthroated Bulbul
adopted different foraging methods to capture insects,
depending on the type of vegetation.
The survey of indicated that the species is highly tied to
hill habitat. Only on two instances it was observed to stray
from the base of the hill.
Of the major threats to the habitat, wood-cutting ws
rampant, hillocks were being quarried at many places and
cattle grazing on hill vegetation was observed.
The survey revealed that though Yellowthroated Bulbul
is not threatened within its habitat, destruction of vegetation
on which it depends and the quarrying activity leads to local
extinction of the species. Considering this, there is an
urgent need to identify potential habitats and protect them
against habitat destruction.
111
Effects of Industrialisation on the Populations of Peafowl, Pavo crlstatus Linn
S. Thirumurthi, R. Annamalal and V. Gunasekaran
Forest College and Research Institute. Mettupalayam 641 301
The 14 km stretch between Kovilpalayam and Annur on
the Coimbatore-Sathyamangalam road is a typical
peafowl country with a semiferal peafowl population
inhabiting a semiarid and partially wooded agroeco system.
The continuous cropping of sugarcane, cotton, groundnut,
vegetables, groundnut and millets offer ideal habitat and
regular supply of food to these birds. The pest and non pest
insects and other arthropods associated with various crops
also provide food to peafowls. The absence of any
significant predators and protection by a friendly and
religious farming community helped peafowls to flourish
here. Foraging flocks of peafowls could be sighted here.
With the government subsidised rapid industrialisation
commendng from 1986. there started the 'habitat
disturbance' in this area. Hence a regular survey was
initiated from March 1986. to study impact of
industrialisation on the populations of peafowl and
breeding activities.
Material and Methods
Four counting points were selected on the 14 km stretch
on the Coimbatore-Sathyamangalam state highway from
Kovilpalayam. These included Kunnathur. Telugupalayam,
Ganesapuram and Kariyampalayam. These observation
posts were visited four times each during March, June,
September and December every year between 1986 and
1992. The total population of peafowls including males,
females and juveniles were estimated from 0630 hrs to
0830 hrs in the morning and 1630 hrs and 1830 hrs in the
evening. The number of industrial units were also
estimated in this area annually from 1986 onwards. The
data are given in Table 1 .
There has been a steady decline in the population
throughout the period of observation. The reduction was
progressive starting with 15.91% in the first year and
reaching to 68.18% after six years along with the progress
of Industrialisation. The severe reduction in the loss of
juvenile population indicates decline in breeding activity.
The major reason that could be attributed to this decline
is the loss of habitat. Wrih more and more industrial units
coming into existence, the area of farm lands rapidly
declined.
The peafowl is not a shy bird with reference to the
proximity of human beings particularly in villages where it is
considered as sacred (Dharmakumarsinhji and Lavkumar,
1981 and Thirumurthi ei a/.. 1981). The increased human
activity due to industrialisation could have affected the
population only marginally. The habitat destruction in the
form of reduced shelter by canopy destruction and tree
felling as welt as the dwindling food supply on the other
hand drastically affected these birds.
References
Dharmakumarsinhji. K.S. and K.S. Lavkumar, 1981. Sixty
Indian Birds. Publication Division, New Delhi.
Thirumurthi, S., B. Rajendran and D. Krishnadoss. 1981.
Insectivorous Birds associated with rice ecosystem at
Madurai. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 78 : 65-75.
Table 1 : Effect of Industrialisation on population reduction In peafowl
Year
No. of industrial units
Peafowl population
% reduction
1986
8
176
-
1967
13
148
15.91
1988
18
132
25.00
1989
22
122
36.68
1990
26
116
34.01
1991
37
100
43.18
1992
49
56
68.18
112
Education Through Bird watching
Prashanih Hebbar
Centre for Environment Education, Regional Centre (Southern Region), Kamata Mansion,
143 Infantry Road , Bangalore 560 001
Introduction
With education being commercialised, this is an attempt
to find various ways to restore the ethics ol education
and the spirit ot learning.
The process of learning takes place only when the
environment in which the leacher-student interactions take
place is natural, pleasant and lively. In a typical class room
session we seldom come across such an environment. A
birding session brings the teacher and student more closer
and the environment will be perfectly conducive for learning
processes.
In order to systematize the process of learning, we have
enforced division in the flow of information like Physics.
Chemistry, Mathematics. Biology, etc. and the knowledge
acquired by the child is thus bifurcated into innumerable
subjects. The child grows up with this division in mind and
any event it perceives will be catagorised as above. This
paper looks at one of the methods to avoid such divisions.
Look at any child today, the strain of enforced education
is very much evident on his face. This is certainly not the
aim of education. This paper makes an attempt in making
the process of learning more lively and enjoying.
P.S. : Please note that the method propounded here is
not a substitute for class room teaching.
A Routine Class Room Session Vs A birding
Session
Scene A: The Class Room
The class room is overflowing with students. The
teacher is trying his best to draw their attention to the
almost white black board. The heading "Sets" is hardly
visible but the students are least bothered since they are
busy in their world. A handful of the students are taking
down whatever the teacher writes on the board. After
fortyfive minutes the whole class room reverberates with an
ear-piercing ohh The teacher stumbles out of the class
room with the 'ope rat ion -success- but- the- patient-died look
on his face*.
Observation
The teacher - student relation is formal and distant. The
environment is unnatural, unpleasant and unfit for
transacting knowledge.The student attention is almost
zero and the subject being taught is merely looked upon
as syllabus for examinations.
Scene B: Country side
A teacher and his assistant have brought some students
to a small vegetation patch on the outskirts of the city. The
students are divided into two groups each of which take
two different paths. One group is accompanied by the
teacher while the other is joined by his assistant. The
students are equipped with notebooks and are busy noting
down their observations. The whole operation looks so
clinical that it is apparant that the students have been
briefed about the birding session prior to this. After nearly
an hour's walk the two groups join again in a
predetermined point. The students are excited, happy and
a look of satisfaction is dancing on their faces. Shortly the
teacher has made the students to sit under a tree and is
collecting the names of birds recorded by each group. He
calls the two lists compiled by the two groups as "Set A"
and "Set B". Thus methodically without giving an
impression that he is teaching a pari of the syllabus the
teacher has started his lesson on "Sets". He prompts the
students to identify birds common to both the lists (Sets)
and make a separate list, which he calls the "Intersection of
two sets" Like wise he makes the students to form the
'Union of two Sets". After nearly two hours they have
started back to their school.
Observation:
Scene B is self explanatory. It has succeeded in
avoiding all the loopholes of scene A. We can also see that
the students are made to take a prominent part in the
process of learning by using the data collected by the
students themselves. The teacher has merely set a
platform wherein there is free flow of information.
Why Choose Blrdwatching Session as an
Educational Medium ?
Birds can be watched under natural conditions with least
investment.
Children always love being out -doors. Infact they learn a
lot while doing out-door activities. This is because the
natural world around them makes them curious and the
faculty of inquiry is thus developed which is vital in
anyone's growth.
The mere process of spotting a bird and identifying it
brings immense feeling of acheivement and satisfaction
and prompts the child to learn more.
Birding can be done either individually or in groups.
Neverthless it develops the confidence and inculcates the
spirit of team work.
Bird watching demands a high degree of
concentration, and the ability to observe.
patience,
More than any thing else bidwatcing is sheer joy... the
joy of being with nature.
113
Education Through Bird watching
Prashanth Hebbar
Centre for Environment Education. Regional Centre (Southern Region), Kamala Mansion,
143 infantry Road, Bangalore 560 001
Introduction
Wilh education being commercialised, this is an attempt
lo find various ways to restore the ethics of education
and the spirit of learning.
The process of learning takes place only when the
environment in which the teacher-student interactions take
place is natural, pleasant and lively. In a typical class room
session we seldom come across such an environment. A
birding session brings the teacher and student more closer
and the environment will be perfectly conducive for learning
processes.
In order to systematize the process of learning, we have
enforced division in the flow of information like Physics.
Chemistry. Mathematics, Biology, etc. and the knowledge
acquired by the child is thus bifurcated into innumerable
subjects. The child grows up with this division in mind and
any event it perceives will be catagorised as above. This
paper looks at one of the methods to avoid such divisions.
Look at any child today, the strain of enforced education
is very much evident on his face. This is certainly not the
aim of education. This paper makes an attempt in making
the process of learning more lively and enjoying.
PS. : Please note that the method propounded here is
not a substitute for class room teaching.
A Routine Class Room Session Vs A birding
Session
Scene A: The Class Room
The class room is overflowing with students. The
teacher is frying his best to draw their attention lo the
almost white black board. The heading "Sets" is hardly
visible but the students are least bothered since they are
busy in their world. A handful of the students are taking
down whatever the teacher writes on the board. After
fortyfive minutes the whole class room reverberates with an
ear-piercing ohh The teacher stumbles out of the class
room with the 'operation-success-but-the-patient-died look
on his face'.
Observation
The teacher - student relation is formal and distant. The
environment is unnatural, unpleasant and unfit for
transacting knowledge.The student attention is almost
zero and the subject being taught is merely looked upon
as syllabus for examinations.
Scene B: Country side
A teacher and his assistant have brought some students
to a small vegetation patch on the outskirts of the city. The
students are divided into two groups each of which take
two different paths. One group is accompanied by the
teacher while the other is joined by his assistant. The
students are equipped with notebooks and are busy noting
down Iheir observations. The whole operation looks so
clinical that it is apparant that the students have been
briefed about the birding session prior to this. After nearly
an hour's walk the two groups join again in a
predetermined point. The students are excited, happy and
a look of satisfaction is dancing on their faces. Shortly the
teacher has made the students to sit under a tree and is
collecting the names of birds recorded by each group. He
calls the two lists compiled by the two groups as _ Set A"
and "Set B". Thus methodically without giving an
impression thai he is teaching a part of the syllabus the
teacher has started his lesson on "Sets". He prompts the
students to identify birds common to both the lists (Sets)
and make a separate list, which he calls the "Intersection of
Iwo sets". Like wise he makes the students to form the
"Union of two Sets". After nearly two hours they have
started back to their school.
Observation;
Scene B is self explanatory. It has succeeded in
avoiding all the loopholes of scene A. We can also see that
the students are made to take a prominent part in the
process of learning by using the data collected by the
students themselves. The teacher has merely set a
platform wherein there is free flow of information.
Why Choose Birdwatchlng Session as an
Educational Medium ?
Birds can be watched under natural conditions with least
investment.
Children always love being out-doors. Infact they learn a
lot while doing out-door activities. This is because the
natural world around them makes them curious and the
faculty of inquiry is thus developed which is vital in
anyone's growth.
The mere process of spotting a bird and identifying it
brings immense feeling of acheivement and satisfaction
and prompts the child to learn more.
Birding can be done either individually or in groups.
Neverthless it develops the confidence and inculcates the
spirit of team work.
Bird watching demands a high degree of patience,
concentration, and the ability to observe.
More than any thing else bidwatcing is sheer joy... the
joy of being with nature.
113
Methodology and approach
Birdwatching itself will not teach anything unless and
until! one endeavours to interpret the observation he has
done in his birdirtg trarl. Birding is an effective tool for
teaching but is not a substitute for classroom teaching. A
teacher who plans to use bird-watching as a tool to
communicate some part of the syllabus to the students can
adopt two approaches namely
(i) Project work
(ii) Short birding sessions
The project work is a long-time programme for which
the teacher will have to plan in advance and chart out the
activities lo be done. This wilt be done in consultation with
the academic syllabus of the target students. The target
students can then be divided into small groups and
assigned specific projects.
The project work can be divided into
a) Studies/observations
b) Practical work like building nest, water baths,
hides, etc.
It is advisable to have a combination of both (a) & (b) to
make a project balanced, ft desired and possible
'documentation' can be taken as a part of the project
wherein the students are made to photograph birds and/or
record the bird calls.
Short birding sessions can also be effective if handled
intelligently. I here warn the teacher thai his experiment in
adopting this method may fail if he takes the students out
only once.
The teacher might find it necessary lo have one to two
pre- birding sessions in which he can give hints to the
students as to what to look for when they are birding.
If the teacher is taking a group on a birding session for
the first time, it is advisable not to use that session for his
teaching purposes. A few sessions have to be conducted
so that the students can acquaint themselves with the ways
of nature.
Examples
1. To study how and why a bird sits in a particular
posture is very interesting. Different birds have
different sitting postures and in many cases a bird
can be identified to be belonging to a particular
family by its silhoutte. A subtle information that one
can grasp through some thinking is the reason
behind a bird's particular posture, consider a
kindfisher which sits almost vertically (upright). This
posture helps the bird to maintain its balance. If it
were to adopt any other posture it would topple over
because of its heavy, stout beak. A dove on the
other hand sits almost horizontally. Doves have a
comparitivery long body which means that to
balance itself it will have to sit almost horizontally.
The teacher can take such opportunity to teach
his/her pupils about 'centre of gravity'.
2. The topic 'motion in a plane' is so heavywith theory
that seldom do the students pay attention to what
the teacher is saying in the classroom. The same
topic can be made more livery and interesting by a
walk in a garden or a park.
Ask the students to observe any bird frying around
in the near surrounding from one identifiable point to
another (say from a fence post to the roof of a
building). Now let a group of students estimate the
distance between the two points and the other
group estimate the time take by the bird(s) to cover
this distance. This can be repeated several times
with other birds. When they fill the table below
They will have in their hands a treasure of scientific
data which can be utilised by the teacher to
introduce concepts like Speed, Velocity and
Acceleration.
3. Birds are unique by virtue of their ability to fry. The
flight of birds are based on sound aerodynamic
principles. A teacher can use a birdwatching
session to introduce the 'Bernouli's Principle' to the
students. During the birding session he can draw
the attention of the students to the flight of various
birds. Later in the post-birding session the teacher
can talk about 'Beroullt's principle'.
4. Often we see vultures and kites soaring very high in
the sky in large circles for a long time without once
flapping their wings. The teacher can use such
sights to teach the students about 'Thermals', its
origin and related concepts.
5. Say a bird is perching on top of a post. The teacher
can immediately initiate the students in estimating
the height of the post. This will be an ideal situation
to introduce the concept of 'Mensuration' and the
teacher can adopt the crude mensuration method
using the principle of isoceles right angled triangle.
Thus the concept of Isoceles triangles can also be
taught.
This will I hope restore lhat dimension of Education,
which has been long forgotten by us, wherein 'nature' is
used as an effective tool for teaching! have given here just
a few examples which gives an idea of the potential of
using birdwatchng sessions to teach regular topics from the
school syllabus. The fact that I have taken the examples to
illustrate concepts of Physics and Mathematics which are
normally considered the most difficult to teach and most
dreaded by the students, does not mean that only these
subjects can be taught. Birdwatching sessions can be used
to teach any subject through some innovative thinking.
114
AERODYNAMICS OF BIRD
FLIC I IT
■4-
A. Ai the wing Is tilled
upwards, lift Increases ft
smooth air How Induces
flight. The aerofoil wing
aectlon decreases drag.
But a sharp tilt Induces
turbulance
-%F
C. The Alula or Baslard Wing
smoothcns air flow around
the wing.
THERMALS
A. Rise of hot air.
B. Cold air undercuts
hot column
C. A hot bubble forms
and rises
D. A Raptor rides [ Soars)
effortlessly on the rising
bubble
115
Habitat Quality Estimation by Habitat Suitability Index in Metopidius indicus
Rathln Barman and P.C. Bhattacharjee
Animal Ecology and Wildlife Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Gawhati University
Guwahati 781 014, Assam
Introduction
Habilal quality can be numerically described on the basis
of Habitat Suitability Index (HSI). lor selecting the
appropriate site suitable for the species (USFWS, 1980)
and can be recommended (or management programme.
Allen (1985, 1986) had successfully applied HSI on
American Coot and Mallard. Comparative study of the
habitat quality ol residential bird species has not been
emphasized trom conservation point of view in North East
India. The present work with Metopidius indicus was taken
up to assess the feasibility of the method in regional
context.
Material and Methods
Studies ol habitat quality estimation were carried out in
Gauhali University Campus (27* 11' N and 91' 47' E). Five
different wetlands were selected (Table 1).
McCuen and Whitaker (1975) analyzed wild-life
habitats by inventorying the majo* components giving each
a value and weighing its relative importance to groups of
wild-life species. Index value for each wetland component
found within the home range ot the species is ihen
pfoportionized according to other components ol the
wetlands. The overall value for wetlands is derived by
totaling all the proportionized value (Allen. 1985, 1986).
The required information recorded were as follows :
a) Population was recorded each day for the whole
study period covering all the durnal period.
b) Vegetation coverages of each habitat was
estimated by simple observation.
Vegetation Coverage
Amongst the five wetlands. Wetland I is well composed
(Table 1, Fig 1). Cover preferred by M.indicus is
c)
a)
Foods were identified in the lie Id by direct
observation and with the help of literature (Ali and
Ripley, 1983).
Edge index of different wetlands were estimated
following the standard method (USFWS. 1980).
e) Water conditions of different wetlands were
estimated from the past records and present
observations.
f) Water depths and vegetation heights were
measured.
The whole study was done between September and
December, 1992.
Results and Discussion
Populations
Based on population numbers in different wetlands.
Wetland-I was found to be the most suitable (Table 2).
mainly
Hymanachancae sp. and Eichhornia sp. Nests were
present only when vegetation was found beyond 60 per
cent.
M.indicus preferred the vegetation height between 0.5
to 3.5 feet, where the nest were camouflaged.
Wetland-I comprised of mostly vegetation between 0.5
to3.5feet(Fig.2)
Food
In the present study following food items were identified
for M.indicus.
i) Roots and flowers of Hymanachancae sp. (Family:
Poaceae)
ii) Chara (Family: Ceratophyllum)
iii) Roots of Salvinia cuculata (Family: Salviniaceae)
It was observed that roots and flowers of
Hymanachancae sp. were mostly preferred. Mollusca
(Lemnae sp., Planorbis sp.) and Coleopterans (Casside
circumdata) were identified as food lor M. indicus. Food
preference was 75 per cent vegetation and 25 per cent
animal food in non-breeding season, while animal food was
preferred during breeding season (June to September). .
Vegetation utilization preference of M.indicus as food and
cover indices are given in Table No. 3, Fig. No.3.
Edge Index
Edges of vegetation are mostly used by M.indicus for
feeding, resling, calling and nesting. It was observed that
suitability indices ol each wetland increased with respect to
the increase of edge index (El) except in Wetland-IV
(Wetland-IV was a highly disturbed zone) {Table 4 and
Fig 4).
Water was also a major independent variable which
determined the habitat quality of M.indicus. Water quality
was found to be most suitable in Wetland-I for M.indicus
than other tour wetlands (Table 4. Fig 4).
Habitat Suitability Index (HSI)
M.indicus is a residential bird and it used the same
habitat for feeding and nesting. The suitability of habitat for
M.indicus mostly depended upon food availability and
breeding requisites.
In the present study it was found that SIV1. SIV2 and
SIV3 are the main fundamental variables where the former
116
two are dependent and the latter is independent variable.
The quality of these variables ultimately determined the
suitability of the habitat for M.indicus.
In Wetland-I. SIV2 is equal to 1.0 (Table 4) and SIV3 is
also 1.0 {Table 5). For different SIV1 value (Table 3J the
HSI value of Wetland-I for M.indicus was as follows :
with Nymphaea vegetaiion
Hymanachancae sp.
surrounded
For Mymanachanae sp.
HSI -(1.0 ±1.0)"*
-1.0
Sarvinia sp.
HSI- (0.8 ± 1.0) " 2
-0.89
Nymphaea sp.
HSI - (0.6 ± 1.0) " 2
-0.77
Scripus sp.
HSI -(0.4 ±1.0)"*
-0 63
Eichornia sp.
HSI-(0.2±1.0) 1/?
= 0.44
Merrimia sp.
HSI -(0.0 ±1.0)"*
-0.00
-3.73
So the value for Wetland-I (HSI - (3.73/6)} - 0.62
Thus the value of different wetlands are tabulated in
Table 6.
From the practical point of view 100 percent suitability of
habitat (HSI - 1.0) for any wild life species is never
expected. Different rank may be given to different wetlands
for its suitability (Table 7).
The vegetation specificity (used as food and cover)
edge and the water quality were the determining variables,
that influenced the quality of the wetlands as a habitat for
M.indicus. Allen (1985) opined that the non-migratory
species of water-birds depends upon the degree of
mterspersion of essential habitat types because this
determines the amount of edges. M.indicus preferred
Hymanachanae sp. as food as well as cover. But for
selecting the nest building site it always preferred the site
The habitat change which are expected along with the
change of season or because of any major contribution of
an abiotic factor is within the purview of the species habitat
requirements. Hence the species may shift to the most
suitable wetlands to maximise the available advantages
provided by nature.
For conservation, detecting the limiting factors is basic
to habitat management. A complete understanding of the
processes of habitat formation would be desirable. This
study would help in the required modification of habitat for
the protection and conservation.
References
Allen. A.W.. 1985. HSI Models: American Coot ? U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. Rep (10.115). 1 7 pp.
Allen. A.W.. 1986. HSI Models: Mallard. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D.. 1983. Hand Book of Bird of India
and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Ali. S. and Vijayan, V.S. 1986. Keoladeo National Park
Ecology Study, Annual Report.
McCuen. R.H. and G.A. Whitaker, 1 975. A methodology for
assessing the quality of Wildlife habitat. Technical
report Department of
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Estimating Wildlife habitat
variables. U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.
20-240.
117
1*0
20
20
in
u
20
ui
o
<
m
>
o
u
20
20
Wetland -I
n _ n ,-p r-i_
1 2 3 <♦ 5 6
Wetland -II
In^-inrirn
I 2 3
Wetland -III
—in
t* 5 6
IL
I 2 3 k
Wetland -IV
6
1 2 3 d 5
Wetland -V
6
1. Hymanachonca* »
2.saivinia sp
3.Nympnaea ip
^.Scripus sp
5.Eichomia sp
£\ fc',1 6Merrimia sp
^3 others
EvH water
CH hydro pliase
2 3 I* 5 6
Fig.1 . Coverage o( different species of plants in the time zones (Data from Table 1 ).
118
Table 2. Vegetation coverages against vegetation height in different wetlands
Wfclands
1
II
III
IV
V
Total area (Hoc.)
Total vege. coverage
Actual water
4.42
2.26
1.74
0.28
0.59
72.5%
70.0%
60.0%
67.5%
10.0%
17.25%
25.5%
40.0%
25.85%
72.0%
Hydrophase
Nymphaea sp.
Hymanachanae sp.
Scripus sp.
Merrimia sp.
Salvinia sp.
Eichorrnia sp.
Jussieua sp.
10.25%
4.5%
0.0%
6.65%
18.0%
2.72%
54.36%
5.8%
2.8%
24.5%
6.58%
0.0%
6.0%
36.0%
1.62%
3.36%
0.0%
0.0%
1.0%
0.2%
2.9%
3.78%
1 .6%
1.69%
0.7%
3.44%
6.16%
6.0%
1.01%
0.0%
2.54%
8.05%
6.0%
47.25%
0.0%
0.73%
0.7%
3.0%
0.68%
0.0%
Ceralophyllum sp.
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
7.43%
8.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
3.38%
0.1%
Alternanthera sp.
0.0%
0.7%
1.2%
1.01%
0.0%
Arm sp.
Oriba sp.
00%
0.98
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
16.38%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Fig.2. Vegetation coverages against vegetation height in different wetlands.
Table 2. Population of M. indicus in different wetlands and suitability index.
Wetlands
I
II
III
IV
V
Avr. population
Suitability Index (SI)
17.7
1
11.2
0.7
6.3
0.5
2.9
0.3
0.1
0.01
Table 3. Suitability index against vegetation preference.
SI.No
Vegetation
Suitability index
1.
Hymanachancae
1.0
2.
Salvinia
0.8
3.
Nymphaea
0.6
4.
Serious
0.4
5.
Eichorrnia
0.2
6.
Memmea
o.co
1.'
^q
u.
.4
'■■
^
S
S
Fig. 3. Suitability index against vegetation preference
119
Table 4. Edge index of different wetlands
S Mo
Wetland
Edge index (Dl)
Suitability Index
(SIV2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1
II
III
IV
V
0.3594204
0.3388937
0.2502763
0.490
0.007001
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.0
Table 5. Water suitability of different wetlands
SI.
No.
Wetland
Suitability index given (SIV3)
1.
1
1.0
2.
II
0.75
3.
III
0.50
4.
IV
0.25
5
V
0.00
Table 6. HSI values (calculated) of different wetlands
Wetlands
1
II
III
IV
V
HSI
0.62
0.40
0.22
0.09
0.00
1.
o'.g
0.6
0.4
0.?
rrr? ^.4 —
Ed^e index
Fig.4. Relationship between suitability and edge index.
.
Fig.5. Relationship between SIV3 and water regime.
Table 7. Ranking of different wetlands
SI.
Ho
Wet-
lands
HSI
Ranks
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
1
II
III
IV
V
0.62
0.40
0.22
0.09
00
BEST (HSI- 1 to 0.62)
GOOD (HSI - 0.59 to 0.40)
BAD (HSI - 0.39 to 0.20)
NOT SUITABLE (HSI - 0. 1 9 to
0.00)
LEAST SUTIABLE
120
A Study on the Habitat Quality of Dendrocygna javanica Horsfield
Hillaljyotl Slngha and PC. Bhattacharjee
Animal Ecology and Wildlife Biology Laboratory. Department of Zoology. Gauhati University
Guwahati 781 014, Assam
Introduction
JT\endrocygna javanica Horsefield (Lesser Whislling Teal)
^is the most successful species among the six
residential species of Anatidae in Assam and the
Whitewinged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata), is the most
endangered duck. The high adaptability ol D. javanica with
the changing habitat conditions prompted this study on its
habitat quality. The present study is mainly concentrated on
the reproductive habitat ot D. javanica. The structural and
physical features of a habitat are measurable and habitat
quality can be evaluated. Thus, this study will also support
conservation efforts.
Material And Methods
Five different wetlands with similar physiography and
vegetation quality were selected in the Gauhati University
Campus (26' 11' N and 96' 47" E> for the detailed habitat
analysis: (1) Zone A (4.42 ha), (2) Zone C (2.62 ha),
(3) Zone E (1 .47 ha), (4) Zone F (0.28 ha), (5) Zone P (0.59
ha).
The period of investigation was October and November
which is late breeding period of D javanica. During the
period the following suitable conditions were found :
a) Water level was reasonably high
b} The young ones were found with the parents and a
distinct parental care was evident
c) Good vegetation.
Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model (Anonymous, 1981
a.b.c) is a numerical index. If minimum value of HSI is 0.0
it will be considered unsuitable and a maximum value of
1.0 represents optimum suitable habitat. Three variables
which are essential to evaluate the suitability index were :
1) Vegetation cover type percentage (SIVi) : The cover
percentages of dominant herbaceous plants were
evaluated by simple observation considering the total
vegetation as 100%. 2) Edge index (SIV2) : It was
computed by the following formula
Dl =
where
1
2VAn
I = length of edge of wetland boundary and
emergent vegetation
A - Area of wetland covertype
Dl - Edge index
and 3) Water regime (SIVsJThe characteristics of flooding
condition of every studied zone were observed and
categorized. The values of every components of all SIVs
were given arbitrarily in natural number according to their
importance in relation to the suitability of the habitat.
Suitability index for habitat composition (SIHC)
sihc=A
where R - Least amount of vegetation covertype which
supports the presence of least number of D. javanica
. Individual vegetati on % x 100
' 506 (for S zones)
HSI Determination
HSI - RSI - (SIV, x SIV?)
Reproductive suitability index.
v?
x SIV3 Where RSI
Dependable variables SIV 1 and Slv2 are modified by
independable variable SIV3. Number of D javanica was
counted per wetland zone.
Results And Discussion
Population of D.javanica was found highest in the zone
- A and lowest in the zone - E (Table 1). Study of
relationship between the dominant species of vegetation
and the number of D.javanica revealed that in composite
wetlands where large amount of Hymanachanae sp. with
considerable amount of Nymphaea and Scripus sp. were
present (height of the vegetations ranged between 0.5 feet
to 3 feet above the water level) the number of D.javanica
was found to be the highest (zone A). On the other hand
teals were not found in the wetlands covered with
maximum amount of water hyacinth (zone E).
Determination of suitability index for habitat composition
(SIHC) was based on some essential vegetation
cover-type {Table 2 and Fig.1). The edge index suitability
ranged from 0.25 to 0.50 with the most suitable edge index
(0.36 approximately) in zone A (Table 3 and Fig. 2).
The perennially flooding condition is comparatively
better for the breeding of D.javanica; while intermittently
flooding condition seemed to be unsuitable (Table 4).
HSI Evaluation
Suitability indices of three variables were put in the
following equations to evaluate the HSI values zone-wise :
HSI-(SIV 1 xSIV 2 )" ? xSIV3
For zone A, SIV1 - I.SIV3-I
i) SIVi for Hymanachanae sp. - 1
.-. HSI-(1x1) ia xl-1
ii) SIVi for Nymphaea sp. - 0.8
.'. HSI-fO.SxIj'xl - 0.89
121
iii) SIVi for Scripus sp. - 0.6
.-. HSI- (0.6x1)^x1 -0.78
iv) SIVi (or Salvinia sp. - 0.4
.-. HSI- (0.4 x1) 1/2 x 1-0.63
v) SIVi for Merrimia sp. - 0.2
.-. HSI -(0.2 x1) 1/2 - 0.45
vi) SIVi for Eichhomia sp. -
.-. HSI-(0x1) l/2 x1 -0.0
.-. Total HSI - 3.75
• HSI for Zone A - 3.75
6-0.625
The values of HSI of other studied zones are listed in
Table 5.
The present study was done during the late breeding
period of D.javanica. hence only the suitability of
reproductive habitat was considered. It can be assumed
that D.javanica preferred composite wetland as
reproductive habitat having different types of water
vegetations distributed evenly throughout the wetland with
open water in the ratio being approximately 70 : 30. It
preferred mostly Hymanachanae grass and Nymphaea
with the height of 0.5 to 3 feet above the water level. This
finding agreed with the observation of Ali and Vijayan
(1986). The presence of compactly distributed water
hyacinth does not contribute to the suitability of
reproductive habitat of D.javanica.
Large number of teals counted in the Zone P, was due to
the fact that the site was used for resting as highland bank
area and tall Merrimia sp. (Shrubs) provided good cover.
D. javanica is found to co-exist with other compatible
wetland avifauna. Though it is a successful residential
wetland teal, this study has revealed that some factors
contributed to the deterioration of habitat quality.
REFERENCES
1. Ali. S. 4 V.S. Vijayan. 1986. Comparative ecology of
resident ducks. Keoladea National Park Ecology
Study. Annual Report, Bombay Natural History Society
pp.69.
2. Anon. 1981 a. 101 ESM, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Services Transmittal sheet.
3. , 1981 b. 103 ESM U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Services Transmittal sheet.
4. , 1981 c. 103 ESM U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Services Transmittal sheet.
Table 1 : Number of D.javanica per wetland zone
Zone
Average No. of individuals
204.7
48
17.5
0.8
Table 2. Determination of suitability index for habitat composition (SIHC) and SIV-
SI.No.
Vegetation cover
type
Recommended
minimum %
comnposrtion
of cover type
(R)
Optimal
habitat
composition
index (£]
Actual % oi
composition of
cover type (A)
Actual habit
composition
SIHC. A
SIV,
1
2
i
•-/
4
5
6
7
Hymanachanae sp.
Nymphaeae sp.
Scripus sp.
Salvinia sp.
Merrimia sp.
Eichhomia sp.
Qdza sp.
"1
2.71875
0.2
3.44375
0.7
2.5375
16.38
0.0370644
0.0074128
0.0259451
0.100769
0.0940511
0.1276408
0.6071163
17.85
9.716
2.1335
1.44125
12.1675
3.32325
3.276
0.6616011
0.3601186
0.079077
0.0534191
0.4509822
0.1231745
0.1214232
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
Total
26.98
0.9999995
49.9075
1.8497957
1.85
122
Zone
Tabic 3: Relationship between Edge Index (Dl) of vegetation and open water ahowing SIV?
Area (A) sq ft
475084.97
63297.37
253614.38
295866
18732.45
Length of edge (L) ft
8782
278.46
6.5
384.0
298.49
Edge index
Di- L
0.3594205
0.007001
0.3388937
0.490
0.25002763
SIV 2
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.0
Table 4: Relationship between water regime and SIV3
Zone
Flooding Type
Perennially flooded
Permanently flooded
Semipermanently
Hooded
Temporarily flooded
Intermittently flooded
Characteristic of Flooding
The water level is high during summer but in winter season the water
concentrates in specilic tower regions of the Zone with rich hydrophytes.
The water covers Ihe land surface throughout the year. Vegetation is
composed of obligate hydrophytes.
Surface water persists throughout the growing season of the year water
level becomes very low with less hydrophytes.
Surface water presents in brief period during the growing season but
dries up during winter season.
Surface water is present throughout the year except in year of extreme
drought.
SIV3
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
0.0
Table 5 : Evaluation of HSI values In studied zones
Zone
A
P
C
F
E
HSI
0.63
0.39
0.22
0.09
0.00
X
1
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
3 4 5 6 7
Vegetation covertype
Fig.1. Graphical representation between SIV, and vegetation cover type.
123
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.0
C F E
Edge index
Fig. 2. Comparative account of relationship between SIV2 and edge index in different zones.
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
>
CO
0.0
A
P
C F B
V
/ater re
gime
Fig. 3. Relationship between SIV3 and water regime in different zones.
124
Diversity ol Bird Species in the Eastern Ghats of India
C. Venkataraman and G. Ramaswamy"
Department of Zoology, Presidency College. Madras 600 025
'Division of Wildlife Biology, A. V.C. College, Mannampandal 609 305. Mayiladuthurai
Introduction
One of the relatively undisputed generalization in
community ecology is an increase ot species diversity
from temperate to tropical region. Tropical rain forests have
attracted many biologists to find out the factors of diversity
and which determine them. Avifaunal group as attracted
much more attention than any other communities. Diversity
is the heterogenity created by the interaction of various
factors in the habitat (Gadgil. 1936). It determines the
nature of the habitat, and the study of these factors may
provide the gradient distribution of the biota in the habitats.
Much work related to the avifaunal diversity has been
done In temperate forests (Mac Arthur and Mac Arthur,
1961; Karr. 1968; Robinson and Holmes, 1984; Niem and
Handwski, 1984). But a very limited data is available in the
tropics (Karr and Roth. 1971. 1982; Terborgh and Wesek,
1969; Pearson, 1975; Love Joy. 1975; Beehler. 1978;
Ripley, 1978; Price. 1979 and Johns, 1983). The Western
and Eastern Ghats of India harboring a fairly rich fauna!
and floral wealth are relatively unexplored. Only a few
reports are available pertaining to the Western Ghats,
Oaniels 1989 and Daniels et al.. 1990. 1991, 1992).
Whistler and Kinnear (1932-1939) were the pioneers to
study the whole Eastern Ghats. Other reports (Raju and
Selvin, 1971; Raju and Price. 1973; Ali and Ripley, 1985;
Bushan, 1986 and Beehler et al., 1987) are limited to the
Andhra Pradesh region and no studies are made in the
Tamil Nadu region.
The present work was undertaken to study the diversity
of birds and plants, species composition, and the impact of
man made alteration in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh region.
Material and Methods
The Eastern Ghat extends over an area 1,42,072.89 km
in the states of Orissa. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
and occupies 6.77% of the total geographic area of the
Indian Republic. The length of the Easterp Ghat is about
1350 km and the width is about 140 km. The Eastern Ghat
shows NE — SW stretching between north latitudes 11 ' 35'
85' 15'. The present work was carried out from April to July
1989 in selected forests of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh in the Eastern Ghats (Fig.1) Table 1 describes the
locality, major vegetation type, month of sampling and
transects laid in the respective habitats.
To estimate the bird species population 600 x 100 metre
transect was laid on each habitat. Each sampling was done
for three consecutive days between 06.00 to 0.800 hrs, and
at each observation point two minutes were spent to
enumerate the species. Random sampling was adopted
for the plant species. Quadrat of 10 x 10 m were laid on
alternative sides of each habitat and the plant species were
recorded.
Shanon — Weiner index (1949) was adopted for
calculating plant and bird species diversities.
H - I pi x tog pi
where n is the proportion of the rth species in the sample.
To find out the similarity in bird species composition and
abundance between the habitat types, the Jaccards (1908)
similarity index was applied.
NC
NC
Ni
N. + N 2 - NC
■ Number of species in common
- Number of species in the first habitat
- Number of species in the second habitat
Correlation between plant and bird species diversity
was calculated by using the formula of Karl Pearson's
Coefficient of correlation r.
Results and Discussion
Species Number
A total number of 94 species was observed in the 9
transects and 145 species were recorded for the checklist.
The joint survey by the Andhra Pradesh Natural History
Society and the Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.,
recorded 160 species from the same area (Ripley et al
1987). The Verney expedition (1932-1939) recorded 172
species from the same area. The lesser number of bird
species recorded in the present study might be due to the
restricted area surveyed within a short period, climatic
variations and/or the poor habitat structure. The dry
deciduous forest with ecucalyptus plantation (T 2) had the
maximum number of 38 bird species. Rezakhan (1972)
concluded that eucalyptus plantations provided good
undergrowth and food resulting in the abundants of
insectivorous birds. Further, the eucalyptus plantation
provide a good source of nectar, attracting a variety of
forest birds such as Racket -tailed. Bronzed and
Haircrested Drongos, Lorikeets and Hill Mynas, (Daniels
et al 1990). Nectar is the source of sugar for a lot of
insectivorous birds (Ali and Rtpley, 1983).
125
A Oy deciduous natural forest (T6) had 36 species of
brds next to T2. The natural forest with high density of
itfi enough canopy provides a good habitat lor a
o* birds (James and Warmer, 1982). The moist
deoduous forest above 2000 m MSL had the minimum
number of 13 species of birds. The reason might be due to
tfta higher altitude.
The dry deciduous forest with eucalyptus plantations
(T2) and the scrub jungle with eucalyptus plantation had
higher species richness and the moist deciduous forest
above 2000 m MSL had a low species richness. Connell
(1978) pointed out thai man altered forests had higher
species richness and Kikkawa and Williams (1971)
reported that higher altitude reduces the species richness.
Species diversity
A higher Shannon - Weiner index was obtained in dry
decidious forest (T6) (Table 2). Similar observations were
made by James and Warner (1982). The moist deciduous
forest T5 above 2000 m MSL had lesser bird species
diversity. Kikkawa and Williams (1971) reported that the
bird species diversity decreases with the increase in
altitude. Wefty (1982) concluded that the decrease of
temperature with the increase in altitude may reduce the
bird species diversity.
Scrub jungle with eucalyptus plantation (T8) had higher
plant species diversity and moist deciduous forest (T4) had
a lower diversity. Connell (1 978) relates high levels of plant
diversity to disturbed conditions and lower to stable tropical
forests.
Similarity in bird species composition between vegetation
types studies
The maximum similarity index of birds was observed
between the scrub jungle with eucalyptus plantation (T8)
and the dry deciduous with eucalyptus plantation T2
(Tables and 3 and 4). Dissimilarities were observed
between moist deciduous (T4> and teak plantation (T9).
The maximum similarity of plant species was observed
between dry decidious (T1) and dry deciduous with
eucalyptus plantation (T2).
Correlation between bird and plant species diversity
A high positive correlation between plant and bird
species diversity (+0.81) was obtained and linear
regression (y-a+bx: a - 0.801. b - 0.6628) was calculated
(Ftg.2). Karr (1976) reported that the bird species diversity
correlated to the availability and exploitation of food
substances and other resources in the habitats. Structural
characteristics of vegetation are directly correlated to bird
diversity (Anderson and Ohmart. 1977) The increase in the
height of foliage has a positive correlation (MacArthur and
MacArthur, 1961 and 1964, Mac Arthur et al, 1966, and
Karr, 1968).
Vertical stratification
The major proportion of birds were found in the canopy
and remarkably very low proportion of birds were found at
the ground level. The foliage profile, weather, and the
availability of fruits, insects and nectar may possibly cause
the vertical stratification (Bell, 1970).
Food Preferences of the birds
Percentage of different food habits of birds from different
habitats is given in Table 5. Insectivores were dominant in
the dry deciduous with eucalyptus plantation and teak
plantation. Omnivores dominated in the dry deciduous and
moist deciduous forest above 2000 m MSL. Frugivores
were dominant only in the moist deciduous. Nectar is the
only source of to a sugar to variety of insectivorous birds.
The eucalyptus plantation provides a good source of nectar
(Daniels. 1989)and may be the reason for more
insectivorous birds in forests having eucalyptus plantation.
Further, according to Rezhakhan (1972) these plantations
support a good under cover storey growth leading to the
abundance of insects.
From the present work and earlier reports, it is inferred
that the tropical rain forests of the Eastern Ghats with their
wealth of specialist and endemic species and sub species
of birds are slowly giving way to a more genalised and
widespread plantation as a result of human interference. In
the present work the habitats with eucalyptus plantation
had higher number of species, species richness, and
diversity of species than natural forests. The plantation
support good undergrowth resulting in abundant food for
many insectivores. Nectar is another factor attracting a
variety of birds. The plantation support good undergrowth
resulting in abundant food for many insectivores.
References
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Ali, Satim and S.D. Ripley., 1985. Environmental and
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Project of Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C.
Anderson, B.W. and R.D. Ohmart. 1977. Vegetation
structure and bird use in the lower Colorado River
Valley: 23-24 its importance, preservation and
management of Riparian habitats, a Symposium. United
States Forest Service, General Technical Report. RM
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Beechler. B. 1978. Historical changes in the avifauna of the
Wau Valley. Emu. 78: 80-84.
Beechler. B.M., K.S.R. Krishna Raju and Shahid Ali. 1987.
Avian use of man-disturbed forest habitats in the
Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India./b/s. 129:
197-211.
126
Bell, H.L. 1970. A bird community of New Guinean lowland
forest 3. Vertical distribution of th,e Avifauna. Emu, 82:
143-162.
Bhusan. B., 1986. Rediscovery of the Jerdon's Courser
Cursondus bitorquatus. J. Bomb Nat His. Soc, 83(1):
1-14.
Connel J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral
reefs. Science. 199: 1302-1310.
Daniels. R.J.R. 1989. A conservation strategy for the birds
of the Uttara Kannada district. Ph.D. thesis. Indian
Institute ol Science, Bangalore, India.
Daniels. R.J.R., N.V. Joshi. and M. Gadgil, 1990a.
Changes in the bird fauna of Uttara Kannada, India, in
relation to changes in land use over the past century.
Biological Conservation, 52: 37-a48.
Daniels, R.J.R, M. Hedge, and M. Gadgil., 1990b. Birds of
the man made ecosystems: the plantations.
Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal
Science). 99:39-52.
Daniels. R.J.R.. M. Hedge, N.V. Joshi and M. Gadgil. 1991.
Assigning Conservation Value: A case study from India.
Conservation biology, 5(4): 464-475.
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relationship between bird and woody plant species
diversity in the Uttarkannada of South India. Proc. Natl.,
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127
Table 1 : The different vegetation types studied and their location
Transect
No.
Locality
Major vegetation types
Month of
sampling
1.
Shevaroy hills , Salem Dl.
Dry deciduous
April 1989
2.
Shevaroy hills , Salem Dt.
Dry deciduous with Eucalyptus plantation.
April 1 989
3.
Chilton hills, Dharmapuri Dt.
Dry deciduous
May 1989
4.
Coonoor hills
Moist deciduous
May 1989
5.
Coonoor hills
Moist deciduous (2000M.S.L)
May 1989
6.
Kurumbapatty RF, Salem Dt.
Dry deciduous
June 1989
7.
Thatipudi (A.P)
Scrubjungle
July 1989
8.
Thalipudi
Scrubjungle with Eucalyptus
July 1989
9.
Thatipudi
Teak plantation
July 1 989
Table 2 : The number and Individual plant & bird species and their diversity in different localities
Transect
Number of bird
No. of
No. of plant
No. of
Shanon-Weiner
Diversity index
No.
species
individuals
species
individuals
birds
plants
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
s
31
219
13
167
2.2869
2.1116
38
377
11
181
2.6002
2.0169
25
144
9
117
2.2816
1.8178
21
150
5
102
2.2114
1.3194
13
118
5
111
1.9044
1.4014
36
34
334
8
108
2.7627
1.6571
322
11
136
2.6706
1.9167
35
267
13
243
2.6817
2.1378
9.
24
109
10
136
2.3896
1.7438
Table 3
Transect wise similarity index for bird species on the nine transects of the study areas of the Eastern
Ghat of Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh during the study period, April to July 1989
Transects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
.,
2
0.43
-
3
0.24
0.21
-
4
0.08
0.04
0.15
-
*
5
0.1
0.04
0.19
0.13
-
6
0.03
0.32
0.17
0.04
0.09
—
7
0.03
0.36
0.20
0.04
0.09
0.35
-
8
0.43
0.49
0.22
0.06
0.06
0.27
0.35
—
Q
0.25
0.29
0.19
0.02
0.06
022
0.09
0.37
I Z 1
Table 4: Transect
Ghat
wise similarity Index for plant species on the nine transects of the study areas of the Eastern
lat of Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh during the study period, April to July 1989
Transects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
_
2
0.21
-
3
0.10
0.05
-
4
0.05
0.00
0.07
-
5
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-
6
0.15
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.00
-
7
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
—
8
0.04
0.15
0.04
0.00
0.00
0.15
0.20
—
9
0.045
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.16
0.15
1
128
Table : 5 : Percentages of the various feeding types of bird species that were present In the study area during the
study period April to July 1989
Transect
Number
Omnivores
Carnivores
Frugivores
Insect ivores
Nectarjvores
Gram n ivores
1
44.44
0.44
0.88
38.22
4.00
12.00
2
36.64
2.19
14.03
40.13
3.07
05.92
3
36.11
1.39
23.61
36.02
1.38
03.47
4
30.06
1.96
32.02
26.79
4.58
04.58
5
43.22
0.85
09.32
40.68
4.24
01.69
6
49.86
0.26
05.12
26.95
1.62
16.17
7
26.58
0.33
15.95
44.85
0.99
11.30
8
30.03
0.61
15.02
43.13
3.51
07.61
9
23.30
3.01
19.55
39 10
3.00
12.03
131 14 1.65 174 1.81 191 2 01 2.11 2.13
PLAWT DIVERSITY
Rg.2. Regression on plant diversity vs. bird diversity
129
A Preliminary Survey of Egrets and Pond Herons in the Water Resources of Sivakasi,
Tamil Nadu
M.K. Rajan, G. Sankarperumal and Alfred Mohandoss
Post-graduate Department of Zoology. Ayyar Nadar Janaki Ammal College
Sivakasi - West 626 124
Introduction
"The birds. Ardeola greyii (Pond heron), Ardea alba
1 (Large egret) and Bubulcus ibis (Cattle egret) have
been incriminated both in maintenance and dissemination
ol Japanese Encephalitis (JE) virus, that causes brain fever
in man. Earlier investigation (ICMR. 1980) showed that
pond herons and cattle egrets develop viraemia in
sufficiently high trtres to infect mosquitoes which feed on
them and such transmit the JE virus. Similar studies are
meagre, especially in Tamil Nadu. Therefore, a preliminary
survey of egrets was made in the reservoirs of Sivakasi.
Tamil Nadu.
Material and Methods
The survey was made once a month (February-October
1993) in selected places in the small industrial town.
Sivakasi (Lai 9* 27 N; Long 77' 498' E). Tamil Nadu. India.
The pictorial guide of Ali and Ripley (1983) was used in the
identification of egrets.
Results and Discussion
The survey revealed that the number of egrets observed
in the ponds was more when compared with the sewage
canal (Table 1). Eighteen Ardea alba was observed in the
Satchryarpuram pond whereas 3 to 5 egrets were counted
in the sewage canal in September 1993. This may be
probably due to the presence of food substances, such as.
frogs, tadpoles, fingerlings and aquatic insects in the pond.
The availability of Ihe cattle egret populations is
dependent on the vegetation in the field More cattle egrets
(120) were observed during the month of February "93 and
gradually decreased to two egrets in the month of July '93.
A couple of the pond heron, Ardeola greyii was observed
during the survey period which may be probably due lo
seasonal occurrence of this bird.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Ihe Management of A. N.J. A.
College, Sivakasi for providing necessary facilities and lo
Tamil Nadu Slate Council for Science & Technology,
Madras for financial assistance.
References
Ali, S. and D. Ripley, 1983. A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of
the Indian Sub-continent. Bombay nat Hist. Soc.,
Oxford University press, Delhi, p.76.
ICMR, 1980. Japanese
Document, Delhi.
Encephalitis, Information
A Preliminary Field Report on 1993 Winter Survey of Birds in the Nehru Park,
Allahabad (U. P)
S.C. Pradhan
Department ot Zoology, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad 211 002.
The Nehru Park, Allahabad is a suitable abode for a
number of avian species bolh aquatic and terrestrial.
The present account is only an initial report of the avifauna
of the Park surveyed during Feb/March 1993. The Park
including the Mcfersion lake covering an area of about 160
acres attracts 124 species of birds. Of these 18 species
were identified as migrants, 21 resident migrants and the
remaining 85 species as residents. The record of the
number of avian species observed in different habitat types
during the present invesligation are given below :
Lake
35
Red beds
11
Medium and tall trees
39
Bushes
32
Grass beds
17
130
Some Observations on the Birds of Silent Valley National Park
C.A. Abdul Bashir* and P.O. Nameer "
'Kerala Forest Development Corporation, PO.Gavi, via Vandiperiyar, Kerala 685 533
"College of Forestry, Mannuthy P.O.Thrissur. Kerala
Introduction
Conservation ot biological diversity is of prime
importance in the overall conservation strategy ol an
area. Silent Valley Forests alter being declared a National
Park is being given maximum attention to preserve the
existing diversity. This short study was meant to ascertain
the status of the bird population of the National Par*. Here
measures such as protection against wildfire and reduction
of anthropogenic interferences to a minimum are slowly
beginning to pay back. Increasing sightings of habitat
specialists and endemic bird species (as per the list
prepared by the ICBP Biodiversity Project in the Oriental
Region) and the even and uniform distribution of the
avifauna may be considered as good indications of the
departure from the estrangements of habitat fragmenta-
tions.
It has been reported in the earlier studies that the
number of birds occurring in the National Park is 100*
(Unnikrishnan, 1990-Management Plan). Jayson (1990)
reported 119 species. The present study updated the list to
192 (including 156 from the core area and 36 from the
buffer zone).
Material and Methods
Silent Valley National Park, situated in Palakkad District
of Kerala is a plateau lying at an elevation ranging from 658
to 2383 m above MSL (Latitude 11.4' and 11.13'N and
Longitude 76.24' and 76.29'E). Along northern boundary
lies the forests of Nilambur South division and Nikjiris.
Southern boundary is formed by forests of Palakkad
division and to the east Attappady Reserved Forests.
Forests of Nilambur forms the west boundary.
The total area of the National Park is 8952 hectares of
which 1/5th is grassland.
The major forest types are :
a) West coast tropical evergreen forests
b) Southern subtropical hill forests
c) Southern montane wet temparate forests and
d) Southern montane wet grasslands.
apart from rocky areas and narrow strips of degraded
Hi* plateau slopes towards the bed of river
which runs through the Park in a north-south
VM-marked variation in the intensity of rainfall has
aaar oowrved across this area. Sairandry (elevation 990
lawai 3180 mm. Nilikkal (elevation 1000 m.) gets
I «*sa*m slopes receive 4550 mm. and northern
most portion receives the highest rainfall, i.e. 7500 mm.
Average minimum temperature ranges from 8-14"C and
average maximum temperature varies from 23-29'C.
A pilot survey was conducted during December 1990
which was attended by many amateur and professional
birdwatchers from the region. The participants were
stationed at four different locations inside the Park and
observations on birds were made along many 1 km
transects simultaneously for four days. Details of birds
sighted and the frequency of sightings for each bird are
given in the Appendix.
The present study was undertaken from March to May
1991. Fourteen 1 km. transects were identified inside the
National Park covering all types of habitats. The bird
species diversity obtained is made comparable with the
analysts of bird species diversity versus structural
composition of the vegetation data of Daniels, 1990.
Habitat preferences of rare birds and all the available
breeding data were also recorded.
Results and Discussion
Number of species observed in each transect and
addition of new species during the subsequent visits
remained more or less constant all through the study period
indicating a somewhat uniform distribution of the avifauna
throughout the core area of the Silent Valley National park.
A total of 156 birds (including 30 winter visitors - see
Appendix) were observed in core area and 36 (including 2
winter visitors) were seen in the buffer zone (which were
not sighted within the core area) where the habitat
distinction is relatively well-marked. Altogether the total
number of species sighted was 192 when compared to the
data from earlier studies including 32 winter visitors.
The breedings of some of the resident birds were
observed during the study period.. Out of this, the
breedings of Malay Bittern and Shaheen Falcon have not
so far been reported from Kerala.
Altogether seven species of birds were sighted which
have not been included in Birds of Kerala. The details are
shown in the Appendix.
Systematic long term monitoring is highly essential for
understanding the seasonal variations, territoriality and
relative abundance of the bird community in Silent Valley
National Park.
References
All. S.. 1969. Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press.
Ali. S. and Ripley. S.. 1983. Handbook of the Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact edition, Delhi, Oxford University
Press.
131
Dabueks. R.J.R. 1990. A conservation Strategy tor the
Birds of the Uttara Kannada District. NSc Thesis
abstract. J. Indian Institute ol Science , 70 : 537-538.
Jayson, E.A..1990. Community Ecology ot Birds at Silent
Valley. In Lonterm Ecological Studies in Silent Valley.
Report submitted to Government of India, KFRI.
Unnikrishnan,P.N., 1990. The Management Plan for Silent
Valley National Park 1990-91 to 1999-2000.
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our sincere thanks to :
1 Sri C.K. Karunakaran. IFS, CCF (Wildlife) and Sri
N.M. Pillay, Managing Director, KFDC for giving
permission to conduct this study.
2 Sri P.N Unnikrishnan. Wildlife Warden, Silent Valley
Division, Sri John Augustine Nirmat, Asst. Wildlife
Warden for providing all necessary help and
guidance.
3 Prof. K.K. Neelakantan for inspiration and
invaluable guidance.
4 Dr. R.J. Ranjit Daniels for guidance based on his
unique first hand knowledge of the birds of Western
Ghats.
5 Sri P.K. Uthman for guidance and help during many
field trips together.
6 Sri V Santharam for all his guidance and help.
7 All the participants of the pilot survey held in
December 1990, S/Sri Namassivayan, Suresh
Elamon, Nandakumar, Anitha. Prabhakar, Dr.
Nandakishore. Susanth, Suresh, Jafer Patot.
Mohammed Sulaiman. Dinesan, Priyadarsan.
Rajeevan, Omkar, Manoj, Shahul Hameed,
Verghese, Karunakaran.
8 Staff of Silent Valley Division lor all the logistic
assistance.
9 And finally to Sri Hamsa who was cook, campman
and companion.
Appendix
List of Birds sighted at Silent Valley during the Pilot
Survey In December 1990
1 . Pond Heron
2. Black Bittern
3. Black winged Kite
4. Crested Honey Buzzard
5. Crested Goshawk
6. Asiatic Sparrow Hawk
7. Besra Sparrow Hawk
8. Cresed Hawk Eagle
9. Bonelli's Hawk Eagle
10. Rufousbellied Hawk Eagle
11. Black Eagle
12 Greyheaded Fishing Eagle
13. Montagu's HJarrier
14. Shorttoed Eagle
15. Crested Serpend Eagle
16. Shaheen Falcon
17. Kestrel
18. Painted Bush Quail
19. RedSpurfowl
20. Grey Junglefowt
21 . Common Bustard Quail
22. Southern Green Pigeon
23. Greyfronted Green Pigeon
24. Jerdon's Imperial Pigeon
25. Nilgin Wood Pigeon
26. Emerald Dove
27. Blossomheaded Parakeet
28. Bluewinged Parakeet
29. Malabar Lorikeet
30. Redwinged Crested Cuckoo
31. Drongo Cuckoo
32. Crow Pheasant/Coucal
33. Brown Hawk Eagle
34. Grealeared Nightjar
35. Longtailed Nightjar
36. Jungle Nightjar
37. Ediblenest Swiftlet
38. Brownthroated Spinetail Swift
39. Whiterumped Spinetail Swift
40. Alpine Swift
41. Malabar Trigon
42. Small Blue Kingfisher
43. Three toed Forest Kingfisher
44. Whitebreasted Kingfisher
45. Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher
46. Chest nutheaded Bee eater
47. Malabar Grey Hornbill
48. Small Green Barbet
49. Crimsonthroated Barbet
50. Speckled Piculet
51. GoWenbacked 3 toed Woodpecker
52. Great Black Woodpecker
53. Pigmy Woodpecker
54. Heart Spotted Woodpecker
55. Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker
56. Indian Pitta
57. Nilgiri House Swallow
58. Redrumped Swallow
59. Wiretailed Swallor
60. House Martin
61. Cliff Swallow
62. Crag Martin
63. Dusky Crag Martin
64. Brown Shhke
65. Golden Oriole
66. Blacknaped Oriole
67. Grey Drongo
68. Bronzed Drongo
69. Racket-tailed Drongo
70. Hill Myna
71. Southern Tree pie
72. Pied Flycatcher Shrike
73. Malabar Wood Shrike
132
74. Large Cuckoo Shrike
75. Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike
76. Orange Minivet
77. Goldlronted Chloropsis
78. Fairy Blue Bird
79. Greyheaded Bulbul
60. Rubylhroated Bulbul
81 . Red whskered Bufoul
82. Red vented Bulbul
83. Yellow browed Bulbul
84. Black Bulbuul
85. Spotted Babbler
86. Scimitar Babbler
87. Blackheaded Babbler
88. Rufous Babbler
89. Wynaad Laughing Thrush
90. Quaker Babbler
91. Brown Frycatcher
92. Brownbreasted Flycatcher
93. Rufoustailed Flycalcher
94. Black and Orange Flycatcher
95. Whitebellied Blue Frycatcher
96. TckeH's Blue Flycatcher
97. Verditer Flycatcher
98. Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher
99. Greyheaded Flycatcher
100. Paradise Flycatcher
101. Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher
102. Franklin's Wren Warbler
103. Broadlailed Grass Warbler
104. Bryth's Reed Warbler
105. Tickets Leaf Warbler
106. Largecrowned Leaf Warbler
107. Greenish Leaf Warbler
108. Rufousbellied Shortwing
109. Blue Chat
1 1 0. Blackheaded Rock Thrush
111. Malabar Whistling Thrush
112. Whitethroated Ground Thrush
113. Nilgiri Thrush
114. Black Bird
115. Yellow cheeked Tit
116. Velvet fronted Nuthatch
117. Nilgiri Pipit
118. Forest Watgail
11 9. Grey Wagtail
120. Grey Wagtail
121. Nilgiri Flowerpecker
122. Purple rumped Sunbird
123. Small Sunbird
124. Maroon breasted Sunbird
125. Little Spider hunter
126. White Eye
127. White backed Munia
128. Bufousbellied Munia
129. Rosef inch
Birds seen in the buffer zone (but not inside the core are;
during the pilot survey in December 1990
1 . Ceylon Shikra
2. Spotted Dove
3. Roseringed Parakeet
4. Barred Jungle Owlet
5. Bluetailed Bee-eater
6. Malabar Pied Hornbill
7. Malabar Goldenbacked Woodpecker
8. Crimson breasted Barbet
9. Blackheaded Oriole
10. Common Myna
11. Jungle Myna
12. Common Tree Pie
13. Common Wood Shrike
14. Ceylon lora
15. Jerdon's Chloropsis
16. Jungle Bubbler
17. Ashy Wren-Warbler
18. Plain Wren-Warbler
19. Tailor Bird
20. Magpie Robin
21 . Grey Tit
22. Large Pied Wagtail
23. Purple Sunbird
Total: 129 + 23- 152 species
Frequency of Sightings of Birds in Silent Valley during the
Pilot Survey - December 1 990
SI. No.
Species
Frequency ol
sightings
1
Small Sunbird
415
2
Black Bulbul
405
3
Yellowbrowed Bulbul
253
4
Malabar Whistling Thrush
204
5
Small Green Barbet
194
6
Greenish Leaf Warbler
145
7
Blylh's Reed Warbler
132
8
Quaker Babbler
120
9
Scimitar Babbler
119
10
Ashy Drongo
115
11
Largecrowned Leaf Warbler
98
12
White eye
96
13
Jerdon's Imperial Pigeon
83
14
Redwhiskered Bulbul
70
15
Paradise Flycatcher
59
16
Emerald Dove
57
17
Greyheaded Flycatcher
54
18
Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher
47
19
Malabar Lorkeet
43
20
Chestnut headed Bee-eater
39
21
Tickell's Leaf Warbler
. 35
22
Nilgiri Flowerpecker
35
23
Whitethroated Ground thrush
33
24
GokJenbacked 3-toed Woodpeck
er 29
25
Grey Wagtail
29
26
Black Bird
27
133
: Ma BpMiM
Frequency of
sightings
SI. No. Species
Frequency of
sightings
27
Mafabar Grey Hornbill
27
28
Blackwinged Kile
24
29
Rufoustailed Flycatcher
25
30
Little SpkJerhunter
21
32
Velvetfronted Nuthatch
21
32
Racket-tailed Drongo
20
33
Black Eagle
20
34
Golden Oriole
20
35
Brown Flycatcher
16
36
Blueheaded Rock thrush
18
37
Hill Myna
18
38
Whitebellied Blue Flycatcher
18
39
Blue Cat
17
40
Blackheaded Babbler
16
41
Yellowcheeked Tit
16
42
Bluewinged Parakeet
15
43
Orange Minrvet
14
44
Grey Junglefowl
14
45
Whiterumped Spinetail Swift
14
46
Blossom headed Parakeet
13
47
Malabar Wood Shrike
12
48
Edible Nest Swiftlet
12
49
Verdrter Flycatcher
12
50
Franklin's Wren Warbler
11
51
Whitebellied Tree Pie
11
52
Crested Serpent Eagle
10
53
Great Black Woodpecker
9
54
Redrumped Swallor
8
55
Fairy Blue Bird
9
56
Greytronted Green Pigeon
7
57
Black naped Blue Flycatcher
7
58
Brown Shrike
7
59
Malabar Progon
7
60
Bronzed Drongo
7
61
Forest Wagtail
) I
62
Purplerumped Sunbird
63
Shaheen Falcon
6
64
Asiatic Sparrow Hawk
5
65
Clrff Swallow
5
66
Spotted Battler
5
67
Heartspotted Woodpecker
5
67
Wynad Laughing Thrush
5
69
Crested Hawk Eagle
4
70
Alpine Swift
4
71
Brownbreasted Flycatcher
4
72
Thickbilled Flowerpecker
4
73 Nitgiri Wood Pigeon
74 Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike
75 Indian Pitta
76 Painted Bush Quail
77 Kestrel
78 House Martin
79 Rufousbellied Munia
80 Gold fronted Chloropsis
81 Greyheaded Bulbul
82 Speckled Piculet
83 Besra Sparrow Hawk
84 Rufousbellied Shortwing
85 Short-toed Eagle
86 Nilgiri Thrush
87 Crag Martin
88 Red vented Bulbul
89 Small Green Bee eater
90 Pied Flycatcher Shrike
91 Larger GokJenbacked Woodpecker
92 Rosefinch
93 Bonelli's Hawk Eagle
94 Storkbilled Kingfisher
95 House Swallow.
96 Dusky Crag Martin
97 Malay Pipit
98 Jungle Nightjar
99 Large Cuckoo Shrike
100 Greyheaded Fishing Eagl e
101 Rufous Babbler
1 02 Greateared Nightjar
1 03 Red Spurfowl
104 Maroonbreaste d Sunbird
1 05 Tckell's Blue Fl ycatcher
106 Whitebreasted Kingfisher
107 Crested Honey Buzzard
108 Rufousbellied Hawk Eagle
109 Southern Green Pigeon
1 1 Common Bustard Quail
111 Red winged Crested Cuckoo
112 Crow pheasant/Coucal
113 Brown Hawk Owl
114 Small Blue Kingfisher
1 1 5 Threetoed Forest Kingfisher
116 Pigmy Woodpecker
117 Wiretailed Swallow
1 1 8 Rubythroated Bulbul
119 Black Bittern
120 Pond Heron
134
Birds Sighted at Mukall
(not sighted inside the core area)
Family : Ardeidae
1 38 Little Green Bittern Butorides striatus
2 49 Little Egret
Family : Acclpitrldae
3 135 BrahminyKrte
4 139 Ceylon Shikra
Family : Rallidae
Egretla garzeta
Haliaslur indus
Accipiter badius
Family : Artanldae
21 982 Ashy Swallow
Shrike
Family : Sturnldae
22 1006 Common Myna
23 1010 Jungle Myna
Family : Corvidae
24 1033 Tree Pie
Family : Campephagidae
25 1070 Common
Artaus luscus
Acridotheres tristis
Acridotheres fuscus
Dendrocitta vagabonds
5 344 White breasted
Wood Shrike
Tephrodomis
waterhen
Amaurornis phoenicurus
pondicerianus
Family : Columbidae
Family: Irenldae
6 537 Spotted Dove
Streptopelia chinensis
26 1101 Common lora
27 1107 Jerdon's
Family : Pslttacidae
Chloropsis
Chloropsis
7 550 Rose ringed
cochinchinansis
Parakeet
Psittaeula krameri
Family : Muscicapidae
Family : Cuculidae
Sub family : Tlmaliinae
8 573 Common Hawk
28 1264 Jungle Babbler
TurdokJBS striatus
Cuckoo
Cuculus varius
9 576 Indian Cuckoo
Cuculus micropterus
Family : Muscicapidae
10 582 Bay banded
Sub family : Sylvllnae
Cuckoo
Cacomanlis sonneratu
29 1511 Plain Wren -
11 584 Plaintive Cuckoo
Cacomantis merulinus
Warbler
Prinia subflava
30 1535 Tailor Bird
Onhotomos sutorius
Family : Strigidae
12 623 Collared Scops
Family : Muscicapidae
Owl
Otus bakkamoena
Sub family : Turnldae
13 636 Barred Jungle
32 1661 Magpie Robin
Copsychus saularis
• Owlet
Glaucidium radiatum
Family :Paridae
Family : Meropida»^\
33 1795 Grey Tit
Parus major
14 748 Blue tailed
Beeeater
Merops philippinue
Family :Motacillldae
34 1891 Large Pied
Family : Buceroptldae
Wagtail
Motacilla
15 775 Malabar Pied
maderaspatensis
Hornbill
Anthracoceros
Family :Nectarlnlldae
cotonatus
35 1917 Indian Purple
Family : Capitonidae
Sunbtrd
Nectarinia asiatica
16 792 Crimsonbreasted
Megalaima
Barbet
hemacephala
Family :Plocldae
Family : Plcidae
36 1968 White backed
Muma
Lonchura striata
17 816 Small Yellownaped
Woodpecker
Picus chlorophus
■
18 820 Lesser Golden-
backed
Woodpecker]
Dinopium benghalense
Family : Orlolldae
List of Winter Visitors of Birds
19 959 Black headed
Oriole
Oriolus zanthornus
in Silent Valley
National Park
1 Asiatic Sparrow Hawk
Family : Dicruridae
2 Booted Hawk Eagle
20 963 Black Drongo
Dicrurus adsimilis
135
3 Montagu's Harrier
4 Redwinged Crested Cuckoo
5 Short eared Owl
6 Indian Pitia
7 Crag Martin
8 House Martin
9 Brown Shrike
10 Golden Ortoe
11 Black naped Oriole
12 Grey Drongo
13 Brown Flycatcher?
1 5 Rufous tailed Flycatcher
16 Red breasted Flycatcher
1 7 Blue throated Flycatcher
1 8 Verditer Flycatcher
19 Paradise Flycatcher
20 Thtckbilled Warbler
21 Bryth's Reed Warbler
22 Tickell's Leaf Warbler
23 Greenish Leaf Warbler
24 Large Crowned Leaf Warbler
25 Blue Chat
26 Blue headed Rock thrush
27 Black capped Black Bird
28 Forest wagtail
29 Indian Tree Pipit
30 Rosefinch
APPENDIX
General Composition of the mixed hunting flocks of birds
observed at Silent Valley during the present study —
December 1 990. March-May 1991
An analysis for the species composition of mixed hunting
flocks of birds encountered during the field trips in Silent
Valley gives the following combination of species as the
most common one
1 Black Bulbul
2 Small Sunbird
3 Orange Minrvet
4 Large Crowned Leaf Wabler
5 Velvet fronted Nuthatch
6 Yellow Cheeked Tit
7 Grey headed Flycatcher
8 Quaker Babbler
9 Scimitar Babbler
10 Black headed Babbler
1 1 Spotted Babbler
12 Racket Tailed Drongo
1 3 White bellied Blue Flycatcher
1 4 Black naped Blue Flycatcher
15 Speckled P.culet
1 6 Goldenbacked three toed Woodpecker
1 7 Yellow Browed Bulbul
18 Fairy Blue Bird
Migrants in the buffer zone
1 Indian Cuckoo
2 Blue tailed Bee eater
List of birds sighted at silent valley that are not included in "Birds of Kerala"
No.
Species
Date of sighting
Place of sighting
1.
Nilgiri Laughing Thrust (Garrulax cachinnans)
4-4-1991
Sispara
2.
Roufous bellied Shortwing (Brachypteryx major major)
27-12-1990
Nilikkal
3.
House Martin {Delichon urbica}
28-12-1990
Nilikkal & Poochipara
4.
Cliff swallow (Hirundo fluvicola)
28-12-1990 & 4-4-1991
Walakkad & Sispara
5.
Crag Martin (Hirundo rapestris)
28-12-1990
Sairandri
6.
Peninsular Scops Owl (Otus scops rufipennis)
8-5-1991
Sairadri
7.
Wiretailed swallo (Hirundo smrthii)
28-12-1990
Walakkad
136
Impact of Stone Crushing Units on the Populations of Redvented Bulbul,
Pyctonotus cafer
S. Thlrumurthl, R. Annamalai and V. Gunasekaran
Forest College and Research Institute
Mettupalayam 641 301
The shrub jungles situated around Bhavanisagar harbour
a large number of trees like Acacia nilotica.
A leucophloea. A.planifrons. Commiiphora berry i, Zizyphus
so., Carissa sp., famarindus ind'ca, Azadirachta mdica and
Ficus spp. Dense growth of Lantana and other shrubs and
several berry bearing climbers also form part of the flora
here. This forest area is a favoured habitat for Redvented
Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer. The bulbuls feed on many kinds
of berries available here and a rich insect fauna also
support these birds. The breeding season for the Bulbuls is
from March to June which sometimes extend up to July.
Since 1991. two Stone Crushing Units have been
functioning well within the vicinity of this forest. These units
are engaged in manufacturing various sizes of 'blue metal'
for manufacturing cement concrete. These units while
breaking, crushing and polishing blue metals emit large
quantities of very fine granite powder in the air.
This powder is carried along the windward direction and
deposited on the trees and shrubs. The trees get affected.
The suitability of such polluted habitat to Redvented
Bulbuls was studied.
Counts of bulbuls with a pair of 7 x 50 binoculars was
made 24 times during morning (0600 to 0800 hr) and
evening (1630 to 1830 hr). Eggs were identified following
Satyamurti(1979).
The data indicate the presence of an endemic resident
population of P.cafer with a limhed local movement during
March to June. This could be attributed to availability of
fruits in the nearby Mango and other orchards.
The population increases during rainy season
commencing from October to December. The Redvented
Bulbul has been observed as a pest of Cashew apples,
mango and other fruits in the orchards of nearby
Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar.
The low level sighting of P.cafer \n the areas affected by
the granite dust indicates the deleterious effects of the dust
on the bulbul.
There was a marked reduction (81.67%) in the
population in the area of Stone Crushing Units. The nesting
and breeding activity seems to be completely absent in the
affected areas. During the 1992 and 1993 breeding
seasons the pattern was the same with three nests built
and only two eggs laid in one nest. These two eggs were
also abandoned by the parents. This indicates that P.cafer
no more breeds in the area affected by the fine granite dust
blown from the stone crushing units.
References
Satyamurti. S.T.. 1979. Birds' Eggs and Nests. Supdt. Govt
Press, Madras.
Thirumurthi. S. and P.V. Balashanmugam. 1987. Birds
associated with fruiting cashew trees. The Cashew. 1 :
18.
Table 1 : Sighting of Redvented Bulbul In stone
crushing units of Bhavanisagar
No. ol B^ibuis in
Month
Affected area
unaffected area
July *91
26
107
August '91
17
101
September '91
23
126
October '91
29
114
November '91
32
149
December '91
45
208
January '92
30
173
February '92
12
106
March '92
18
92
April '92
23
- 80
May '92
32
103
June '92
26
96
Jury '92
31
129
August '92
39
117
September '92
26
140
October "92
31
164
November '92
44
197
December '92
38
235
January '93
27
156
February '93
21
119
March '93
27
89
April '93
19
63
May '93
20
82
Total
540
2946
137
Table 2 : Masting and breeding of Ftedvented Butbul (Pycnonotus cafar Linn.) in the vicinity of stone crushing units
Month
No. of of Bulbuls in
Affected Area
Nests Eggs FledgHings
Nests
Unaffected Area
Eggs Fledglings
March 92
—
April '92
—
May '92
2
June '92
2
March '93
_
April '93
1
May '93
3
June '93
3
9
13
19
21
12
19
24
23
23
30
41
18
25
31
39
19
16
27
27
8
21
32
24
138
Observations and Recommendations Concerning Some Serious Ecological
Problems of Wetland Bird Habitats In the Bangalore Region, Peninsular India
1 A.N. Yellappa Reddy 2 N. Srfnlvasan 3 B.K. Chakrapanl and 4 O.C. Naveein
1 A.N. Yellapa Reddy, Special Secretary to Government Department of Ecology and Environment,
Government of Karnataka 7th floor, M.S. Buildings, IV Phase, Bangalore-560 001
2,4 Foundation for Nature Exploration and Environmental Conservation. II Floor, Kasturi Complex,
Mission Road, Bangalore-560 027
3 Dr.B.K. Chakrapani. 159 (Gopalakrupa, 3rd Main, Channamanakere Acchukat, Banashankari III Stage.
Ill Phase. Bangalore-560 085
Introduction
The term 'Wetland' is much familiar following awareness
' and also conservation efforts in real terms in light of the
IUCN definition and that defined at the convention on
wetlands at Ramsar (Iran) in 1 971 . Wetlands have come to
be realized as extremely important and highly dynamic
ecological pockets possessing tremendous biomass
production potentials and capable of harbouring a rich and
diverse faunal & floral populations. Wetland ecosystems
and the wide variety of resources they treasure within and
support outside them are of immense value to man.
However, the last three decades have shown phenomenal
landuse and landscape changes. Presence of forests also
ensures a more efficient watershed mechanism lor tanks.
Forest area bsses for other land use has been
tremendous. About 5.17% of protected and reserved forest
area prior to 1960 had been reduced to 1.5% in Bangalore
District by 1988 (Ravindra 1992). Of an area of 652
sq.kms., considered for Satellite imagery studies by ISRO
(report No.TR-55-1985) shows increase in built up area
from 6.1% (in 1912) to 48.7% by 1985. Further, from
1961-83, land use for urban area had increased from
28000 to 50100 Ha; of this a mere 10% remains as parks,
playgrounds and recreational area. Industrial and
residential land use have shown most phenomenal
changes, transport facilities on land being another
significant area lately. Significantly therefore, there has
been a tremendous shift from a rural user basis of wetlands
to an urban oriented Bangalore.
Material and Methods
The observations are based on a survey of 97 tanks of
Bangalore carried out as a part of the Asian Waterfowl
census in 1989. A large variety of data about wetland status
carried out forms the basis of the present study. Standard
methods for various analysis like water, plankton,
vegetation etc.. have been detailed in the Survey report.
1990. The observations presently considered are based on
information collected through a wetland questionnaire.
Results concerning the threats have been to brought out
pointiws. Some of the threats have been recorded on a
presence/absence basis as quantification was beyond the
scope of the preliminary survey.
Results and Discussions
The most noticeable (hence bio- indicative) and
attractive faunal components wetlands can support and
sustain if allowed to. are birds especially waterfowl. The
expert committee for preservation of tanks in Bangalore in
its report (1986) observes that with a rapid growth of
Bangalore's population and proliferation of buildings, roads
and vehicular traffic, water sheets and trees become
valuable assets lo improve the health and quality of life for
Bangalore's residents. Bangalore district helped by its fairly
hilly terrain and unique climatic features also possesses
phenomenal freshwater wetland and aquatic resources.
Many studies by others on limnology, productivity etc.,
have indicated efficient production patterns as is expected
in the tropical waters extending between 10'N and 12'N
latitudes (Brylinsky & Mann 1973).
Ecological threats could affect the wetlands at various
levels. This would affect the waterfowl supported by the
habitat.
Information collected revealed that historically and to
some extent even today in suburban and rural part of the
district the 'Rural user' concept comprised the following
utilities. (Chakrapani 1990)
AH tanks served irrigation needs as the first priority
substantially provided for irrigation, even as late as 1989.
Provided extended supply of water for inhabitants for
domestic, drinking and washing needs during non rainy
days of the year, thus acting as water banks.
Recharged groundwater and other water sources like
wells, nullahs, streams etc.,
Supported wetland ecological trophic chains with
diverse flora & fauna like microorganisms, plankton,
aquatic vegetation, insects and insect larvae, fish,
amphibians and finally birds including waterfowl, both
resident and of more ecological consequence, the migrant.
Served as refuges for wetland wildlife, both flora and
fauna.
Shore and catchment areas, served as grazing land for
villages merely.
Control of water regime and microclimate of the district
in the form of open water sheet expanses and shore areas.
In present day sub-urban/urban conditions, the utilities
mainly are :
Recreational areas, microclimate control pockets and
refufges for wetland fauna, flora and waterfowl in less
threatened tanks.
1
Water recharging resources and as as mini water
treatment facilities in the absence of adequate waste water
treatment plants.
Threats faced by wetlands
Wetlands of Bangalore especially over the last 3
decades have become rapidly vulnerable to accidental and
intentional human interference than any other habitats.
This is because the 3 vital characteristics of tanks viz.,
water levels, water quality and the shore status can be very
easily and rapidly altered to spoil the life support system of
wetlands. Excessive water inflow or outflow, eutrophication
through sewage or leached down pollutants; agricultural or
industrial, with or without synergistic effects and bad shore
management would all impose very severe constraints on
waterfowl. Unsuitability to is naturally followed by
unsuitability to man in course of time.
Water Quality:
Water samples from 78 tanks were analysed. The rest
were dry. The of analyses details are available in the
survey report 1990. Bangalore district has mainly coarsely
textured red sandy loam soil and hence provides for good
drainage. This is good from wetland management points of
view and for recharging abilities and maintainance of water
tables.
Production here essentially refers to the capacity of tank
waters, to generate and sustain a wide diversity & ideal
population sizes of microbial & plankton organisms which
in turn sustain a wide array of higher trophic chains:
consumers being mainly fish and waterfowl.
Even by January 88% of the tank waters were turbid.
This clearly evidences serious soil erosion problems. 15 of
the 97 tanks were dry probably due to successive silting
over many years. 16% of tanks were heavily silted. 35%
showed enough silting to support formation of mudflats and
other serious problems like very poor shore vegetation and
highly disturbed shore areas. Clear water was seen in just
12% of the tanks, 26% had above critical limits of dissolved
solids. Effluents other than sewage entered 15% of the
tanks. Green colour, eutrophication and Blue green algal
dominance are closely related phenomena. 10% of tank
waters showed green colour and 18% of them were
dominated by blue green algae, detrimental for diverse
productivity processes.
Conductivity levels in 30% and 10% of the tanks
indicated moderate high nutrient enrichment.
Suitable desilting to encourage microhabitats of deep,
moderate and shallow depths.
Management steps to support higher plankton diversity
by allowing gradually sloping shores expansive catchment,
grass with cover and vegetation organised agricultural/
horticultural activity and ideal tank bed profiles.
Prevention of aquatic vegetation dominated by
Eichomia spp., a pollution indicator as this leads to slow
succession of wetlands towards shallowness and also
other spp. and cut off access to many shore and open
waterfowl.
Shallow water aquatic vegetation should be maintained
diverse. Species of fish tolerant to blue green algal
dominance and for controlling mosquito larvae to be
introduced.
Many other tanks no longer hold water having given way
to other utilities not in any way related to wetlands.
There are only 16 tanks within city limits today
compared to 140 in 1931 (Ravmdra 1990). Built-up area
has phenomenally increased and continues to do so
rapidly for industrial, commercial, residential, public/civil
amenities and transport facilities. This greatly blocks
seepage of rain water to ground water reserves. Tanks
have been lost. Water in existing tanks are unsafe. Thus
water sources for existing sources are threatened.
In relation to wetlands these effects are all indirect, but
of great consequence.
City's expansion should no longer be at the
degenerative cost of wetlands; all existing ones have to be
protected and preserved ecologically. Shore areas.
catchment and watersheds should have both greening &
waterfowl supporting features.
The Effects :
Indiscriminate mudlifting from the tank bed severely
affects the tank ecosystem. The vertical walls of the pits
lead to enormous silt movement once water starts flowing
in during the rains. It renders water turbid, brings down the
productivity of the tank affecting all aquatic organisms The
vegetation is destroyed and even grass takes some time to
re-establish itself in the drier portions. This affects livestock
and cattle grazing and even feeding and breeding sites of
birds.
There should be open and closed seasons for mudlifting
compulsorily.
Brickmaking like mudlifting has reached rampant
proportions. It has been recorded in 46% of the tanks in the
tank bed area of immediate vicinity of th tank. Apart from
neccesrtating mudlifting for the purpose, brickmaking
requires enormous amounts of firewood. Brickmaking
activity should be prohibited within 1 km of the high water
level mark used as a baseline ao that the wetland can be
used by the birds.
Reclamation of the lank bed for uses detrimental to the
well being of the tank can be termed encroachments. Apart
from mud lifting and brickmaking activities, encroachments
are basically for Ihe purpose of agriculture.
Waterfowl, especially the migratory waterbirds which are
present in our region from October to April are extensively
hunted in our tanks. Actual recorded hunting and that
revealed by local enquiries indicate that it is present in
about 35% of the tanks.
Hunting of any kind disturbs the feeding, roosting and
breeding birds of the habitat, as they are very sensitive to
140
sound and physical disturbance. Prolonged hunting in a
given wetland might progressively drive them away from
the site resulting in decreased number of birds in
successive years.
Hunting of any kind needs to be stopped. The costs
involved in hunting perunri weight of food would be much
greater than perhaps growing domestic fowl. Existing laws
for the preservation of wildlife which includes waterfowl
should be given more publicity. On a large scale even the
media coukJ be made use of for the purpose. On a local
scale, display boards with appropnate warnings and the
benefits of having waterbirds visiting the area could be put
up. Monitoring of selected tanks which hold potential
should be taken up. Such sites should be declared as
protected bird habitats.
Parallel efforts must be made to improve habitats
ecologically to attract and sustain large numbers of
waterfowl.
Presence of sewage and varied degrees of
eutrophication have been recorded from 10% of the tanks,
while 8% of the tanks had green waters showing high
levels of algae and algal blooms. Other effluents are
probably reaching 3% of the tanks.
Sewage afters the status of wetlands. It brings in
enormous quantities of nutrients into the system and
enables unregulated growth of algae. Both these raise
BOD levels and also result in bad odours coming from the
waters, ft can also affect the growth of other flora and
fauna(including fish and birds). Fish deaths under such
conditions have been known earlier.
The quality of the water flowing in should be improved
and bettered. BOD and suspended solids need to be
brought to within acceptable limits. Inflow of untreated
effluents need to be stopped. Indirect inflow of safe.
treated effluents could be allowed only it they contribute
significantly to the recharge of the tank waters.
Small low cost waste water handling facilities should be
created for most seriously affected tanks on priority and in
future for others for ecological and recreational
improvement of habitats, avoiding this does not necessarily
imply civil constructions.
There should be a decentralization of the sewage
system and only treated sewage should be let out. Raw
sewage should never reach the tanks directly, with
monitoring of problems concerning pollution.
The ultimate aim should also be to bring under control,
though it is a difficult process, the sittation of the tank. It is
one thing to deepen the tank and another to try prevent
sifting itself. The afforestation of catchment areas would not
only help in this regard but also meet the biomass needs
for local uses. Funds earmarked lor
development, RLEGP. NREP. DPAP and *
Rozgar Yojana funds could be used for the purpose. Both
the Mandal Panchayats and the Forest dep art ments snoute
be involved, the latter also in technical matters reMnato
afforestation. Along with sifting, reduction of a
within the tank is also important. Reducing
velocities while maintaining the inflow might help.
Since a variety of measures need to be tackled
simultaneously, continuous information on annual changes
regarding the status of shortlisted wetlands becomes most
essentia). Hence, monitoring of these habitats has to be
taken up on a regular basis.
It probably suffices to conclude that the
recommendations should be seriously implemented at the
earliest. In view of our commitment towards the cause of
wetlands and waterfowl, it has become supremely
imperative to save and improve these resources for the
progenies of nature.
Acknowledgements
The data drawn for this study is in fact from the "Survey
Report" 1990. The Main institutional help was received
from the Karnataka State Forest Department and the
University of Agricultural Sciences. We owe generous debt
of gratitudes for all those acknowledged in the above
report, who have generated this concern for wetlands in
and around Bangalore. All fellow birdwatchers in Bangalore
and local people at the sites deserve our special mention.
References
Chakrapani B.K., 1989. Ecology and dynamics of Plankton
in a lentc habitat. Ph.D. Thesis. Bangalore University
276 pp.
Chakrapani B.K., 1990 Note. Results of water and plankton
analysis submitted to Karnataka Forest Department for
records pp.4.
David, A Rao. N.G.S. and Ray. P.. 1974. Tank fishery
resources of Karnataka. Bull CIFTRI, Barrackpore,
No.20: 87 pp.
Midwinter bird observations in some Asian countries.
IWRB, Slimbridge, England 103 pp.
Ravindra A. 1992 1st draft Res. paper on urban
Environmental protection in India. Status report on
Bangalore for the Times Res. Fdn, Urban Studies
Centre. Calcutta, India, pp.89.
Survey Report 1990. Survey of irrigation tanks as wetland
Bird habitats in the Bangalore Area, India, 1989 Bird
Watchers Field Club of Bangalore pp.11 9.
141
Ecological Evaluation of Irrigation Tanks in the Tiruvannamalai Sambuvarayar
District of Tamil Nadu, India
K. Sam path
Society for Environmental Education and Conservation, 1/39A. Post Office Street, Sathanur 606 706
Tiruvannamalai Sambuvarayar District, Tamil Nadu
Introduction
Freshwater wetlands are fragile ecosystems but are last
deteriorating and shrinking (Mattby, 1986 and Dugan,
1990 and 1992). Though smaller freshwater irrigation tanks
have great ecological and economic role, they are
neglected. India has about 65.000 wetlands covering 4.5
million hectares (Anon, 1990). Though a few directories on
wetlands have been published, all the wetlands have not
been listed (Scott, 1989). A good number of works on
wetlands in relation to birds have been done in India
(Sampath. 1989; Sampath and Krishnamurthy, 1989, 1993;
Vijayan, 1991). In this district hitherto no work on birds has
been carried out. The present study was carried out for two
seasons from December 1991 to March 1992 and from
December 1992 to March 1993 with the aim of collecting
baseline data on the ecology of irrigation tanks in the
Tiruvannamalai Sambuvarayar district.
Material and Methods
The study area : Tiruvannamalai Sambuvarayar district
is located (78* 69' E to 79' 78' E and 11' 96' N to 12' 90' N)
at the northern part of Tamil Nadu State. Most part of the
district is scattered with hilly terrains and with sparse dry
deciduous forests. The average annual rainfall is 1040 mm.
The bulk of the rainfall is from the northeast monsoon
(October to December) and receives only scanty rainfall
through the southeast monsoon (July to September).
Scattered throughout the district are about 1,900 tanks
of both minor and major categories constituting about 10%
of the geographical area. The area of the tanks range from
5 to 1 .822 hac. Except a few tanks which are fed from the
canals of the Sathanur dam, all others are rainfed. Barring
a few tanks which are perennia, the remaining tanks are
seasonal. Owing to heavy siltation the water storage
capacity of all the tanks has been drastically reduced. From
March/April to the onset of northeast monsoon (October)
most of the tanks remain parched and are used for various
activities like forestry operation, brickmaking, cattle
grazing, etc.
Bird census was taken with a pair of binoculars (10 x
50) while walking over the bund of the tank. For bigger
tanks, telescope (16 x 50 x 50 mm) was used. All the bird
species encountered were enumerated. All the possible
and assessable parameters like available natural
vegetation, forestry plant species cultivated therein, extent
of infestation by plant weeds, quality of water, magnitude of
human encroachment, extent of reclamation of the tanks,
agricultural crops cultivated around the tanks, nature of
fishing, hunting and trapping of birds and tree cutting were
recorded.
Results and Discussion
During the course of study, 350 tanks spread over an
area of 23.391 ha were surveyed. The number of tanks in
each taluk and the total area are given in Table 1 .
Tanks above 100 hac are given below with the
approximate area in hectares
A — Aran) taluk
1
Panatyur
123
2
Thatchur
109
8 — Chengam taluk
3
Karapattu
149
4
Karryamangalam
Above 100
5
Kolundampattu
Above 100
6
Munnurmangalam
106
7
Sathanur dam
1822
8
Thorapadi
162
C — f
:heyyar taluk
9
Alathur
104
10
Alivadaitangi
108
11
Anakkavoor
240
12
Anapathur
108
13
Chrthathur
114
14
Dusimamandur
767
15
Echur
118
16
Kaliyar
103
17
Kovihjr
132
18
Natten
159
19
Nedungal
101
20
Pavoor
134
21
Perungattur
244
22
Purisai
184
23
See sh a manga lam (Mel)
268
24
Thennampattu
146
25
Thrrumani
112
26
Ukkal
104
27
Vakkadai
187
28
Veerampakkam
148
D —
Polur taluk
29
Alliyalamangalam
106
30
Kalambur
104
31
Mandakolathur
142
32
Othalavadi
161
33
Peranambakkam
155
34
Sengunam
106
E —
Tiruvannamalai taluk
*
35
Samudram
155
36
Somasipadi
258
37
Sorakolathur
109
38
Su.Nallur' p
Above 100
39
Thenmathur
Above 100
142
F — Vandavasl laluk
40 Elangadu
204
41 Erumbur
142
42 Kolappalur
238
43 Namalhodu
132
44 Nerkunam
145
45 Ponnur
137
46 Thennangur
107
47 Theyyar
158
48 Villivalavam
103
Official figures not available.
Bird Population
A lotal of 3.39,760 birds belonging to 65 species were
-ecorded. But taluk wise, the maximum number of 59
species were recorded in Chengam followed by Cheyyar
: -
Species like Spotbilled Pelican. Whrtenecked Stork and
Glossy fbis were recorded only in Chengam laluk. White
tois was only in Cheyyar and vandavasi taluks. Tufted duck
•as recorded only in Cheyyar taluk. The shorebird species
*e Whimbrel and Temminck's Stint were found in
Chengam and Cheyyar taluks. Blackheaded Gull and
Whiskered Tern were recorded only in Cheyyar and
l&ndavasi taluks. Little Tern was found only in Arani and
Polur taluks.
Ducks constituted 47.98% among the total population of
birds folbwed by shorebirds which formed 21.55%. The
percentage composition of other major groups were egrets
42%, herons 4.73% and grebes 4.28%. In the remaining
•% were included the bird groups such as pelican,
cormorant, storks, ibises, coots, gulls, terns bitterns,
waterhen and watercoock.
Among the 9 species of ducks, the Pintail was quite
dominant (70%) of the total ducks population of 1,66,768
Ords recorded from 78 tanks. The Whistling Teal
constituted the lowest population of 1 79 recorded onfy from
Chengam taluk. Among the 26 species of shorebirds
-ecorded. the Blackwinged Stilt was quite abundant, which
constituted 43.77% among the total shorebird population of
70,811 birds recorded from 200 tanks. The other abundant
shorebird species were Wood Sandpiper 13%, Little
Ringed Plover 12% and Common Sandpiper 7%. The
Deputation of Terek Sandpiper was the lowest (80).
The Little Egret constituted 49% (out of the total
copulation of 37,106 birds). The percentage composition of
other 3 species Intermediate Egret, Cattle Egret and
Greater Egret were 27% and 3%, respectively.
In herons. (4 species), the dominant species was Pond
Heron which constituted 85% (out of the total population of
14,119 birds). This species was recorded from 310 tanks.
The minimum population was of Purple Heron (0.35%),
recorded only on 11 tanks.
Among the three species of storks, the population of
Openbill Stork was the highest with the population of 369
birds. The percentage compositions of Cormorants and
Darter were 2.34% and 0.35% respectively. Of the 74
tanks, where Cormorants were found, maximum population
of 2.800 birds was recorded in Dusimamandur tank in
Cheyyar taluk. Darter was recorded in 13 tanks with
maximum population (60) in Dusimamandur tank.
Among the six taluks, the density of birds was the
highest in Polur taluk with 33.35 birds. It was the bwest
(8.77 birds) in Arani taluk (Table 1 ).
The common threats to which the tanks are exposed are
given below:
Nearly 70% of the tanks were infested with exuberant
growth of weeds like Prosopis juliflora, Ipomoea aquatha
and Sagittana sp. The growth of natural vegetation was
suppressed by the invasion of weeds that accelerated the
eutrophication process.
Siltation and decrease in water storage capacity of
almost all the tanks is believed to be due to deforestation.
In about 80% of the tanks, agriculture is being done
around the tanks. The quantum of chemical fertilizer used
annually was 5,1000 tonnes and the pesticides used was
over 500 tonnes, tt is feared that large scale utilization of
chemical products would have upset the tank ecosystem
and still the damage may be continuing.
All the tanks are subjected to hunting and trapping of
birds and disturbance due to fishing, cattle grazing,
firewood cutting, etc.
The record of minimum number of 22 species in
Odalavadi tank may be due to the over abundance of
weeds and forestry plantation (Reddy. 1988). Forestry
operation deteriorates tanks UNESCO.
Greater composition (47.98%) of ducks in the estimated
total population could be attributed to their preference of
wide variety of habitats as vast open area, abundant
submerged vegetation and plenty of benthic organisms
(Vijayan. 1991). Such a preponderant abundance of ducks
recorded in the present study corroborates with the study
conducted on the coramandal coast by Perennou and
Santharam(1990).
Among the 9 species of ducks, sighting of only Pintail in
more number (78) of tanks could be due to its survivability
in wide variety of habitats, tt has been reported that this
species feeds both on plant and animal matter (Vijayan,
1991).
It is imperative to extend protection measures to all the
wetlands irrespective of the size (SCOPE, 1972). The
smaller wetlands also have ecological value (tanks with
less than 100 ha are 303, Table). In the present study it
was found that a total of 49 tanks with less than 100 ha had
population of 91,733 ducks. So effective conservation
measures should be initiated to protect all the wetlands
irrespective of the size.
Apart from siltation. the other causative factors for the
deterioration of tanks in this district are deforestation,
infestation by weeds, overgrazing by livestock, wrong
agricultural practice and agricultural pollutants (Agricultural
Officer Pers. Comm.). These are the major factors which
143
cause deterioration of wetlands all over the world (Parish
and Prentice, 1989).
For the restoration ol the irrigation tanks in this district
and conserve birds these should be checked.
Acknowledgement
I am highly grateful to the Tahsildars, PWO Engineers
and District Forest Officer (Social Forestry Scheme) of this
district for having provided all necessary information about
the irrigation tanks. I am also indebted to Dr K.
Krishnamurthy, Professor, Centre of Advanced Study in
Marine Biology of Annamalai University for critically
reviewing the manuscript.
References
Agarwal, A.. 1988. Human-nature interaction in a Third
World Country. In: Threatened habitats (Eds.) V.P.
Agarwal and L.D. Chaturvedi. Published by Society of
Biosciences, Muzaffarnagar, pp.29-53.
Ali, S. and S.A. Hussain, 1981. Studies on the movement
and population structure of Indian avifauna. Annual
Report I. Bombay naf. Hist. Soc. Bombay.
Anon. 1988. A Directory ol Wetlands ol India. Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India. New
Delhi.
Parish. D. and R.C. Prentice (Eds.), 1989. Wetland and
Waterfowl Conservation in Asia. Asian Wetland Bureau
IWRB, Kula Lumpur.
Perennou, C. and V. Santharam, 1990. An ornithological
survey of some wetlands in South East India. Wetland
and Waterfowl Newsletter. 2 : 26-36.
Reddy. M.V.. 1988. Ecology of threatened habitats. In:
Threatened habrtas (Eds.). V.P. Agarwal and L.D.
Chaturvedi. Published by Society of Biosciences.
Muzaffarnagar. pp.83-93.
Sampath, K.. 1989. Studies on the ecology of shorebirds
(Aves: Charadriiformes) of the Great Vedaranyam Salt
Swamp and the Pichavaram Mangroves of India. Ph.D.
Thesis, Annamalai University. India, 202 pp.
Sampath. K. and K. Krishnamurthy, 1989. Shorebirds at the
Great Vedaranyam Salt Swamp. Tamil Nadu, India. Stilt,
15 : 20-23.
Sampath, K. and K. Krishnamurthy. 1990a. Shorebirds
(Charadriiformes) of the Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil
Nadu, India. Water Study Group Bulletin, 58 : 22-24.
Sampath. K. and K. Krishnamurthy, 1990b. Report of
Previously unlisted wetland of ornithological values in
India. Asian Wetland News, 3(2) : pp.17.
Sampath, K. and K. Krishnamurthy. 1993. Birds of the
Pichavaram mangroves and the adjoining coastal
environs. J. Ecological Society, 6 : 23-28.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.). 1989. A directory of Asian Wetlands.
IUCN. Gland. Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. xrv +
1181 pp.
Vijayan, V.S., 1991 . Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study
1980-1990. Fina. Report. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Soc.,
Bombay. 337 pp.
Table 1 : Number of tanks surveyed, total area, total number and density of birds In each taluk
Taluks
Arani
Chengam
Cheyyar
Polur
Tiruvannamalai
Vandavasi
Number of
tanks
63
48
137
37
36
29
Total area of
tanks (ha)
Number of
species
Total bird
population
Density of birds
2697
4762
8516
2451
2356
2609
46
59
58
41
41
50
23657
76400
101348
81751
27371
29233
8.77
16.04
11.90
33.35
11.62
11.20
144
Avifaunal Decline in a Newly Formed Extension of Bangalore City
Abraham Verghese', A.K. Chakravarthy ", S. Sridhar' and P.M. Govindakrtshnan"
* Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessarghatta Lake PO, Bangalore 560 089
" University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK. Bangalore 560 085
* No. 10, Sirur Park 'B' Street, Seshadripuram.Bangalore 560 020
** Potato Research Station, Modipuram, UP
The crty of Bangalore has been expanding rapidly. The
march of urbanization has had deleterious effects on
the avifauna of Bangalore (Verghese etal.. 1976). Records
from roving survey to a newly formed extension on the
West of Bangalore beyond Rajajinagar, between 1975 and
1980 and 1990 and 1993, are given in Table 1. This
comprises approximately 25% of the total avifauna of
Bangalore. Some observations were also recorded
between 1980 and 1990.
Prior to 1980, this area of about 100 hectares was open
scrub land, with rainted cultivation. A sewage cuts through
this, which at one point widened into an open swamp of
nearly two hectares. There were scattered small
woodlands with Irees of Casuarina. Pongamia glabra.
Ftcus. Eucalyptus, etc. During the eighties, this area was
redaimed and converted into residential sites. Today, it is
characterized by urban built-up areas with humans, roads,
vehicles and noise. In addition, the pollution effect of the
Peenya Industrial Estate is felt here.
As a result of urbanization, the avifaunal decline has
been drastic by nearly a loss of 55% (Table 1 ) species of
birds. Birds intolerant to urbanization (Verghese ef a/..
1976) and which are habitat specific have disappeared
such as Bluethroat. Streaked Fantail Warbler, Baybacked
Shrike. Ashycrowned Finch-Lark, Pale Harrier, Grey
Partridge, Blackwinged Kite, etc. There are certain birds,
which tolerate external influence of urbanization (Verghese
ef at., 1976) which can be saved by conserving pockets of
habitats, like for example, the Grebe. Coot. Purple,
Moorhen, Sandpipers. Wagtails. Small Blue Kingfisher and
so on. With the march of urbanization, birds are pushed
out, like for example, the Redheaded Merlin ()the first
record of the bird from Karnataka was from this locality.
Govindakrishnan etal.. 1978) which nested here in 1980s
and has now abandoned this area for ever. The requence
in which birds disappeared was observed. In 1980, when
trees were felled, the barbets. Koel, Coppersmith, Sunbird,
Flowerpecker and Oriole abandoned the area. In 1984.
when the Government took over most of the cultivated
patches, for construction of buildings. Lapwings. Shrikes,
Bulbuls, Warblers and Flycatchers disappeared. During
1988 when intense human use of the vast expenses of
open spaces in the area began, Owls. Larks, Bluethruat
and Pipits vanished.
The stream and the swamp habitats of birds were
encraoched upon during 1990 when a survey indicated
absence of Herons, Grebes, Egrets, Moorhen. Sandpiper,
Fantail Snipe and Kingfishers. In 1 992 when the entire area
was heavily used, birds that moderately tolerated urban
set-up like Doves. Bee-eaters, Horpoe. Quails. Patridges
and Vultures declined.
Acknowledgements
Dr. A. K. Chakravarthy is thankful to Director of
Research. UAS. Bangalore. This study is a part of ICAr
ad-hoc project on vertebrate pests.
This note is to emphasise the need to check march of
urbanization habitats like swamps, woods, openlands and
scrubs. It is urged here to allow urban development, if
inevitable, only around protected pockets, so that atleast
Table 1 : Presence-absence of birds ir> the outskirts of Rajajinagar, Bangalore
Common name
Name of the Bird
Scientific Name
Present (*)/Absent (-)
1975-1980 1990-1992
1
Grebe
Podceps rufticoliis
+
-
2
Grey Heron
Ardea ctnerea
+
-
3
Pood Heron
Ardeola grayU
+
+
4
Cattle Egret
Bulbulcus ibis
+
-
5
Little Egret
Egretra garzetta
*
+
6
Night Heron
Nycticorav nycttcorax
+
—
7
Blackwinged Kite
Elanus caeruleus
*
-
8
Pariah Kite
Milvus migrans
*
+
9
Shikra
Acopiter badius
*
-
10
Whiteeyed Buzzard-Eagle
Butastur leesa
*
-
11
Whitebacked Vulture
Gyps bengalensis
*
♦(F)
12
White Scavenger Vulture
Neophron percnopterous
+
♦(F)
13
Pale Harrier
Circus macrourus
*
—
14
Redheaded Merlin
Falco chioquera
+
♦(F)
15
Kestrel
F.tinnunculus
+
♦(F)
16
Grey Partridge
Francolmus pondicerianus
+
-
17
Grey Quail
Coturnix cotumix
♦
-
18
Jungle Bush Quail
Perdicula asiatica
+
-
145
Name of the Bird
Present (*)/Absent (-)
Common name
Scientific Name
1975-1980
1990-1992
19
Whitebr easted Waterhen
Amouromis phoenicurus
+
20
Indian Moorhen
Gallinula chloropus
+
•
21.
Purple Moorhen
Porphyrio porphytio
♦
_
22
Coo!
Fulica atra
+
_
23
Redwanled Lapwing
Vanellus in&cus
♦
•(H)
24
Yellow- wattled Lapwing
V.malabartcus
♦
25
Spotted Sandpiper
Thnga glareola
+
+
26
Common Sandpiper
T.hypoleucos
+
_
27
Fantail Snipe
GaJHnago galtinago
+
_
28
Blue Rock Pigeon
Columba livea
+
+
29
Spotted Dove
Streplopelia chinensis
+
+
30
Roseringed Parakeet
Psittacula kramen
+
+
31
Piedcrested Cuckoo
Clamator jacobin us
+
32
Koel
Eudynamus scolopoceae
*
+
33
Crowpheasant
Centropus sinensis
♦
_
34
Spotted Owlet
Athene brama
*
♦
35
Brown Fishowl
Bubo zeytonensis
+
36
Nightjar
Caprimulgus asiaticus
+
+ (H)
37
Great Horned owl
Bubo bubo
+
38
House Swift
Apus affinis
4
+
39
Pied Kingfisher
Ceryle rudis
♦
40
Small Blue Kingfisher
Alcedoaihis
+
_
41
Whilebreasted Kingfisher
Halcyon smyrnens/s
♦
* (Rare)
42
Small Green Bee-eater
Merops oriental!
43
Roller
Corcats benghalensis
*
_
44
Green Barbet
Megalalma virions
+
+
45
Crimson breasted Barbet
M haemacephala
+
+
46
Hoopoe
Upupa epops
+
_
47
Singing Bush Lark
Miralra javanica
+
_
46
Ashycrowned Finch Lark
Erempoterix grisea
*
—
49
Redrumped Swallow
Hirundo daurica
*
.(F)
50
Wiretailed Swallow
H.smithti
+
*(F)
51
Common Swallow
H.njstica
+
+ (F)
52
Baybacked Shrike
Lanius vittatus
+
53
Brown Shrike
Lanius cnstatus
+
_
54
Indian Oriole
Oriolus oriolus
+
+
55
Black Drongo
Dicrurus adsimilis
+
+
56
Brahminy Myna
Stumus pagodarurn
+
—
57
Common Myna
Acridotheres frisd's
+
+
58
Jungle Myna
A.fuscus
+
+
59
Wood Shrike
Tephrodornis pondfcerianus
+
—
60
House Crow
Corvus splendens
+
+
61
Jungle Crow
C.macrorhyhchos
+
+
62
Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike
Coratina melanoptera
+
•
63
lora
Aeglthina liphia
*
-
64
Redvented Bulbul
Pycnonotus cater
+
+
65
Whiteheaded Babbler
Turdoktes aftinis
+
66
Redbreasted Flycatcher
Culicicapa parva
♦
_
67
Streaked Fantail Warbler
Cistlcola junckts
+
—
68
Ashy Wren-Warbler
Prinia soaalis
+
+
69
Tailor Bird
Onhotormus sutorhjs
+
+
70
BIyths Reed Warbler
Acrocephalus dumetorum
+
71
Leaf Warbler
Phylloscopus attinis
+
+
72
Bluethroat
Enthacus srectcus
+
_
73
Magpie Robin
Copsychus saularis
+
_
74
Pied Bush Chat
Saxicola caprata
+
*■
75
Indian Robin
Saxicohides futicata
+
76
Grey Tit
Parus major
+
_
77
Indian Pipit
Anthus novaseelandae
+
_
78
Yelow/Grey Wgatail
Motacilla spp
+
79
Pied Wagtail
M. maderaspalensis
+
+
80
TtckeH's Flowerpeckec
Dicacvm erythrorhynchos
*
_
81
Purple Suntxrd
Nectarinia asiatica
+
_
82
Purpferumped Sun bird
N.zeylonica
*
+
83
White-eye
Zosterops palpebrosa
*
+
146
Common name
Name of the Bird
Scientific Name
Present (.(-Absent (-)
1975-1980 1990-1992
84
Bay a
Ploceus philippinus
85
Red Munia
Amandava amandava
86
Whitethroated Munia
Lonchura malbanca
67
Whitebacked Munia
L striata
88
SpottedMunia
Lpunctutata
89
Blackheaded Munia
Lmalacca
90
House Sparrow
Passer domesticus
birds which tolerate external influence of urbanization can
be saved from local extinction.
References
Govindakrishnan, P.M., A. Verghese and A.K.
Chakravarthy. 1978. Occurrence of Redheaded Merlin
{Falco chicquera) in Bangalore. Karnataka. J. Bom. nat
Hist. Soc., 75(2) :
Verghese, A., A.K. Chakravarthy and P.M.
Govindakrishnan. 1976. Influence of urbanization on the
avifauna of Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Bull.
Ethological Society ot India, 1 (3) : 72-83.
147
Wild Bird Trade in Bangalore City
Manu Prasanna' and Pavan Nagaraj"
'5. 3rd Cross road, Nehru Nagar, Bangalore-560020
'21. Railway Parallel Road, Nehrunagar, Bangalore-560020
Through surveys and interviews conducted al monthly
intervals from October 1992, it was found that 28
species of native, and six species of exotic birds are being
sold in Bangalore city. It was found that the trade was
traditional and has been practiced for many generations.
The bird traders have a great knowledge of birds and are
aware of their food and nesting habits, distribution, rarity.
etc. the native species include 4 species of Parakeets, 5
species of Munia and 3 species of Mynas. 2 species of
Quailes. 3 birds of prey and others.
The birds are being priced according to their colour and
rarity. The prices vary from Rs 5 per Munia to Rs 10.000 for
a Shaheen Falcon. The peak season for the trade of birds
is from October to December, during this period on an
average 50 birds are sold per day. During the other
months, an average, of 20-25 birds are sold per day.
It was found that Parakeets were being bought as pets
and partly for astrological purposes. Pigeons and Doves
are bought and sacrificed in religious and medical grounds.
Doves, Munias. Mynas etc are commonly kept as pets. It is
interesting to note that there is a demand for Farm Owls for
the control of agricultural pests. Sometimes Ouailes.
Partridges and even Peafowl are bought for the table.
Pigeons and Budgengars are the only ones that breed
m captivity here. The rest are wild birds that are caught
mainly from the nest. The birds are supplied from the
Western Ghats and other parts of south India.
It was mentioned that birds are caught from as far as
Orissa and Bihar. On transit on an average 80%of she
birds suffered mortality. The rest that are sold.often die in
the hands of a new owner who is ignorant of its needs. The
maintenance of these birds in the market is unhealthy and
appalling.
Endangered birds like Spotbilled pelican are sometimes
caught and offered for sale in the market. The Red
breasted and Alexandrine parakeet and Black crested baza
were found under dilapidated condrtions. These are rare
species introduced through trade in Bangalore So far there
has been practically no agency or conservation measures
being adopted against birds in the trade.
The raids conducted by the Forest Department and
other agencies do not help in rehabilitating the birds. Even
if the birds are confiscated, they are often released in
places hostile to birds.
As part of their culture, some communities buy and
release birds birds en masse. This does more harm than
good as it increases the demand for wild birds. The only
solution to stop the wild bird trade in Bangalore is making
people aware of the consequences of buying wild caught
birds.
148
Birds of Annamalai Hill
J. Thomas and M. Baian
Hombill Specialist Group. Nadumalai Estate, Valparai P.O., Tamil Nadu 642127
{ Valparai
"The firs! half of Annamalai Hill in the Indira Gandhi
1 Wildlife Sanctuary is well documented for its bird life as
it is the main tourist zone. Top slip' lies in this area. Top slip
elevation is only around 2500 feet and its forests are shrub
and dry deciduous with a few excemptions like kanan
shola. Water is very scarce in summer.
In the middle portion of the hill where Valparai town is
■situated, tea is extensively cultivated in about 55.000
acres. There are few cardamom and coffee estates. The
rainfall is around 350 cm. The large scale feelings in private
natural forests and conversion of Cinchona plantations into
tea is posing a real threat to the rich bird life of this area.
The top portion of the hill where the famous Grass hills
lies, is in no way comparable to the other two zones. It
extends from 5500 feet to 8000 feet with rolling wind swept
grass covered hills, sholas. riverine forests with hundreds
of perennial streams and swamps. The rainfall is above
500 cm and the whole place is covered with mist for 4
months from June to September. Due to this, bird life is
abundant.
A list of birds sighted here are given below :
1 Little Cormorant.
2 Pond Heron
3 Little Egret.
4 Chestnut Bittern,
5 Black Bittern.
6 Blackwinged Kite,
7 Pariah Kite.
8 Brahminy Kite,
9 Shikra,
10 Black Eagle,
11 Pale Harrier,
1 2 Crested Serpent Eagle
13 Indian Black Crested
Baza,
14 Kestrel.
15 Painted Bush Quail,
16 Red Spur Fowl,
17 Button Quail.
18 Whitebreasted
Waterhen.
19 Kentish Plover.
20 Woodsntpe.
21 Woodcock',
22 Orangebreasted
Green Pigeon,
23 Green Pigeon,
24 Imperial Pigeon,
25 Spotted Dove,
26 Emerald Dove,
Phalacrocorax niger
Ard&ola grayii
Egrerta garzetta
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
Ixobryehus flavicollis
Elanus caeruleus
Milvus migrans
Haliastur indus
Accipiter badius
Retinaetus malayensis
Circus macrourus
, Spilomis cheela
Aviceda leuphotes
Falco tinnunculus
Perdicula erythrorhyncha
Galloperdix spadicea
Tumix tank
Amauromts phoenicurus
Charadrius alexandrinus
Gallinago nemohcola
Scolopax rusticola
Treron bicinta
Treron phoenicoptern
Ducula badia
Slreptopelis chinensis
Chalcophaps indica
Region)
27 Rufous Turtle Dove,
28 Roseringed Parakeet.
29 Bluewinged Parakeet,
30 Indian Lorikeet,
31 Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.
32 Koel,
33 Crow Pheasant,
34 Cuckoo.
35 Jungle Owlet.
36 Mottled Woodowl.
37 Forest Eagle-Owl.
38 Longtailed Nightjar,
39 Indian Edible Swiftlet.
40 Brownthroated
, Spinetailed Swift,
41 Indian Alpine Swift.
42 Malabar Trogon,
43 Pied Kingfisher,
44 Blue-eared Kingfisher,
45 Storkbilled Kingfisher.
46 Whitebreasted Kingfisher.
47 Chest nut headed
Bee -eater,
48 Small Green Bee-eater,
49 Bluebearded Bee-eater.
50 Indian Roller.
51 Broadbilled Roller,
52 Hoopoe,
53 Malabar Grey Hornbill,
54 Great Pied Hornbill,
55 Small Green Barbet,
56 Crimsonthroated Barbet,
57 Speckled Piculet,
58 GoWenbacked
Woodpecker,
59 Indian GoWenbacked
Threetoed Woodpecker,
60 Large Goldenbacked
Woodpecker,
61 Indian Pitta,
62 Malabar Crested-Lark,
63 Dusky Crag Martin.
64 House Swallow,
65 House Martin,
66 Rufousbacked Shrike.
67 Brown Shrike.
68 Golden Oriole,
69 Blackheaded Oriole,
70 Black Drongo.
71 Whitebellied Drongo,
72 Bronze Drongo,
Streptopelia orientalis
Psittacula krameri
Psittacula columboKtes
Loriculus beryllinus
Caeomantis passerinus
Eudynamys seolopacea
Centropus sinensis
Cuculus canorus
Glaucidium radiatum
Slrix oceallata
Bubo nipalensis
Caprimukjus macrurus
Colbcalia unicolor
Chaeturn gigantea
Apus Melba
Haipactes fasciatus
Ceryle rudis
Alcedo meninting
Pelargopsis capensis
Halcyon smyrensis
Merops leschenauttii
Merops orientalis
Nyctyornis atbertoni
Coracias benghalensis
Eurystomus orientalis
Upupa epops
Toekus griseus
Buceros bicomis
Megalaima viridis
Megalaima rubricapilla
Picumnus innominatus
Dinopium benghalense
Dinopium javaneuse
Chrysocolaptes
laodus guttacristatus
Pitta brachyura
Galerida malabarica
Hlrundo rupestris
Hirundo taMien
Delibon urbien
Lanius schah
Lanius cnstatus
Oriolus oriolus
Oriolus xanthornus
Dicrurvs adsimilts
Dicrurus caerulescens
DKrurus aeneus
149
73
Greater Rackel-tailed
106
Black and Orange
Drongo.
Dicrurus paradiseus
Flycatcher.
Muscicapa nigrorufa
74
Ashy Swallow Shrike,
Artamus fuscus
107
Whrtebellied Blue
75
Greyheaded Myna,
Stumus malabahcus
Flycatcher,
Muscicapa allipes
76
Blylh Myna,
Sturnus
108
Verditer Flycatcher,
Muscicapa thalassina
malabaricusblythi
109
Nilgiri Verditer
77
Common Myna,
Acridotheres tristis
Flycatcher,
Muscicapa albicaudata
78
Jungle Myna,
Acridotheres fuscus
110
Greyheaded Flycatcher.
CuOcicapa ceylonensis
79
Hill Myna,
Gracula religiosa
111
Paradise Flycatcher.
Terpsiphone paradisi
80
Southern Tree Pie,
Dendroc'rtta leucogastra
112
Blacknaped Flycatcher.
Hypothymis azurea
81
Indian Tree Pie,
Dendroc'rtta vagabunda
113
Tailor Bird,
Orthotonus sutorius
82
House Crow,
Corvus splendens
114
Broadtailed Grass
83
Jungle Crow,
Corvus macrorhynchos
Warbler.
Schoenicola platyura
84
Pied Flycatcher- Shrike,
Hemipus picatus
115
Large Billed Leal
Phylloscopus
85
Large Wood Shrike.
Tephrodornis virgatus
Warbler,
magnirostris
86
Black headed Cuckoo
116
Large Crowned Leaf
Shrike.
Coracina melanoptera
Warbler,
Phylhscopus occipitalis
87
Malabar Small Minivet,
Pericrocotus cinnanom
117
Ashy Wren Warbler,
Prinia socialis
86
Orange Minivet,
Pericrocotus flammeus
118
Magpie Robin,
Copsychus saularis
89
Common lora.
Aegithina liphia
119
Pied Bush Chat.
Saxicola caprata
90
Fairy Blue Bird,
Irena puella
120
Indian Robin,
Saxicoloides fulicata
91
GokJfronted Chloropis.
Chloropsis aurifrons
121
Malabar Whistling
92
Ruby throated Bulbul,
Pycnonolus melenicterus
Thrush,
Myiophonous horsfieklii
93
Redwhiskered Bulbul,
Pycnonolus jocusus
122
Whitethfoated Ground
94
Redvented Bulbul,
Pycnonolus cafer
Thrush.
Zoothera citrana
95
Yellowthroated Bulbul,
Pycnonotus
xanlholaemus
123
Black Bird,
Turdus memla
124
Bourdilloni Black Bird,
Turdus morula bourdilbni
96
Yellowbrowed Bulbul.
Hypsipetes indicus
125
Grey Til,
Parus major
97
Black Bulbul.
Hypsipetes
126
Yellowcheeked Tit,
Parus xanthogenys
madagascariensis
127
Veh/etfronted Nuthatch.
Sitta frontalis
98
Spotted Babbler,
Pellorneum ruficeps
128
Nilgiri Pipit.
Anthus nilghttiensis
99
Slatyheaded Scimitar
Pomatorhinus
129
Grey Wagtail,
Motacilia caspica
Babbler.
hursfieldii
130
White Wagtail,
Motacilla alba
100
Blackheaded Babbler.
Rhopcichla alriceps
131
Large Pied Wagtail.
Motacilia maderaspatensis
101
Common Babbler,
Turdiodes caudatu
132
Thickbilled Flowerpecker
Dicaeum agile
102
Rufous Babbler,
Turdhdes subrufus
133
Tckells Flowerpecker.
Dicanum arythrorhynchos
103
Quaker Babbler,
Alcippe poioicephala
134
Small Sunbird,
Nectarina minima
104
Palani Laughing Thrush,
Garrulax jerdoni
135
Indian Purple Sunbird.
Nectarina asiatica
105
Brown Flycatcher,
Muscicapa muttui
136
Little Spiderhunter,
Arachnothere longirostris
137
Whiteeye,
Zosterops palpebrosa
138
Rufousbellied Munia.
Lonchura kelaarti
139
House Sparrow,
Passer domesticus
140
Rose! inch,
Carpoduces
erythrorhynchos
' Seen only the tell lale marks on the river banks in the
Grass Hills
150
BIOLOGY
and
BEHAVIOUR
A Look at the Cooperative Breeding Strategies in Small Green Bee-eaters {Merops
orientalis) in Southern India
'S.Srldhar and "K. Praveen Karanth
'No. 10, SirurPark 'B' Street, Seshadripuram, Bangalore 560 020
"Student, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
' Current address : No.44, Second Cross, Vinayaka Nagar, Hospital Extension. Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024
Introduction
"The Beeealers belong lo (amity Meropidae, which are
' alert and vivacious birds, distributed in tropical old
world. They specialize in catching bees and related
hymenopterans. Of the 24 species of bee-eaters in the
world. 11 are reported to exhibit seemingly cooperative
breeding behaviour (Fry. 1984).
Since 1935. lot of scientific studies have been carried
out on cooperative breeding in birds and mammals.
Alexander Skuth studied helping at the nest in 1935,
followed by Rowley (1965) on Superb Blue Wren. Fry
(1972) on Red-throated Bee-eaters, Parry (1973) on
Kookaburra, Zahavi (1974) on Arabian Babbler. Ltgon and
Ligon (1978) on Green Wood-hoopoe, Emlen (1981) on
Whitefronted Bee-eater. Over 300 species of birds are
known to exhibit cooperative breeding behaviour . In
co-operative breeding birds. typically an auxiliary
(non-breeding adult) assists the breeding pair physically
but not genetically in rearing their young (Emlen. 1986).
Some behavioural ecologists call it 'paradoxical
behaviour' since such an altruistic behaviour is opposite to
the action of selection (Gadakar, 1991). An altruistic act is
one that confers benefit on someone at a cost to the helper,
since cost is measured by decrease in reproductive
success, we know that altruistic acts are opposed by
natural selection working on the actor (Trivers. 1988). The
most important conceptual advance in an attempt to
explain such paradoxical behaviour came in the theory of
Kin selection or inclusive fitness (Hamilton, 1964). The
central idea in Hamilton's theory is that fitness comes not
only from rearing lor ones' offsprings but may also come
from caring for one's genetic relatives. In other words,
altruistic is not paradoxical, it is also nepotistic, i.e.,
directed preferentially towards genetic relatives (Gadakar,
1991).
The Small Green Bee-eater (SGB) Merops orientalis is
one of the five cooperatively breeding birds known in India
up till now (Table 2). They have eight races, easily the most
geographically variable among bee-eaters exhibiting little
plumage variation.
Small Green Bee-eater is common in open cultivated
fields. They nest on banks by canals and ravines, sandy
river banks and bunds, and gently sloping bare grounds
around cultivated tracts. The SGB's nest in loose colonies,
normally the distance between any two nest is more than
10 m. The nesting season around Bangalore is from
February to August, with peak breeding around April-May.
Only one helper is seen with a pair, arriving normally
after the completion of nest excavation or beginning of
incubation and stay with the breeding pair, even after the
chicks have fledged. With this background, the present
investigation was undertaken.
Material and Methods
We intensively studied the breeding behaviour of the
Small Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis, in GKVK
Campus of the University of Agricultural Sciences in North
Bangalore (13*N 77'E; altitude 930 m) and some nests
were also studied around Bangalore.
A total of 24 pairs were observed for three years during
breeding months from 1990 to 1992. Three typical nests
were selected for detailed studies, while the other 21 nests
were observed during week ends. Individual birds visiting
the nest were marked using indelible nontoxic dye. for
identification. Data on breeding success of 24 nests (9 with
helpers) and frequency of food provisioning by parents and
helpers in nests with and without helpers were also
collected (Table 1). Detailed records on behaviour were
kept on all the individuals of the typical nests. Correlation
between rainfall received prior to the nesting season, and
breeding success in nests with and without helper, were
also attempted. A pair of 7 x 50 binoculars and a camera
with 300 mm lens were used. Most of the observation were
made from a hide during week ends. However the typical
nests were monitored dairy for 2 hours right from the period
of nest site selection, till the chicks fledged and also for six
weeks after fledging in one particular instance.
Data on the breeding cycle, duration of nest digging,
incubation, feeding the chicks, feeding the fledglings were
maintained. The average duration of each stage was taken
for determining the peak breeding periods in different years
Results and Discussion
Of the 24 nests monitored, 9 (or 40%) had one helper
each making a breeding unit of three adults or trios. In one
instance the same individual was seen helping the
breeding pair at the same site in two consecutive years
t990 and 1991 thus, suggesting natal philopatry in helpers.
Normally the nest digging activity commenced around the
middle of February and excavation was completed in 15 to
20 days.
There after, a lag period of 5 to 10 days was noticed
before the eggs were laid and incubation started. The
period of incubation varied betwuvn 20 to 25 days. The
helpers normally arrived only after the commencement of
incubation and assisted in incubation feeding the breeding
female and feeding the nestlings (Table 1 ). They vocalized
and interacted with the breeding pair and thechicks. It was
also seen feeding the fledglings nearly 6 weeks after they
had left the nest. In the typical nest where helper philopatry
153
was observed, the helper was seen preferentially feeding a
particular fledgling. The period of feeding at nest lasted
around 25 days, subsequently the fledglings started
emerging from the nest.
It was noticed that in the nest with a helper, the nestlings
grew rapidly and all the chicks fledged within(2.25+/-1)
days, whereas in an unhelped nest the chicks were at
differential stages of development, hence the fledging
penod (the time period between the first and the last chek
emerging out of the nest) was significantly higher (4.6+/-1)
days {Mann-Whrtney U test, P-0.02). On an average the
nests with a helper fledged more number of chicks
(6.5+/-1), compared to (5+M) in nests without a helper
(Mann-Whitney U test, P-0.05). None of the nests helped
were predated, while 20% of those without helpers suffered
predation. suggesting that nests without a helper had a
higher probability of being predated (G-test of
independence,P,< 0.05). Breeding cycle lasted longer in
nests without a helper, compared to nests with helper. The
frequency of feeding newly hatched brood at the nests with
helper was more(14.75 visits/h vis-a-vis 10.5 visits/h,
Mann-Whitney U test. P- 0.05). consequently the food
provisioning by each parent was less in such nests(4.92
visits/bird vis a vis 5.25 visitstoird).
The breeding cycle lasted from February to August and
most of the fledglings had emerged by June to coincide
with the onset of South West monsoon. Peak nesting
activity was around April. In three year study, we noticed
that the nests initiated following poor monsoon (RFzmm)
were more likely to receive help compared to nests initiated
following good rains (RF890) (chi-square-7.8. df- 1.
P<0.05 ) (See table 3).
Benefit to the Breeders
Helpers contribute to survival of the breeding pair's
offspnngs in two principal ways (i) by providing better food
provision than that can be provided by the breeding
parents only (ii) by providing better protection from
predators (Emlen. 1986).
The increase in breeding success, was due to increase
in number of chicks fledged .The increased fledgling
success in nests with helpers was due to provisioning
contribution of the helper. Helper also had an added
influence on the survival of nestlings to fledglings. Young,
from helped nest were less retarded and had significantly
higher post fledgling survival to the age of independence
(Emlen. 1991).
The presence of helper may also aid the breeding pair
in better detection of predators and increased intensity of
anti predatory activity like mobbing, there by reducing
nesting failure caused by predation.
The pair with a helper is in better condition, therefore
can breed more effectively in the next term. The helper also
appears to decrease the chance that the breeder dies that
year (Wotfenden, 1981). The presence of helper probably
reduces the cost tc the breeding pair of annual nesting
thereby increasing the pairs potential reproduction record
(Ligon and Ligon, 1982). In many species of cooperative
breeders the presence of helpers allows the breeder to
reduce their workload (Brown. 1987).
The probability of the breeding pairs preference for
brood succession is high in nest with a helper as the
breeding period per clutch is decreased in nests with
helper and also the parents are in better condition to breed
again within the same season which is fairly lengthy
(February- September). Auxiliaries feeding of nestling and
fledgling probably reduced the energetic burden on the
principal, contributes to renesting by the female after the
successful nesting (Rabinold. 1984). However, the
prolonged weaning period in bee-eater (12 weeks) may not
allow female to renest as ideal conditions by September
end will be restricted.
However Emlen and Wrege (1992) observed that older
pairs disrupt the nesting of their own sons and recruit them
as their nest helpers. In this parent-offspring conflict he
feels that the offsprings oblige the parents by becoming
their helpers. They have also remarked that continued
association between parents and grown offsprings (or other
close relatives) entails various costs and benefits to both
the parties.
Evolution of Cooperative breeding
Cooperatively breeding species generally face some
form of ecological or demographical constraints. These
constraints prevent some individual from attaining breeding
status or raise the cost of independent breeding to
prohibitive levels. The exact form of constraint varies from
species to species, but the end result is that a grown up
offspring may delay dispersal and remain as nonbreeder in
the natal clan (Ecological constraint model, Emlen. 1982).
In case of SGB's, a high population density and
saturation of all good-quality foraging habitat seems to be
one of the major ecological constraints. With no
good-quality and hardly any marginal-quality habitat left
unoccupied, some prospective first- time breeders will be
denied adequate feeding territory and hence nesting
opportunity. Under such a situation it pays to remain in the
safety of the natal territory and wait for breeding
opportunity to open up (natal philopatry). In regions where
the climate is irregular and habitat quality fluctuates
erratically a given density of birds will have breeding
opportunities opening up and closing. Moreover a
non-breeder may have better chance of survival if they
associate with the breeding pair, because they may gain
directly from group living (Emlen, 1986). Two most often
cited benefits are increased alertness and defense against
predators and increased capabilities for detecting and
harvesting food resources that are difficult to locate
(Bertram. 1978).
This has been observed in our study area, the
frequency of helping was high following poor rainfall, when
breeding opportunities are limited and the helpers will have
less probability of success if they attempt to breed on their
own.
Though the Ecological constraint model explains natal
philopatry, it fails to explain as to why a non-breeder
indulges in the costly act of helping? The probable cause of
helping once the non-breeder remains in the natal territory
could be the direct and indirect benefit of helping.
Benefit to Helpers
Helpers gain indirect inclusive fitness by aiding doe*
relatives (Hamilton. 1964). In most of the cooperatively
154
breeding birds it is often seen that the helper belongs lo the
previous brood of the breeding pair it is helping. Just as
natural selection favours traits that increase an individuals,
production of surviving offsprings, because parent and
offsprings are genetically related, so natural selection also
favours traits that increase the survival of other categories
of relatives such as siblings and cousins.
K the helper outlives the breeder of its own sex in the
flock it may inherit breeder status. Therefore by helping, a
helper increases the probability of becoming a breeder in
future (Ligon & Ligon. 1978).
Helpers, when they turn breeder could recruit helpers
from the nest they had helped in past to defend its present
territory or take over adjoining territory (Reciprocal altruism,
Ligon & Ligon, 1982) This explanation seems to be of
significance since we observed one particular helper
preferentially feeding a particular fledgling from a group
after they had fledged.. Alternatively the helper might have
parasitized the nest with Its own egg and recognized its
own offspring perhaps through acoustic cues (Emlen,
1992 pc).
Helpers with past experience have more nesting
success. Therefore gaining breeding experience at some
else's cost may be one of the benefits of helping behaviour.
If experienced, their apprenticeship in the art of rearing
young may serve to improve their own reproductive
performance.
In cooperative breeding birds which nest in tunnels and
form loose clans in breeding season like Whitefronted
Bee-eaters (Emlen and Wredge. 1988), Red throated
Bee-eater (Fry, 1984). Pied Kingfisher (Reyer, 1980) and
our observations in Small Green Bee-eaters, food is the
limiting factor; as a consequence, increase in number of
helpers decrease both the probability of nest starvation and
the degree of nestling developmental retardation due to
food stress. Here predation does not seem to be a major
problem. But in case of the cooperative breeding species
which are ground foragers and social in nature forming
small groups throughout the year called social units, such
as Wood Hoopoes (Ligon & Ligon. 1982). Florida Scrub
Jay (Wolfenden and Fitzpatrick. 1984). Stripebacked Wren
(RabinokJ. 1984), Arabian Babbler (Zahavi, 1976). the
presence of helpers improve the reproductive success
principally by reducing nestling failure which is almost
always caused by predation. Here feed rate is not the
major cause of nestling loss and variation in nestling
success. But, predation does influence success. Helpers
contribute to nest success by directly reducing nest
predation probably through improved predator detection
and increased intensity of predator mobbing or indirectly by
taking over the burden of feeding of nestling and fledgling
which frees the principal male to defend the nest better
(RabinokJ, 1984).
Our study has revealed that in the Small green
bee-eater almost 40% of the breeding pairs are assisted by
a solitary helper, which takes pari in aii nesti.ig activities
except excavation. In such cases the duration of the
nesting cycle is considerably reduced and the number of
fledlings are more, ft was also observed that nests with
helpers were more during season that followed poor
monsoon than those following normal rainfall. Out study of
the cooperative breeding among Small Green Bee- eaters
has opened a valuable insight into the evolutionary origin of
helping behaviour among birds as a whole. We feel that
taking a closer look at SGBs as well as other Indian
bee-eaters is be essential to evaluate fully the relative role
of Kinship, demographic constraints and other explanations
for the existence of cooperation.
Acknowledgments
We thank B. Mallik and Ganeshiah, UAS, Bangalore. R
Gadagkar. Anindya Sinha, Milind Watve, IISc. Bangalore
for their comments on this paper. We are grateful to
Professor ST. Emlen, Cornell University, J. L. Brown, State
University of NewYork, USA. A. Zahavi, Tel Aviv University,
Israel for their periodic advice, encouragement and
constructive comments. We are particularly indebted to R.
S. Harve and to late Mr. H.B. Papanna for their his
assistance in all field trips.
References
Alexander, R. D.. 1974. the evolution of social behaviour.
Annual review of Ecology and Systematics. 5:325-383.
Bertram, B. C. R.. 1975. Social factors influencing
reproduction in wild lions. Journal of Zoology.
177463-482.
Brown, J.L., S.D. Brown and D.D. Dow. 1982. Helpers:
Effect of experimental removal on reproductive success.
Science. 215:421-422.
Brown, J.L.. S.D. Brown and D.D. Dow. 1982. Effect of
helpers on feeding of nestling in the Gray crowned
babbler. Behaviour Ecology S Sociobiology, 4 : 43-59.
Brown, J. L.. 1987. Helping and communal breeding in
birds. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Emlen, S.T. and P.H. Wrege, 1988. The role of kinship in
helping decisions among white fronted Bee-eaters.
Behavioural Ecology & Sociobiology. 23 : 305-319.
Emlen, S.T. and P.H. Wrege, 1988. The evolution of
cooperative breeding in birds and mammals.
Behavioural Ecology, III Edition (Ed. by Krebs & Davis).
Emlen, S.T. and P.H. Wrege. 1988. A test of alternative
hypothesis for helping behaviour in white fronted
Bee-eaters of Kenya. Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology, 25 : 303-319.
Emlen, S.T. and P.H. Wrege, 1992. Parent-offspring conflict
and the recruitment of helpers among Bee-eaters.
Nature.356 : 331-333.
Emlen, S. T, 1981. Altruism, kinselection, reciprocity in the
white fronted bee-eater. In: Alexander, R. D., Tinkle, D.
(eds) Natural selection and soca! behaviour. Chiron,
Press, New York, pp 217-230.
Emlen, S. T. and Wrege, PH., 1986. Forced copulation and
intra- specific parasitism: to cost of social living in the
Whits fronted bee-eater. Ethology. 71 :2-29.
Emlen, S. T. and Wrege, PH..
13* i, •*
Inn biology of
White fronted bee-eater at Nakura: The influence of
helpers on breeding fitness. Journal of Animal ecology.
60:309-326.
155
Fry. C. H.. 1972. The social organization ol bee-eaters
(MefOptdae) and cooperative breeding in hot climate
birds, bis. 114:1-14.
Fry. C.H., 1984. The Bee-eaters. Poyser Publishers,
Cation.
Gaston, A.J., 1978. Demography of the jungle babbler
Turdoides striatus. Journal of Animal Ecology, 47 :
834-870.
Gaston. A.J., 1978a. Demography of Jungle Babbler
(Turoofo'es sfriafws). Journal of Animal Ecology, 47 :
845-870.
Gaston. A.J.. 1978b. Evolution of group territorial behaviour
and cooperative breeding. American Naturalist, 112 :
1091-1100.
Hamilton. W.D.. 1964. The genetic evolution of social
behaviour I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7 :
1-52.
Koening. W.D.. 1981a. Reproductive success, group size
and the evaluation of cooperative breeding in the Acron
Woodpecker. American Naturalist 117 : 421-443.
Koening. W.D.. 1981a. Space competition in the Acron
Woodpecker: Power struggles in a cooperative breeder.
Animal Behaviour, 29 : 396-427:
Ligon. J.D. and Ligon, S.H., 1978. Communal breeding in
Green wood hoopoes a case for reciprocity. Nature.
280.174.
Ligon. J.D. and S.H. Ligon. 1982. Cooperative breeding
behaviour of he Green Wood hoopoes. Scientific
American, 247. 106-114.
Parry, V., 1973. The auxiliary social system and its effect on
territory and breeding in Kookaburras Dacelo gigas.
Emu, 73:81- 100.
RabinoW, K. N., 1984. Cooperative enhancement of
reproductive success in Tropical wren societies.
Ethology, 65:871-885.
Raghavendra Gadakar and Arun B. Venkataraman.
Nepotistic Bee- eater. Current Science, 59(9) : 1990.
Robert Trivers, 1988. Social Evolution.
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing.
Reyer, H.U., 1980. Flexible helper structure as an
ecological adaptation in the pied king fisher. Behavioural
Ecology and Sociobiology, 6 : 219-227.
Rowley I.. 1965. The life history of Superb blue wren
Malurvs lyaneus Emu, 64:251-297.
Sridhar, S. and Karanth, K. P., 1993. Helpers in
cooperatively breeding Small green bee-eater Memos
orientalis. Current Science, 65(5):32-33.
Skutch. A. T, (1935). Helpers at the nest. Auk, 52:257-273.
Vehrencamp, S.L.. 1978. The adaptive significance of
communal nesting in Groove-billed Anis {Crotophaga
sulcirestris). Behavioural Ecology and Sochbhlogy, 4 :
1-34.
Woolfenden, G. E. ( 1976. Selfish behaviour by Florida
scurb jay helpers.ln: Alexander, R. D.. Tinkle, D. (eds)
Natural selection and social behaviour. Chiron. Press,
New York, pp 257-260.
Woolfenden, G. E. and Fitzpatrick. J. W., 1984. The Florida
scrub jay: Monograph of population biology. 20:1 -407.
Zahavi. A., 1974. Communal nesting by Arabian babblers:
a case of individual selection. Ibis, 116:84-87.
Table 1 : Contribution of Individuals at a nest with
helper
SI. No. Activity
Male Female
(in percentage)
Help*'
1 Excavation 50
50
2 Incubation 30
60
10
3 Altoleeding 50
50
4 Feeding at nest 30
40
30
5 TefTitory defense 50
30
20
6 Vocalzation 45
30
25
7 Feeding Fledging 40
40
20
Table 2 : Indian Birds exhibiting cooperative breeding
Name
Source (Year)
1 Chestnutheaded Bee-eater.
Papanna personal
Merops lesch&nauiti
communication
(1990)
2 Small green Bee-eater.
Sndhar S Karanth
Merops Orientals
(1993)
3 Jungle Babbler.
A.J. Gaston
Turdoides stnatus
V.J. Zachanas (
(1976) (1978)
4 Whiteheaded Babbler.
V.J. Zacharias and
Turdoides ahlnis
D.N. Mathew
Karanth &
Sridhar (unpublished)
(1978) (1990)
5 Pied Kinlgisher.
H.U. Rayer
Cwylerv&s
Sridhar & Karanth
(unpublished)
(1989)
Table 3 : Influence of rainfall on nesting strategy of
Bee-eaters
Poor
season
Good season Total
1989-90
1990-9
I 1991-92
Rainfal(mm) 640
504
1260
Helped 3
4
2 9
Unhelped 4
o
8 15
to«
10
24
156
Aggregation Pattern in Foraging Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis
Abraham Verghese
Department of Entomology. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hessaraghatta Lake P.O.. Bangalore 560 089
Introduction
The Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis is a resident, common
bird of Bangalore with some local movements. The
present investigation was to find out whether the birds had
any aggregation pattern or intraspecific affinity while
foraging.
The study clearly showed that Cattle Egrets are
aggregated spatially and degree of aggregation increases
with density and scaling-up of sample sizes. Thus
aggregative behaviour reflects a non-random patch
exploitation of food resource and probably helps avoid
competition. Intraspecific affinity also contributes to
aggregation and probably is a predator deterring strategy.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted in an open land on the
outskirts of Bangalore between February and June, 1989. A
2 km stretch of land along a village road was divided into
25 contiguous quadrats of 75 x 50 m which formed the
sampling plan. In 10 outings, the number of Cattle Egrets in
each quadrat was recorded. The sampling units were
scaled up to five 375 x 50 m and three 625 x 50 m
quadrats, and from these data, mean and variance-mean
(V/M) ratio were calculated. The latter reflects aggregation,
random and under-dispersed distributions for values
greater than, equal to. and less than unity, respectively
(Southwood, 1978). The relationship between mean
density and aggregation were also worked out. These have
been presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows that in majority of the cases, the egret
showed aggregation while foraging, as reflected by the
high V/M values. When the mean density was tow as on
83.1989 and 29.4.1989, the distribution tended to a
random pattern. On two scores the randomness shifts to an
aggregation pattern: 1) when the mean density values are
higher and 2) when the size of the sampling unit becomes
larger, as seen for 29.4.1989 (Table 1). But when a single
bird is seen (8.3.1989) in all the 2 km stretch of land, the
distribution pattern remains the same, or becomes
underdispersed with scaling up of sampling unit (Table 1).
Aggregation is, therefore, also dependent on sample
size, a fact which needs to be considered while sampling
the bird. In fact, as Table 2 shows, the correlation
coefficient (g) has become from significant to highly
significant, with scaling up. Aggregation at large sample
sizes may not reflect flocking pattern so smaller sample
sizes of 75 6 50 m or even less are advocated.
The coefficient of affinity, expressed as a ratio of two or
more birds/quadrat to birds/quadrat (even ones included)
worked out to 0.67 on a scale of 0-1. Thus. Cattle Egrets.
tend to have intraspecific affinity. This is helpful in
exploiting food patch- wise, thus optimizing on resource
utilization and. also vulnerability to predator attack is less in
a group. Among all the sight records, only 33.33% times.
Cattle Egret were found singly (Table 3).
References
Southwood. T.R.E.. 1978. Ecological Methods. Methuen
and Co., London, 23-43.
Table 1 : Mean density and aggregation relative to
sample size in Cattle Egret
Quadrat
75x50
375
.50
625
-50
Size
Date
MMfl
V/M
Mean
V/M
Mean
V/M
20.02.89
0.32
4.89
1.60
3.31
2.67
2.38
21.02.89
0.44
1.72
2.20
3.96
3.67
4.45
08.03.89
0.04
1.00
0.20
1.00
0.67
0.50
13.03.89
0.16
1.92
0.80
4.00
1.33
4.00
04.04.89
0.32
4.88
1.60
4.25
2.67
3.50
15.04.89
0.12
3.00
0.60
3.00
1.00
3.00
29.04.89
0.08
1.00
0.40
2.00
0.67
1.99
04.05.89
000
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
22.05.89
0.16
2.44
0.80
1.33
1.33
1.75
06.06.89
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Table 2 : Correlation between mean density and
aggregation in different quadrat sizes, with Intercept
and slope
Quadrat
size
Correlation
coefficiant
a
b
75 x50
375 x 50
625 x50
0.690
0.838"
0.793"
0.759
0.892
0.693
9.084
1.795
1.045
Table 3 : Percentage frequency of number of birds
sighted within 75 x 50 m quadrat
Number of birds
Frequency
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
33.33
33.33
22.22
0.00
5.56
5.56
157
Awakening, Roosting and Vocalisation Behaviour of the Southern Crow-pheasant
(Centropus sinensis) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu
V. Nalarajan
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023
Introduction
"The Coucals or Crow -pheasants belong to the family
■ Cuculidae. There are about 28 species in the Tropics
(Fry et at, 1988). In India little information is available on
coucals (Hume. 1890; Baker. 1927; Whistler. 1963 and Ali
& Ripley. 1983). The coucals are considered to be highly
destructive to eggs and nestlings of birds. A detailed study
was carried out on the ecology of the southern
crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis parroti to find out their
role in the ecosystem at Point Calimere. Tamil Nadu. The
paper deals with awakening, roosting habits and
vocalisation of the Southern Crow- pheasant.
Material and Methods
Intensive studies were carried out between July 1987 to
September 1988 in two villages (Kodikkarai and
Kodikkadu) situated adjacent to Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary (10' 18"N; 79" 5VE) and the observations on the
intensity of calls were done in the Tropical dry evergreen
forest of the sanctuary.
(a) Awakening
The first movement of the species was recorded in each
month. To record this time, the site where the bird roosted
at night was noted, and the next day the bird was watched
before it woke up and the awakening time recorded.
(b) Roosting
The birds were followed in the evening till they retired for
the night. The trees used, height at which Ihey roost and
the roosting time were recorded.
(c) Vocalisation
A record was kept on the different types of calls, their
nature and the circumstances on which the calls were
made were analysed.
Results and Discussion
Activity period
Awakening
The crow-pheasant is a
amfcerxng time varied from
months (Tab** 1 ).
'late riser'. The mean
0529 to 0610 hr during
The bird ws found to wake up 12 to 77 minutes prior to
the sunrise when varied in accordance with different
months. The day activity commences with preening and
calling before foraging.
Roosting
After making contact calls, the crow-pheasants fly to the
roosting spot. Usually before roosting, the pair perch and
preen in the thick canopy of a tree or bush. Usually the pair
roost side by side on the same tree or bush or one of the
partner of a pair roosts on a nearby tree. The maximum
distance observed between the roosting pair on different
trees was 8 m. Some of the trees ad bushes frequently
used for roosling are Prosopis chilensis. Pandanus
tectohus, Manilkara hexandra and Azadirachta ind/ca
(Table 2). During June, when there is strong wind they
prefer to roost in bushes like Pandanus tectorius or inside
the thick foliage of trees. The roosting height varies from
1.5 to 9 m with a mean of 3.06 ± 1.16 (Table 3). Of the 110
instances of roosting recorded, the most preferred roosting
height was between 1 .5 and 4 m (87.3%).
The roosting time varied from 1801 to 1843 hr in
different months (Table 1). During windy days, they reach
the roost little earlier than usual. In the dry season it
roostesd later than usual. But during the rainy season or on
cloudy evenings it roosted earlier than the normal roosting
time (Table 1).
Different birds show great variation in the time at which
they roost in the evening and leave in the morning. Light
intensities is probably, the one factor most universally
influential in determining these times, but observations
have implicated such other factors as circadian rhythms,
length of day. season of year, stage of reproductive cycle,
hunger, ambient temperature and type of habitat will also
affect these timings (Welly, 1982).
Vocalisation
Thorpe (1964) pointed out that some of the advantages
of songs and calls over visual displays, scents, and other
forms of communication are the wide spectrum of vocal
frequencies and intensities available; the modest energy
expenditure required; sounds carry far, penetrates visual
barriers, and are effective in the dark; and they vanish as
quickly as they are uttered, making possible a quick
succession of varied communications. During the study
period, a total of eight distinct types of call were recorded.
Advertising call
Both sexes produce a quick repeated resonant
"coop-coop-coop" in runs of up to a maximum of 34
"coops*. The shorter sequences were produced at a rate of
2 or 3 coops per second. A continuous sequence of 34
158
coops lakes between 14 lo 17.5 sec. Bolh continuous and
discontinuous sequence of "coop-coop" calls were noticed.
A peak in the coop-coop continuous call was recorded in
October before the initiation of breeding season and the
intensity of both type of cad was at the maximum during the
breeding season.
Mobbing and alarm call
Ali and Ripley (1983) reported that the scold-note for the
common Crow-pheasant Cenlropus sinensis sinensis
when it mobs a lurking snake or owl etc., is an explosive
"K'wisss". This call was also recorded in the Southern
Crow- pheasants from its territory. Both sexes produce this
call. It is an alarm call. On hearing this call, the young rush
towards the parents for protection. The call has other uses
also. It was observed that on hearing this call full grown
nestlings usually hopped and glided down from the nesting
tree. So the call has two functions: (i) alarm about danger
and (ii) invitation to the re ady-to-f ledge-youngs lo fly down
from the nesting tree to the parents. The use is therefore
determined by the circumstances.
Bubbling call
This is a rapidly repeated loud call as sounding
"kok-kok-kok." It is given from a perch or while gliding to
ground. It appears to be a summoning call from the female
to the male. On one occasion, a male was noticed chasing
the female after this call was produced by the female.
Vernon (1971). observed a similar type of call in the Black
Coucal Cenlropus touhu louhu. In Black Coucal
Mackworth-Praed and Grant (1952) described this type of
call as "bubbling calf and Fuggles -Couch man (1958) as
"the bubbling water bottle" call. This probably is a contact
call between the sexes during the breeding season.
Hissing call
When the nest is touched or disturbed the chicks
produced a snake-like hissing sound. In case of older,
chicks, the call sounds like a car engine with starting
trouble!.
'Teh truu' call
THe fledglings, juveniles and adults with young
produced this call while foraging. It is probably a contact
call.
Chir-chir-chir' call
It is a soft, low pitched call given by young while begging
for food.
'Ouieehee' call
ft is a loud harsh distress call given by young, observed
when handled tor ringing. It could be either be a plain
distress call or to discourage predators.
'Ske-e-e-eaw'call
This was recorded only on one occasion. A female
glided from a tree to the ground. It then ran for a short
distance with wings partly opened and vibrating and uttered
this harsh cry. This call was also recorded for Common
Crow-pheasanl (Briggs, 1931).
Ackno wledgements
This paper is part of my Ph.D. thesis submitted to the
University of Bombay in 1990. I am grateful lo Mr J.C.
Daniel, former Director of Bombay Natural History Society
for his guidance and encouragement. I thank Dr A.R.
Rahmani. Aligarh Muslim University and for his comments.
I thank U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for funding through
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India. I thank to the Forest Department, of Point Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary.
References
Ali. S. and Ripley. S.D. 1983., Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Baker. E.C.S., 1927. The fauna of British India, 4 (2nd Ed.)
Taylor and Francis, London.
Briggs, F.S.. 1931. A note on the birds in the
neighbourhood of Mhow. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 :
382-404.
Fry, C.H., Keith, S. and Urban, E.K.. (eds.) 1988. The birds
of Africa. III. Parrots to Woodpeckers, Academic Press,
London.
Fuggles -Couch man, N.R., 1958. Notes from Tanganyika.
Ill, Parrots to Woodpeckers, Academic Press. London.
Hume. A.O., 1890. The nest and eggs of Indian birds. II,
2nd ed. R.H. Porter, London.
Mackworth-Praed, C.W. and Grant. C.H.B. 1952. Birds of
Eastern and North Eastern Atrica, Longmans, London.
Thorpe, W.H.. 1964. Singing. In Thompson. A.L.. (ed.). A
new Dictionary of Birds McGraw-Hill Book Company.
New York.
Vernon. C.J.. 1971. Notes on the biology of the Black
Coucal. Ostrich, 42 : 242-258.
Wehy, J.C. 1982. The life of birds (3rd ed.). Saunders
College publishing, New York.
Whistler. H., 1963. Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. 4th
ed. Oliver and Boyd, Edipb'jrgh and London
159
Table 1 : Mean awakening and roosting time (hr.) in relation to (mean) sunrise and
sunset
Year
Month Awakening
Sunrise'
Roosting
Sunset"
n
time
n
!;me
1987
Aug.
1
0540
0556
3
1830
1829
Sep.
6
0543
0558
31
1816
1810
Oct.
7
0543
0600
14
1807
1750
Nov.
1
0530
0607
7
1807
1739
Dec.
9
0607
0624
8
1815
1743
1988
Jan.
5
0602
0634
8
1801
1801
Feb.
3
0610
0631
7
1838
1813
Mar.
7
0555
0616
13
1837
1819
Apr.
1
0539
0656
5
1803
1821
May
3
0533
0643
5
1841
1827
Jun.
3
0529
0643
8
1820
1836
Jul.
1
0538
0550
3
1843
1838
'Source : 'The Hindu'
Table 2: Trees used by the Crow-pheasant (or roosting
Tree species
Frequency
Prosopis chinensis
Pandanus lectorius
Manilkara hexandra
Azadirachta indica
Thespesia populnea
Ixora pavetta
Ziziphus maurutiana
Ziziphus oenopUa
Borassus flabellHer
Percentage
65
59.1
19
17.3
12
10.9
7
6.4
2
1.8
2
0.9
1
0.9
1
0.9
1
0.9
Table 3: Height of roosting perches
used by the crow-pheasant
Height (m)
Frequency
Percentage
1.5-4
96
87.3
4- 6
13
11.8
6- 9
1
0.9
(n-110)
(n -110)
160
Time Budgets in Fruit-Eating Koel Eudynamys scolopacea
and Barbet Megalaima viridis
T.N. Vijaya Kumar 1 and V.J. Zacharlas 2
Department of Zoology, NSS College, Manjeri - 676 122, Kerala
2 Research Officer. Tiger Project. Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala
Introduction
"Time budget, thai is, Ihe pattern of time allocation for
' maintenance and breeding activities is important in
understanding the evolution ot avian reproductive and
foraging behaviour ( Verbeek, 1972: Schemske. 1975) and
the way natural selection operates to produce efficient
individuals (Enoksson,1983; Bryant and Tatner. 1988).
Birds that maintain feeding territories exclusive of the
breeding season often utilize resources relatively stable in
time and space (Schemske, 1975). The present study
describes the time allocation patterns during fruit utilisation
by two avian frugivores namely, the Koel (Eudynamys
scolopacea) and the Small Green Barbel (Megalaima
viridis).
Material and Methods
Study Area
Study was done in the Calicut University Campus in the
Thenjipalam village of Malappuram district. The area is
located about 25 km South of Kozhikode spread over an
area of 500 acres. The vegetation is characteristic of scrub
jungle and woodland habitats. The prominent plants
include trees such as F*cus spp., Macaranga peltata,
Bridelia retusa, etc. and Ihorny shrub like Canthium spp.,
Zizyphus oenoplia, Lantana spp.. etc.
Data were collected from observations at a fruiting Ficus
benghalensis tree between October, 1991 and April, 1992.
The avian species under study, the Koel and the Small
Green Barbet were the two major resident and specialised
frugivores in this area.
Time budgets were constructed by focal animal
sampling (Artmann, 1974). The focal individual has been
monitored either lor a period o( 10 minutes or for the entire
length of feeding bout when it lasted less than 10 minutes.
The behavioural repertoire of a foraging species included:
Foraging (icluding searching and feeding); resting or
perching; flight or locomotion {other than for foraging and
defense), agonistic; preening; courting; cleaning, etc. The
time the bird was "out -of -sight" during a feeding visit was
also measured.
Each behaviour was timed with digital and stop
watches. The time spent in each activity was monitored
and was expressed as percentage of the total time of
observation. Temperature during observation varied
between 20'C and 35"C. A pair of 7 x 30 Zenith binoculars
was used for the observations.
Results and Discussion
The proportions of time allocated for different activities
varied in E. scolopacea and M. viridis (Table 1). In the
same species there were considerable variations in the
time spent in different activities. Significantly greater
proportions of time were allocated for foraging and resting
than for other energy expensive activities (P < 0.005, one
way ANOVA).
Foraging
The Koel spent slightly greater percentage of time for
resting than foraging while the Small Green Barbet spent
more time feeding than resting (Table 1). The Barbet
allocated significantly greater percentage of time for
foraging than Koel (f - 10.94 p 0.002). The latter
maintained feeding territories which assured the bird a
steady supply of food. The greater feeding time of barbet
over koel was, probably due to increased accessary flight
time and frenetic movements while foraging requiring
increased feeding to maintain energy balance. Similar
findings were made by Schemske (1975) in nectar feeding
hummingbirds. According to him at non-limited food
resources, the feeding time may be a function of time spent
in energetically expensive activities.
Resting and Preening
Resting can be both a way of conserving energy
(Magrath and Lill, 1983) and a buffer in the time budget, if
the demand on another activity should increase (Enoksson,
1990). The Koel rested (x' 42.2%) and preened (x' 8.88%)
for nearly half of the total time while the Small Green
Barbet spent onfy one-third of the time budget for resting
(x' 28.83%) and preening (x' 5.04%). An individual Koel
perched on the same territorial branch for most part of the
day. There was significant difference in the perching or
resting time between the two species (Fig. 1. P < 0.005).
The brief breaks that the small bird species had taken
were, probably, for conserving energy for the next activity.
The Koels, on the other hand, were more alert during
interleeding intervals.
Locomotion
The flight or locomotary activities included those
exclusive of feeding, defense, courting.etc. The Koel
undertook very little miscellaneous locomotion or flight and
spent an average 05% of time budget while the Small
Green Barbet had spent (x' 1.47%) a significantly greater
percentage of time budget for such locomotary purposes
(f - 4.15; p< 0.005).
Agonistic
Agonistic encounters were frequent between the two
species. Intraspecific competitions were also seen. M.
161
viridis has been a severe competitor of £ scolopacea at
diverse fruiting trees in the study area. The latter was
dominating and always supplanted or scared off the Small
Green Barbel whenever it encroached the Koel's feeding
territory. An individual Koel successfully defended a
territory of about 2 to 3 m 2 and was highly intolerant to all
intruders, either conspecific or tetraspecific. The agonistic
encounters were mostly intraspecific in the Small Green
8arbet. tt however, scared off other smaller species such
as the Coppersmith M.haemacephala. The Koel had
apportioned significantly greater proportion of time budget
for agonistic activities than the Small Green Barbel (P<
0.002).
Courting
Courtship behaviours were observed in avian frugivores
whilst foraging during the bfeeding season. But it was less
frequent either in E.scohpacea or M. viridis during the
present study and only a small fraction of time budget was
allocated by each species tor courting activities (Table 1).
Courting chases between breeding pairs were observed
amidst foraging. The male Koel was observed twice
feeding the female with ripe figs dunng the breeding
season.
Cleaning
Both E. scobpacea and M. virdis were "whole -feeding"
species which often swallowed the fruits whole with or
without brief manipulation by beak. Occasionally they were
found cleaning the beaks by rubbing a branch or with toes.
M. viridis allocated 5 to 25 seconds (1.06%) while the E.
scobpacea allocated 5 to 1 5 seconds (0.73%) tor cleaning
activity in each feeding visit.
Out-of-sight
The Koel and the Small Green Barbet were at times lost
in or masked by the folliage canopy during feeding bouts.
They were, probably, at rest when they were out-of-sight.
since foraging birds were easily detected. The barbet
because of its cryptic gteen colouration was more difficult
to be detected. It was out- ol-sight for an average 7.32% of
total time while the Koel was lost in view for slightly lesser
time (4.76%).
The time of day and temperature influenced the daily
actrvity patterns of birds (Estes el at., 1986; Enoksson.
1 990). Similar findings were made in the present study. The
time spent feeding declined with increased temperature
(fig. 2a & 2b) as well as with progress in the day. Paulus
(1988) found similar effects of temperature in the time
budgets of nuthatches. Sitta europea. Intensive feeding
observed m M. viridis at 25'C to 30'C while it was
maximum in £. scobpacea between 20'C and 25'C. ft
declined w*h increasing temperature and minimum
foraging actrvity was observed at about 33'C to 35*C in
ether species. However, there were no significant
in the foraging times at different temperature
since the fluctuations in temperature was relatively mild (P
0.20).
There were similar falls in the intensity of foraging in
both the koel and the barbet as the day progressed from
morning till mid- day. It increased further towards evening.
Greater proportions of time were spent feeding in morning
and evening than in mid-day. At high temperature it might
have been energetically advantageous to reduce feeding
while low temperature increased the energy requirements
for maintenance (Bryant and Tatner.1988; Paulus.1988).
Caraco (1979) found that the Yellow-eyed Junco. Junco
phaeotus spent more time foraging at lower environmental
temperatures.
As foraging time decreased, time spent resting and
preening increased (Paulus. 1988). In the present study,
there was no marked change in time resting in
E. scobpacea with increase in temperature (Fig. 2b).
However, the preening time has increased a little. Both the
resting and preening times were increased considerably in
M. virdis (Fig. 2a).
Our data on time budgets supported the hypothesis that
the territory maintaining bird species spent less lime
foraging than widely foraging species. The present study
was helpful in understanding the energetics of foraging in
avian frugivores and its fluctuations with change in
environment variables, rt also revealed the social status of
the foraging species with socially dominant species
spending more lime in defense and aggresh/e encounters.
More extensive study on time budgets of individuals might
be helpful to determine the population status of bird
species in the habitat.
References
Attmann, J.. 1974. Observational Study of behaviour:
Sampling methods. Behaviour, 49: 227-267.
Bryant, D.M. and P. Taner, 1988. Energetics of the annual
cycle of Dippers Cindus cinclus. to/s, 130: 17-38.
Caraco. T. 1979. Time budgeting and group size: a test of
theory. Ecobgy, 60: 618-627.
Enoksson. B.,1990. Time budgets of Nuthatches Srrfa
europea wrth supplementary food. Ibis, 132: 575-583,
Estes. J.A.. K.E. Underwood: M.J. Karmann. 1986. Activity
time budgets of Sea Otters in California. J. Wk/I.
manage., 50(4): 626-236.
Magrath. R. and A. UN, 1983. The use of time and energy
by the cnmson rosella in a temperate wet forest in
winter. Austral. J. ZooL 31: 903-912.
Paulus. S.L..1988. Time-activity budgets of Mottled Ducks
in Louisiana in winter. J. Wbl. Manage., 52(4): 711-718.
Schemske. D.W., 1975. Time budget and foraging site
preference of the Cinnamon Humming bird in Costa
Rica. Condor. 77: 216- 217.
Verbeek. N.A. 1972. Daily and annual time budget of the
yellow- billed Magpie. Auk. 89: 567-582.
162
TABLE 1 : Percent time spent In activities by (I) Edudynamys scolopacea and (II) Magalaima vlrdis during
foraging at Ficus benghalensis
Res'
Foraging
Flight
Cnasing
Oos
Preening
Courting
Cleaning
N
I 42.26
36.33
005
6.86
4.76
8.88
0.13
0.73
77
(20.56)
21.72)
(0.20)
(9.55)
(9.55)
(13.84)
(0.36)
(0.78)
II 28.66
54 66
1.47
1.45
7.32
5.04
0.07
1.06
50
(17.35)
(17.57)
(1.67)
(1.09)
(10.83)
(11.38)
(0.34)
(0.96)
(Data in parenthesis is standard deviation: N - number of samples) * Oos » Out ol sight.
Kig- 2A
Fie. '
1 Z 3 4 5 6
Fig. 1 . Percent time spent in activities by (A) Koel (B) Small
Green Barbet. 1 - resting; 2 - foraging; 3 - locomotion; 4 -
agonistic; 5 - out-of-sight; 6 - preening; 7 - courting; 8 -
cleaning.
Z0-15-C
25-30°C
Fig. 2B
20.25°C
2S-30°C
)0-35°C
M-35*C
Fig. 2A & 2B. Effect of Temperature on time spent in major
activities in (A) SmaB Green Barbet. (B) Koei
, - resting; * • foraging; - preening; ' - out-of-sight
163
Benefit of Being Attractive : Fruit Colour and Animal Dispersal
B.V.Champa and S.G.Hegde'
Department of Horticulture, 'Department of plant Breeding & Genetics, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
| he evolution of fruit colour is a topic in evolutionary
' ecology that has been known to naturalists for at (east
two hundred years (Snow and Snow, 1988). Fleshy fruits
characterize the majority of woody angiosperms (Wilson et
a/.. 1989).
In animal dispersed plants species, colour is one of the
many (actors determining fruit choice in the wild
(Wheelwright and Janson, 1985). Fruit colours are a form
of long distance advertisement to fruit foragers (Ridley,
1930). Fruit colors can be classified into light and bright
colours. The present investigation assess the possible
potential adaptation of these dicotomous colour categories
for dispersal.
Light colour fruits are green, white and brown and bright
ones are red. orange, black and yellow. We hypothesize
that bright colours are costly to produce and maintain than
light coloured fruits. By having more number of seeds per
fruit in bright coloured ones, compared to its light coloured
counterparts, the bright coloured cosily fruits will be able to
attract more dispersers and hence have better dispersal
advantage.
We have tested this prediction by collecting data
regarding fruit colour and seed number per fruit for animal
dispersed species both from literature and from personal
observations. Here animal dispersed species included
dispersal by both birds and mammals. Out of 92 animal
dispersed species studied majority of the species
contained many seeds in them (Rg.t).
We expected higher frequency of bright coloured fruits
among these species. From Fig.2 it is evident that 73% of
them produce bright coloured fruits. These colour morphs
are further classified into seed number classes (Table 1 ).
Though there are significantly more number of species
having many seeds in bright colour category; same pattern
was true with light colour category also. We expected more
number of light coloured fruits to have few seeds in them.
On further classification of these seed number classes into
type of fruits they produce relatively, high frequency of
many seeded fruits under light category produce
multiple/aggregate fruits (Table 2). Here whole fruit is not
dispersaed as such, only pari of the fruit is dispersed at a
time. In aggregate/multiple fruits we did not find any
significant difference between few and many seeded
species under light colour category. The test of prediction is
incomplete owing to the lack of good sample size for light
coloured fruit.
It is unlikely that evolution of fruit colour has a single
explanation and a variety of possibilities must be prevalent.
Nevertheless, one of the important priorities lies in
attractive dispersal agents. Sixty seventy percent of
tropical fruits are known to be dispersed by animals. Out of
this birds comprise the maximum percentage. Hence
bird-plant coevolution is one of the central themes in
understanding the ecology of seed dispersal in tropical
forest.
References
Ridley. H.N.. 1930. The dispersal of plants around the
world. Reeve. Ashford, Kent, UK.
Snow, B. and Snow, D., 1988. Birds and berries. Poyser.
Calton, England.
Wheelwright, NT. and .H. Janson. 1985. Colours of fruits
displays of bird dispersed plants in 400 tropical forests.
Ame. to. 126 : 777-799.
Wilson, M.F. and DJ.O'Doned. 1989. Fruit colour
polymorphism in a bird dispersed shrub (Rhegodia
parabolica) in Australia. Evol. Ecol., 3 : 40-50.
Table 1 : Distribution of animal dispersed plant
species Into classes of colour types and seed number.
Seed
Cc cur
Few
Many
Total
Light
8
13
21
(7)
(1*)
Bright
23
52
75
(24)
(51)
Total
31
65
Note : Figures
frequencies.
Darentheses represent expected
Table 2: Distribution of seed number classes into
type of fruits
Coiou seed Few Aggregate Seed Many Aggregate/
classification Nut /multiple nut multiple
Light coloured 8
Bright coloured22
10
46
164
VOt-
•V
I,,
p
<
0.01
-
12.04**
N
96
;
.' ' .. '. '' '
Trm r— 1-- «.„. -mh
fig i CWtlirtxienof animal aispat»a (Mm speoas «flo I«m ( 1-3) ana many
imwa man 3) smoM classes)
i i« u .i ■ .I. -
Faj 2 DairCxHion <* animal daparsM punt «*c«i «o W flhi and hQM coOur
cMqmIm
l.,M ■
-i n'. i ■ h
F<Q3 F '»Oi«nc>'aiaif*Mcno)ia^«Mri)t.olamit*0<ipafi«piinl|pao^
naagManoBlVlguliMi mHqmm
165
Breeding Behaviour Sequential Polyandry and Population Decline in
Rostratula benghalensis
H. Daniel Wesley
126, Ramalinga Nagar South,
rtruchirapalli-620 017
Introduction
"Two species of painted snipes occur in the world; the Old
' World Painted Snipe. Rostratula benghalensis and the
South American Painted Snipe, Nycticryphes semicollaris.
The former which is widely distributed, occurs in
Tiruchirapalli. Tamil Nadu, has been under observation
since December 1981. R.benghalensis is said to be
polyandrous. The female, being physically larger with
more brilliant plumage than the male, is the dominant
partner in courtship (Baker, 1934; Austin. 1962; Sick, 1968;
Ali and Ripley. 1987) and has the most elaborate
vocalization (Thorpe, 1961). Threat display has been
documented (D'Ombrain. 1944; Austin, 1962; Lowe, 1963
& 1970; Muller. 1974 & 1975). Evidence has already been
established for the presence of surplus competing male in
the breeding territory of mated pairs (Wesley. 1986). The
chick and its attachment to the male has been reported
(Wesley. 1 991 >. No information however is on record on the
elaborate courtship display, sex-ratio, territoriality, nest-site
selection, nest building, egg laying and incubation pattern
and period. An attempt is made in this paper to present the
data from December 1981.
Material and Methods
The study area consisted of two pieces of fallow land
herein referred to as Sector I & II in Tiruchirapally, as
shown in Fig 1. Outside the sector I was a house that
served as the observation station (OS). Sector II was less
disturbed than sector I,
Vegetation
The ground cover of the two sectors was of three
species of Cyperus stolonifera. C.bulbosus, Cdifformis
interspersed with water puddles with Morselia sp growing.
The other plants were Prosopis juliflora. mostly in sector-l.
Acanthus sp. Oldenlandia sp. Eclipta alba. Moneira
cunefolia, Lippia nodHlora, Croton sparsiflorus, Paspalum
conjugatum. Enochtoa procera and Echinochloa cohnum.
The Prosopis plants varied in heights from 30 to 100 cm
and was distributed with Cyperus grasses-an ideal
breeding ground for the Painted Snipes. Typha angustata
formed a dense cover in Sector II.
The Observations were made from early morning before
sunrise to late evening after sunset. Constant vigil was kept
to record the number of females that were in the
Cyperus-infested fields accompanied by their male
partners and the rival males, if any. The first courtship call
during a month was taken as the starting point of the
braadtfig actrvfties of the bird in the area.
When there were no gaps in the courtship call between
any consecutive months, judged from the length of the
period of their presence, it was allotted to the next month's
data (Tables 1 and 2). When felt necessary the birds were
flushed out of the grass.
All the birds seen were assessed tor the sex-ratio and
population dispersal. Only fourteen pairs were followed
closely for recording breeding activities. Only eleven of
them established territories and bred (Table 3). These birds
were designated serially in Roman numerals as and when
arrived, and the territories when established were given the
corresponding numbers, leaving out the unsuccessful
ones. Fertilization displays, of copulations, coitus and egg-
laying time and time taken to lay an egg. When possible as
in the case of pair VIII. observation was kept up
continuously during the day for the entire period of
incubation and for the nights on the rhythm of incubation
(Tables 5).
A pair of binoculars 8 x 50 mm (field 6.5') was used. For
recording the time, a pen -electronic timer was employed.
The observations were noted down in detail on loose
sheets of paper which were later filed for reference and
retrieval
The probability of the observed sex-ratk) was analysed
statistically (Graeme Caughley, 1978). Besides x ? testing,
95% confidence limits were calculated for the data on the
male-female abundance for each year and for the
consolidated data of eight years of observation, using the
formula: Pf ± 2 SE. where PI is the proportion of females
and SE the standard error of Pf calculated from SE -
was also calculated for the ratio of males per
hundred females as:
MxlOO
1 200 vM? where M is male,
F. lemale; and n. the sum of both.
Results and Discussion
Breeding season and bird abundance
Monthly and year-wise distribution of abundance is
presented in Tables 1. 2 and Fig 2 for most of the period
between 1981 and 1993. Since 1989 the birds declined in
number. The occurrences were sporadic and no breeding
activity was sighted (Table 1a).
Sex -ratio
More than one male was observed on some occasions
to follow a female to the breeding territory. The maximum
number by which the males were in excess was five, in
166
1984. In 1988 no surplus males was present with the
paired birds ( Tables 1 .2 and Fig 3).
Pre-copulatory display
The mutually stimulating displays occupied 99.6% of the
total display. In all cases observed in full, the pairs lay
either facing each other or back to back 1-5 m apart in the
territory and performed several movements of the body that
formed a ritualized series as follows :
The female preens the breast and the shoulder for a
considerable time, and then takes a few steps lateral to the
male's lying position. If the male is not in view the female
opens the wings upwards, or, it the male is unmoved and
remains preening, the female preens the breast and the
shoulder, quivers the wing quills and preens under them.
The female may take a few steps in the same direction of
the male, or remain at the same spot and dip the forepart
so as to expose the white undertail with the spasmodic
cloacal lips. At this, the male moves out to another location
to stand and preen, or to stride forward. Meanwhile the
female snaps open the wings once or more, and continues
preening of the breast and the shoulder. This ritual is
interrupted at any point, by the female, with a bath, often
reciprocated by the male. Coming out of the water they
continue the ritual.
The opening and closing of the wings was the most
conspicuous of the element in the display. Suddenly the
female quivers the wings and wags the tail. At this the male
utters and inaudible signal, the throat rising and falling,
and, then leads the female along a familiar, relatively dry.
grass-free copulation path. However, the female overtakes
the male and leads, while both the pair now moves the
hind quarters vigorously up and down. The female halts at
a specific 'copulation spot' on the path and stands still in a
slightly couched posture. This is invariably the ritual
sequence culminatig in copulation.
Copulation display
In the copulation display, the male climbed on to the
female's rump from behind stood full erect with rapid
movement during which coitus was accomplished. The
male did not flap the wings to balance on top of the female
nor did he hold her with the bill. This entire act took 5.93
seconds on an average and 0.02% of the total display.
The time, frequency and abundance of the twenty nine
copulations of successful and unsuccessful pairs are
summarised in Table 4. Copulations occured before and
after laying the eggs and after the completion of the clutch.
The maximum number of coitus recorded for a pair per day
was three for pair XI, the intervals between the first and the
second, and between the second and the third were 10.5
and 505 minutes, respectively on 16 January 1984; two for
pair II, III and VIII. occurring at a time interval ranging
between 5 and 2 h 30 minutes.
Post Copulatory display
On the dismounting of the male, both the pair froze at
once in an 'ecstatic' posture, head lowered, bill directed
down and backward, the dorsum sloping forward. The
average time taken in the 'trance' was 4.96 sec and about
0.02% of the total display. This ends abruptly and both
birds move either in the same or different directions
simulating feeding even if the area was without water.
Thereafter, they invariably either forage or rest, standing on
one leg, the bill tucked into the scapulars. If the nest has
already been established one of them occupied it to
improve upon it. lay an egg, or incubate. If the copulation
was toward the close of the day the pair demonstrates
some of the ritual sequences.
Nest-site selection
The nest-site selection was a part of the courtship
behaviour of the Painted Snipe. On arrival to an area each
pair checked and inspected the vegetation and ground in
the territory. The nestworthiness of the site was first
checked by the female bird followed by the males.
Nest building
The nesting site decided upon, the female bird began
preparing the bed which was to receive the nesting
material. Sitting within the encircling grass-stand she
pressed down the soft, moist muddy ground with the
breast, the feet anchored behind the body turning around at
the same time to form a depression. This done, she pulled
up while sitting within the 'nest', the decaying grass blades
and stalks from under the water around and pressed them
into the soil. More material were collected from under the
water within radius of a meter from the entrance, the bird
wadding through it pulling up and throwing them with a jerk
of the head over the shoulder, backwards towards the nest
site as she went along.
Later these material with the clinging mud were pulled
into the nest, the bird sitting within. Floating things and dry
material were never observed being gathered for the nest
bed.
Around the nest were the stalk and blades of the
peripheral standing grass which the female pulled in from
all directions. Much time was spent before and during
laying in conditioning the blades of grass by individually
holding and manipulating them from base upwards with
the mandibles to make them bend and stay over the nest in
a cone. During incubation, the male took over this
maintenance activity.
The time taken for the completion of the nest showed
variations, from four to seven days after arrival in to the
territory {Table 3).
Positions of the nest
In Sector I enclosures formed by prosopis bushes
provided suitable nesting places and afforded a certain
amount of protection from grazers. One nest in Sector II
167
was found at the base of a smalt herb of Oldenlandia sp
with cyperus growing around it. The nest was quite open as
The grass cover was inadequate. Another nest was placed
under a tow horizontal twig of prosopis but within a stand of
Cyperus grass; another nest was on a lump of mud
between closely transplanted paddies with a few cyperus
growing atong with them.
Breeding Territories
In the study area of the fourteen pairs only eleven
established territories (Table 3). Deserted territories were
observed occupied again by the respective pairs, but other
pairs altered their territories to occupy the deserted areas.
Nest Spacing
In sector I of the breeding area, five pairs of Painted
Snipes established nests and clutches; pair VI was
unsuccessful. The least distance between two nests was
15.5 m and the greatest 39.6 m.
In Sector II only two nests, 30.9 m apart, were active at
the same time in February 1982. Others were tone nests
isolated in time occurring in different months.
Egg laying
The lime interval between the arrival of a pair and the
initiation of the clutch varied. It was 8 days for pair I, 9 for
pair II, 4 for pair V and X and 3 for pair VIII. For the other
pairs either the arrival or the initiation of the clutch could
not be observed.
About the time of deposition of the eggs, two of pair II
and VIII, one of pair V, and all of pair X were laid during the
forenoon while two of pair VIM were deposited in the
evening. Considerable variation was observed in the time
taken to lay an egg since the female entered the nest. The
shortest duration was 3 mt for pair X and the longest 2h 05
mt for pair V for the first egg, the average time inside the
nest being 29.5 mt. The interval between the layings of any
two consecutive eggs varied between 15h 45 mt and 24h
39 mt with an average of 22h 33mt.
Usually the male accompanied the female to the nest
and, remained about 1 to 1.5 m away from the nest,
communicating by preening and gulping movements of
the throat. In case of disturbances from cattle or humans,
the female left the vicinity till the area was clear
After egg laying the male adjusted the egg(s) and the
nest-bed, if necessary, by collecting more material. The
female remained close by or moved away depending on
the situation but never left the territory. Interestingly, with
the completion of the clutch the female partedcompany
indicated by characteristic farewell wave' of one of the
wings.
Mostly, the female left the male and the territory on the
completon of the clutch. Pair V. however, remained with
the male even two days after the third and last egg of the
dutch.
Incubation and Incubation Period
The data on clutch initiation (Table 5), completion and
date of hatching were also recorded.
Hatching Success
Of the 38 eggs in 11 nests only 5 eggs in two clutches
hatched, resuming in 13.1 5% hatching success. The fate of
the only egg of clutch I was not known. Clutch II was
deserted owing to pedestrians crossing the field. Clutch III,
IV and V were trampled by cattle. Clutch VI. VII and X were
submerged in water. Although no precise data were
available, the female of the Painted Snipe is believed to
lay several successive clutches for as many males. That
the species is potyandrous is based on the fact of the
reversed sexual dimorphism, the female's dominance in
courtship display, and the declining consorting ratio with
the laying of every egg in a clutch (Komeda, 1993; Ali and
Ripley, 1987). Another aspect is that of the biased sex ratio
in favour of the male. The male to female ratio for the
Painted Snipe in Tiruchirapalli was 1.09:1 and the relative
percentage for all the years of observation, from 1981 •
1988. were 52.1 and 47.9, respectively. (Tables 1 and 2).
As per the data on hand the female Painted Snipe does not
liberally lay eggs in a number of nests, as slated by Skutch
(1957). Male-usurping by unoccupied females may be a
factor that mated females may have to guard themselves
against in the species. There was only a slight
preponderance of males and x testing was not significant,
P - 0.40 to 1. Other statistical analyses, however,
suggested that the male or female preponderance with
marked disparity is to be expected. With more of one sex
than the other, especially where female biased, there must
be periodic erratic population structure affecting breeding
opportunities.
Unlike the polyandrous Sandpiper whose females arrive
at the breeding ground earlier than the males (Oring &
Lank, 1982) the two sexes in the Painted Snipe do so
together. The difference between the two must lie in the
nature of the territories; one has mating and breeding
performed in the same ground yearly visited; the other
must have separate mating and breeding territories. It is
likely that in the latter the mated birds scatter themselves in
search of suitable breeding grounds leaving behind the
unsuccessful rival males some of whom, not accepting
defeat, follow the females with determination to win them
over that is frustrated again in the breeding territory
(Wesley, 1986). With the laying of each egg the consorting
time is reduced and the bond between the two sexes
weakens so that the female becomes free to seek another
male {Komeda, 1983). Oring and Maxson (1978) have
observed that "as long as the primary males are capable of
excluding additional males simultaneous polyandry is
impossible". The instance of surplus male-intruder into
another territory being ejected out is a point in support of
sequential polyandry (Wesley, 1986).
Major portion of the time in fertilization display was
taken up by precopulatory display. Nest- building is not the
responsibility of the male Painted Snipe. Both the partners
select the neat sites, the female inspecting it first, followed
168
by the male. The females observed in Tiruchirapalli
retained the task ot making the nest , in contrast to that
reported by Baker (1934) and Gooders (1975). Although
an egg was laid each day the interval between any two
consecutive eggs was not exactly 24 hours, but ranged
between 15 h 45 mt and 24 h 39 mt, the average being 22
h 33 mt. Shorter interval between the first and the second
egg ot pair V is clearly an indication of close ovulation, and
the presence ot two eggs in the oviduct at the same time
though at different points (Table 7). The time of deposition
of the third and last egg was not known. The triggering of
ovulation is a complex physiological process involving
visual and tactile stimuli inducing hormonal action. Craig
(1911) has observed that female pigeons and doves
ovulated and reached oviposilion without male's contact in
mating. There is no definite proof that in the Painted Snipe
either or both the stimuli are employed. Copulation in the
Painted Snipe was observed to occur through the
egg-laying period, as coitus may serve as a stimulant for
egg laying.
On the incubation period in the Painted Snipe. Baker
(1934) states, "I do not know how long rt takes". Schmidt
(1961) reports that it is 19 days for the South African
population, ft agrees with present observation of 18 days
(Table 5). All the eggs of a clutch hatched on the same day
despite the differences in the laying time (Table 5). Further,
the data corroborated the observations of Baker (1934) and
Ali (1979) that the breeding season is "more or less through
out the year", or "practically throughout the year" (Tables 1
and 2; Fig.2). Sporadic and rare occurrence of the birds
after 19S8 must be related to. the enormous changes that
have happened since: copious growths of Typhangustata
and Eichhornia sp, and the fallow lands being alternately
mundated and dry. cattle grazing and development of
human settlements in planned colonies. These have
resulted in population decline, and if the trend continues.
Painted Snipes may become extinct in the suburbs of
Tiruchirapalli.
References
Ali. Salim. (1979). The book of Indian Birds. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc., Bombay.
Ali. Salim and S.D. Ripley., 1987. Compact Handbook of
Birds of India and Pakistan. Delhi, Oxford University
Press.
Austin, Oliver, L.Jr, 1962. Birds of the World. Hamlyn.
Baker, E.C Stuart., 1934. The Nidification of Birds of Indian
Empire. Taylor and Francis, London.
Cra»g, Wallace, 1911. Opposition induced by !he male in
pigeons. Benchman papers in Animal Behaviour.
Hutchinson & Ross. Inc., Vol.11, pp.118-119.
D'Ombrain. A.F., 1944. Behaviour of the painted snipe in
captivity. Emu. XLII : 247-248.
Gooders, John., 1975. The Great Book of Birds. Dial Press,
New York, pp.137.
Graeme Caughley, 1978. Analysis of Vertebrate
populations. John Wiley and Sons. Chinchestor, New
York. Brisbane. Toronto.
Komeda, S., 1983. Nest attendance of the parent birds in
the painted snipe (Rostratula benghalensis). Auk, 100:
48-53.
Lowe, V.T.. 1963. Observations on the painted snipe. Aust.
Bird Watcher, 3(7) : 21 9-237.
Lowe, V.T.. 1970. Notes on the behaviour of the painted
snipe. Aust. Bird Watcher. 3(7) : 218-219
Muller, K.A.. 1974. Observations on the Old World painted
Snipe. Rostratula benghalensis at Taronga Zoo.
Awct/ft.Mao\„80(1) ; 1-3.
Muller. K.A.. 1975. Threat display of the Australian Painted
snipe. Emu. 75 : 28-30.
Oring, L.W. and David, D„ Lank., 1982. Sexual selection,
Arrival time, Phitopatry and site Fidelity in the
pok/androus spotted sandpiper. Behav. Ecol. Sociobioi,
10:298-30.
Oring, L.W. and David, B. Lank, 1982. Sexual selection.
Arrival time, Phitopatry and site Fidelity in the
polyandrous spotted sandpiper. Behav. Ecol. Sociobioi..
B10 : 185-191.
Oring, l.W. s.-.d Stephen, J. Uaxscn., :979. jratencM cf
simultaneous polyandry by a spotted sand-piper. Acting
macularia. Behav Ecol. Sociobioi.. 120 : 349-353.
Schmidt, R.K., 1 961 . Incubation Period of the painted snipe
Rostratula benghalensis. The Ostrich, 32 : 183-184.
Sick, H., 1968. Family: Painted Snipe. In Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia, 8 Birds III. New York. VonNostrand
Rein hold Company.
Skutch, A.F., 1957. Incubation Patterns in Birds. Ibis., 99 :
69 - 93.
Thorpe, W.H., 1961. The biology of vocal communication
and expression in Birds In Bird Sond Cambridge
Monograph in Experimental Biology - 12 Cambridge
University Press.
Wesley, H.D.. 1 986. Courship behaviour of painted snipe in
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
83(2) : 435-436.
Wesley. H.D., 1991. A painted snipe and his chick.
Newsletter for Bird Watchers, XXXI(7&8) : 3.
169
Table 1 Eight year count of Painted snipes In breeding territory In Tlruchlrapaili
month
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
June
july
aug
sep
oct
nov
dec
total
f m
t m
1 m
1 m
( m
1 m
f m
1 m
( m
f m
t m
1 m
1 m
1981
910
9 10
1962
1 2
3 4
3 3
1 1
7 9
3 3
2 2
4 4
24 28
1983
3 4
4 5
6 6
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 6 20
1984
3 3
8
5 5
2 2
6 5
8 6
4 4
6 7
8 9
4 4
5 2 55
1985
4 4
6 7
1010
6 6
22
2 2
3 3
5 5
810
3 3
1 1
50 53
1986
4 5
1 1
1 1
2 2
4 5
3 3
3 3
810
3 3
29 33
1987
2 2
4 5
3 3
4 4
1 1
4 4
3 3
2 2
2 2
28 30
1988
2 2
3 3
1 1
44
3 3
13 13
Total
11 12
22 27
28 30
16 19
88
12 12
1211
20 21
26 29
22 25
22 25
21 22
223 242
Table 1A Occurence of Painted snipes since 198S
Year
Date
Month
Time of call
1989
31
July
04.10
1990
09
February
22.05
29
June
05.00
29
October
05.45
1991
09
February
18.50
18
February
05.45
23
February
0530
03
March
21.30
29
March
22.00
22.30
03
April
21.20
21.50
13
April
21.55
1992
30
January
03.40
1993
24
January
06.10
01
September
18.40
21.50
22.00
03
September
22.10
•
■
■-
^3
7 *
1 1
**■
1 \\ -|.£S: o £iLhJ
Ftg i Tht Breeding area ot trie Pained Snipe
tnTkucrtrape*
170
Table 2 Percent occurence ot Male/female Painted snipe
for eight years
Year
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
198G
1987
1988
1981-88
Total
No
10
28
20
55
53
33
30
13
242
Percent
52.6
53.8
52.6
51.4
51.4
51.4
51.7
50
52.1
No
9
24
18
52
50
29
28
13
223
Percent
47.4
46 2
47.4
48.6
48.6
48.6
48.3
50
47.9
Table 3 Arrival of birds, Initiation of clutch and clutch size for eleven pairs of R. bengaiensis
Bird
pair /
sl.no
Day of arrival
Days of laying the egg the eggs (
1 -4)
12 3 4
Remarks
I
03-12-1981
10th
-
-
-
The egg was lost; nest desersted
II
14-12-1981
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
Clutch size 4 eggs
III
15-12-1981
?
?
?
22nd
Clutch ot 4 eggs
IV
24-12-1981
?
?
?
?
Clutch of 4 eggs noticed - 2nd Jan 82
V
29-12-1981
1-1-82
2nd
3rd
-
abandonded on 6th Jan 82
VI
01-02-1982
?
?
8th
9th
3eggs on noticed on 8th, 4th on 9th
VII
02-02-1982
?
?
?
-
Clutch of 3eggs noticed on 13th
VIII
05-04-1982
7th
8th
9th
10th
Clutch of 4 eggs
IX
16-09-1982
?
?
?
-
Clutch of 3 eggs noticed on 8-10-82
X
06-11-1982
9th
10th
11th
12th
Clutch of 4 eggs
XI
7-01 1984
14th
15th
16th
17th
The arrival ot the birds not known,
spotted nest on 12th Jan
88 -
87
86
85
84
83
82
19 8'
TO 10 W io
eb n
d a
— a
■ • i
J f M A
Btftl>S EACH MOMTM
10 10
10 10 10 !Q 10 10
a s eg
B S
•
v
J J A S
Fig 2 Month and year -wtse occurence ol the Painted Snipes
171
Tabic 4: Tim* of day, relative abundance and percent occurence ol copulation In the Painted Snipe
Time of Ihe
day
06:00- 08 :00
08:00-10:00
10:00- 12 :00
12:00-14:00
14:00-16:00
16:00-18:00
Number of
Coitus
5
6
2
1
2
13
%
17.2
20.7
6.9
3.5
6.9
44.8
Tables
Incubation period
Bird pair No.
Clutch
Initiation
Completion
Hatched on
Incubation
(Days)
period
VIII
07-04-1982
10-04-1982
28-04-1982
18
XI
14-01-1984
17-01-1984
0402-1984
18
Fig 3 Relatwe abundant* ol ihe sexes in ihe Parted Snipes m Tiruchirapaili
172
A Report on the Susceptibility of Chicks to Mammalian Trypanosome
B. Prabhavathf and Susan Bhaskar Rao
Department of Zoology, Kakatiya University. Warangal-AR 506 009
Introduction
"Trypanosoma evansi is a pathogenic parasite in many
' mammals causing surra disease. The infection is of 2
types: 1) Acute and 2) Chronic. In birds, natural infection of
T. evansi has not been reported so far. inspite of the
abundance of the pathogen and the arthropod vector.
Manuel et al. (19S5) in their review mentioned that
trypanosomes inoculated into several birds including
chicken were not detected on blood examination and the
Wood was not infective to the laboratory animals. Alwar
(1962) reported that he could successfully maintain
T. evansi in freshly hatched three day old chicks for 69
days. He stated that the chicks did not show any clinical
manifestations. The present report is the experimental
survival of T. evansi in one day old chicks and the changes
in the serum LOH due to infection.
Material and Methods
7! evansi was collected from the buffaloes of the rural
areas of the Khammam District and were maintained in the
laboratory Albino rats. The trypanosomes from the Albino
rats were isolated from the blood by cent rifugat ion and
were suspended in phosphate buffer solution. When the
trypanosomes were 3.5 x 10 a /ml/ of concentration, 0.5ml
was inoculated into the chicks intraperitoneally. The chicks
of one-day old, one-week and 4-week old were taken for
experimental study.
Blood smears were made daily from the infected chick,
fixed in methyl alcohol and stained with Giemsas stain. The
blood from the infected chicks was collected and serum
was separated.
For the chick serum LDH isozymes, the gels were
prepared with acrylamide gels according to Dtiz and
Librano and the gels were run for 90 minutes. The gels
were incubated for 1 hour in a mixture containing sodium
lactate, NAD, NACL. MgC!?, phosphate buffer and
Nitrozolin blue. They were then photographed.
Results and Discussion
The infection was observed after six days only in the
one-day old chicks but did not appear in the one-week or
4-week old chicks. The degree of parasitemia was 1
tryp/field in the low power (Fig. 1). The same degree of
parasitemia persisted for 5 days and later disappeared. On
dissection and examination, trypanosoma was not found in
any of the organs. In older chicks inspite of giving larger
doses of trypanosomes twice, the infection did not appear.
The infected birds did not show any pathological
symptoms. The infected serum LDH isozyme pattern
showed 3 bands only and LDH-2 was missing while LDH-3
was not distinguishable from LDH-4. In case of normal
chick. 4 bands were distinguishable (Rg. 2). The Rf values
of bands in gel (a) from bottom to top were 7. 3, 2 and 0.5
cm. The 7 cm migrated band is fast migrating and o.5 cm is
slow migrating. Similarly in gel (b) the Rf values were 3, 1
and 0.5. The 3 cm migrated band is fast-migrating and 0.5
cm slow -migrating.
The results obtained indicated that the chicks can
tolerate the infection at a very young age. These findings
agree with observations of Manuel et al. on ducklings.
In our study, the parasites could be seen in the wet films
for five days similar to the study of Alwar (1962). Even in
our study one-week and 4-week old chicks did not show
infection.
In one-day old chicks the bursa would not develop,
hence there will not be a production of immunoglobulins to
react with the parasite. From this we can presume that due
to the deficiency of specific Ig production, the parasite
could survive where as in 1 week old chicks, bursa
develops. So, it acquires immunity and can react with the
parasite.
Infection brings about numerous changes and LDH
isozyme pattern is one of the markers for susceptibility. The
change in the serum LDH pattern could be due to a change
at the level of gene transcription.
References
Alwar V.S., 1962, Studies on surra in Madras Thesis
submitted to Madras University.
Manuel, et al.. 1985. The experimental infections of ducks
with 7! evansi Ind. Vet. J.. 671-179.
173
'
#
Fig. 1 ) Photograph showing the Trypanosome evansi in the peripheral blood ol the chick.
Fig. 2) Photograph showing the LDH band pattern
(a) Normal chick serum (b) Infected chick serum
174
Sexual Size Dimorphism in Columba livia and Sex Determination by Discriminant
Analysis
Harjeet K. Saini & Manjll S. Dhindsa
All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural Ornithology,
Department of Zoology. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004
V A /e recorded dala on external characters ot Blue Rock
■ " Pigeons, Columba livia, lo determine the sexual size
dimorphism and to develop a reliable sexing technique for
this monomorphic species. In all 96 adult pigeons were
collected and 10 characters viz. body weight, premaxilla,
culmen, bill length, bill width, wing, tarsus, tail and middle toe
were measured. Principal component analysis revealed a
highly significant size dimorphism(F-1 8.82, d.f.-1, 91, P).
Males were significantly larger than females in all characters
except premaxilla lengths which did not differ significantly
(univariate comparisons using t-tests). Monthly variations
were significant in bill length, bill width and tarsus length but
they did not significantly interact with sexual size
dimorphism. Discriminant analysis revealed that a
combination of bill depth, tarsus length and middle toe length
was the best for distinguishing between males and females
(Wilk's Lambda-0.499, Chi-square-64.38. d.U3, P). The
classification function using these three characters correctly
classified 88.5% of adults. This function had an accuracy of
96.2% in identifying the sex of an independent sample of 26
pigeons. The data of both samples were pooled lo derive a
new classification function for use in the field.
Microscopic Identification of Feathers with the Scanning Electron Microscope
A. Rajaram
Biophysics Division .Central Leather Research Institute. Adyar. Madras 600 020
"The identification of bird species has been attempted
* earlier by analysing the structure of barbules with an
optical microscope. It is comparatively difficult and can be
confusing at times. By using a Scanning Electron
Microscope, more details can be observed, especially the
three dimensional projections on the barbules which aid in
better identification.
In a small study, the structure of feathers from a few
species was analysed. There were similarities within related
species. The barbule structure also had inherent differences
within the same species. Powder keratin has been observed
in the Brue Rock Pigeon. Birds which exhibit soaring flight
showed similarities with barbule projections being absent or
degenerate. It is postulated that the barbule structure is
dependent on the nature of flight of the avian species.
175
Atmospheric Temperature and the Incubation Pattern in the Ashy Wren-Warbler
Prinia socialis
R.N. Desal
Zoology Department. Karnataka Science College, Dharwad580 001
^ cursory survey of the literature shows that several
asserine species of subtropical and temperate regions
show a very high rate of attentiveness to their eggs, from
64.5%(Hedge Sparrow) to 84%(Marsh Tit) {Wing. 1956).
This may be an adaptation to overcome the considerably
cold climate to which the eggs are exposed. The
phenomenon suggests a relationship between the
atmospheric temperature and the attentiveness of the parent
bird/s to their eggs. The present paper describes the findings
on such a phenomenon in a tropical bird, Prinia socialis (Ord.
Passeriformes; Fam. Muscicapidae) of Dharwad City (1 5 28'
N. 79 01" E) (Karnataka state).
In one clutch, three eggs were laid from 1 8th to 20th June
1993. Incubation commenced from 21st June. The
incubating bird/s did not develop any brood patch. From the
first day of incubation till the hatching of the eggs the
maximum and minimum atmospheric temperatures and the
body temperature of the incubating bird were recorded.
Further, periods of attentiveness in minutes were also
recorded each day from 11.00AM to 7.30P.M. and from
7.00AM to 7.30P.M. on some days at random.
Our observations showed that from 18th to 28th June
there was a gradual rise in the atmospheric temperature from
27.7X to 33.2'C. It again dropped to 27.8'C and 27.3'C on
1 st and 2nd July the last two days before hatching. The body
temperature of the incubating bird was fluctuating between
40.2'C and 41 .5'C. The period of attentiveness was 30% on
the first day of incubation. It rose to 50% on the 5th day and
remained at that level upto the 10th day. However, on the
11th and 1 2th days, it further shot upto 69% {Fig. 1 ).
The data indicated that, (i) owing to the lack of the brood
patch the parent bird cannot pass on its entire body heat to
the eggs; simultaneously some heat is also lost to the
surroundings because of loose construction of the nest: (ii)
the optimum temperature requirement in the initial phase of
development of the eggs appears to be close to 30'C and
hence the period of the attentiveness by the parent bird is
also minimum; (iii) but during mid- and terminal phases it
might be considerably high; as a consequence the period
of attentiveness correspondingly rises, (iv) finally, the steep
rise in the period of attentiveness on the last two days of
incubation is a measure to counter the effect of the sudden
drop in the atmospheric temperature
'C
50
45
40
35
30
25
Atmospheric temp
Attentiveness %
Bird body temp.
18th 20
june
1992
Fiq.1. Showing the relationship between the atmospheric temperature and the attentiveness pattern in Prinia socialis.
176
Breeding Biology of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon Smyrnensis
Manu Oommen* and M.I. Andrews
Department of Zoology, Mar Thoma College Jiruvalla 3, Kerala
* Department of Zoology. Catholicate College. Pathanamthitta, Kerala
Introduction
The Whitebreasted Kinglisher Halcyon smyrnensis is
' widely distributed throughout the state o( Kerala
woodlands, urban and suburban areas and watery
habitats. Literature on the breeding biology of the bird is
limited to observations by Ali {1969) and Zacharias and
Gaston (1983). Hence an attempt has been made to study
the breeding biology ot the Whitebreasted Kingfisher.
Material and Methods
Perumthuruthy. 3 km from Tiruvalla. in the Kuttanad
area of Kerala was selected as the main study site. Data
were also collected from unmarked nesting sites in
Kuttanad. The study was conducted from July. 1988 to
December. 1991 on 38 nests in different stages.
The main nesting site, covered an area of 3 ha. with
coconut groves surrounded by paddy fields. Breeding
behaviour was studied using a pair of 7 ± 50 prism
binoculars. The breeding territory was marked by noting
the presence and activities of birds within the study area.
From each nest, daily progress in building, egg laying,
incubation, hatching and growth of nestlings, their
development of feathers and general behaviour were
recorded. Size and weight of eggs in different nests were
taken. The weight of the nestling and their bill length were
taken at an interval of 3 days. Incubation was observed for
two hours in different parts of the day for two days
continuously. The laying females were marked with
coloured rings as sexual dimorphism was not distinct in the
Whitebreasted Kingfisher. Continuous observations were
made in four cases to determine the rate of nestling
feeding. The fledgelings were observed till they attained
self feeding stage.
Results and Discussions
Breeding season :
In the Whitebreasted Kingfisher, breeding activities
started in January and ended in June, before the onset of
monsoon in the study area. During the period of study, a
total of 19 nests under construction were examined. Of
them, 5 nests were excavated in January, 10 in February
and 2 each in March and April. The last fledgling was found
in the study area in June. Hence, the breeding season of
Whitebreasted Kingfisher extended from January to June.
The breeding season was so timed to escape heavy
monsoons. The nestlings fledged at a time when the food
was abundant in the breeding area.
Breeding age and pair bond
The breeding age of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher could
not be determined correctly It is likely that male and female
kingfishers breed for the first time when they are in the
second year of life which can be recognised on the basis of
plumage and beak colours. These birds paired only for the
breeding season and were solitary for the remaining pari of
the year. Display or courtship between the birds during
non-breeding season was not observed.
Courtship and copulation
Initiation of pairing was indicated by 'laugh' which was
usually produced by female sitting on high perch. Three
birds producing such a call were caught and identified as
females. Immediately after pairing the birds sat close
together in the breeding area. In the Whitebreasted
Kingfisher, during courtship 'wingspread' display and
duet' calls were common.
Copulation was observed thrice during the entire study
period. The act of copulation or mating in all the cases was
preceded by 'wingspread' display which lasted for 3—15
minutes. After the display by two birds sitting close, the
male mounted the female. The entire process lasted for a
few seconds. In one instance a chase was observed before
the copulatory display, while in the other two cases the
birds were found sitting together.
Territory :
The Whitebreasted Kingfisher defended a breeding
territory against other individuals. The territory 0.16 to
0.43 ha. was defended by chasing or attacking the
intruders. The other kingfishers trying to feed in the area
were attacked by the territory holder. The defence was
more vigorous against conspecifics.
Nest and nest construction
The construction of the nest was done by the female
alone. When the female was boring the nest, the male sat
quietly very close to the nest site, watching the whole
proceedings and surroundings. The nest site selection was
also done by the female. The nest is usually bored in the
soil. Of the 38 nests studied 37 were built in the soil and
one on a hay stack. The bird, which nested in the hay.
might have been an inexperienced female. Nest sites were
always found on the vertical earthen walls of ponds and
wells, elevated lands, banks of rivers and sides of any
dug-out place. The presence of water was not a factor in
the selection of nest site. The nests were located in
coconut plantations, mixed plantations and paddy fields
where 38 , 32 and 5 nests, were observed, respectively.
The nesting sites in most cases were surrounded by paddy
fields or open lands which formed the main feeding site of
the kingfisher. Of the total nests observed. 68.42% were
located in the side walls of dug-out places elevated land.
177
26.32% on the vertical walls of ponds and wells and 2.63%
on the banks of rivers.
The nest of the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher was a round
tunnel in the soil. The tunnel ended in an egg chamber,
which had twice the diameter of the mouth of the tunnel.
The tunnel was so constructed that eggs inside could not
be seen from outside and rain water was prevented from
entering into it. The tunnel was usually excavated at right
angles to the bank and normally inclined about 30' towards
a bulbous nest chamber at the end. The average length
and diameter of 26 nests were 62.69 cm (40.2 to 99 cm)
and 7.6 cm (7.3 to 8.8 cm), respectively (Fig.1 ).
In three cases, it took 8-20 days to complete the nest
construction, the average being 10.33 days. Three nests
under construction from first day of boring to their
completion were observed thoroughly. The daily progress
in the construction of the tunnel varied in different nests,
and it was largely dependent upon the soil texture of the
area. The boring of the nest was more active during the
morning hours than the rest of the day. At noon the birds
were found resting on trees near the nest site and the
boring continued during the afternoon hours. Incomplete
and partly bored holes, which were found near the live
nest, indicated the selection of nest site for boring the
tunnel.V
Nest desertion and reuse of nest
Three out of 27 nests studied were deserted. Two nests
with eggs were deserted due to our study interferences and
the other owing to the non hatching of eggs. No nest was
found deserted during the nestling stage. In both the cases
ol nest desertion during egg laying reported, it has been
observed that new nests were bored by the female to lay
eggs to complete the clutch.
In the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher, the previous years
nests were reused by the breeding pair. Of the 9 cases
observed, in 3 same nests were used for three years and in
6 cases same nests were used for the second year. The
discarded or deserted nests were not used in the following
year. It has also been observed that the same nest sites
were used by some breeding pairs for boring new tunnels.
Egg laying
The egg laying started soon after the completion of nest.
The eggs were laid in the afternoon probably between
12 noon and 2.30 pm in all the cases observed. In most
cases the eggs were laid in consecutive days, but a few
cases had a gap of 2 to 3 days. A gap of 3 days between
the first and second egg was noticed in one case which
had only two eggs in that clutch. In three cases a gap of
two to three days was observed between the laying of last
two eggs.
The egg of the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher was glossy,
immaculate white with smooth texture and almost round.
The size ranged from 27.4 to 30.5 mm in length (average
28.9 mm) and from 23.1 to 26.66 mm in width {average
25.33 mm). The average weight of an egg was 10.54 g,
{range 8 to 13gm).
The clutch size in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher varied
from 1 to 4. with an average of 2.53 (37 clutches). Of the 37
clutches scrutinised for clutch size, 11 had 4 eggs, 14 had
3, 8 had 2 and 4 had one egg.
Incubation and hatching
The incubation commenced only after the completion of
the clutch. The eggs were incubated by the female.
Identification of laying birds, which were ringed and shot
later, indicated that only female incubated the eggs. When
the bird entered the tunnel and remained in the egg
chamber with eggs, it was considered as incubation. Field
observations revealed that incubation was continuous with
intermittent breaks for feeding. Conlinuous observations
made at two nests for two days (1340 minutes), showed
that the incubating females remained outside the nests for
96 and 86 minutes, respectively. At night the female
remained in the nest.
The incubation period in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher
was 18-21 days. Out of the 15 nests observed for
determination of incubation period, it was 21 days in 6
cases, 20 days in eight cases and 19 days in one case.
The average incubation period was 20.35 days.
Nestling and nestling period
The newly hatched chick was naked, flesh coloured and
its eyes were closed. The brooding of the chicks continued
for a whole day from hatching, may be to provide warmth to
them. The hatching of the chicks and growth of the
nestlings were synchronous in all the cases studied. But in
one case asynchronous hatching and development were
noted. The nestling period varied from 19 to 24 days
(18 cases). At the time of hatching a nestling weighed
10.02 gm. The body weight of the nestling increased
steadily from the day of hatching to the stage when they
were 15 or 16 days old. In the last tour days weight of the
nestling decreased.
Feeding and nestling
The feeding and nestling were done by the female. The
feeding frequency was higher in the morning and evening
hours than during the rest of the day. Higher frequency of
visit was always noted in the nest which had higher number
of nestling. The food fragments found at the mouth of the
nest hole included frogs, caterpillar, wings and exoskeleton
of beetles and other insects, body parts of paddy crab, etc.
The nest sanitation and egg shell disposal
The nest of the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher became dirty
after the hatching of chicks with faecal matter crowded at
its entrance. The nest chamber of the tunnel was free from
excreta. This may be owing to the passing of excreta by
nestlings into the mouth of the tunnel or faecal sacs were
deposited at the entrance of the nest hole by the female.
Egg shells scattered 10 to 15 meters away from the nest.
178
were noticed during our sludy period. However.the bird
removing Ihe egg shell was not observed.
Fledglings
The fledged bird had short tail, black beak with yellow
tip, black feet and tarsus. The fledglings, after leaving, did
not return to the nest . They were fed only by the temale.
However, the guarding of fledglings was done by both
sexes. The fledglings started foraging on their own when
about a month old ,
Breeding success
The breeding success in this bird is summaried in Table
1. Totally 37 nests were examined during the study period
from 1 988 to 1 991 and they produced 71 fledglings. Thus a
pair of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher raised 1 .92 fledglings
on an average. Of the total eggs. 84.91 per cent hatched
and of these nestlings, 85.55 per cent became juveniles.
These results suggested that the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher
had a very high breeding success.
The Whrtebreasted Kingfisher started breeding before
early showers in April. This bird is considered to be a
premonsoon breeder by Zacharias and Gaston (1983),
based on their observations on the breeding seasons of
birds at Calicut, Kerala. The peak nesting of the
Whrtebreasted Kingfisher extended from March to May,
which is the premonsoon period. The main reason for the
premonsoon breeding by an insectivorous species is the
abundance of insects. On account of early rains, grasses
sprout and insects become more abundant. By the time the
eggs hatch the nestlings fledge, the monsoon will have
increased intensity ensuring the steady supply of food for
weeks to come. Owing to the onset of monsoon, streams,
canals and paddy fields become water-logged which also
provide enough fish for the fledglings. Therefore, it appears
that the timing of breeding in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher
in the study area is related to the availability of Ihe food and
onset of monsoon. The proper timing of the breeding
activities is important for the survival of kingfishers. As they
are hole nesters on the ground, the nestlings have to leave
the nest before the peak of monsoon. A survey of the
nesting area and other places in Kuttanad showed that all
the low areas are covered with water during the peak
monsoon months and the nest holes and sites are
submerged. Hence, it appears that onset of southwest
monsoon (May to September) also has some role in
determining the nesting season of this bird. Variation in the
timing of breeding is due to a factor like rainfall (Zwickel,
1977). Similar observations were made by Shukkur and
Joseph (1980) and Zacharias and Gaston (1983).
The nest of the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher is a tunnel in
the vertical earthen wells. Ali (1969) observed that all the
species of kingfishers inhabiting the state of Kerala built
their nest in a hole on earthen walls. In the Mangrove
Kingfisher, the nest is built on a termite mound (Miller,
1937). Davis and Graham (1991) observed that in the
Amazone Kingfisher the nesting was on river banks. The
hole nesting is considered to be an adaptive behaviour of
different species of kingfishers. The nest site of the
Whrtebreasted Kingfisher is located in places where large
quantity of food is available. Most of the nest sites
observed in the entire study period were surrounded by or
very near to paddy fields or open ground which formed the
feeding ground of the kingfishers. Morgan and Glue (1977)
noted that Alcedo atthis bred near water where there was
readily available source of food.
The size of the territory of the whrtebreasted kingfisher
was small. Territorial behaviour was observed in the African
species of Kingfishers by Miller (1937) and Milestem
(1962). Defence of territory was noted in other species of
kingfishers by Jackson (1938). Greig-Smith (1978b). Davis
(1982) and Brook and Davis (1987). In the Whrtebreasted
Kingfisher also, the breeding territory is vigorously
defended particularly against conspecifics. The hatching of
the eggs in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher was synchronous
in all the cases except one. The nestlings gain by the
synchronous hatching as they may not be starved. When
starved, a passerine nestling dies very quickly (Lack and
Lack, 1951; Skagen. 1988). The survival of the chick was
significantly higher in synchronous hatching (Bollinger
el a/.. 1990). Variation in the incubation period was about 3
days in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher. Skutch (1976) and
Ricklefts and Samaraski (1983) stated that typical variation
in incubation period appears to be two days for many
passerines. Hence, the variation in incubation of the
kingfisher observed is normal. The nestling of the
Whitebreasted Kingfisher showed rapid development. The
Whitebreasted Kingfisher had a high breeding success.
The reasons may be the favourable nesting season ,
efficient incubation, availability of adequate food and
minimum predation. Murton and Westwood (1977) relates
low hatching success in Wood Pigeon to inefficient
incubation. The nestling loss in swifts occurs due to
starvation (Lack and Lack. 1951). Similar starvation deaths
were reported in South-West Ecuadorian birds by Merchant
(1960) and in bulbuls by Vijayan (1980). The death due to
starvation in the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher is completely
prevented by breeding in the best season of the year. The
low fledgling success in bulbuls is related to predation
(Vijayan, 1980). The absence of a second brood in the
Whitebreasted Kingfisher is perhaps compensated by the
high rate of success of the only brood raised with virtually
no predation.
References
Ali. S.. 1969. Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press. New
Delhi.
Bollinger. P.B.. E.K. Bollinger and R.A. Maleki. 1990. Tests
of three hypothesis of hatching asynchrony in Common
Tern. Auk, 107: 696-706.
Brook. R.P. and W.J. Davis, 1987. Habitat selection by
breeding Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon). Am. Midi.
nat. 1*17 : 63-70.
Davis, W.J., 1982. The timing of breeding and wing moutt
of four African SturnkJae. Am. Midi. Nat. 125 : 346-362.
Davis, W.J. and D. Graham. 1991. The influence of food on
reproductive strategies in a monogamous Kingfisher
[Chloroceryle amazona). Auk. 108 : 780-789.
179
Gretg-Smrth. P.W.. 1978b. Behaviour of Woodland
Kingfishers in Ghana. Ostrich. 49 : 67-75.
Jackson. F.J.J. . 1938. The birds of Kenya colony and the
Uganda Protectorate. 2. London and Edinburgh.
Lack. D. and E. Lack. 1951. The breeding biology of Swift.
Apus apus. Ibis . 93(4) : 501-546.
Merchant, S.. 1960. The breeding of some Ecuadorian
birds./b/s. 102 : 349-382. 584-599.
Miller, R.S., 1937. The Mangrove Kingfisher. Emu, 36(3) :
149-152.
Milslein, P.L.S., 1962. Angola Kingfisher Halcyon
senegalensis Part I - Biology. Ostrich, 33 : 2-12.
Morgan, R. and D. Glue. 1977. Breeding, Mortality and
Movements of Kingfishers. Bird Study, 24 : 15—24.
Murton. R.K. and N.J. Westwood., 1977. Avian breeding
cycles. Oxford Calendron.
Ricklefls. R.F. and C.A. Samaraski, 1983. Variation of
thyroid size of Pigeon. AmerJ. PhysioL 72 : 464-487.
Shukkur, E.A.A. and K.J. Joseph. 1980. Breeding biology
of the Black Orongo. J.BombayNat.Hist.Soc. (Suppl.) 75
: 1212-1226.
Skagen. S.K.. 1988. Asynchronous hatching and food
limitations: a test of lack s hypothesis. Auk. 105 : 78-88.
Skutch, A.F., 1976. Parent birds and their young. Austin,
Texas, Univ. Texas Press.
Vijayan. VS.. 1980. Breeding biology of Bulbuls;
Pycnonotus caler and Pycnonotus luteolus (Class:
Aves, Family: Pycnonotidae) with special reference to
their ecological isolation. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75 :
1090-1117.
Zacharias, V.J. and A.J. Gaston, 1983. Breeding season of
birds at Calicut. South West India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc. 125:407.
Zwickel, F.C., 1977. Local variation in the time of breeding
of female Blue Grouse. Condor. 79 : 185-191.
Table I : Breeding success in the Whltebreasted
Kingfisher
Halcyon Smyrnensis Fusca
Observation 1968 1989 1990 1991 Total
No. of eggs laid
No. of eggs hatched
% eggs hatched
26
2
90
26
3
88.4
45
7
84.4
15
4
73.3
106
16
81.9
No. of Nestlings
No. of Nestlings
fledged
% survival
18
22 32
15 17 28
83.3 77.2 87.5
11
11
100
83
71
85.5
Fig.1 : Diagrammatic representation of the cross section of the nest hole of the Whrtebreasted Kingfisher
180
Brood Size Distribution Patterns in Animal Dispersed Plant Species
*G. K. Na rend ra Kumar, K.S. Muralf, Prathana Kathuria and S.G. Hegde
'Department of Horticulture . Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK. U.mgalore 560 065
CD rood size is one of Ihe important lite history traits for the
^ plant because of it's immediate implication on fecundity
component of plant fitness. There are several selective
forces viz., dispersal, seedling fitness, predation and
packing cost shaping the size of a dutch in a plant species.
(Hegde el al., 1991). Dispersers, generally appear to be
important driving force in shaping the brood size in animal
dispersed plant species.
Based on the type of preference criterion employed by
the disperser, brood size varies in plant species
(Ganeshaiah and Uma Shankar, 1991). The present study
surveys the natural distribution of brood sizes in plants and
tries to make few predictions for observed distribution
patterns.
Ninety eight animal dispersed species were identified
from forest belts of Karnataka and Tamilnadu. These
species belong to 31 families and 57 genera, comprising of
Lianas (4). herbs (2), shrubs (23) and trees (69).
Observation were recorded on fruit diameter, fruit weight,
seed number, seed weight, pulp weight, pulp to seed ratio
and average seed weight. While analysing for brood size
distribution, seed weight distribution was considered in
case of single seeded species.
Our analysis indicated that majority of the species
showed normal distribution for seed weight (Fig. 1 ) and
seed number (Fig.2) with very few species falling into
positive and negative skewness classification. Animals
primarily base their preference on fruit diameter, which
indirectly brings about change in associated characters.
The fruit diameter associations with other fruit
characters revealed that both with single and multiseeded
species fruit diameter is positively associated with seed
weight, seed number. Pulp weight and P/S (Fig.la, 1b, 1c
and 2a, 2b, 2c).
From the association analysis we make the following
predictions for observed seed weight/number distribution.
1. Normal distribution of seed weight/seed number is the
outcome of birds effort to maximise benefit over cost of
handling the fruits. However, operation of other
selective forces are not completely ruled out.
2. Seed number and seed weight will be positively skewed
if the preference is based on the palatability of the fruit
(pulp weight to seed weight ratio, P/S). However, our
study reports significant positive association between
seed weight/seed number with P/S. It is quite possible
that other selective forces like predation or olher
environmental variables might be the significant force
than the preference criterion.
3. Seed number and seed weight would be negatively
skewed if the preference is based on the total pulp
harvested (pulp weight).
Hence, we can predict that in case of plant species
having single seeded fruits, birds base their preference
mainly on benefit to cost ratio, followed by other factors,
while total pulp content is the least preferred. In case of
multiseeded species preference is based on B/C, followed
by total pulp content and then other selectrve forces.
References
Ganeshaiah. K.N. and Uma Shankar. Ft.. 1991. Seed size
optimization in a wind dispersed tree Butea
Monosperma. Oikos, 60 : 3-6.
Hegde S.G.,et al.. 1991. Fruit preference criteria by Avian
Frugivores; their implications for the evolution of clutch
size in Solanum pubescens. Oikos, 60: 20—26.
181
•
to
(70)
eo
•^o
(22)
*«
Id
18)
SKHIHFSS
«r».M"
Fig 1a: Seed weight distribution in single seeded plant
species ( n - 46)
■a
7f
«2)
to
SO
" 40
■
0/ H
127)
M
I 11 |
"r-||»»
N-rnuii *HMm
SKEUNESS
Fig. 1b: Seed number distribution in multiseeded plant
species ( n - 52)
3
Q.
r - 0.88"
y - - 8.73 + 8.63 X
2>
3
a.
r - 0.88"
y - - 8.73 + 8.63 X
Fruit diameter
(a)
Fruit diameter
(b)
r - 0.46"
y> 1.53 + 2.73X
r-0.38"
y- -0.55* 19.43 X
Fruit diameter
(c)
Fig.2: Character associations
a, b. c : Single seeded species
d : Mufti seeded species
Fruit diameter
(s)
182
f - 0.90"
y - - 8.20 ♦ 8.30 X
r-0.47"
y--2.96*2.72X
Fig.2: Character associations
w, d : MuHi seeded species
183
Birds Visiting Flowers of Indian Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum)
at Calicut, Kerala
S. Devasahayam and J. Rema
National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut 673 012. Kerala
Introduction
"Though the importance of insects in pollination of flowers
' is well known, little information is available on the role of
birds in the pollination (Su bra many a and Radhamani,
1993). The Indian silk cotton tree {Bombax malabaricum)
(Bombacaceae) is a lofty, deciduous tree widely distributed
in India and is conspicuous by its profuse flowering on
leafless branches during summer when it attracts birds for
nectar Ali (1932) observed 41 species of birds visiting the
tree for nectar in the Bombay region of Western India.
However, no information appears to be available on the
bird visitors of the tree in other parts of the country
including Kerala. Hence, observations were undertaken on
the birds visiting B. malabaricum for nectar at Calicut
(Kozhikode district. Kerala) and the results are reported
here.
Material and Methods
Observations on bird visitors to flowers of
B.malabaricum were made at the campus of National
Research Centre for Spices at Calicut during January-April
1991 and 1992. The birds were observed for their activity
and identity with the naked eye and also by using a pair of
7 6 35 binoculars. For observing the relative diversity and
frequency of bird visitors during different periods of the day,
various birds available on a single isolated tree at 9.00.
11.00. 13.00. 15.00 and 17.00 hours for 3 days during the
peak flowering phase in 1992 were counted.
Results and Discussion
Twenty three species of birds belonging to 12 families
visited flowers of B.malabaricum for nectar (Table 1).
Among them, the Greyheaded Myna (Sturnus
malabahcus) was the most common accounting for 62.6
per cent. The Redwhiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus)
and the Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) were also
common accounting for 11.1 and 9.7 per cent, respectively.
The other species were less common accounting for 16.6
per cent of visitors combined together. The Greyheaded
Myna always visited the tree in small flocks and this could
be the reason for their relatively higher abundance. Ali
(1932) also mentions that these three species of birds were
very commonly seen on the tree in the Bombay region;
however, the most common bird was the Rosy Pastor
(S.roseus).
In addition, birds like Bluetailed Bee-eater (Merops
pMfcpinus). Small Green Bee-eater (M.orientalis). Pygmy
Woodpecker iDendrocopus nanus) and Leaf Warbler
( P nyfc a copus sp.) were seen on the tree. These were
probably attracted to the insects around the flowers.
Bird activity was higher during morning, late morning
and evening hours when compared to other periods
probably because of higher nectar availability and cooler
temperatures during these periods. The percentages of
birds observed during 9.00, 11.00, 13.00, 15.00 and 17.00
hours were 27.3, 21.8. 16.6. 15.2 and 19.0, respectively. A
similar result was also obtained by Ali (1932) on birds
visiting the Indian Coral Tree (Erythrina indha).
The flowering of B.malabaricum provided an important
source of food and energy for birds in this region especially
during the early summer season. In recent years, a large
number of silk cotton trees are being cut especially in
semi-urban and rural areas for various developmental
activities, thus depriving the birds of an important source of
food especially during the summer period.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to Shri K.S. Sreekumaran
NRCS.Calicut.for typing the manuscript.
of
References
Ali. S.A.. 1932. Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India.
J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc.. 35 : 573-605.
Subramanya. S. and T.R. Radhamani. 1993. Pollination by
birds and bats. Curr. Sci.. 65 : 201-209.
Table 1 : List of birds visiting flowers of Indian Silk
Cotton tree at Calicut
Family/Species
Psittactdae
Psirtacula kramen
Loriculus vemalis
Capitonidae
Megalaima vtndis
Picidae
Dinopium benghalense
Oriolidae
Oriolus oriolus
O. xanthornus
Dicuridae
Dicrurus adsimilis
D.paradiseus
Sturnidae
Stumus malabaricus
Acridotheres tristis
Common name
Roseringed Parakeet
Lorikeet
Small Green Barbet
GokJenbacked Woodpecker
Golden Oriole
Blackheaded Oriole
Black Drongo
Racket-tailed Drongo
Greyheaded Myna
Common Myna
Corvidae
Dendrotirta vagabunda Tree pie
Corvus splendens House Crow
C.maororhynchos Jungle Crow
184
Irenidae
Chloropsis aurifrons
Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotus jocosus
Muscicapidae
Turdoides striatus
T.atf'tnis
Orthotonus sutorius
Copsyshus saularis
Goldfronted Chloropsis
Redwhiskered Bulbul
Jungle Babbler
Whiten eaded Babbler
Tailor bird
Magpie-Robin
Purplerumped Sunbird
Purple Sunbird
Noctariniidae
Nectarinia zeylonica
N.asiatica
Arachnothera
longlrostris Spiderhunter
Ploceidae
Passer xanthocollis
Yellowthf oated Sparrow
Table 2: Abundance and activity pattern of birds visfting (lowers ol Indian
silk cotton tree at Calicut
Period (hrs)
GM
Major bird species
JC
Other species Total
RB
9.00
11.00
13.00
15.00
17.00
17.0
14.3
9.7
9.0
10.3
3.7
0.7
5.0
0.3
2.0
4.3
0.3
3.3
2.7
0.7
2.3
2.7
5.7
1.0
1.3
26.3
21.0
16.0
14.7
18.3
Total
60.3
10.6
9.3
16.0
96.3
GM - Greyheaded Myna; X - Jungle Craw; RB - Redwhiskered Bulbul
Figures indicate number of birds observed (mean of 3 days)
185
To be on the Right Size : Bird Preference and Seed Dispersal
Prarthana Kathuria, 'G.K.Narendra Kumar.S.G. Hegde
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
Some ol Ihe selective forces which shape clutch size and
seed size in bird dispersed plant species are :
1. Packing cost — As the dutch size increases, packing
cost per seed decreases consequently selection
favours evolution of larger clutch size {Ganeshaiah et
a/., 1988}.
2. Seedling establishment — As seed size increases,
offspring fitness increases and hence selection favours
for larger seed size. The maternal parent tries to
optimize seed size which often conflicts with the
offspring optima, thus effecting seed size and number.
(Smith and Fretwell. 1974).
3. Predation — Based on the extent of predation some
species vary their clutch size to save seeds from
predation (Godfray etat. 1991).
4. Preference criteria of birds — Another major selective
force is the preference criterion adopted by birds while
foraging on fruits. These preferences may be broadly
classified into three distinct criteria based on :
a) Pulp to seed weight ratio (P/s. Payability)
b) Total pulp weight
c) Benefit to cost ratio of handling the fruits (b/c).
Preference based on total pulp content
Preference of birds for fruit with high pulp content might
lead to selection for increased seediness of fruits, since the
absolute pulp content is positively correlated with seed
number (Figures 2a and b).
Preference based on pulp to seed weight ratio:
Preference of birds for fruits having high pulp to seed
weight ratio might lead to selection for decreased
seediness of fruits since P/s is generally negatively
associated with seed number and seed weight (Fig. 1a and
D'J-
Preference based on benefit to cost ratio of handling the
fruits : Preference of birds based on maximizing the pulp
reward (benefit) in a minimum of handling time (cost), might
lead to selection of an optimum seed weight/number that
may vary anywhere from smaller brood to larger brood
depending on species of the bird and plant involved in the
interaction
In all the above mentioned studies, experiments were
limited only to specific cases of frugivore and plant species.
In this paper we have discussed preference criteria of birds
and their influence on brood size of plants species.
The natural distributions of clutch size were studied in
98 animal dispersed plant species. Of these 46 species
were single seeded and 52 many seeded. Analysis showed
that majority of the species had normal distribution for seed
number and seed weight; only a few species were in the
positive and negative skewness classification
To test the effect of bird preference on the natural
distribution of seed size and number, we studied 5 wild,
animal dispersed species in vivo at GKVK. UAS, Bangalore
during September to April 1992-93. (Table 1).
If bird preference is the major selective force acting in
shaping the seed weight and number distributions, we
expect as per the predictions that fruits having seed weight
or seed number coinciding with the mode of the natural
distribution preferentially picked by birds.
Our analysis of crop removal data by animal/bird under
field condition did not show any specific pattern for fruit
size. The reason for such non significant correlation
between crop removal percentage and fruit diameter could
be due to involvement of more than one dispersal agent on
a plant species, each disperser, employing different criteria
of selection. It is equally likely that premium put on other
selective forces in some plant species undermines the
effect of bird preference or it may be combination of both.
Field study was extended to laboratory condition with
only one plant species Solanum pimpenellifolia and its
disperser, the Redvented Bulbul [Pycnotus cater). In 13
trials conducted three fruits belonging to three different
classes were offered to the bird at a time in different
combinations (5Ca). The bird was allowed to pick one fruit
and its handling time was recorded to the nearest second.
The frequency of picking was tabulated against the
different size classes (Table 2).
Experiments showed that the size class most often
picked by the bird apparently gave highest b/c of handling
Ihe fruit. This class was also found to coincide with the
peak of the natural distribution of fruit diameter
Inspite of the positive results obtained in the In vitro
studies, In vivo studies gave inconclusive results. Hence,
more extensive work is required in this direction before we
can conclude whether or not there is any one major
selective force out of the three preference criteria shaping
the brood size or if all are used randomly. Studies are in
progress.
References
Ganeshaiah. K.N. and Uma Shankar. R., 1988. Oecotogia,
77:135-139.
Godfray. H.C.J., Palridge. L and Harvey. P.H. 1991. Clutch
size. Annu. Rev Ecoi, 22 : 409-429.
186
Smith. C.C. and Fretwell, S.D. 1974. The oplimal balance
between size and number of offspring. Am. Nat, 108 :
499-506.
Table 1 : List of the species studied In vivo to estimate the crop
removal under field condition.
Species
Seed
nunibsf
N
Duration of
study (Days)
ri
13
NT
Zizyphus
1-2
22
45
Scutia
1-2
6
60
Canthium
1-2
6
60
Cippadesa
1-6
9
60
Solanum
5-57
9
30
0.498
0.508*
0.688"
0.534'
0.61 4l
0.23 (
0.1 o N;
0.15
0.26
MS
NS
n = Correlation coefficient between fruit diameter and seed weight (Seed
number is Solanum)
X2 - Correlation coefficient between fruit diameter and per cent
crop removal
Table 2: Handling time of various fruit size classes
experienced by the bird, Redvented Bulbul In the
laboratory
Size class
Fruit Size
(mm)
Thais
N-13
Handling time
(Sec.)
i
7.0- 8
6
-
2
8.1- 9
2
3
3
9.1 - 10
6
5
4
10.1 -11
3
9
5
11.1 -12
2
'•1
>.
u
c
w
[fl
Seed weight /
Seed number
Fig la. Relationship between pulp to seed ratio
(P/S) and frequency observed lor animal
dispersed plant species.
Seed weight /
Seed number
Fig tb. Predicted frequency distribution of seed
weigh! or seed number, il birds base their
preference on payability.
187
Birds — Some Striking Behaviours
Aroop Chaudhury
C-1, Bagha Jatin. Raja S.C. Mullick Road, RO. Regent Estate
Calcutta 700 092, West Bengal
Introduction
D
escriptions of some bird-behaviours that appeared
interesting are reported in this paper.
Material and Methods
Urban birds were observed for the last ten years from
my residence extending about 3000 sq ft, on a main road
linking greater Calcutta with Southern part of the State —
the much famed Sunderban forests and the Bay of Bengal.
The area is thickly populated area. The garden has trees
such as Red silk cotton Tree {Bombax malabaricum).
Eucalyptus, Neem (Azadirachta indica). Chalta (Dillenia
indica), Jamun (Eugenia jambolana), etc. The others are
climbers and shrubs. To the immediate north of the garden
are four ponds with clear water and trees growing all
around and plenty of fishes such as Snake-Head (Channa
marulius), Tilapia (Tilapia mossambica), Magur (Clarius
magur), Singhi {Heteropneustes fossilis) etc. Along with
fishes, the ponds have snakes such as. Striped Keelback
(Amphiesma stolata). Green Keelback {Macropisthodon
plumbicohrs). Checkered Keelback (Xenochropis
piscatoi), Olive Keelback(Af/ef7um schistosum). Common
Wolf Snake [Lycodon aulicus), Common Worm Snake
( Typhlina bram'ma), etc.
Beyond the south-east of the garden are small villages.
The west and north-west face the city of Calcutta and some
portions of marshlands of Salt Lake, a bird-haven now
almost extinct,
Results and Discussion
The birds that visited the garden
PHALACROCORACtDAE
Little Cormorant,
ARDEIOAE
Pond Heron,
Carte Egret,
ACCIPtTRIDAE
Pariah Kite,
Shikra.
Indian Whitebacked Vulture.
RALLIDAE
Whrtebreasted Waterhen,
COLUMBIDAE
Spotted Dove,
Blue Rock Pigeon
PSITTACIOAE
Roseringed Parakeet,
CULCUUOAE
Piedcrested Cuckoo, .
Common Hawk Cuckoo,
Indian Plaintive Cuckoo
Indian Keel.
Coucai.
APODIDAE
were as follows
Phatacrocorax niger
Ardeola grayii
Bubulcus ibis
Milvus migrans
Acdpiter badius
Gyps bengalensis
Amauromis phoenicuras
Streptopelia (Sinensis
Columba livia
Psittacula krameri
Clamator Jacobinus
Cuculus varius
.Cacomantis merulinus
Eudynamys scolopacea
Ceniropus sinensis
House Swift,
ALCEDINIOAE
Whitebreasted Kingfisher,
Brownheaded Storkbilled
Kingfisher,
Pled Kingfisher
Common Kingfisher,
MEROPIDAE
Little Green Bee-eater,
CORACIDAE
Indian Roller,
CAPITONIDAE
Chmsonbreasted Barbel,
Bluethroated Barbel,
Green Barbel,
PICIDAE
Goldenbacked Woodpecker,
Maharatta Woodpecker.
Fufvousbreasted Pied
Woodpecker,
Scalybellied Green
Woodpecker,
LANIDAE
Brown Shrike,
Baybacked Shrike ,
Rufousbacked Shrike,
ORIOLIDAE
Blackheaded Oriole,
DICRURIDAE
Black Drongo,
STURNIDAE
Pied Myna,
Common Indian Myna,
Jungle Myna.
Greyheaded Myna,
CORVIDAE
Indian Tree Pie
House Crow.
PYCNONOTIDAE
Redvented Bulbul.
MUSCICAPIDAE
Sub Family : Musbcapmae
Redbreasted Flycatcher.
Greyheaded Flycatcher,
Sub Family : Sytvinae
Tailor Bird,
Dusky Leaf Warbler,
Greenish Willow Warbler,
Sub Family : TurrJnae
Magpie Robin,
Orangeheaded Ground
Thrush
PARIDAE
Grey Tit,
MOTACILUDAE
White Wagtail.
Indian Pipit,
DICAEDAE
Thickbilled Flowrpecker,
Apus atHnis
Halcyon smymensis
Pelargopsis capensis
Ceryle rvdis
AtcedoattNs
Merops oriental's
Coracias bengalensis
MegalaJma haemacephala
Megalaima asiatica
Megalaima zeylanica
Dinopium bengalensis
Dendrocopos mahrattensis
Dendrocopos macei
Picus xanthopygeous
Lanius cri status
Lanius vittatus
Lanius schach
Oriolus xanthornus
Diorunjs adsimiUs
Sturnus contra
Acridotheres tristis
Acridotheres fuscus
Sturnus malabancus
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Con/us splendens
Pycnonotus cater
Muscicapa parva
CuhOcapa ceyionensis
Orthotomus sutorius
Phyilosoopus tuscatus
Phyitoscopus trochiloides
Copsychus sautans
Zoothera citrina
Parvs major
Motaoilla alba
Anthus rtovaeseeian&m
DfcaeumagH*
188
TickQll's Flowerpecket.
NECTARINIDAE
Purple Sunbird,
Purplerumped Sunbird,
PLOCEIDAE
I Indian House Sparrow.
Spotted Munia.
Baya Weaver.
Dicaevm erythrorhynchos
Nectarlna asiatica
Nectannia zeylonica
Passer domesticus
Lonchura punctviata
Ploceus philippinus
A total of 59 species of birds were recorded between
November 1982 and August 1 993. Among these, many are
resident and common. Some are migratory and sporadic. A
few are breeding species, i.e. noted only during their
breeding season. The rest are rare, but arrives atleast once
or twice a year.
Following are some interesting notes
Little Cormorants have been noted chasing domestic
ducks and trying to swallow snails (Pila globosa) given to
the ducks by the farmers. Some even tried to eat cereals
and grains mixed with rice-bran, commonly used as duck
food.
A couple of Pond Herons favoured electric illumination.
After sun set the pair arrived under the lamp post at the
pond side, and preyed on small frogs, termites, and once
killed a Little Grey Musk Shrew (Suncus murinus). although
il was not devoured.
A Cattle Egret on a buffalo picked leeches (Hirudinaria
sp.) and most part of the day combed the buffalo's
forehead. When the bird was joined by a couple of
Common Indian Mynas, the buffalo showed dislike by
lashing its tail.
A Whitebreasted Waterhen, once managed to build a
nest inside a big cucumber vine, near a pond. As the chicks
were a couple of weeks old. the master of the garden
noticed the bird's nest, and went to catch the chicks. As he
approached the nest site, the hen bird, sent a loud cry. and
the cock bird crouched beneath the nest. The man
mistakably, rushed towards the noisy bird, while the black
chicks smartly landed on the cock's back, one after
another, and swiftly ducked beneath a sheet of floating
hyacinth.
A pair of Spotted Dove, lived in our verandah, and
raised 32 chicks out of 42 eggs, between 1990 and 1992.
The nest was created on an old verandah beam,
overlooking the compound. In hot summer middays the
doves would enter my study, ignoring my presence,
skipped to the window beam and enjoyed the shade and
cool breeze of the ceiling-fan, resting and preening with
soft notes exchanged at regular intervals. The birds would
remain, till about 4 p.m. and leave after I fed them with rice
or seeds.
A pair of Roseringed Parakeet lived in a hole of a
coconut tree. The man of the garden, while collecting the
coconuts noted the parakeet nest and put his hand into the
hole to bring out the chicks. The adult birds watched the
man from an upper branch of the tree and suddenly dived
down and pecked the man's nose. The female bird
scratched the man's head and dislodged his turban. The
next six or seven months, the man was repeatedly attacked
by the same pair whenever he approached the tree. But
when another man was asked to climb the same tree, the
birds sat patiently as he plucked the coconut*. Do
have the sense to identify humans 7
A pair of Indian Koel was seeking a chance to
their eggs in a Crow's nest on the tower branches of a
Jamun tree. Every afternoon the pair arrived and failed r\
their mission as the crows were alert. After a week's vain
attempt, the male Keol. appeared right amidst the crows
and flung away the nest with its beak and wings and
dashed away never to return. The crows collected the nest
materials again to build a new nest, but lost the eggs that
fell and broke.
A large number of Coucals were found in the sludy built
area. They nest in the date palm trees. An adult bird was
once found collecting a big ball of thrown away wool. I
watched it carrying away the chords to its nest. The next
day I deliberately left some more wool on its way. The birds
did not touch it, but collected a green string instead. The
wool I had given, was bright red. and the wool it had earned
the previous day was of a green shade too. I tested with
some green wool the following day. The bird readily
accepted it. Are Coucals colour conscious ?
House Swifts are known to build nests in crevices and
roof tops. A pair of House Swift opted to build their nest,
inside an iron pipe of the water reservoir on the terrace of a
neighbor. Somehow the water level of the tank reached a
height as to wet the nest. The birds collected some muddy
substance and immediately sealed all the pipes and that
drew the attention of the land-lord too.
A Common Kingfisher was seen picking fish from a
fisherman's basket at regular intervals. House Crows are
most reputed for their tricks. A crow carried away all
perfumed material, such as bath soaps, perfumed hair
oil-lids, small bottles of perfumes and even the wrap paper
of any perfumed materials. Another crow had a fascination
for ladies bangles especially, if they were red. It lifted small
ornaments, tin plated combs and hair clips and shining
lipsticks. An abandoned crow nest discovered in our
coconut tree, had the following: A metal spoon, a piece of
magnet, a Nivea' cream container, a Binaca' tooth-brush,
a fountain pen, a single surgical glove, four playing cards a
photograph of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, small lengths
of electric wires, a plastic doll, twines and jute fibres,
shoe-lace, colorful kite papers, broken broom sticks and
small twigs of Jamun tree.
My grandma lived in a big room with big spacy windows
and the ceiling covered with bamboo mat. Inside this huge
mat, lived a big colony of house sparrows. They collected
various soft materials, and tucked their untidy nests inside
the mat so that it is not visible from outside. They lived for
thirty years, generation after generations and my grandma
never bothered about their presence. When in 1980
grandma passed away, the birds very stopped arriving to
their thirty year's nest site and abandoned the huge nests
forever. It is still a mystery to me. as to why the sparrows
vanished soon after the owner of the room passed away,
despite our every effort to keep them in their place, with
regular feedings and keeping the windows open so that
they might remain unobstructed.
The above observations are from my records
maintained from 1981-92.
189
Two Unusual Nesting Sites of the Redvented Bulbul {Pycnonotus cafet)
R.N. Desai
Department of Zoology, Karnatak Science College. Dharwad 580 00 1
T"he Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater (L) (Ord.
' Passeriformes: Fam. Pycnonotidae) and olher
members of the Pycnonotidae are known to inhabit and
construct nests in bushes and trees at the height of 1 to 3
meters, in forests, semkleserts, cultivated lands and
gardens close to human habitation. There are no reports of
these birds building nests inside human dwellings and also
in bushes close to the ground. The present paper
describes two such nesting sites of the Redvented Bulbul,
Pycnonotus cater, in Dharwar city (15* 28' N and 75' 01 ' E)
(Karnataka State). Folbwing are the details of the same.
A pair of Pcaler has been building nests in the sit- out
room of our house (14.0' ± 9.5' l 10.5') for the last four
years. One window and the ventilators are kept open at all
times and they served as a free passage for these birds.
From the centre of the ceiling of this room is suspended a
2' long chandelier having wide central ring with radiating
metal spokes with pendant glass beads (Photograph 1).
The birds have been using this chandelier's central ring as
a safe platform for nest building all these years.
Photograph 2 shows three nests, one constructed last year
(a), and the other two (b and c) constructed in February
and April of this year, for the first and second clutches,
respectively.
The second site selected by another pair of Pcaler is a
bush of Ixora sp. grown in the quadrangle of our Zoology
Department. The nest is constructed in the bush at the
forking point of the branches, hardly 2.5' off the ground.
Being covered on all the sides by the thick foliage it is
protected from the winds, rains, direct sunlight and from
predators. (Photographs 3 and 4).
The above findings indicate that this bird is getting more
acquainted with man.
Explanation of photographs
1 . Sit-out room showing the chandelier where the nests
are constructed. One adult Pycnonotus cafer can also
be seen at the nest.
2. A close up view of the chandelier showing, (a) one nest
of April, 1992; (b) another nest of February, 1993 for
the first clutch; and (c) a third nest of April. 1 993 for the
second clutch. One egg (e) can also be seen in the
M*|
3. A thck-foliage of Ixora sp. bush completely covering
the nest of Pcafer
4. The branches of Ixora sp. bush are spread apart
showing the nest of P.cafer with two eggs.
190
Use of Line Transects to Estimate Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata) Population at
Pondicherry University Campus
B. Rajasekhar
Salim Alt School of Ecology. Pondicherry
Introduction
h^onitoring populations of certain indicator species of a
'•'habitat could serve in developing conservation
strategies tor the habitat.
The Indian Robins (Saxicolodes fulicata) is one such
and can be estimated by simple line transects.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted at Pondicherry University.
Stratified random sampling using variable width transacts
was employed. The university campus was stratified
according to the habitat into 4 areas. The areas and the
length of the transects laid in each are given in Table 1 . The
assessment of vegetation for habitat stratification was done
by laying a series of parallel transects and then measuring
the areas covered by each type on a map.
All the transects were traversed twice in the morning
between 6.00 a.m. and 7.00 a.m. and once in the evening
(1600 to 1700 hrs) at a constant pace of 1.0 km/nr. All
visual sightings of Indian Robins were noted, the angle of
sighting q, distance of sighting y, the length on the transect
line to the point perpendicular to the sighting of the bird x
were measured in metres Thus the perpendicular distance
of the bird to the transect line was obtained by averaging y
Sin q and x Cos q
The data thus collected was analysed by Emlen strip
width method and again by the Fourier series estimator.
Data for Whiteheaded Babbler ( Turdoides aflinis) were also
collected for comparison.
Results And Discussion
The average group size for the Indian Robins was 1.24
at 0.49 (n - 41). Using the Emlen strip width method, a
group density of 192.766/km ? was obtained. Thus there
were about 239.498 Robins per sq km while using the
Fourier series estimator a group density of 210.369 /sq km.
i.e., a density of 261.74 Robins per sq km was obtained.
The average number of males per sq km was 150.30.
which was got by the product of the sex ratio (1 .5:1 .0) with
the mean density.' Thus each male could stake a territory of
6650 sq km, about the size of a football field. The territorial
area estimate should be considered with certain caution
because firstly not all males will be breeding and moreover
territories may overlap.
The densities of the Whiteheaded Babblers {Turdoides
affinis) was also estimated in the same way. Mean group
density was 248 /sq km. Thus, with an average group size
of 4. 1 25 a3 3.58 (n - 31 ), we get a mean density of 1 023
/sq km.
The use of line transacts to estimate populations of
Indian Robins seems to be justified.
On the other hand, the transect methodology for
babblers (which are gregarious and move about a lot)
seems to give an over estimate. A study of the
Whiteheaded Babblers in South India gave a density of just
60 birds per sq. km (A.J. Johnsingh et ai. 1982). The over
estimate may be due to the shy nature of the Babblers
causing movement due to observer disturbance. This must
have led to many recounts thus the line transact
methodology does not suit all species of birds and other
techniques like spot-counts, mark- recapture, etc. must be
applied.
References
Johnsingh. A.J.T.. 1982. Foraging behaviour and
interaction of Whiteheaded Babbler. Turdoides affinis
with other species. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 79 ;
503-515.
Table 1
Habitat Typ<
B
c
D
Area (sq. km) % Cover of loial
0.0162
0.0504
0.216
0,495
campus area (sq. km)
11.0%
37.8%
16.3%
34.9%
Transect r*).
Tt 180' S
T2 270' W
T6 225 - SW
T3 MS' SE
T4 90-E
T5 90'E
A ■ Modified scrub. Phoenix humitis and Anacardtum ocddontale
B - Open grasslands of Ahshda sp... Heteropogon, Perotis indha and Apluda mutica
C - Dense Wooded area of Azadiracta indka and Anacardum ocoidantale
D - Ravine dry open scrub dominated by Phoenix humilis and Borasous tlabelliter
0.114
0.276
0.120
0.171
0.150
0.210
Length (km) % of total
"TrJ35
26.51
11.52
16.43
14.41
20.17
191
Observations on Nest-building Behaviour of the Small Blue Kingfisher {Atcedo athis)
at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur
Girish Ananth
Environmental Education, Bangalore University, Bangalore
The nesting season of the Small Blue Kingfisher is from
March to June (Alt. 1979). The observations sited here
were made on the 19th March 1983 on a nest of the Small
Blue Kingfishers (Ahedo athis) at Keoladeo National Park.
Bharatpur, using a pair of 7x50 binoculars and a wrist
watch . The nest hole was situated on a dyke. The entrance
to the tunnel was about 2.5 inches wide situated three feet
above the water level. Activities were recorded for three
hours. The feeding of an adult female bird by the male
during the breeding season is known as Courtship feeding.
Courtship feeding takes place not only during pair
formation (as the name suggests) but also during nest
construction, egg laying, incubation and other phases of
the breeding season. Courtship feeding was observed in
the Small Blue Kingfisher. It was seen thrice — at 0750
Hrs. 0825 Hrs and at 0945 Hrs. Only one bird (presumably
the female) was frequently found at the nest. i.e. at 0725
Hr. 0757 Hr, 0758 Hr to 0303 Hr. 0838 Hr,0908 Hr.0910
Hr,0940 Hr. 0944 Hr. 1007 Hr and 1012 Hr.
Both sexes seemed to take interest in nest construction.
Both were seen excavating the tunnel. Such sharing of
duties were seen between : 0730 Hr and 0740 Hr, 0803 Hr
and 0812 Hr,0818 Hr and 0822 Hr, 0850 Hr and 0903 Hr,
0917 Hr and 0920 Hr. 0948 Hr and 0956 Hr. Not all the
motor movements of the birds could be seen when the
birds were in the tunnel, since the tunnel was dark. But the
observations suggest that :
The tunnel is probably excavated with the bill and loose
mud is kicked out by the backward movement of the feet.
Only once at 0832 Hr did one of the birds come out of the
tunnel head first. The time the birds remained in the tunnel
varied, but there seemed to be a tendency for the birds to
remain for longer periods in the tunnel as nest construction
progressed, probably due to the time required for
lengthening the tunnel and removing the loosened mud. It
may be concluded that courtship feeding certainly takes
place in the Small Blue Kingfisher.
Both sexes share nest construction duties, it appeared
that the bill is used in excavation, while the feet are used to
kick loosened mud from the entrance.
Reference
Ali, S.,1979 The Book of Indian Birds Bombay Natural
History Society (1979)Bombay.
Avian Nesting and Roosting on Eucalyptus Trees in Punjab
Rishi L.B. and Jaswinder S. Sandhu
Department of Forestry & Natural Resources Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004
Roosting and nesting of birds was studied in Eucalyptus
teretecornis, one of the dominant and exotic tree
species in Punjab. especially on farmlands. Farmers have
planted it on the boundaries of fields as well as in blocks.
Due to the decline in the availability of indigenous tree
specios.birds roost and nest on this species. We surveyed
the boundary lines and block plantations for studying their
use by the bird community. As many as 14 species were
recorded using this species for nesting. House crow was
found to be the most common nesting species(58.6% of
total) followed by Pied Myna (18.9%),Black Drongo (5.1%),
and Ring Dove (5.1%).Leaving aside House Crow and
Ring Dove all other nesters have useful role to play in
Punjab agro ecosystems. Some threatened species viz,
Great Horned Owl, Red headed Merlin and Shikra have
also been recorded in Eucalyptus plantations in the state.
Twenty two bird species have been recorded roosting in
Eucalyptus row and block plantations. House crows
(56.45%) were the most common followed by Common
Myna (24.11%).Rose Ringed Parakeet (10.15%),Pied
Myna (6.67%) etc. This tree seems to be preferred by birds
because of its height, foliage canopy and ubiquity in the
state. Rare and threatened species like Great Horned Owl
and Long Eared Owl have also been seen roosting in
Eucafyptus block plantations.
192
Observations on Heart Beat of Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps bengalensis
R.B. Singh
Department of Zoology. S.D.S.M. College, Palghat401 404
T~wo dozen Whitebacked Vultures, Gyps bengalensis,
' caught from Gir forest, Gujarat in May-June 1986 were
transferred to Korakendra, Bapane (a carcass processing
plant in the suburb of Bombay) and housed in an aviary for
different experiments. Here observations were made to find
[he pulsation of heart in the vultures. Heart beats were
recorded with the help of stethoscope directly from the
chest. As the vultures were caught wild, they represented
different age groups i.e. sub-aduft. intermediate and adult.
Heart beat may indicate physiological status of the bird.
Heart beat of 24 vultures of different ages was recorded
in the months of July. August and December, 1986. It was
observed that there was great intraspecies variation (Table
1). The overall heart beat of vultures varied from 70 to 150
heart beat/minute. Among the 24 indrvtduals the average
minimum pulse was 99/minute and the maximum was
HI ftninuta. The mean heart beat rate was 123
pulse/minute.
This variation in the heart beat of vultures can be
attributed to the following factors :
1) Physical condition of birds
2 ) Age of birds
3) Sex of birds
4) Movement, while catching the birds
5) Stress, while handling the birds and
6) Fear of human beings
Acknowledgements
This study was sponsored by ARDB, Ministry of
Defence. Government of India through BNHS. I thankful to
Dr Robert B. Grubh for all the possible help.
Table 1 : Heart Beat of Individual Vulture per minute
(Average of three observations)
Bird No
Avg.
heart beat
Bird No
Avg.
heart beat
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
115
121
115
100
124
123
129
134
107
137
141
114
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
120
134
133
133
126
131
108
126
99
131
128
116
Avg.
123
193
'Deflighting' Vultures to Reduce Hazards to Aviation
R.K. Bhatnagar, A.K. Chakravarthy', R.K. Palta and R.B. Singh 2
Division of Entomology .Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012
Present addresses: ' Entomology Division, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore
2 Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay
INTRODUCTION
\ /ultures and Pariah Kites are responsible for more than
" 50 per cent strikes to aircrafts in India (Rao, 1982 and
Barnwal. 1982). These have led to colossal economic
losses every year. These species confer benefits with their
efficient scavenging roles (Ali, 1972). However, no study
has been attempted in development of a simple technique
to 'deflight' vulture without affecting movement and
scavenging roles. These aspects under experimental
conditions have been investigated.
Material and Methods
Wild Whitebacked Vultures {Gyps bengalensis) were
caught by 'noose trapping' and acclimatised in cages. Food
and water were provided daily in separate pans. In order to
deflight them without injuring, a malleable galvanised wire
of 0.75 to 1.0 m long and 0.10 mm thick was entwined on
primary and secondary wings of both sides without injuring
or crushing the bones, but not tight enough to disallow wing
flapping. Of 10 deflighted individuals, four were released in
a 13.5 x 10.5 walled (2.2 m) court yard and 6 marked
individuals were released in their preferred habitat (sanitary
landfills at Timarpur, Delhi). Their behaviour was recorded
from January 1 983 to Jury 1 983. Behaviour of individuals in
both locations was compared with the wild birds.
Results and Discussion
Behaviour of 'deflighted' and normal Vultures was
somewhat similar (Table 1). The food intake in 'deflighted'
vultures was 1.0 kg/24 hrs/tndividual in captive conditions
against 1.0 to 1.5 kg/24 hrs/indivktual under normal
conditions. However, under deflighted conditions, the
normal sexual signals (male appeasing, fanning, flapping
wings and mounting) were inhibited as male on mounting
was unable to balance. These indicated that breeding is
hampered on deflighting but not scavenging. Of six
deflighted vultures released in Timarpur. Delhi, four marked
individuals were sighted after 9 months. From the study
deflighting vultures without disturbing utilisations of their
scavenging roles is suggested. The enclosure where
wastes are dumped should be covered as deflighted
vultures may attract other soaring vultures.
Deflighted vultures thus help in reducing aviation
hazards without affecting scavenging.
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to late Dr R.A. Agarwal, former
Head of the Entomology Division, IARI, New Delhi, other
authorities of IARI and the Aeronautical Research and
Development Board, New Delhi, for facilities.
References
Agarwal. R.A. and Bhatnagar, R.K. (Eds.), 1982.
Management of Problem Birds in Aviation and
Agriculture. New Delhi, 239 pp.
Ali, S., 1972. Common Birds of India. Bombay Natural
History Society. Bombay. I-XXXIX, 159 pp.
Barnwal. R.P.. 1982. in Agarwal, R.A. and Bhatnagar, R.K.
(1982).
Rao. R.P., 1982 — In Agarwal, R.A. and Bhatnagar. R.K.
(Eds.) 1982. pp. in Management of Problem Birds in
Aviation & Agriculture, New Delhi.
Table 1 : Comparative behaviour of deflighted and
wild Whitebacked Vulture
B
haviour E
C
ehaviour of Whitebacked Vulture
aged
Normal individual
Deflighted Vulture
i
Courtship
Not noticed
Abrupt , incomplete
b
Feeding
Neck bending.
Neckstenching.
shearing and
picking meat pieces.
tearing, gulping
shearing & tearing,
gulping
Feeding _
potential'
per 24 hr
1.0 kg
1.0 kg
d
Intra specific
behaviour
No interaction
Quite aggressive
upto 3-4 days
after deflighting. 1
afterwards no alteration
e
Allopreening
Occasional
Frequent
II
Wild individual
Deflighted individual
■
Power of
flight
Maintained
Lost
b
Response to
human
proximity
Remains stationary Runs away
c
Intraspecilic
Interchanging
behaviour
and overlapping
At fringes mostly
d
Locomotion
Flying, walking
Running, leaping,
hopping and
walking
1.0 kg buffalo meat was offered daily to birds in trays
(45 x 30 x 15 cm). Average meal consumption (n ■ 20) by
caged and deflighted vultures are 583.63 g and 618.50 g
by dry weight. T at 1 df - (P < 0.05).
194
Serum LDH Isozyme Analysis of Some Birds Infected with Plasmodium
A. Jyothilaxml and Susan Bhaskar Rao
Department of Zoology , Kakatiya University . Warangal 506 009, A.P.
Introduction
Fowls and pigeons ate birds that are domesticated.
Plasmodium gallinaceum in the (owls and Plasmodium
pinottii in pigeons are quite common infections ot our
region. In recent years biochemical methods have proved
to be of considerable value in differentiating genetically
distinct groups of malarial parasites. As there is a direct
relationship between genes and enzymes variations in
enzymes directed by these methods always reflect gene
differences. Enzyme studies in both mammalian and bird
malarial parasites have shown a high degree of genetic
polymorphism. Several enzymes have been studied
eledrophoreticalry in malarial parasites and LDH found to
be of particular pract«cal value.
Material and Methods
Experimental chicks were injected with 0.5 ml of blood
each, from naturally infected hosts with Plasmodium
gallinaceum and Plasmodium pinottii. Blood was collected
from the infected chicks at heavy parasitemia (24/100). At
the same time blood from normal chicks was also
collected. Serum was separated and kept at -20'C until
needed. Sodium azide was used as preservative. 0.1 ml of
serum from both normal and infected chiks was
incorporated in the sample gel. Disc electrophoresis was
carried out using acrylamide gel at a running pH of 8.9. The
current was 5 m Amp per tube (each column) and the
duration of the run was 90 min. LDH bands were visible in
the gels after incubating in dark at 37'C for 60 minutes in
reagent mixture containing NAD. Sodium Lactate. NaCI.
MgCl2. PMS. Nitrozolium blue and Phosphate buffer of pH
7.4. The samples were photographed
Results and Discussion
The LDH isozyme band pattern of the normal chick
serum and infected chick serum was analysed. Of the 4
bands appeared in the normal chick serum, the fast
migrating band which corresponds to LDH-4 was lacking in
the infected chick serum. Bands LDH-2 and 3 were lightly
stained, whereas LDH-1 was similar in both the cases
(Figures 1 ,b and c). This indicated that light stains of LDH-2
and 3 were due to parasitic infection. Since the chicks were
normal the only source of changed isozyme band pattern
seems to be due to Plasmodium infection. In case of
Plasmodium pinottii LDH-1 band was similar to that in
normal chick serum, LDH-4 was lightly stained. LDH-2 and
3 bands were not to formed (Figures 1 , a and b).
The Rf values ot bands in gel (b) from bottom to top are
5.9. 4.9, 3.7. 2.4 and 1 .1 cm. 5.9 cms migrated band is fast
migrating and 1.1 slow migrating. Similarly in gel (a) 6.2 cm
(bottom one) is fast migrating and 1.1 cm slow migrating.
The variation in LDH isozyme band pattern showed that
the infected serum lacked LDH-4 isozyme band and the
bands 2 & 3 were lightly stained due to the infection of
Plasmodium spp. This indicated that the decrease in the
number of bands were due to Plasmodium infection.
The LDH isozyme band pattern showed variation in
chick seras of Plasmodium gallinaceum and Ppinottii This
appears to be due to species specificity of Plasmodium
infection.
Plasmodium contains the LDH if its own. so the change
in the infected sera differs from species to species. It may
be due to change at the level of the gene transcription.
Fig. 1 LDH isozyme patterns of Chick Seias
i) Chick serum infected with Ppinottii , b) Normal Chick serum, c) Chick serum infected with Pgallinaceum.
195
Effect of Dexomethazone on the Immune Responses of Bird Malaria
K. Swaroopa Rani and Susan Bhaskar Rao
Department of Zoology , Kakatiya University , Warangat506 099, A.P.
Introduction
"The Avian Malaria is found in every continent and
1 probably every country of the world. Plasmodium
gallinaceum many species of Malaria have been described
from birds although there are only few species generally
accepted. An important parasite of the domestic hen was
probably first seen at Natrang in Indochina, and is used in
the study of avian immunity.
Immunity may be suppressed through several ways and
steroids is one of them. The effect of steroid hormones to
infection and immunity have been reviewed by Applegate
(1970).
The present work revealed the effect of Dexomethazone
on the course of infection, alteration in the immune system
and the presence of the specrfic antibodies.
Material and Methods
The bird malaria species P.gallinaceum was collected
from the natural host fowl Gallus gallus near Kakatiya
University in Warangal. It was maintained in leghorn chicks
for the experimental study. The chicks were brought to
laboratory in batch wise, vaccinated and protected from
mosquito bite by using mosquito mesh. One week old
chicks were provided with 25 watts bulb in the cage to
maintain suitable temperature.
For raising the antisera, rabbits were maintained in the
laboratory for about one week before starting the
experiment. Two doses of anligen were given to rabbits in
Fraud's adjuvent at one week interval and after a week
antiserum was collected. In the course of experimentation
due importance was given to sterilization of instruments.
The Wood was extracted from the peripheral vein of the
natural host wing. It was collected into sterilized tubes with
sodium citrate and was injected into the experiment chicks
intravenously or intramuscularly. The quantity of blood was
0.2 ml to 0.5 ml.
Two age groups of one week and 4 week old chicks
were taken for the present study. Dexomethazone Sodium
Phosphate 4 mg in 2 ml was supplied by the Schering
corporation. The chicks were given 0.5 ml of
Dexomethazone dairy in 6 doses prior to the inoculation of
the parasite. The quantity of infected blood inoculated was
0.5 ml. The control chicks were given only P.gallinaceum
wthout any drug. All the chicks were examined daily for the
presence of Plasmodium by withdrawing a drop of blood
nai and smears were made and fixed in methyf
and stained with Giesma's stain. The infected chick
ooaacted and analysed for the specific malarian
by ouchiertony and Immunoelectrophoresis.
Passive protection was assessed by injecting drug
treated infected sera to the chicks prior to inoculation of the
infected blood. The control chicks were given only the
infected blood.
Antidiotype sera were raised to find out the specific
antibodies for infection, treated with Dexomethasone. To
raise the antidiotype sera, the chicks were inoculated with
Dexomethazone infected chick sera and P.gallinaceum
antigen. The quantity of serum taken was 0.25 ml of
infected sera and 0.25 ml of antigen. After a week when
there was infection, the sera were collected.
Results and Discussion
In Dexomethazone treated one week old chick the
infection appeared one day earlier than the control chicks.
In Dexomethazone treated 4 week old chick the infection
appeared similar to the control but the degree of
parasitemia was more than the control. The infection
gradually increased till 10th day and later gradually
decreased in both control and treated chicks, but in treated
chicks there was a sudden rise in infection on the 1 4th day
and died on 18th, while in control it gradually decreased
and disappeared on 20th day (Figure 1).
In the passive transfer of protection, when normal sera
were given the course of infection was similar to the
control. In infected sera given chicks the infection appeared
2 days later, while in Dexomethazone treated infected sera
treated chicks the infection appeared 9 days later than the
control and only ring stages were observed. Infection
disappeared on 15th day but reappeared after one week
(Figure 2). The young birds exhibited recognisable level of
parasitemia more readily than the older birds. It is
presumed that this is a common phenomenon with malaria
infection, irrespective of the species.
Steroids are potent immuno-suppressive agents and act
in several ways like reducing circulating lymphocytes,
destroying thymus cells, inhibiting the uptake and
processing of antigen and acting as anti complementary
(Edward. 1970).
The results of chicks treated with corlicosteriods
infected with Plasmodium show interference in the intensity
of infection reported by Schmrtt et at, (1951). Redmond
(1963) reported the influence of corticosterone on the
natural course of malaria in the pigeon. The present results
agree with Redmond that the level of parasitemia was
higher than the control. Applegate (1970) and Hawking
(1975) demonstrated the allocation of circulating parasites
of P.relictum from Trypanosoma congolense more than the
control. High dose of Dexomethazone to cerebral malarial
patients caused death. Warrel et at, (1982). H the degree
196
of parasitemia increased, pre-patent period reduced and
the birds died of infection. The humoral immunity was
partially impaired as noted in ouchterlony and Immuno-
electrophoresis test.
Cohen et al., (1971) reported that passive immunization
with P.falciparum immune sera has the parasite
neutralising capacity in in vivo. In the present study also
the drug treated sera had the neutralising capacity. So, the
degree of parasitemia could be reduced and the bird could
survive. Birgrtta Wahlin et al, (1990) showed the effect of
antiidiotype antibodies on the antiparasitic response. They
stated that long lasting high litre antibody response will be
obtained with these immunogens. In the present study also
the high titred antibodies were noted and the results were
similar to the antigen. From this we can conclude that
though Dexomethazone is an immunosupressive drug and
allows the increase of parasitemia the antiidiotype sera of
these can be used lor antiparasitic response as the
antiidiotypes exhibit the internal image of the antigen.
References
Applegate. J.W..1970. Population changes in latent Avaian
Malaria infections associated with season and
corticosterone treatment. J. Parasit,. Vol.56, No.3.
439-443.
Birgitta Wahlin et al., 1990. Antiidiotype antibodies
counteract the invasion inhibition capacity of antibodies
to mauor epitopes of the P.falciparum antigen PF
^S5/RBAS. Inf. Immunity. Sept. 2315-2820.
Cohens et al., 1971. Serum Antibody in acquired anttoody
immunity. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. and Hyg., 65
125-135.
Edward. A.C.,1970. The biology of the immune response.
Peter and Madano McGrawhill book camp New York.
Hawking, F. (1975). Effct of dexametazone upon I.
congoleuce infection in calves. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop.
Med. Hyg., 69 : 289.
Redmond. W.B.,1963. Influence of cortisone in natural
course of Malaria in the pigeon. Proc. Soc. Exp. Bio.
Med. 79:258-261.
Schimitt, LH. et al., 1951. The influence of cortisone on
primate Malaria. Jour, expt Med., 94 : 501-520.
Warrel, D.A. et al., 1982. Dexomethazone proves
delehirious in cerebral malaria. A double blind trial in
100 Comatose patients. N. Engl. J. Med. Feb., 11 :
306(6), 313-319.
Table 1 : Results of the Immunodiffusion test conducted In the present experiments
By Immunoelectrophoresis
1) a) Infected sera
2) b) P.gallinaceum Antigen
3) Dexomethazone treated chick sera
4) a) Dexomethazone infected sera treated chick sera (Antiidiotype)
By Ouchterlony
Sample in the peripheral wells
1) a)
b)
c)
2)
3)
b)
c)
d)
b)
c)
«)
Infected chick Antigen
Infected fowl sera
Dexomethazone drug treated chicks sera
Infected chick sera
Normal chick sera
Dexamaethazone drug treated chick sera
Infected chick sea
Dexomethazone treated infected chick sera
Antisera treated chick sera
Dexomethazone infected sera treated chick sera (Antiidiotype)
Infected fowl sera
—
kjA
—
kjG, IgA and IgM
—
No bands
Antisera —
IgA, IgM. IgG
Centre well
No. of bands
Antisera
4
Antisera
_
Antisera
2
Antisera
_
Antisera
_
Antisera
2
Antisera
_
Antisera
3
Antisera
—
Antisera
4
Antisera
_
197
Table 2: To find out the specific antibodies the antisera were tested against different sera by immunod If fusion -
ouchterlony and Immunoelectrophoresis and the following results were noted.
In immunodiffusion ouchterlony test
Immunoelectrophoresis test
SI.
No
Samples in the peripheral
wells
Sample
in the
central well
No. of
bands
t.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Normal sera
Infected sera
Dexomethazone treated
infected sera
Antiidiotype sera
Antigen
Antisera
Antisera
Antisera
Antisera
Antisera
1
2
3
4
SI.
Sample
No.
Test sample
in the
trough
Bands
1.
Normal sera
Antisera
—
2.
Infected sera
Antisera
IgA
3.
Dexomethazone
treated inflected
sera
Antisera
IgA, IgM
4.
Antiidiotype sera
Antisera
IgA. IgM *
IgG
b.
Antigen
Antisera
IgA, IgM +
IgG
196
1
Ob
Oj, o l(0
Fkj.1 . Etfecl of dexamelhazone on the immune response 10 Plasmodium gallinaceum
a
b
a
'/< -'■', ..;;
Monogamy in Ashywren Warbler Prima Socialis : How Much do Sexes Share
Domestic Duties
S. Karthikeyan
24. Opp. Banashankari Temple. 8th Block Jayanagar P.O., Bangalore-560 082
Introduction
In a typical monogamous mating system, both se
'exoected to share domestic duties (Grinq: 1
sexes are
'expected to share domestic duties (Oring; 1982) viz.
nest building, incubation, brooding and nestling care.
Among Indian monogamous bird species (Ali 8> Ripley;
1987), it is not clear to what extent this pattern prevails.
The Ashy Wren Warbler Prinia socialis {Sykes) is a
monogamous species wherein male and the female of the
breeding pair are known to share all domestic duties viz.
defence of territory, nest building, incubation. breeding and
nestling feeding equally (Ali & Ripley; 1987). In this paper
the role of sexes in Ashy Wren Warbler is examined.
Material and Methods
Observations were made on nesting P socialis in
Bangalore during 1988, to 1990 breeding seasons. In
these years, a typical dome shaped nest with side
entrance {Ali & Ripley: 1987) were built in a clump of
Barlaria sp. All observations were made from a nearby
window of the house which afforded a clear view of the
surroundings without disturbing the nesting pair. During
1990. observations were made from dawn to dusk while
during 1988 and 1989 observations were made with
pauses, ft was not possible to collect data on the nest
building habits of the species. However, extensive
observations were made on the incubation.brooding and
nestling feeding. Details were also collected on all activities
of each sex. Although the sexes are alike in the species,
the parents show plumage differences. The parents were
sexed based on mating and egg laying. To facilitate proper
identification of sexes, a branched dry twig was planted in
front of the bush in which the nest was placed. This gave
an additional time to observe the birds which visited the
nest.The birds used this perch with a fair amount of
regularity thereby affording an opportunity to correctly
identify the sexes.
Results and Discussion
In a typical monogamous mating system both the male
and female are expected to share domestic duties equally
(Oring; 1982). The observations made on the nesting
activities of Psocialis revealed a situation quite contrary to
this. Both intra- spec Hie and inter-specific intruders were
chased by P socialis pair which were being observed.
Though both the sexes were involved in territorial defence,
the extent of their involvement in domestic duties showed
variations. Based on the extent of their involvement this
activity was classified into ;
male alone chasing the intruder
H) female alone chasing the intruder
iii) chase initiated by male and followed by female
iv) chase initiated by female and followed by male
v) chases made simultaneously by male and female
When the territorial defence chases made during the
entire nesting period was analysed, it was found that the
chases initiated by both the sexes together was the most
common compared to other categories. However, when
the territorial defence chases made by the nesting pair
during the incubation and nestling periods was analysed
separately the female showed greater involvement than the
male (Fig. 1). However the extent of involvement by each
sex was not significant during the nestling period.
Also.there was no significant difference between the
chases initiated during incubation and nestling periods by
female alone and those undertaken together. Incubation
and brooding was totally a female activity. Though
nestling feeding was shared by both the sexes the number
of visits made by the female to feed the nestlings were
significantly than that of male (Fig. 2). When all the
activities were considered together (Table 1 ), it was found
that female had significantly greater involvement than the
male. Thus observations indicate that sexes in a
monogamous pair may not always "share all domestic
duties equally. Considering this, in a monogamous mating
system the extent of involvement of each sex can fall into
the following categories :
a) domestic duties shared equally by both male and
female
b) domestic duties where male has a greater share
c) domestic duties where female has a greater share
Ali & Ripley (1987) consider a large number of bird
species, in India to be monogamous, ft is not known. how
many ol these species fall into each of the above three
categories. In addition to delineating the species with the
above three categories, it is worth investigating the
possible factors, Viz. environmental, resource availability
(food), biological (predation, intruders, etc.) or others,
which shape such variations in a monogamous mating
system.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr.S.Subfamanya for all the help, constant
support and encouragement.
References
Ali.S & Rtptey. S.D .1987 .Compact Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Oxford Univ. Press. New Delhi.
Pp ; 737.
Oring, LW ,1982. Avian Mating System in Avian Biology.
Vol VI. B S.Farner. J.R.King and K.C.Parkes (Eds.).
Academy Press. New York. Pp. 1-92.
200
Fig. 1 Pattern of territorial defence
chases made by P. soc ialis pair.
% chases
50,
40
30
2d
10
I Incubation m Nesliing
I
m
ih
M alone F alone M > F F > M Together
Territorial defence category
Fig. % Nestling feeding by P. socialis
pair during nesting
25Q
| 200
I Female ■Male
150
1
* 100
50
I
u..irllfeH
123456789
Nestling period (days)
Total vlslta: F ■ 021; M = 792
10 11 12
Table 1 : Summary of the extent of involvement of different sexes of P. socialis.
Activity
Extent of involvement (%)
Male
Female
Territoriality
a) during incubation period'
b) during nesting period'
Incubation
Brooding
Feeding nestlings
25.00
36.70
00.00
00.00
49.10
50.00
40.00
100.00
100.00
50.90
Index o ( involvement "
210.18
340.90
Territorial chases initiated by both sexes simultaneously (i.e. together) has not been considered for this analysis.
Sum of values of all activities.
201
Physiological Timing of Seasonal Events in a Finch Spotted Munia
Kanchan Pant and Asha Chandola-Saklani
Post Box 45, Reproductions Wildlife Biology Unit. Garhwat University, Srinagar Garhwal, UP-246174
Ouccessful survival ol a species is a measure of its ability
^-'lo breed at the time of the year when environmental
conditions are most conductive for the laying female and
the growth of the young ones. Seasonality in birds involves
not only the synchronization of breding with the external
environment but also with other physiological events like
moulting and migration etc.. to avoid competing high
energetic and nutrition requirements in the annual budget
of bird. It is later aspect that we address in the present
paper.
The role of thyroid gland in moulting, breeding and
calorigenesis is well established in birds. Experiments were
now conducted to assess the relative importance of
thyroxine (T4) and tri - iodothyronine (T3) in the seasonal
context in a sedentary bird spotted munia Lonchura
punctulata. Comparative effects of equimolar doses of T4
and T3 in arthyroid birds indicated that T4 is more effective
than T3 in inducing moult, fat-mobilisation & gonadal
regression. The gonado-inhibitory. fat-mobilising and
mourt-inducing effects of thyroid hormones are reflected in
circulating T4 profile but not T3. Further, effect of
suppression of extrathyroidal conversion of T4 to T3
suggest that a seasonal variation in peripheral conversion
of T4, in accordance with the demands of the season may
determine the expression or inhibition of a particular
thyroid-dependent seasonal events e.g. breeding, fattening
or moufling. This may be a physiological strategy jsed by
birds to preclude simultaneous occu'ance of season*'
events.
202
A Study of Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps Bengalensis, in Relation to Permanent
Feeding Ground ot Vanasthalipuram, Hyderabad (A. P.)
R.B. Singh
Department Of Zoology. S.D.S.M. College. Palghar-401 404 (M.S)
Introduction
| he Vanasthalipuram garbage dump-cum -compost plant
of municipal corporation of Hyderabad was found to be
the major feeding ground for the vultures. In addition, White
Scavenger Vultures, Pariah Kites, crows and egrets were
found here. This area is situated on Hyderabad-Vijayawada
road nearly 10 km from the main city and nearly 15 km
southeast of Hyderabad aerodrome. Apart from vegetarian
and non -vegetarian waste from city (eating and slaughter
houses) the municipal staff bring carcasses of domestic
animals for skinning and manure. The leftover meatwasie
provides dependable food source to the vultures. Hence,
they visit the place regularly.
Materials and Methods
A survey of Whitebacked Vultures was carried out
around Hyderabad in two sessions. The first session lasted
for twelve weeks, from October 1984 to January 1985 and
the second for nine weeks, from June to August. 1985.
Two full day spot study was conducted in each session
besides other visits. As many as 3000 vultures have been
counted here at a time and 500-600 vultures could be seen
in any casual visit.
Results and Discussion
Pattern of arrival of vultures to the dumping ground
Congregation of vultures started to this place before
0600 hrs from souih, east and north. Birds arrived in low
flights and sat in groups on the ground. The maximum
number arrived between 0930 hr and 10 00 hr. After 10 00
hr the number of vultures remained fairly constant till
departure.
Pattern of departure of vultures from the dumping
ground
It was observed that the departure of vultures started
after 1600 hr 1o the same direction from where they came
to the respective roosling sites by soaring in ihermals first
and then gradually by low flight. Departure was over only
by complete dusk.
Feeding behaviour of vultures on the dumping ground
* was observed that the vultures were eating throughout
tm day but certainly following the leader. Leadership used
b* taken by the adult only. Kruuk (1967) found
in the order of arrival at carcasses and
dominance hierarchies among members of scavenging
guilds. Similar observation has made by Atwell (1953),
Petrides (1959), Houston (1973), Grubh (1974) and Mundy
(1982). Apart from leadership, extent of hunger was played
an important role. It was found that vultures ate at intervals
due to interference from the workers and to rotate feeding
among new comers. Clinton Eietniear (1981) and Vernon
and Piper (1984) found human activity and effect of food
supply to be the factors affecting the feeding of vultures at
carcasses. It was also observed that vultures used to visit
the permanent feeding ground even if there was no food
available to them. Vultures at this permanent feeding
ground were found till late evening. Torboton (1981) opined
that vultures could congregate in areas where carcasses
supply was sustained. On the carcasses vigorous
intraspecific competition was observed and the frightening
call/hissing and aggressive posture were very much in use
apart from walking, flapping and neck movement.
It is concluded that the congregation of vultures at the
permanent feeding ground of Vanasthalipuram start early in
the morning (even before 06 00 hrs) and remain throughout
the day. The maximum concentration reached by 09 30 hrs
to 10 00 hrs and remained fairly constant till 16 00 hrs
Birds disappear from the feeding ground after 16 00 hrs
either in thermals or by low flight in the same direction from
where Ihey came in the morning. The slightest disturbance
from workers keep the vultures away from the food.
Vultures have to forage throughout he day. because of
disturbance from workers, intraspecific competition, and
hunger.
Acknowledgements :
This study was sponsored by ARDB, Ministry of
Defence. Government of India, through Bombay Natural
History Society (BNHS) Bombay. I am thankful to Dr.
Robert B Grubh. the then Research Co-ordinator of BNHS
Tor all the possible help.
References
Atwell, R.I.G. 1953. Some observations on feeding habits,
behaviour and inter-relationship of Northern Rhodesian
Vultures. Ostrich, Dec: 235-247.
Clinton - Eietniear, J. 1981. King Vulture research report.
Vulture News 6:7-8.
Grubh, R.B. 1974. The ecology and behaviour of vultures in
Gir forest. Ph. D. Thesis submitted lo the University of
Bombay.
203
Houston. DC., 1973. The ecology ot Serengeti Vultures. Petrides. G.A.. 1959. Competition for food between five
Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the University of Oxford. species of east African Vultures. ^uA 76:104-106.
Kruuk. H.. 1967. Competition for food between vultures in Torboton. W.. 1981. Comedero De Bufteres: A visit to the
East Africa. Ardea 55:171-193. Monreal vulture restaurant in Spain. Vulture News£A7.
Mundy. P.J., 1982. The comparative biology of Southern Vernon, C.J.. and Piper. S.E.. 1984. The Cape vulture
African Vultures. Vulture study group. Johannesburg. colony at Colley wobbles. Transkei. in 1983. Vulture
News 12:25-28.
204
ECONOMIC
ORNITHOLOGY
Insectivorous Birds and Their Use as Biological Control Agents
Abraham Verghese and T. P. Srlharan*
Department of Entomology & Nematobgy. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research.
Hessaraghatta Lake P.O. Bangalore 560 089
Director. National Center for Integrated Pest Management, 646,Sector21-A. Badkhal Road. Fardabad.
Haryana 121001
Introduction
Qirds artd insects have one thing in common: the ability
k-'lo fly. This has enabled the former to overlap the ranges
oi the latter and limit their population build-up. The harm
birds do, bird- lovers claim, are shouted from root-tops, but,
the good they do go o'ten unnoticed. A claim not without
any basis, especially in India. For, as early as 1912. Mason
and Letroy, had clearly brought out the beneficial roles of
several insectivorous birds, but they remained in print,
while the publication, to date, remains out of print, (to the
best of my knowledge)!
Mason and Lefroy's (1912) book, published as a memoir
of the department of Agriculture (entomological series),
comprising 371 pages, has clearly brought out the status
of Indian birds vis-a-vis harmful-neutral-beneficial status. If.
Indian thinking emerges in the direction of using birds as
bccontrol' agents, then Mason and Lefroy's contribution
would serve as the foundation, for, not only it is the first
monograph on the theme, but also the only elaborate
treatise on food of Indian birds.
The question that naturally arises is that why birds have
not received consideration in India as a biological control
agent as ft has. for example, received in China (Zhang.
1992). Some of the reasons could be as follows :
One : Biological control has been the subject of
entomologists, and by natural enemies, emphasis has
been given to insect predators and parasites and
pathogenic microorganisms.
Two: By 'Control' the erroneous impression that has
been generated in India is to mass rear and release. As
birds are not easily amenable to mass rearing, they have
not been thought of as ideal candidates in biological control
programmes.
Three: Lack of knowledge of birds among pest
managers and vice versa: ornithologists rarely have
knowledge in the intricacies of pest management.
Four: A pervasive lack of environmental consciousness.
A lack of vision, in regarding and encouraging birds in
agro- ecosystems is evident even in the project reports of
the All India Coordinated Project on Economic Ornithology
(Anon. 1980-1988), as more emphasis here, has always
been on bird pestilence. Besides, other pest management
programmes fall short of appreciating the correct roles
played by birds, except for casual mentions, many a times
merely as woodpeckers or swallows, without even
mentioning the species name completely, let alone the
scientific name.
This preamble, discursive and with a dismal tenor, ts not
meant to project a gloomy outlook, but to. hopefully, muster
resolve to go ahead optimistically. Nevertheless. * ts not
without paradox, that the first biological control mtroduclon
was from India and that too a bird, the Myna. Acridothtros
tristis L. This bird was sent to Mauritius in 1762 to control
the red locust on sugarcane (Nomadacris septemfasdata
Serville). which it effectively did in about 8 years time
(Coppel and Merlins. 1977). That majority of our numerous
acridids and related orthopterans are not assuming pest
statuses, is largely due to birds, has been weH
demonstrated in stomach analyses of several Indian birds
(Mason and Lefroy. 1912). Still, it has failed to catch the
eye of pest management visionaries.
Material and Methods
Literature from beginning of this century, from India and
other countries was purused, analysed and reviewed.
Suggestions, based on the review, have been included.
Results and Discussion
Insect predation by birds — The genesis of scientific
study in other parts of the world
Germany
In Europe and Russia, by the fifties, the role played by
birds as insect predators, especially in forest ecosystems
was clearly visualized (Bruns, 1959). The lead was
provided by Germany. Ornithologists here intensified
research, which helped accurately determining the insect
prey types of different species of birds. They also
developed artificial nestling mimics to allow specific prey
identifications. Further, they standardized neck-ringing
methods on fledgling to preserve fed insects intact and
procedures to analyze regurgitated food of nestlings
(Bruns. 1 955. 1 957; Franz, 1 954, 1 967). According to Bruns
(1957) the major studies were in the insect genera
Dasychira. Bupalis, Panolis, Dipiion and Lygaeonematus.
England
In England by late fifties, the inter-relations between
birds and insects were studied in detail by Gibb (1960). He
found that wintering birds removed nearly 50% of the insect
population. Birds responded to the prey insects both
functionally and numerically.
207
HoUand
The famous ornithologist Tinbergen(1960) known mote
for his pursuits in bird ethology, laid the scientific foundation
for studyies on insectivory in birds. His study in 1960
showed the importance of recording the frequency of prey
in bird diet rather than the proportion. The concept of
"search image" was enunciated by him through his studies
on birds.
China
China seems to have adopted birds as biological control
agent as earfy as the 16th century, when domestic ducks
{Anas platyrhynchos L) were mass released into paddy
fields for locust control. This is recorded in A Legacy of
Locust Control edited by Shri Yuan Chen (1736-96 AD).
Modern interest in birds as biocontrol agents started in the
fifties (Zhang, 1992). Their most beneficial birds include
Panjs major, Cyanopica cyana, Dendrocopos major and
Sturnus roseus, besides, there are atleast 26 other
recognized insectivorous birds. Currently, bird
augmentation is by conservation through reduced pesticide
use, artificial nests and mass release of domestic ducks
(Zhang, 1992).
Russia
In the early sixties, field studies were conducted using
portable shelters or hides, notably by Khavatova (1960)
and Poznanin (1960). Their studies independently carried
out. showed that birds suppress many noxious insects and
by enhancing nesting conditions birds can be encouraged
in agro -ecosystems.
USA
Upto the middle of 20th century, insect suppression in
birds was evidenced only by stomach analysis. But after
that, elaborate field investigations stimulated interest in
encouraging birds in agro- and forest ecosystems. Some
important workers of the fifties and sixties were: Knight
(1958) on bark beetle predation by woodpeckers; Stewart
and Aldrich (1951) on spruce budworm predation by
Paridae; Coppel and Sloan (1971) on predation of larch
casebearer Coleophora laricella (Hubner) and pine sawfly
(Diprion similis (Hartig) by resident and wintering birds; and
Whitecomb (1971) on predation of pecan nut basebearer
{Acrotasis caryae) by tufted titmouse {Parus tricolor). All
these served to lay a strong base for furthering studies in
this aspect of economic ornithology. Further, the review of
Buckner {1966. 1967) served to highlight the importance of
bird predators in suppression of insects in forest
ecosystems.
These are some of the relevant literature which show
how scientific study on the theme started in drfferent parts
of the wof Id.
Birds as insect predators — Indian Scenario.
Verghese and Subramanya (1985) emphasized on the
relevance of the subject and thought they had set the ball
rolling towards meaningful application of birds as insect
suppressors in our agro -ecosystems. Realization seemed
to have dawned among the august audience gathered, but
to put it succinctly, the subject is yet to launch in its own
rights.
Gleaning through Indian ornithological literature, a
conspicuous neglect of this area of economic ornithology is
evident, in spile of the good start it received as mentioned
earlier in 1 91 2. The Journal ot the Bombay Natural History
Society, the premier journal devoted to ornithology reveals
a sketchy approach to this subject which is reviewed and
presented below.
The first report on insect predation was by Aitkin (1904)
of Bee- eaters {Merops oriental's) preying on Dan/us sp.
and the King Crow (Dhrurus adsimilis) preying on Euthalia
garuda. The next specific mention seems to be that of
Krishnaswamy and Chowhan (1956) who reported that the
Goldenbacked Woodpecker {Dinopium benghalense) and
the Maharatta Woodpecker {Dendrocopos mahrattensis
fed well on the termite Odontotermus obesus. From
Rajasthan, Singh and Singh (I960) reported that the
Adjutant Stork {Leptopilos dubius) as a destroyer of
locusts. He also mentioned of Bulbuls {Pycnonotus spp).
Pitta {Pitta brachyura) and Common Myna (Acridotheres
tristis) preying on ants like Solenopsis geminata,
Camponotus compressus. etc. Sharma (1964) found the
Painted Patridges {Francolinus pictus) preying on the ant.
Monomorium indicum. In a stomach anarysses on the
same bird. David (1965) found termites, rodents and
caterpillars to be important dietary constituents Between
1971-75. Mukerjee in an elaborate study in the
Sunderbans of West Bengal found from stomach analyses,
that Cattle Egret [Bubulcus ibis), Whitebreasted Kingfisher
{Halcyon smyrnensis) and Redwattled Lapwing {Vanellus
indtcus) to be very beneficial, as majority of their food items
were injurious insects. Toor and Ramzan (1978) reported
Motacilla caspica as a predator on the aphid, Liphaphis
erysimiKaW. In the same year. Chakravarthy and Lingappa,
reported Wagtails as predators of field bean aphids.
Insectivorous birds in and around Bangalore (Verghese
and Subramanya. 1985; Chakravarthy. 1988; Verghese.
1992).
These are based on studies conducted by the above
authors.
Ashy Wren-warbler, Prinia socialis
This bird has been reported an effective predator of
Aphis gossypii in guava and cotton ecosystems. In guava,
it negatives the growth rate (r) of the aphid by August.
Common Bee-eater. Merops orientalis
Though a sallying feeder, it does pick Aphis craccivora
infesting cowpea The adult pierkJ {Pieris brassicae) is
hawked in flight.
Black Drougo, Dicrurus adsimilis
Feeds on winged termites, and dragonflies especially
prior to roosting. In dolichos fields, feeds on exposed
208
larvae of Ihe pod borer Helicoverpa armigera @ 3.9 ± . 1 8
larvae/minute.
Golden Oriole, Onblus oriolus
Feeds on H. armigera infesting dolichos pods @ 3.8 ±
0.6 larvae/minute. The oriole also preys on the hairy
caterpillar, Diacrisia obliqua. Between resting bouts in
casuarina groves, the bird descended to fields with mixed
stand of sorghum + field bean. During active feeding, the
bird used to consume 2 caterpillars every three minutes.
Aortitis
and Unidentified
2.56
12.82
The above, clearly showed that more than 80% of the
diet consisted of injurious insects.
All the above examples have been recorded in studies
in the last decade or so, thereby, reviving a thrust, which
was earlier neglected. Hopefully, with the current increased
awareness in environment and conservation, the role of
insectivorous birds may be better appreciated by scientists
and laymen.
Hoopoe, Upupa epops
Like the oriole, the bird descended from casuarina grove
to feed on Diacrisia obliqua @ one caterpillar per three
minutes.
been observed
@ 2.5 ± 0.5
House Sparrow, Passer domesticus
Though a granivorous bird, it has
occasionally preying on H. armigera
larvae/minute in field bean.
Indian Myna. Acridotheres tristis
Under Bangalore conditions, the bird has been reported
on Helicoverpa armigera in Lablab niger (field bean) @ 2.9
10.17 larvae/minute.
House Crow, Corvus splendens
The crows were the most important predators of the
borer, Adisura atkinsoni in mixed stands of field bean.
Predation was enhanced if trees were available nearby for
resting. The birds plucked infested pods, took it away, then
split it open and fed A ± 0.19 larvae per minute.
Jungle Crow, C.macrorhynchos
On the outskirts of Bangalore, follows plough or tractors,
and feeds on exposed grubs of Holotrichia spp. and
pupating larvae of Spodoplera litura.
Wagtails. Motacilla spp.
These have been seen actively preying on the aphids.
Aphis cracdvora in field bean and Breviooryne brassicae in
cabbage. The wagtails have been reported as a predator
on the diamond back moth. Plutella maculipennis in
cabbage by Jayarathnam, 1978.
Emitic analysis on Indian Wren-Wart>ler
Emitic analysis on the fledgelings of the Indian
Wren-Warbler {Prinia subtlava) in a ragi (Eleusine
coracana) ecosystem in Bangalore have shown the
following dietary proportion (2).
64.10,
Trichoplusia signala
Helicoverpa armigera
Cacaccea micasiana
Odontolermus sp
12.82,
5.13.
2.56.
Management of insectivorous birds
Management here implies the conservation, as well as
agumentation of bird numbers by broadening their niches.
Birds can thus be manipulated to serve an important
function in agro-ecosystems viz., insect pest reduction.
This will serve to reduce dependence on insecticides.
Suggestions to augment/manage insectivorous birds
and future line of work
1 Provision for nesting sites. According to Bruns
(1955), nesting space was a more critical factor
than food supply. He later (1959) concluded that
any effort to increase bird density was not wasted.
He showed that it was possible to increase the local
bird population through saturation of area with
nesting boxes. Franz (1961) experimentally showed
that wherever birds were augmented by use of
nest-boxes, the outbreak of pests did not appear or
were at tow densities.
Nest attraction has not been intensive in N.
America, as compared to Europe. However,
experiments with chickadee, Parus gambeb
Ridgeway, using nest boxes in California, showed
that infestation of lodgepole pine needleminers of
the genus Recurvaria substantially decreased
(Dahlsten and Herman, 1965).
2. Introduction of highly adaptive insectivorous birds to
newer areas
The best example, is that of the Indian Myna to
Mauritius in 1762. Likewise resident birds can be
transferred to areas where proportion of
insectivorous birds are tow. Here data on regional
bird surveys are vital.
3. Providing resting niches
Agroecosy stems interspersed with trees have
relatively more proportion of bird species, and
consequently insectivorous birds {Coppel and
Merlins, 1977). Planting of tall trees on edges, not
only serve as Windbreaks, but encourage floral and
taunal diversity. Trees will be used by birds as
resting perches to issue into field at their
convenience, a fact, reported first by Barber in
1942, and subsequently confirmed by several
others.
209
4. Use of mull cropping, as opposed to monocroppmg
favours not only bird predators but also other
paras rto ids.
5. Planting stakes in the field can serve as useful
perches, e.g. for the Drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis and
Shrikes, Lanius spp. Thorny bushes, even sparsely
distributed in agroecosy stems serve as stakes. It is
especially liked by the Shrikes for impailing their
prey (Ali and Ripley. 1983).
6. Electric poles and wires in a non-grain ecosystems
are again useful in attracting birds like Roller
(Coracias bengalensis) Whitebreasted Kingfisher
[Halcyon smyrnensis). Common Bee-eater, Merops
orientalis. Swallows Hirundo spp. etc.
7. Planting broad-leaved bushes like Acalypha in
horticultural ecosystems encourage insectivores
like Wren-Warblers {Prinia spp.).
8. Providing of water-troughs, attract ground
insectivores like Wagtails, Motacllla spp.
In India there is an imperative need to shift
biological-control outlook from the existing narrow
spectrum of predators and parasitoids to a broader
spectrum encompassing the food web in an ecosystem.
Biological control, in other words, should shift to a holistic
approach, as the entire range of ecological biota and in turn
their interaction with physical variables, must be taken into
account. Naturally, birds are an important component in
this context, especially in a food web. Harnessing and
augmenting their potential as insect-eaters, would certainly
be in the interest of man, and justifiably a healthy approach
to eco- friendly insect pest management. The usefulness of
insectivorous birds was realized in the beginning of this
century (1912). The scenario remained stagnant with
occasional reports. The seventies and eighties, saw a spurt
in the study of insectivory in birds, probably influenced by
studies in the West. This scenario if sustained will augur
well in the overall integrated pest management in India.
References
Aitken. E.H., 1904. The enemies of butterflies. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 16(1) : 156.
Ali. S. and Ripley, S.D 1983. Handbook of Birds of India
and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Vols. 1-10. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Anon, 1980. Annual Report of All India Coordinated Projects
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211
Role of Visual Scarers in the Management of Bird Pests in Agriculture
Shakunthala Sridhara
AlCRPon Rodent Control. College of Basic Sciences & Humanities
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
Introduction
^^afority of the bird pesls belong to Passer iformes
'^'inflicting damage to cereals, pod stages of several
pulses and groundnut, grain stages of sunflower, leaf
formation and mature stages of vegetables as well ripe
fruits of several types with the losses ranging from 0.5 to
44% in India (Anon, 1 982-1 987). The role of visual scaring
in bird management is herein discussed.
Material and Methods
An attempt has been made to review the visual scaring
techniques, based on available literatures.
Results and Discussion
Scarers induce fright by auditory and visual stimuli. The
visual scarers used, to deter birds from crop fields are
based on response to either novelty or to alarm stimulii
elicited in pest birds by predators, both avian and human.
Novelty Based Visual Scarers
These are based on stimulii not experienced by birds
and thus depend on novelty of the scarer to produce
alarming effects. The pesl bird's for that matter any
animal's response to novelty is either approach and
exploration or flight. This behaviour is explained by
postulating that animals assimilate sensory input into a
cognitive map (Tolman. 1948) or map (Sokobv, 1963) of
their environment. The perceived stimulii prime the animal
to expect certain sensory inputs in the near or distant
future. The animal compares the incoming sensory input
with the expected input. If there is a discrepancy (i.e.
novelty), depending on the degree of discrepancy, the
animal either approaches (lesser degree of deviation from
the expected) or withdraws (it the degree of deviation is too
large). To scare birds effectively the properties which elicit
withdrawal have to be enhanced and diminish those factors
which evoke approach and exploration. Scarers based on
novelty have unusual visual patterns and bright colours.
These include flags, windmills, reflector ribbons, balloons,
eye spot balloons and kites suspended in air. Reflector
ribbons were found to reduce damage by Brownheaded
Cowbirds in millet fields, by Redwinged Blackbirds in millet,
sunflower and corn fields but could not prevent feeding of
Goldfinches and Mourning Doves (Dolbeer et at, 1986).
Preliminary trials in Bangladesh, India, Philippines and
United States of America indicated that reflector ribbons
reduce bird damage to corn, millet, sorghum and sunflower
(Bruggers et at. 1986). A later study revealed that they
were ineffective against Redwinged Blackbirds in corn
fields when placed at 16 m intervals (Concover and
Dolbeer. 1989). They suggested that the tapes can be
effective only for high value crops that grow low to the
ground and damaged heavily by the birds. Fazlul Hague
and Brown (1985) found temporary protection to cabbage
by using reflector ribbons. Similarly balloons and kites have
limited success in deterring birds. Although woodpigeons
have been successfully repulsed by kites the labour
required to keep them aloft is a disadvantageous factor
(Fazlul Haque and Brown, 1985). Ballons were effective in
protecting early sown barley from Rooks upto 13 days but
not later sown oats (Feare, 1974).
Although initial response to scarers is withdrawal,
repeated encounters lead to more information being
gathered about the scarer leading to modification of
cognitive map which approximates with the actual sensory
input from the scarer. This in turn leads to diminished rates
or withdrawal, gradually approach and finally all response
to the scarer ceases with the object becoming familiar
component of the environment. In otherwords habituation
occurs. Habituation can be retarded by employing scarers
which are uncommon and by using a range of devices both
of which slow down the rate of acquisition of information
about the scarer. Other measures which decrease
habituation are: exposing the device for short periods, by
randomly shifting its position, changing the timing of
exposure and removing the ineffective scarers immediately
(Ingles, 1980).
A second approach to diminish habituation to visual
scarers is based on avoidance conditioning. This involves
associating the stimuli responsible for avoidance with a
subsequent aversive stimulation i.e., exposure to stress.
Here the first stimulus namely visual scarer becomes a
warning signal to the subsequent aversive stimulus. In an
agricultural field the most effective aversive stimulus is
shooting, as the sight of wounded, dead or dying
conspecifies is highly aversive to birds. However, the
approach can be successful only if the two stimuli are
spatially and temporarily synchronized. In other words the
scarer should be exposed just before shooting and should
disappear immediately (Ingles. 1980). Propane gun or
exploders or banging metal tins can substitute shooting in
India.
Scarers based on Natural Alarm Stimuli
These are called Bhvisual scarers. Many species of
birds have genetically built in escape response to cues
associated with the presence of predators which is
subsequently modified by experience and learning. Based
on predator-prey relationship and intraspecrfic signals two
types of scarers have been developed namely Interspecific
scarers delivering stimuli trom species other than pest
which is usually some sort of a model of predator-raptor or
human. The intraspecHic devices incorporates eilher the
212
warning signal emitted by pest species on sighting a
predator or the postures of feeding birds denoting lack of
attractive food supply in the field. The biovisual scarers
have two advantages over the novelty based ones in that
habituation to these are slower and secondly the intensity
of response produced by the pest bird is greater.
Interspecific scarers include : a) Models of raptors, b)
Scare crows (Human effigies), c) Stimulii evoking
fleeing/flight and d} Raptor Models.
a) Models of raptors —Two factors determine the
efficacy of raptor mode is viz.. the process of predator
recognition and the type of strength of anti predator
behaviour displayed once the predator is recognized.
Earlier it was thought that few simple and general visual
cues are adequate for predator recognition (Tinbergen,
1951; Melzack. 1961) implying that crude cut outs of
generalized raptors can be effective as scarers. Later
workers (Curio. 1975) argued that species specific detailed
and complex visual cues such as plumage characteristics
are involved in predator recognition. However, these seem
to represent two extreme views. Thus it becomes advisable
that cues involved in predator recognition can be studied
for each species as a prerequisites for models.
Inglies (1980) feels that some cues like the body outline
and mode of flight of predator while hunting are reliable
cues for designing a raptor model. Sensitive experiments of
Hamerstorm (1957) showed that prey birds are capable of
recognising whether a predator is hungry or well fed by
postures displayed by the latter, ft is also postulated that a
scarer incorporated with a super normal stimulus by
exaggerating the sign stimuli or by combining several
relevant sign stimuli from several predators can elicit above
normal aversive effects (fnglis. 1980). The tone experiment
conducted in this direction by incorporating a shrike model
with an owl's eyes and an owl model with shrike's eye
spots failed to scare the prey, the Pied flycatcher (Curio,
1 978). The failure was attributed to perception of this mixed
model as 'novel' birds. But still with a single failure the
possibility of a super stimulus eliciting super normal
responses cannot be ruled out. Atleast rt is worthwhile to
find out it supernormal stimulii are associated with a
predator.
Once appropriate cues are recognised, the designing of
a raptor model should take into consideration factors which
retard habituation. Stimulii eliciting mobbing are known to
enhance fear of scarer and slow down habituation. Curio
(1978) explains this by cultural transmission theory
according to which birds learn to fear an object once they
see it being mobbed. Atleast six bird species have been
recorded to exhibit this behaviour. Mobbing was shown to
be enhanced by displaying the predator holding a dead
model of the mobbing species (Barsh, 1976; Kruuk. 1976).
Further periodic playback of the mobbing call may retard
I jation (Inglis. 1980). Other factors which increase the
effectiveness of a scarer are making the support for scarer
as inconspiceous as possible and frequent moving of
predator models. Successful scarers include falcons
mounted on flats to deter waterfowl from small ponds
'Howard et al.. 1 985) and owl models holding live feathered
starling (Conover and Pserito. 1981). Museum mounts of
two specimens of hawks were ineffective in reducing
damage by blue jays, starlings, mocking birds, mourning
doves and houses finches with habituation occurring within
5-8 hours (Conover, 1979). However, the author found
moving models or models with moving 'captured* prey were
more successful. A later study by him (Conover, 1965)
revealed that scarers in a vegetable field were successfully
repulsed by a scarer holding a crow model whose wings
moved in the wind and by another scarrer holding crow
models whose wings were battery operated. These devices
reduced bird damage by 81% compared to a still plastic
mode.
A survey of use of visual scarers to protect crops in India
reveal a study each on reflector ribbons and models ot
dead conspecifics. The former was shown to deter
parakeets, mynas, crows, rosy pastor and bayas in the
crop fields of Gujarat while stuffed models of crows were
effective against crows in Hyderabad (Anon. 1 982-87).
b) Scare crows (Human effigies) are the most ancient
bird scarers. Though theoretically sound, the models fail
because they do not accurately present the alarm stimulus.
Examples of effective scare crows include a 3-dimensional
human effigy whose head and outstretched arms move
periodically (Inglis, 1980) and an inflated human effigy
placed on cable and moved in fields and orchards in Britain
(Achiron, 1 968). A carbon dioxide pop-up scare crow acting
in synchrony with a propane exploder has been shown to
be effective albeit costly in America (Cummings et al..
1986). Flemmmg (1990) refers to use of human beings as
scare crows in Africa who stand on raised platforms
throughout the crop period and throw stones at birds which
land on the crop.
c) Stimulii evoking fleeing — are known to be of two
types. The first is eye spot. An eye spot is a circular pattern
which resembles a vertebrate eye which upon sudden
exposure elicits escape reactions in several species of
Passerines. The fright is attributed to resemblance of eye
spots to the eyes of large raptors and those of conspecifics
during threat displays, both being alarming to pest birds
(Blest, 1957; Scaiffe, 1976b). The most frightening
configuration of an eye spot contains two circular eye spots
arranged horizontally each with concentric rings of bright
colours. (Blest, 1957; Goss, 1972; Scaiffe, 1976a, 1976b).
Inglish et al., (1963) after studying responses of captive
starling to different eye pattern concluded that a pair of 3-
dimensional glossy eyes are highly aversive while Shirola
et ai. (1983) found large balloons painted with eye spots
deterring starlings from cherry orchards. The second
stimulii that effectively induces flight is the sight of a man
walking leisurely with outstretched arms, moving them
slowly towards a Hock of feeding birds (Markgren, 1960).
The alarm elicited was attributed to resemblance of man's
posture and movement to the approach of an eagle
flapping its wings slowly. From time immemorial labourers
are hired during growing stages of crop in India to scare the
birds by walking leisurely in the fields, shouting and pelting
stones on sighting flocks of feeding birds (Sridhara et at ,
1984). Recently Brent Geese damage to wintgr crops was
alleviated in Britain in a cost effective manner by
213
employing a man. full lime with a motorcycle to scare the
birds in conjunction with alternate food crops adjacent to
maincrop (Vickey and Summers. 1992).
Intraspecific devices are of two types : (i) those based
on using corpse or models of corpse of pest birds and
displaying them in unnatural and unhealthy postures (ii)
Secondly employing models that mimic prefight. alarm
postures of pest species.
i) Using unnatural body postures : A series of
experiments demonstrated that decoys with open wings
and models of birds with open wing posture deferred
woodpigeons from landing on agricultural fields in Britain
(Murton. 1970; Murton et aL, 1974). Wings placed in a
clover field and models of woodpigeon in open wing
posture reduced damage to clover and cabbage fields,
respectively (Issacson. 1980; Hunter. 1974). As to the
exact course of alarm elicited, Inglis (1980) rules out the
possibility of unnatural body postures being perceived as
'novel' because of the capacity of woodpigeons to form
complex visual concepts. It is likely that decoys are
recognised as corpse of conspecifies which in signal the
presence of predators and surplus killing by them. This
perception is enough to elicit alarm flight. Further
conclusions were drawn that only openwinged decoy elicit
flight and not closed-winged ones suggesting the presence
of an intraspecific sign stimulus in open winged devices
which creates alarms. The author postulated that this could
be the wing marks visible only during open winged
posture, If this was so, it prompted Murton (1974) to further
suggest that white mark if really is the sign stimulus
evoking flight, then it can be exploited as a super stimulus.
This indeed was the case as demonstrated later by Inglis
and Issacson (1987) when simply a pair by woodpigeon
wings, with enhanced wing marks using white paint and
placing them slightly at a higher level protected crops from
wood pigeon damage establishing that it is not necessary
to use the whole body or life like models.
(ii) Normal intraspecific signals act either by denoting
absence of attractive food or by alarm as in preflight
postures. The hunched roosting models of great blue
herons (Kraba, 1974) and head up posture of brachial
geese (Dent and Swierstra. 1977) convey absence of high
density food and thus discourage conspeotic flying
overhead from landing on crop fields.
After evaluating various postures of Brent Geese, Inglis,
and Issacson (1978) found that the posture exhibited by he
bird when alarmed was most effective in deterring birds
from landing on crop fields. In this posture the body was
angled upboard, neck was extended vertically and was
pointed slightly upwards. In another study Raveling (1969)
found pref tight/alarm posture with heads shaking slightly
when wind blow to be effective to deter Canadian Geese
from trying on crops. These studies again emphasize the
recognition of sign stimulus to incorporate into even
intraspecific models.
To sumup, bird pest management may be rendered
eftodiy in India by using fertility control of commensal
birds, changes in cultural practices and using, plant derived
chemicals. Human scarers, predator models with wind
blown movement coupled with sudden sounds, use of a
variety of sacrers, changing the position of scarers, etc.
seem to offer satisfactory non-lethal approach to prevent
bird damage to crops. However, final recommendations
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Vicky. J. A. and Summers, R.W.. 1992. Cost effectivness of
scaring brent geese Bronta b.bemicla from fields of
arable crops by a human bird scarer. Crop Protection,
11 : 480-484.
Weatherhead. P.J. and Tinker. S.H., 1983. Maize ear
characteristics affecting vulnearability to damage by
Red-Winged Blackbirds. Prot. Ecol.. 5 : 167-175.
Zeinelabdin, M.H., Bullard, R.W. and Jackson, W.B..
1984. Modes of repellant activity of condensed tannin to
Ouelea. Proc. Bird. Control Semin., 9 : 241-245.
215
Effect of Insecticides on Birds
R. Annamalal, V. Gunasekaran and S. Thirumurihi
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalay am 641 301
A Iter the banning of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
*\ike DDT, Aldrin, Dietdrin Chbrdane. etc., the problem
of bioconcentration and biomagnificat-on have
considerably ceased. This has reduced chronic toxic
hazards among birds. However, the later generation
insecticides particularly organophosphates and
carbamates prove to be hazardous by their acute toxicity to
birds inhabiting agro as well as forest ecosystem. Most of
these insecticides are non persistent or less persistant.
However due to their extreme acute toxicity, they kill birds
instantly even in small doses. The problem become more
acute by careless handling without any ecological
consideration.
Among organophosphorus insecticides, Fenthion
Methyl Parathion. Monocrotophos, Phorate and
Phosphamidon are extremely toxic and should be
discouraged from being applied to bird associated cropping
systems. Malalhion, Fenitrothion. Chlorpyriphos,
Phosalone and Dimethoate are relatively less hazardous to
birds. This has bee proved by field population studies and
laboratory feeding experiments.
Among Carbamates. Carbaryl is less toxic than
organophosphorus insecticides. Eventhough Carbofuran
and Aldicarb are very highly toxic to birds, these
insecticides are applied only into soil and covered in situ.
This method of application safeguards birds from toxic
effects.
Detailed studies on the effect of insecticides on
insectivorous and graminivorus birds are wanting in our
country. With references to increased farming activity and
pest control operations with highly toxic insecticides, such
studies become highly imperative and needs special focus
from ornithologists and environmental toxicologist. .PA
Population Trends of Columbids in The Punjab Agroecosystem
Jaswinder. S. Sandhu and P. S. Santhu'
Department of Forestry & Natural Resources, Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana 141 004
/""\f the seven species of columbids found in Punjab, six
**-'were recorded from the study area located in central
Punjab. We studied their population trends from October
1988 to July 1993 through transect surveys covering an
area of 7.3 x 0.1 km . The transects were situated in
cultivated area (having fodder, horticultural, cotton,
vegetable, pulse crops, etc.) and uncultivated area (dairy
farm, lawns, bee-farm, buildings, forest block, tree rows,
etc.). The population density of the columbids differed
significantly (F - 136.7. P < 0.00001). Ring dove was the
most abundant (183.9 /km 2 ) followed by Blue Rock
common in transects having indigenous trees (F - 3.88. P<
0.002), whereas, Blue Rock Pigeon preferred transects
having vegetables, pulses, maize, wheat etc. (F ■ 9.71, P
0.001). Spotted Dove preferred less traversed fodder and
dairy farm area (F - 6.07, P < 0.0001). For all columbids
undisturbed and unsprayed fodder area and dairy farm
areas were equally preferred.
The total columbid population varied significantly among
months (F - 2.37, P< 0.01), High Population density was
found in February (498/km ) followed by march
Pigeon (61. 4*m\ G-een P,geon (20. 4/km\ Spotted (382^') Janua^ (373.2/km') and December
(337/km ). A minor peak in population was observed in July
(327/km 2 ) with minima in April-May (185.4. 186.6*m ,
respectively) and September (204.6*m 2 >. These
differences were due to the differences in the population of
Ring Dove, Red Turtle Dove and Spotted Dove. Both the
pigeons and Little Brown Dove did not show significant
differences in populations in different months. Ring Dove
and Spotted Dove showed coinciding peaks in February,
while Red Turtle Dove peaked in July.
Dove (12.3/km 2 ). Little Brown Dove (8.5/km 2 ) and Red
Turtle Dove (4.0/km 2 ). Rufous Turtle Dove was not
encountered in the study area. The total columbid density
(annual average) was found to be 290.4/km 2 . Less
traversed, unsprayed, uncultivated and fodder areas were
preferred by Ring Dove (F - 12.57, P< 0.001), Red Turtle
Dove (F - 6.00. P < 0.001) and Little Brown Dove (F -
10.28. P < 0.0001) to other areas. Green Pigeon was more
216
Survey of Insectivorous Birds of Thalaimalai Forests
S. Thfrumurthl, R. Annamalai and V. Gunasekaran
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam, Mettupalayam 641 301
Introduction
The avifauna in India is rich and diversified with 2.060
species and subspecies (Ripley. 1982) of which nearly
85% are insectivorous. As voiced by the eminent
ornithologist Salim Ali (1977). a detailed ecological sludy of
these insectivorous birds with reference to agricultural and
forest ecosystems is a tongfelt need of Indian Ornithology.
In Tamilnadu studies were made on the identification of
birds associated with agro- ecosystems (Thirumurthi and
Abraham. 1975; Thirumurthi and Krishnadoss. 1981;
Thirumurthi et a/.. 1981; Francisnathan and Rajendran.
1982; Thirumurthi and Balashanmugam, 1987 and
Thirumurthi and Balagurnathan. 1972). The insectivorous
birds associated with forest ' ecosystems however,
remained unstudied. A comprehensive survey has
therefore been made on the insectivorous birds inhabiting
the Thalaimalai forests situated in Periyar district of
Tamilnadu between 1990 and 1992.
Material and Methods
The Thalaimalai forests, located in Sathyamangalam
taluk of Periyar district covers about 1.50.000 ha with the
rivers Mayar and Bhavani confluencing at the south
western end forming the water body Bhavanisagar
reservoir. The annual rainfall in the forest area is around
650 mm with 60% precipitation received between
mid-September and mid-November. Large areas of
ricefields and gardenlands are available on the southern
and eastern skJe of the area with hill ranges of Niligiris.
Bargur. Thalavadi and Biligirirangan situated on the north
western and northern side.
The Thalaimalai forests are predominantly thorny jungle
type with intermittent populations of larger trees. The
vegetation mainly includes species of Acacia, Albizia,
Azadirachta indica. Terminalia, Delonix regia, Ficus.
Dalbergia sissoo, Pettaphorum sp., Moringa sp.. and
Bamboosa spp.
A total of 1 2 visits were made per year. The observation
period lasted between 0700 to 1000 hrs in the morning and
1530 to 1830 hrs in the evening. There were six locations
each spreading to about 200 ha and each of Ihese
locations were visited twice a year. The birds were spotted
with a pair of 7 x 50 binoculars. Birds were identified using
Ali and Ripley (1987).
Results and Discussion
A total of 112 species of insectivorous birds were
identified during the survey. These belonged to 12 orders
and 27 families. The order Passeriformes remained the
largest, accounting for 64 species accommodated in 14
families (Table 1). Calliformes and Coraciformes ranked
noxt with 8 species each, followed by Cconiformes,
Falconiformes. Cuculiformes and PicHormes each
accounting for 5 species. The Passeriformes family
Muscicapidae was the single largest family with 24 species.
Eleven species were visitors active here from October to
March.
Of the insectivorous birds. 34 species fed exclusively on
insects while 8 also fed on rodents. These include
Drongos, Babblers, Warblers, Swallows. Swifts. Wagtails.
Hoopoe. Nightjars. Flycatchers and Bee eaters. The Owls
and raptors feed on rodents also along with insects.
Thirtyfive species feed on nectar and play a vital role in
ornithophily of forest trees besides their pest management
role. Some of the insectivorous birds were also found to
feed on berries, shoots or grains.
In Thalaimalai forests, Woodpeckers were observed to
destroy larvae of Indarbela tetraonis, a bank boring
caterpillar affecting teak. Ailanthus, Acacias, Cassias. Jack.
Moringa, etc. These birds also feed on cerambyckJ and
buprestid borers infesting Mango. Moringa. Kapok. Teak,
Eucalyptus, Cashew and Ficus. The grubs of Batocera
rufomaculata. Acanthophorus serraticomis. Placoederus
ferruginous. Olenocamptus bilobus. and flatheaded borer
grubs affecting several trees are eaten by woodpeckers in
Thalaimalai forests. These birds were also found to feed on
cicadas and termites.
Swifts and Swallows are typical of devouring insects in
flight itself. Aphids, plant bugs and moths form the major
components of their food (Fletcher and Inglis. 1926; Ali,
1940; Thirumurthi and Abraham, 1975; Mathew et a/..
1978; Thirumurthi and Krishnadoss, 1982). During the
present survey the birds were found to be associated with
the emergence of winged termites just after rains.
Orioles were reported to be effective predators of
Ailanthus defoliator. Eligma narcissus (Chatterjee et ai,
1969). During the present survey all the three species of
Orioles and four species of Drongo were found to feed on
E.narcissus on Nilanthus. They were also observed
devouring the larvae of teak defoliator (Hybtaea Peura),
Pongam pentatomid {Cydopelta cissifoiia). Cicadas on
Acacia trees and green weevils. The koel {Eudynamys
scohpacea) was found to feed on hairy caterpillars such as
Euproctis spp., Taragama siva. Euptrote sp.. Metanestra
hynaca and Pericallia ricini Sunbirds besides feeding on
flower nectar were found to consume soft bodied insects
such as mealybugs and soft scales. The cushiony scale,
kxryia aegyptica infesting many forest trees was found at
Thalaimalai preyed upon by Nectarinia zeylonica and
N.asiatica.
Pollution of any kind has not so far been confronted as a
problem of birdlife in Thalaimalai reserve forests. However,
the increased use of pesticides in Thengumarchada
agricultural settlement and industrial affluents let into the
river Bhavani could be detrimental to aquatic birds. The
217
stone crushing units emitting line dusts of granite on the
southern tip of the forest could be hazardous to local bird
populations of inhabiting the thorny jungles.
The insectivorous birds inhabiting the Thalaimalai
forests are highly beneficial devouring forest pests and
agricultural pests.
References
Ali. Salim, 1940. The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.
Ali, Salim. 1977. Tyer paper. VII : (3)
Ali, Salim and S.D. Ripley. 1987. The Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan (Compact edition), Oxford
University Press. Bombay, Delhi and Madras.
Chatterjee, P.N.. P. Singh andR.M. Misra, 1969. Studies on
the biology, ecology, life history and parasite complex of
ailanthus defoliator. Eligma narcissus Cram. (Noctudiae
Lepidoptera) together with morphology of adult and
immature stages. Indian For., 5 : 541-550.
Fletcher. T.B. and CM. Inglis. 1926. Birds of an Indian
Garden, Thacker and Spink. Calcutta.
Franc isnathan, S.P. and B. Rajendrah, 1982. Bird fauna of
rice ecosystem in Pondicherry region. Jour. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 79 : 204-206.
Mathew, D.N., J.C. Narendran and U C Zaceharia. 1978.
Comparative study of feeding habits of certain species
of birds affecting agriculture. Jour. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.. 72: 1178-1197.
Ripley. S.D., 1982. A Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.
Thirumurthi. S. and E.V. Abraham. 1975. A note on the bird
predators of the Death's hawk moth, Acherontia styn W.
Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 78 : 204.
Thirumurthi. S. and D. Krishnadoss, 1981. A note on the
feeding habits of swifts (Apodidae: Apodiformes). Jour.
Bombay nat. Hist Soc.. 78 : 378-379.
Thirumurthi, S.. B. Rajendran and D. Krishnadoss, 1981.
Insectivorous birds associated with rice ecosystem at
Madurai. Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 78 : 603-605.
Thirumurthi, S. and P.V. Balashanmugam, 1987. Birds
associated with fruiting cashew trees. The Cashew, 1.
18.
Thirumurthi. S. and R. Balagurunathan. 1992.
Insectivorous birds associate with rice ecosystem in
LBP area. Newsletter, for Birdwatchers, 33 : 23-25.
Table 4 : Number of families and species In different
orders observed in Thalaimlal forests
Order No. of families
No. of
species
Passeriformes 14
64
Galliformes 1
8
Goraciformes 4
8
Cuculiformes 1
5
Falconiformes 1
5
Ciconiformes 1
5
Gruiformes 2
3
Strigrformes 1
3
Piciformes 1
5
Apodiformes 1
2
Caprimukjiformes 1
2
Chardriformes 1
2
Total 29
112
Table 2 : Major trophic classification of Ins
ectivort
birds of Thalalmala
Forests
Feeding habits
No. of species
Insects alone
33
Insects and plant parts
45
Insects and flower nectar
35
Insects and rodents
8
Insects and fish
18
Insects and grains/seeds
28
218
Crop Loss Assessment Due to Birds
A.K. Chakravarthy, M. Gopinath Rao and N.S. Bhat
University of Agricultural Sciences. GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
Introduction
Birds cause severe economic losses to agriculture.
Studies in India have revealed that Roseringed
Parakeet (Psittacula krameri Scopoli), House Crow
(Corvus splendens Vielliol), House Sparrow {Passer
domesticus Linn.). Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis),
Weaver birds (Pkxeus philippinus), Munias (Lonehura
spp.) are the common depredators of crops (Anonymous.
1992). However, no clear assessment ot the economic toss
to crops by birds have been made. This paper suggests the
crop toss assessment methods due to birds damage under
Indian conditions,
Material and Methods
To explore the applicability ot crop-toss assessment
methods the following crops were selected: Rice {Oryza
saliva), Pigeon Pea {Cajanus cajan). Soybean (Glycine
max). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Finger millet (Eleusine
coracana). Sorghum (Sorghum vukjare). Sunflower
{Helianthus annuus Linn.). Maize (Zea mays). Coffee
{Coffea arabica) and Cardamom (Elettaha cardamomum
Maton).
Results and Discussion
Data collection
Crop loss assessment requires collection of a large
amount of data. The first step involves the definition of the
format under which data should be collected. In field, this
involves the sampling procedure, stage of crop, bird-pest
numbers and extent of damage. The "field book" or 'paper
and pencil" method of data recording is the traditional
method (Teng, 1984). The data can be keyed into a
computer file. Assessments and field notes can be
recorded on a small portable recorder such as a
dictaphone or small cassette recorder. This method
appears to be suitable for 'closed' habitats like cardamom,
coffee estates and forests. This usually involves playback
of the tape and transcription of information to written or
printed records before computer entry and analysis and for
record -keeping (Bowen and Teng, 1992). However, the
high cost of the equipment is a limitation.
Electronic notebooks, portable computer, remote
sensing, video image analysis and radiometer measures Of
sunlight reflected off-plant surfaces are forms of data
recording without human estimation of damage (Ellington
et al. 1985; Gerten and Wiese, 1984: Lindow and Webb.
1983; Pederson. 1984; and Pedersen and Fiechtner,
1980).
Crop-loss Assessment Methods
Bird-pests can be counted directly or their numbers
estimated or their effects on crops assessed indirectly as
injury or damage. Number of birds can be expressed based
on the crop area. In practice, the method must g-ve as true
an estimate of the actual numbers of birds as possible as
has been done with regard to certain insect pests (Waker,
1980; 1992). Walker (1992) also outlined a pest
management system based on pest assessment and
crop-loss assessment, that is applicable to bird situations
too (Fig. 1).
Fig.1 . A pest management decision system, showing the
place of pesl assessment and crop loss assessment.
For each crop indicated above, crop-toss assessment
methods are described below.
Both direct (where bird numbers are considered) and
indirect (where extent of damage/loss is involved) methods
are described. While doing so, the bird-pests, crop-stage
involved, nature of damage and important ecological
considerations are also briefly mentioned.
Rice
In South India, rice grains are mainly fed upon by
Sparrow-sized finch birds like munias (5 species of
Lonehura), Weavers (2 species of Pkxeus), House
sparrow (Passer domesticus) and Parakeets (4 species of
Psittacula).
It was observed that within a patch of feeding period the
flock size of birds remains almost a constant. The numbers
of granivorous birds as mentioned above may vary over the
219
entire Rice growing season. But birds incur tosses only
during grain formation and grain filling stages lasting for
about 30 days. In this period, numbers of birds may not
vary much. Therefore, for an open habitat like rice fields, it
is rational to assume homogeneity in detedability (d) and
negligible or no within- season variation in numbers-
Validity of the count (by binoculars) can be increased rl
the same observer in the same patch during grain
formation and grain filling stages, records bird density at
fixed time (particularly when birds are perched). Counts of
individuals in a large feeding flock is difficult as birds go on
shifting. Counts can be taken on clear days avoiding
rainy/cloudy days. Numbers of birds during a sample count
is given by
K
I
X
Xi, where Xi, is the bird count at j th time instant in the i th
field
where j ■ 1 , 2, 3. 4 ... t time interval
i - 1 , 2, 3, ... n fields. This is based on the
assumption that detectabilrty of all species is
almost equal to 1.
Density of birds is given by
Xi where X, is the number of birds in rth flock
There are many potential sources of variation of avian
counts. Variation due to sampling procedures, changes in
bird behaviour with time of day, weather, detedability
among species, etc. (Shields, 1979) which are minimized
by this method of count.
In Mandya, a district in South Karnataka rice is
cultivated in patches amidst sugarcane {Saccharum
atficinarum) fields. In this situation it is difficult to count the
birds. The granivorous birds take refuge in sugarcane fields
to feed on rice grains, incurring usually more losses than in
monoculture patches of rice.
In such situations, clumps or panicles can be
conveniently taken as the units to measure the amount of
yield-loss. Since it is cumbersome to count the grains lost
through bird depredation, panicles damage to varying
extent can be summed up and expressed as number of
panicles or clumps tost/unit area. The average amount of
grains yield/panicle or clump should be known to estimate
the yield -loss.
The yield-toss by birds in rice can also be expressed on
area basis, which in turn can be converted to number of
plants/clumps or earheads. For instance, the White-
beasted waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) during
nesting. cuts the culms of all tillers in a clump.
The weavers and other passerines were observed
feeding their chicks with insects injurious to rice grains. So,
while considering the tosses due to these birds, the loss
prevented via insect-pest predatton need to be considered.
This is essential for the overall management of problematic
b»ds, insect and other vertebrate pests in the rice agro
ecosystem.
Pigeon pea. Soybeans and Chickpea
Pulses like Pigeon-pea, Soybeans and Chickpea are
frequented by Pigeons to feed on seeds. The Roseringed
Parakeet, P. krameri has been observed feeding on
soybean pods. However, the seed damage to pulse crops
is more widespread and so the discussion will be confined
to only the Pigeon problem. The distribution of Pigeons and
hence the seed damage is highly clumped. Pigeons do not
feed on seeds throughout the day but at specific times feed
on seeds. So a large area need to be surveyed at feeding
time to get a reliable estimate of numbers of birds. Pigeons
scoop out mud to feed on fresh sown seeds. The birds are
also in the habit of storing seeds in their 'pouch' to feed at
rest later. Counting birds at specific time over a large area
is difficult, tedious and not practicable. In such a situation,
estimate of numbers based on number of counts per say
0.5 km would be reliable. If observer speed is held
constant, then the effort indicator (individuals/unit effort) will
determine the spatial scheme or the transect pattern
appropriate for sampling. It would be a scheduled or
random route (on a vehtcle preferably) through a plot
without regard to repeat samples. Here the aim is to sight
maximum number of flocks feeding in the area surveyed.
Maximum number of individuals counted on a day can be
used as an estimate of numbers for that day. A temporal
variations are minimized in this case as the feeding on
seeds by Pigeons do not extend beyond a week. The
estimated numbers is given by
K
I*
M
Xi where X, is the bird count at the rth count station and k
is the number of such stations.
A number of insectivorous birds frequent fields of these
crops and this consideration is important in the yield-loss
assessment. When the sampling area is large and damage
is extensive the seed-loss can be expressed on area basis.
Number of seeds'unit area should be known.
Fingermillet. Sorghum and Maize
The technique of counting birds by binoculars in rice
agroecosystem can with modifications be followed in
agroecosy stems of Finger millet {Eleusine coracana).
Sorghum (S.vulgare) and Maize (Zea mays).
In addition to the species that feed on rice, Crows
{Corvus splendens and C.macrorhynchas) also feed on
these grains of these crops. Because of the plant
architecture and partially 'closed' crop canopy the
detectabilrty (d) of each species would vary. The
detectabilrty of birds like Parakeets and Crows (large sized
birds) would approach 1 (Perfect detedability) on
fingermillet and sorghum. While that of munias and
weavers (small sized) could be less.
On above three crops, it is suggested to count birds
species-wise and the detedability of each species at a
given patch be established prior to count. H it is not
pradicable to count each species, birds based on the size
220
be classified as small-sized, medium -sized and large-sized
birds.
The number ol birds at a patch is given by
For small-sized birds
•as
if*
Ni is the number of small sized birds in ith field
1-1,2,3,4... •
d s is the detectability of small sized birds
For medium-sized birds
where N, is the bird count of medium sized birds in jth
field. There are m' such fields,
dm detectability of medium-sized birds.
For large-sized birds
where Nk is the number of large sized birds in the kth field.
There are I such fields
di - detectability of large-sized birds.
If it is difficult to assure homogeneity in detectability
during a count, then consecutive counts during the same
crop stage can be compared. Alternatively, validity can be
increased by adding a separate control area. i.e. a patch
not included in the study area. Bird damage can be
expressed in terms of number and length of cobs and
number of ears in a homogeneous patch. In which case,
grain weight/unit plant -part should be determined.
Sunflower
Sunflower is an important oilseed crop and in India
Parakeets (P.krameri) are the principal species feeding on
seeds. Some of the other species of birds causing damage
to sunflower in India are House Sparrow (Passe/
domesticus). Redheaded Bunting (Emberiza bruniceps).
Yellow throated Sparrow (Petronia xanthocoltis). Spotted
Dove {Slreptopelia chinensis) and Western Turtle Dove
{Slreptopelia orientalis). These species alight on sunflower
from different perches and feed at different spots in the
same patch at the same lime Each group of bird followed a
clump distribution pattern. Parakeets, Doves and Finches
have different modes of feeding and incur losses to varying
extent in seed yields. An account of the interaction of birds
in Sunflower agro-ecosystem is dealt with in this volume.
Birds prefer feeding on Sunflower for not more than 30
days. H a transect at fringe areas of the field would permit a
clear view (through binoculars) of birds feeding on seeds,
then a valid estimate of numbers could be obtained. Else,
valid estimates of numbers can only be made of the
relation between detectability (d) and density (n) is known
or controlled.
This can be accomplished by using
by (d) or relationship between contact (c) and (d) is
measured or a factor established.
Under Indian conditions the (d) values tor eacn species
in each patch would vary. i.e. estimates tof small areas can
only be measured. Transect counts, being suribJe tor any
small homogeneous habitats such as Sunflower
agroecosy stems during any season can be adopted.
Before fixing the area and position of the transact, the
contact distribution with the bird flocks need to be
ascertained. As the flocking. feeding and foraging
behaviour and detectability of each group varies, a variable
belt may be chosen. The transect is decided based on
preliminary findings of earlier grounds of survey. The count
can be taken 3 to A times in a season. The number of each
species of bird can be estimated by
a,
where N, is the number of contacts of ith species with
detectability d, (N, is the average of counts taken on time or
at different times).
Multiple counts at different feeding times of the day can
be performed and then averaged. This will tend to balance
the effects of localised movements around the transect and
also the increase or decrease in numbers.
The bird damage can be expressed as percent head
damage (for details see this volume). Number of seeds/unit
head-area should be established.
Coffee
Coffee [Coffea arabica) berries in South India is grown
under the shade of forest trees with overhead multiple
layers of vegetation. Coffee barriers are depredated mainly
by bulbu Is/species of Pycnonoius and Hypsipeles.
Methods for bird counts in forest-like habitats has been
developed by Emlen (1971; 1977).
Among birds, Jungle Crows. Coucal, Parakeets.
Munias. Sparrows, Bulbuls and Barbels are the important
species that supplement their diet with co'-ee bsmes.
A preliminary survey of the plantation can be made to fix
the transect path. Depending on the topography, plantation
can be divided into sectors or blocks. After deciding the
size (width X length) of the belt in each sector, birds are
counted either on sighting or on cue emission. The number
of birds for the entire plantation is given by
k
I
M
N
2TW
where T is the length of the transect, w - width of the belt.
Cardamom
Cardamom is grown in 'closed' habitat or valley regions
in evergreen tropical forests with multiple layers of
vegetation. Fruits (called as capsules) are borne on ground
under cardamom canopy. Ground foraging birds Ike Red
Spurfowl (species of Gallus), Ground Thrush (species of
Zoofhera). etc. depredate on capsules by splitting them.
221
sipping the mucilaginous and mailer leaving the seeds on
ground. The obstrusive coloration and concealing
behaviour of birds make it difficult for the observer to
register a contact with the bird, even if the bird is ctose.
This is accentuated in cardamom agroecosystem. So the
estimates of numbers depend on the emission frequency of
detectable cues as well as on the cue attenuation function.
Cue production depends primarily on bird motion for
visual cues and on vocal and mechanical sound production
for auditory cues.
In Cardamom, detectability of birds is very less. The size
of the main belt and pathway of transect can be decided by
making preliminary surveys. When the crop is cultivated on
large and uneven tracts, the entire area can be divided into
a number of blocks/sectors. For each block, the main beH
should be established and number of birds is recorded
based on cue emission. The bird number is estimated as
Csibi =
M
2T,Wi
where T, is the length of rth transect with half width of the
beH (w,).
Relation between bird numbers, damage and yield-loss
Crop yield is the amount of harvestabJe economic
product such as grain, cob, fruit, berry or capsule. Yield can
be expressed per unit of crop such as per plant, or kg/ha or
tons/ac. Losses due to bird damage can be assessed by
comparing the weight of attacked and unattacked
plants/clumps/bush. Loss per attacked plant/clump/bush in
terms per say 1000 grains/capsuies/berries will give the
total loss if multiplied-up by the percentage of
grains/capsuies/berries attacked. Data on bird numbers
can be transformed to provide an estimation of yield losses
by a product of number of birds/unit area x average number
of feeding hours/day x average feeding rate/individual.
Wherever feeding rates vary widely, specific feeding
periods should be indicated. How crop is tost by bird attack
is shown in Fig. 2. Crop loss (w) in the presence of pests is
expressed as the percentage reduction in the potential,
maximum yield in the absence of pests (m). If the yiekJ in
the presence of pests is Yi :
W= (m ~ V, ? x100 (after Walker. 1992).
m
One measurement of bird damage and yield is of very
limited value. But three or more levels of bird damage
would give a useful indication of how yields relate to a
range of damage. The relation between damage and yield
(y) is commonly expressed as a regression function.
y- m-b(d)
where m is the maximum potential yield in the absence of
bird pests or where d - and (b) is the rate of toss of yield.
The relation between bird damage and yield toss could be
straight line or sigmoid. The relation between bird density
(numbers) and yield may be related to the log or power of
bird density. Transformation of data may be necessary
before analysis.
This paper summarises a collection of crop toss
assessment methods due to birds relevant to Indian
situations. Birds can be counted directly or their effects on
crops assessed indirectly as damage. The crop toss
assessment methods should be standardized and this
needs considerable experience and data. Indian conditions
offer a multiple system of diverse agroeco systems and bird
species to work with. Then the crop-loss assessment
methods can be modified or developed suitably based on
practical situations.
Ackno wledgements
Authore are grateful to the Director of Research. UAS,
Bangalore. This study was a part of an ICAR ad hoc
project.
Reference
Anonymous. 1992. Research Highlights on AICRP
Economic Ornithology. APAU. Hyderabad, pp.15.
Bowen, K.L. and Teng. P.S. 1992. Methods of field data
collection and recording in experiments and surveys. In:
Teng, P.S. (Ed.) CRop toss assessment and Pest
Management International Book Distributing Co.
Lucknow, pp.270.
Ellington. J.. Phillips, K. ( Dearhold. D.. Kiser. K„ 1985.
Image Analysis. NCCI Data Acquisition Workshop. Jan
7-10. Rosemount. pp.111.
Emlen. J., 1971.^1/*. 88: 323.
Emlen. J.. 1 977. Auk, 94 : 455.
Gerten, D.M. and M.V. Wiese, 1984. Video image analysis
of lodging and yield loss in winter wheat relative to food
rot. Phytopathology, 74 : 872.
Lindow, S.E. and R.R. Webb. 1983. Quantification of foliar
plant disease symptoms by microcomputer-digitized
video image analysis. Phytopathology, 73 : 520-524.
Pedersen, V.D.. 1984. Multispectral radiometry using a
12-bit anatog-to-digital converter interfaced with a
portable microcomputer. Phytopathology, 74 : 687.
Pedersen, V.D. and G. Fiechtner, 1980. A low-cost compact
data acquisition system for recording visible and
infrared reflection from barley crop canopies. In Crop
Loss Assessment, pp. 71-75. Misc. Pub. No.7. Univ.
Minn. Agric. Exp. Stn., St. Paul Minn, pp.327.
Shields, W.M.. 1979. Avian Census Techniques : An
Analytical Review. 23-52. In: J.G. Dickson, R.N.
Conner, R.R. Fleet, J.C. Kroll an J.A. Jackson (Eds.).
The Role of Insectivorous birds in Forest Ecosystem.
Academic Press, New York., pp.381.
Teng, PS., 1984. Surveillance systems in disease
management. FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 32:51-60.
Walker. P.T., 1992. Measurement of Insect Pest
populations and injury. In: Teng, P.S. (Ed.) Crop Loss
assessment and Pest Managements. International Book
Distributing Co., Lucknow. pp.270.
Walker, P.T, 1980. Standardization of Pest assessment
and the FAO methods as applied to pests of cereals,
olive and citrus. EPPO Bull.. 10 : 93-96.
222
Flg.2. The way birds can cause crop loss
Bird
by
Perch
Feeding on
Deposition ot
faeces
i
rtsmiption to translocation
ol water + nutrients
-r-
1
-t
I
Yielding parts
Non-yielding
parts
^\
^
Reduction in
Damage to yielding parts
^
Size
Numbers
J
Sub-normal growth
Stem
girth
Leaf
area
Leaves
Pods/
(ruits
Reduction in yield
Harvest
Storage
223
Foraging Ecology of Pestilent Parakeets
Abraham Verghese
Division of Entomology & Nematology, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hessarghalta Lake P.O.. Bangalore 560 089
Introduction
Darakeets {Psittacula spp.) are important vertebrate
' pests of agricultural crops. Their pestilence often
assumes alarming proportions, especially in crops like
sunflower, maize, wheat and safflower, depending on the
geographical locality, vegetational diversity, roost-site, and
so on. The management strategies for the parakeets are
hardly known, as the foraging ecology is still not clear in
most of the crops. The foraging ecology so far studied
along with management principles is reviewed, so that a
cohesive and feasible approach to management can be
theorized tor experimentation.
Material and Methods
Literature on the subject was collected, analysed and
reviewed.
Result and Discussion
Taxonomic Position
Parakeets belong to the order Psittaciformes of class
Aves, and is characterized by short, hooked bills. It is
represented by the sole family Psittacidae.
Family Psittacidae
This family has six sub-families and about 60 genera
with 330 species. The characteristic features are as follows
The genus Psittacula which represent the parakeets of
India is found only in Asia. The genus has characteristic
long tail extending beyond the wing tip.
Characteristic Behavioral Traits
The parakeets have four behavioral traits that influence
its foraging and are as follows :
1 . No defined foraging territory — as a result one can
expect more number of birds per unit area. This can
put more depredation pressure on crop plants being
foraged by the parakeets.
2. Colonizers and flock formers — this contributes to
group foraging; puts more pressure as a pest of crops.
3. Arboreal — essentially feeds on canopy, hence easily
pests of tree and tall crops. But they also descend on
low height crops like wheat, but never glean from
ground.
These behaviour coupled with special feeding
modification (given below) have helped in contributing to
the pestilence of parakeets. {Ali and Ripley. 1983; Anon,
1979).
Feeding modifications
1. Short flat muscular tongue
2. Parakeet tongue has more taste buds per unit area
than in other birds
3. Short bills
4. Powerful bills to crack nuts.
1. Slout hooked bill
2. An enlarged fleshy cere covering upper mandible
3. Length of the birds vary from 8—102 cm
4. Upper mandible attached to the skull by a flexible
joint that albws it to move up and down freely
5. Short neck
6. Plump body
7. Rounded wings
8. Legs short, covered with small granular scales
9. Feet zygodactyl
10. Color mainly grey, green or red (Ali and Ripley.
1983).
Distribution
This family is distributed mainly in the Tropics, but are
also represented in the high latitudes of southern
hemisphere. The chief areas, however, are Central and
South America, West Indies, Africa, Australasia,
Sub-Antartic Islands. New Zealand. Pacific Islands and
Asia including India (Anon. 1979).
Food Range
The food is essentially vegetarian, hence important as
agricultural pests. The exception is kea, {Nector notabilis)
which is a carrion feeder. The following example would
highlight the range of food which is from grains'seeds to
nuts, leaves and flowers to fruits.
Bird
Budgerigar (Mehpsittacus sp.)
Lorikeet {Loriculus sp.)
Pygmy parrot [Micropsia sp.)
Kakapo {Stringops habroptilus)
Macaws (Anodorhynchus)
Cockatoos (Prtobesciger)
Corella(Cacafi/ssp.)
Indian Parakeets
(Ps/tfacu/aspp.)
Food
Seeds
Nectar. Pollen
Slimy fungi, algae.
seeds, (insects
additionally)
Leaves
Nuts
Nuts
Insects (Additionally)
Fruits, seeds, grains,
flowers etc.
224
Parakeets of the Indian Subcontinent
Foraging target species of Pkra/neti
There are atleast 13 species ol parakeets recorded from
the Indian Subcontinent, which also includes Burma,
Bhutan. Nepal. Ceybn. Pakistan, Tibet, South China and
Bangla Desh. These are as follows :
1 . Psittacula eupatria — found throughout India and in
Pakistan, Bangla Desh, Burma and Ceylon.
2. Pkrameri — most common throughout India, and as a
pest is economically most important. Also found in
Pakistan, Nepal, Bangla Desh and Ceylon.
3. Palexandri — restricted to the North and in Andamans
in India. Elsewhere in Nepal. Bhutan, Bangladesh,
Burma, Vietnam and China.
4. Pcaniceps — found only in Nicobar Islands.
5. Pderbyana — found in Tibet and China. No record
from India.
6. Plongicauda — found only in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
7. Pcyanocephala — found in North upto between Gujarat
and W.Bengal and down South. Also in Pakistan,
Bhutan, Nepal and Ceylon.
8. Proseata — found North and North-East in India. Also
in Bhutan, Burma and Bangla Desh.
9. Pintermedia — distribution is not known. It was
shipped in 1865 from Bombay as per records. A
specimen is available at the Rothschild Collection of
the American Museum of Natural History. New York.
10. P.himalayana — found in North and Pakistan.
11. PJinschi — restricted to North-East in India. Also in
Bangla Desh, Thailand. Burma and Vietnam.
12. P.columbodes — restricted to Western Ghats in South.
13. P.caHhorpae — restricted to Maldive Island (Mehrotra
and Bhatnagar. 1979; Ali and Ripley. 1983) and
wherever these species are found, they are potential
pests on field or horticultural crops {Shivanarayan,
1982).
Foraging and related habits (Case study : P.krameh)
The general foraging habits of all the above parakeets is
beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore, the most
pestilent. Pkrameri has been selected. This species,
typical of parakeets, keeps in small parties, which often
band to form large flocks and are seen descending on
ripening crops such as sorghum, maize, sunflower, etc.
They either bite into the ears or cut off a ear and fly to a
perch, where it is raised upto the bill with one foot and
discarded even before fully consumed. On trees they move
in the canopy attacking semi-ripe to ripe fruits. The
zygodactyl feet are well adopted for this movement within
tree canopies (Ali and Ripley, 1983: MacdonaW. 1960). In
summer, they descend in large numbers on to flowers of
trees like Peltophorum for nectar (Verghese and
Chakravarty, 1977).
The food range of the parakeet ncfudas berth
and wild plants, and those spaoncaty
follows :
Fruits — Guava. grapes, mango,
including plum and wild frurts of Ficus. Zizyphus.
Capparis. etc.
Cereals — Maize, Sorthum, Bajra.
Seeds — Sunflower, SaHlower. Groundnut, Acaoa
arabica, Prosopis sp. etc.
Pulses — Pods of all mature pulse in field inducing
Dolichos, Horsegram, etc.
Nectar — of Salmalia malabarica. Peltophorum
feruginium, Erythrina indica, Butea monosperma, Bassia
latifolia, Casuarina equisetifolia, etc. (Ali and Ripley, 1983:
Shivanarayan, 1982; Mehrotra and Bhatnagar, 1979;
Verghese and Chakravarthy. 1977).
Foraging Pestilence
As mentioned earlier, Pkrameri is the most important
among parakeets as a pest in India since 1930's (Ali and
Ali, 1938). However, in other countries where it is
distributed, including Africa, it is nol a serious pest (Banner
Man, 1951).
From agriculture point of view, the parakeets mainly
feed on cereals, oilseeds, pulses and fruits. In a study
conducted in Andhra Pradesh, it was found that cereals
comprised 57.83%. oil seeds 36.74% and pulses 30.72%
in the diet of the parakeet (Shivanarayan. 1982). Further
study from here showed that food (seed) consumption is
less during summer (Shivanarayan. 1982) possibry on
account of extra nectar intake to 'quench' thirst reflexes.
In a study on Peupatria from Pakistan. Ali and Ripley
(1983) reported the following diet distribution, based on
stomach analyses;
Crop seeds
-52%
Weed seeds
- 2.7%
Neutral seeds
-11.4%
Vegetable
-4.8%
Cultivaled Frurts
-19.0%
Wild Fruits
-9.8%
The data clearly show that the parakeet is an estalished
pest in agroecosystems.
Varietal preferences
As mentioned earlier, parakeets with a better sense of
taste show discriminatory foraging among different
varieties of a crop species. Bhatnagar et al.. 1982
screening bajra germplasm found that varieties with earty
maturity, more height, loose grain in ear head and loose
stalk had higher infestation. Therefore, they concluded thai
varieties with late maturity, dwarfness. compact grains, and
stiff stalk to be included in breeding.
225
In Saff lower, Mahto and Bhatnagar (1982) found thai
spiny varieties JSP-1 and 116-4-5 had less boll damage
(18.16% and 23-25%. respectively) as compared to nearly
60% damage in non-spiny varieties like NS-133 and
340092.
Reports in Anon. 1980, on maize gives interesting
results. Parakeets avoided cobs at lower heights. With
more of tightness in the outer spathe, infestation was less.
In the varieties Pirals Piracicaha. Suwan, DMR Source 1, D
Composite. Piranao. there was no bird damage, but were
susceptible to Chito parteilus. Ganga 5 and Antigua Gri
were resistant to C.partellus, but highly susceptible lo bird
damage. Suwan 1 and Thai Comp. were resistant to both,
Bhatnagar ef a/., (1982).
Control strategies
Scaring — Scaring using labour with rattling sounds,
shot guns, sulphur crackers or stone slings seems to be
theonly reasonable control device available in India. Using
labour scaring, bird damage was reduced from 42-98.23%
to 5.23-39.12% in sorghum (Santhaiah, 1982).
Acetylene gas exploder works for some time rf location
and frequency of sound are changed from time to time
(Shivanarayan, 1982). According to him mounting the
exploder on stand above the crop gives the best scaring
effect Further, this can be improvised by fixing a thin steel
drum to amplify the sound for greater efficacy.
Use of 0.22 rifle or 12 bore shotgun is effective on short
term basis. Anon (1983).
Acoustic repellents
Alarm calls of Pkramerihave been recorded and played
to dispel successfully the parakeet flocks. However, due to
habituation and high cost of installation, it has not become
popular (Anon. 1983).
Use of sticky substance
This is a common method elsewhere in developed
countries. Non- drying and cheap adhesives are not easily
available in India, hence, it is yet to be popular here.
Stakes pasted with sticky substance like "Bird Tangle Foot"
or "Stickem" trap birds, which can be caught and caged or
destroyed. However, birds over a period learn to avoid
such sticky stakes thus diminishing its utility (Anon. 1980,
1983).
Chemical Control
Repellents
Use of repellents have not found desired result in India.
Expenments using methiocarb (3.5 — di methyl -4- met hyl-
thio phenol methyl carbamate) 1% and 4 parts of sorghum
as bait has not proved successful. Likewise repellent
sprays of parathion and fenthion have not been effective
(Anon. 1986).
Reflector ribbons
Reflector ribbons are coloured tapes with irrdiscent
colours of 0.5 cm width. As birds have high visual sense,
these ribbons have high potential in disrupting the
orientation of parakeets to crop ecosystems (Anon, 1986).
Foraging strategy
So far, no concerted efforts have been put to investigate
into the foraging strategy of the parakeets, except for the
study on guava. ft was found that the birds descend on
guava canopy and 'select' a mature fruit from the upper
canopy. Bird damage with size and visibility showed poor
correlation. Therefore, foraging optimization was more
based on maturity than size. Search for desired fruits is
evident from weak correlation of damage with visibility
implying a non-random foraging strategy (Verghese and
Prasad. 1985).
Future Suggestion
If a meaningful strategy has to be evolved to manage
parakeets the following points have to be considered :-
1 . The foraging strategies and ecological factors affecting
the same need to be understood and modelled into
prediction equations to enable forecasting in different
agro-ecological zones with reference to crop
seasonality.
2. It is widely believed that parakeets were originally birds
of the wild and the depletion of natural food has
gradually led lo crop depredations, therefore, habitat
manipulation in terms of planting wild trees bearing
berries, flowers, fruits and seed will help decrease
damage by parakeets.
3. Nest and roost destruction must be carried out in
selected pestilent zones.
4. Use of resistant varieties seems very potential and
should be fully exploited in breeding programmes.
5. Exploration of using buffer crops as diversion crops
needs to be initiated.
6. Falconry can be attempted as a scaring technique.
7. Use of chemosterilants like Orintol and stupefying baits
like Avitrol, Alphachtoralone. can be attempted.
The foraging ecology of parakeets are poorly
understood. The food range of parakeets and their general
ecology with some control measures have only been
studied. However, in the guava example, foraging ecology
and strategy can van/ with the (i) species of parakeet, 00
the crop and (lii) the locality. So. the foraging ecology and
strategy on a national grid basis has to be worked out and
wherever it warrants, a combination of the above
mentioned control measures need to be standardized. The
comprehension of their foraging must be related to
economics to manage the birds. Parakeets should not t*
226
exterminated, as parakeets are lovable birds with
aesthetic appeal.
References
Ali, S. and Abdul Ali. H. ( 1938. The birds of Bombay and
Salsette, Part IV. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 40 :
148-173.
Ali. S. and S.O Ripley. 1983. Handbook ol Birds ol India
and Pakistan, 3 : Oxford University Press. Delhi, Oxford.
New York. P.163-190.
Anon, 1979. Birds. Their life, their ways, their world. The
Readers Digest Association Far East Ltd.. p.411.
Anon. 1980. Annual Report of All India Coordinated Project
on Economic Ornithology. ICAR. APAU. Rajend ran agar,
Hyderabad 500030, India.
Anon. 1983. Annual Report AICPEO. ICAR. APAU.
Rajend ranagar, Hyderabad 500030, India.
Anon. 1986. Annual Report AICPEO. ICAR. APAU,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030. India.
Banner Man, D.A. 1957. The birds of Tropical West Africa,
8 : Edinburg : Chiver and Boyd.
Bhatnagar, R.K., P. Swarup, K.N.. Mehrotra and K.H.
Siddkjui, 1982. Bird damage to maize. In: Management
of Problem Birds in Agriculture, 233.
Bhatnagar, R.K.. M.G. Jotwani and K.N. Mehrotra, 1982.
Relative succeptibility of certain bajra varieties to avian
depredators, tn: Management ol Problem 8irds in
Agriculture, 235-236.
Macdonald. M.. 1960. Birds in my Indian Garden. J. Bom.
nat Hist. Soc, 57, 48-60.
Mahto. Y. and R.K. Bhatnagar, 1982. Bird damage m
Safftower. In: Management of Problem Birds in
Agriculture. IARI, 241-242.
Mehrotra. K.N. and R.K. Bhatnagar. 1979. Status of
economic Ornithology in India. ICAR, New Delhi, p.79.
Santhaiah, N. 1982. Bird pest of sorghum and their
management. In: Management of problem Birds in
Agriculture. IARI. p. 178-182.
Shivanarayan, N. 1982. The roseringed parakeet — the
problem bird in agriculture and its management. In:
Management of Problem Birds. ARDB and IARI, New
Delhi. 151-153.
Verghese, A. and A.K. Chakravarthy, 1977. Patterns of
birdlife in a garden. Ind. J. of Behaviour, 1: 14-17.
Verghese, A. and V.G. Prasad. 1985. Feeding activities of
the Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula kramari (Scopoli)
on Guava. In: Non-insect pests and predators. AISWS,
New Delhi 110 063, p.140-144.
227
Foliage Damage to Areca, Areca catechu L. by Roosting of Rose Ringed Parakeet,
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)
B.L. Visweswara Gowda, B. Shlvayqgeshwara and Prakash R. Nafk
Regional Research Station, Shimoga, DMS. Science College. Shimoga
Areca Areca catechu is an important commercial crop
being grown in 20,000 ha in Shimoga district. Currently
farmers are earning profits to the tune of rupees one lakh
per acre. Roosting of birds on trees is very common on the
avenue and garden trees in Shimoga. But roosting of
parakeets on areca was found alarming as it caused
considerable foliage damage. Observations on this aspect
is reported here.
Observations were recorded during 1992-93 on the
impact of parakeets roosting on areca in a three-acre
garden at Kagekodamaggi village. Bhadravathi taluk.
The areca palms were 15 years old and the parakeets
roosts was limited to this garden. These birds did not
directly cause yield loss in areca palms but were observed
to roost in hundreds of individuals per palm. Their
congregation started with characteristic noise at 6.30 p.m.
and the commotion lasted for half an hour. Due to the
congregation of birds, the fronds were subjected to heavy
physical pressure. Hundred percent of the trees in three
acres were subjected to foliage damage. The foliage
damage ranged from 20 to 70 per cent with the average 38
per cent.
In addition to foliage damage, the guano of the birds
spread all over the leaf surface resulting in reduced
photo -synthetic activity. The iniured fronds attained
senescence earfy and fell prematurely. On an average, out
of fourteen fronds/plant, eleven were affected. Average
length of the frond in a healthy palm measured 170 cm. but
that of affected palm measured 98 cm. Unopened leaves
were not affected because of their erect nature. The
production of nuts in the palm was also adversely affected
by premature nut fall acrueing to yield loss. As per the
farmer's statement, the loss was to an extent of 30%.
Although rose-ringed parakeets are known to cause a loss
of 16% in Maize cobs. 63% in Mustard pod yield and
serious damage in grain and fruit crops (Simwat and Sidhu,
1973). No reports were encountered on foliage damage
due to roosting. Dhileepan (1989) from Kerala reported the
Lorikeet (Loricvlus sp.) damage to oil palms feeding on
fruits. Continuous use of crackers was helpful in warding off
the parakeets from the areca garden.
References
Dhileepan, K., 1989. Investigations on avian pests of oil
palm, Elacis guineensis Jacq. in India. Pest. Manage 35 '
273-277.
Simwat, G.S. andA.S. Sidhu. 1973. Note on thefepi -:
habits of rose-ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri
(Scopoli). Indian J. agri. Sci.. 43 : 607-609.
Table 1 : Percent foliage damage and number of
fronds affected due to parakeets roosting
Palm No.
Leaf area
Average No.
No. of affected
damage per
of fronds/
fronds'palm
palm (%)
palm
1
39
13
11
2
42
14
11
3
40
15
13
4
20
15
8
5
25
14
11
6
34
13
11
7
34
13
11
8
28
14
12
9
38
13
11
10
70
13
11
Mean
38.0
13.7
11 c
228
Status and Conservation of Avifauna of Aravalli Range and Mount Abu with Special
Reference to Depletion of Avifauna in the Last Twenty Five Years
Indra Kumar Sharma
Bagwati Bhavan. Ratanada Road, Jodhpur 342 020
KAri Aravalli range and Mount Abu have 1000 meter high
lv 'deciduous forests with highest peak Gurusikhar at
1770 meter MSL, in the north west India. Avifauna of the
region is of high ornithological interest. Ecological aspects
of this range was observed for the last twenty five years
from 1 967 to 1 993 and serious decline of avifauna of green
mountain forests was noted. There has been clandestine
illegal cutting of grass in the Aravalli range and Mount Abu
for the last 25 years. Now the former forest thickets have
been reduced to sparse forests. Grey Tit. Yellowcheeked
Tit, Redwhiskered Bulbul, White-eye. Paradise Flycatcher,
Green Munia, Scarlet Mmivet, Golden Oriole. Blacknaped
Oriole, Grey Hornbill. Chestnutbellied Nuthatch, Crested
Bunting, Green Pigeon and the Crested Hawk-Eagle are
the main avifauna of thick forests.
It was observed that thickets of Mangfora mdica. Feus
gtomervla, Eugenia jambolana and Carissa carandus and
Dendrocalamus Slrictus have been badry reducd by wrong
forestry management and excessive and illicit tree cutting
by the forest contractors. For the last 20 years planting of
Eucalyptus spp. and Grevillia robusla have teen
emphasised in the region, which are unfavourable to
avifauna of forest thickets.
Increase of forest reserves areas with rigid fencing and
guarding against illicit and excessive cutting of trees and
shrubs are needed.
Parakeet Damage to Marigold Crop
P.S. Sandhu and Jaswinder S. Sandhu
Department of Forestry & Natural Resources. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana- 14 1 004
D lossomheaded Parakeet. Psittacula cyanocephala and
^Roseringed Parakeet, P. krameri caused 64.7%
damage to a seed crop of African Marigold. Tagelas eracta
c.v. Cracker Jack. This is the first quantitative study on the
parakeet damage to marigold. The btossomheaded
Parakeet was the major depredator, whereas, the
Roseringed Parakeet was an occasional visitor to the crop,
probably due to difficulty in 'handling' the tiny seeds of
marigold with its larger beak and availability of more
profitable alternative food. The parakeets preferred the
(towers nearer to their perching site and the damage
caused at a particular point was negatively related to the
distance from the perch (r--0.70, P).
The side towards road suffered minimum damage
(28.7%) which was significantly less than the damage
inflicted on other sides (80.3%.84.8% and 69.9%, F-test,
P). thus confirming their tendency to keep away from the
human disturbance. The results of this study may be
helpful in planning more effective and less expensrve
strategies for reducing bird damage to a crop in a particular
situation.
229
Avian Predatory Habit on FCV Tobacco Aphid Myzus nicotianae Blackman
and Its Influence on Yield
B. Shivayogeshwara, S.P. Nataraju, N.K. Krishna Prasad and Prakash R. Nalk'
Regional Research Station, Shimoga
D.V.S. Science College. Shimoga
Introduction
WWagtails are good predators of mustard aphid (Toor and
" • Ramzan. 1975). Gupta and Yadava (1989) observed
Ihe predatory habit of Acridotheres tristis on cumin aphid
Myzus persicae. FiekJ bean aphid Aphis craccivora was
efficiently predated by Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla tlava and
Grey Wagtail. Motacilla caspica (Chakravarthy and
Lingappa, 1978). Tree Swallow. Thdoprocne bicolor and
Hirundo rustica were observed predating on adults of larch
sawlly. Pristiphora erischsoni (HTG).. (Buckner and
Turnock. 1965). Guerrieri at at.. (1990) reported that,
survival of Hirundo rustica colony depends on the dipteran
insects availability in high numbers.
Flue cured Virginia tobacco is an important commercial
crop grown in an area of 30,000 ha. It is infested severely
by aphid Myzus nicotianae affecting both yield and quality.
Avian predators were observed to feed on the tobacco
aphids. In the process of their feeding, birds caused loss by
damaging the valuable leaf. This study was taken up to
quantify the extent of damage to tobacco leaf.
Material and Methods
The observations were recorded on the predatory habit
of the birds. Acridolheres tristis. Acndotheres fuscus.
Slurnus pagodarum and Hirundo sop. during 1991 and
1992 in tobacco growing areas of Shimoga in Karnataka.
The activities of birds were observed throughout the day.
To quantify the intensity of birds damage, the observations
were taken on ten randomly selected plants. The damaged
leaves were collected plant position wise (viz., P. X. L and
T, wherein P' refers to leaves at the bottom, T refers to
leaves at the top. X and 'L' in between P and T). The
extent of leaf damage was assessed on weight basis.
feeding on a single tobacco aphid infested plant. The moist
soil clinging to the daws, soiled the leaf surface in addition
to fecal matter.
From the Table 1, it is clear that the extent of leaf
damage by birds is significantly high for middle leaves (X
and L). compared to bottom (P) and top (T) leaves, ft is
important to note here that middle leaves are economically
important for the manufacture of cigarettes. Though the
damage is severe in 'X' and V type of leaves, they differed
significantly, that is there is almost 50 per cent difference in
the amount of damage from 'L' to 'X' leaves. However, P
and T recorded nonsignificant damages.
X, L and T position leaves had almost uniform
population of aphids per unit area (VI Grade). The 'X'
position leaves are broad with strong midrib facilitating the
birds to alight on the leaves to feed on the aphids from the
respective upper leaves. Thus, severity of damage was
more in 'X' position leaves. The V position leaves are
narrower and resulted in less damage to that of 'X' position
leaves. The 'P* position leaves had less number of aphids
per unit area (III Grade) and leaves generally touched the
soil, causing inconvenience to the birds in picking up
aphids. T position leaves were small and harboured good
number of aphids (VI Grade), but unable to withstand the
weight of the birds. Hence damage to 'P' and T leaves
was very low. In any position of the leaves, a certain
percentage of aphids remained unfed by the birds.
Birds also acted as a mechanical transmitting agent of
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Hirundo species was
observed to fly continuously for hours together at a hetght
of one to five meters, feeding on alate aphids. Thus, this
study establishes perhaps for the first time predatory role of
birds that affect the commercial product of crop plants like
tobacco.
Results and Discussion
The birds Acridotheres tristis, Acridotheres tuscus and
Sturnus pagodarum visited the tobacco fields during
morning and evening hours. The birds entered the field
only after the dew was cleared on the leaf surface which
occurred around 9 a.m. depending on the weather. The first
two species constituted 90 per cent of the observed bird
population. S.pagodarum was less in number and was a
shy predator. Birds visited the fields in two to three flocks.
After feeding for 15—20 min. they used to move on to the
bushes and cleaned their beaks for feeding again. Perhaps
the gummy ooze on tobacco leaf necessitated beak
cleaning. The birds perch on ground to pick up aphids
present on the lower surface of the upper leaf. The damage
caused by the claws was much more compared to the
beak. One or two birds simultaneously were engaged in
References
Buckner. C.H. and W.J. Turnock, 1965. Aviation predation
on the on the larch sawfly, Pristiphora erichsonii (HTG),
(Hymenoptera: Tenth red inidae), Ecology, 46 : 223-226.
Chakravarthy, A.K. and S. Lingappa. 1978. Wagtails as
Predators of field bean aphids. J. Bombay nal. Hist.
Soc.. 76 : 367.
Guerrieri Gaspare, Massino Biondi and Loris Pietrelli,
1990. The influence of meteorological factors on a
Wintering Swallow. Hirundo rustica population in Central
Italy. RivOrrnitol, 60 : 137-146.
Gupta, B.M. and CP.S. Yadava, 1989. Role of Coccinellid
Predators in regulating the aphids Myzus persicae
230
(Sulzef) population on Cumin field. Indian J. Eotomol,
51 : 24-28
Toor, H.S. and M. Ramzan. 1975. The gey Wagtail.
Motacilla caspica Gmeiin — a good p'edaJor of mustard
aphid, Liphaphis erysini KaH. So. and Cult. 41 : 288.
Table 1 Tobacco leaf damage by birds while feeding on aphids (Position wise)
Plant Number
P
X
L
T
1991
— 1992
1991
— 1992
1991
— 1992
1991
-1992
1
3
3
34
26
13
10
3
3
2
2
2
32
28
12
11
4
4
3
3
3
33
24
13
10
4
4
4
3
3
31
25
11
8
3
3
5
3
3
30
26
13
12
3
3
6
2
2
33
24
12
10
4
3
7
3
2
34
26
10
10
3
3
8
2
2
32
27
13
10
3
3
9
2
3
31
23
11
10
3
3
10
2
2
30
24
13
11
3
3
Mean
2.5
2.5
32
25.3
12.1
10.2
3.3
3.2
231
Bird Predation on the Termite, Odontotermes wallonensis in Cultivated Tracts
Around Bangalore
D.Rajagopal and N.G. Kumar
Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK
Bangalore 560 065
"The beneficial role of birds which devour mustard aphids,
whitegrubs. castor semiloopers, cotton bollworms
(Anomymous, 1992), and cardamom shoot-and-frurt borer
{Chakravarthy, 1986), are well known. The House Sparrow,
Passer domesticus reduced the population of polyphagous
pest. Heliolhis arnkjera by 40% in Kota, Rajasthan on
wheat (Anonymous. 1992). In Ganapararam village.
Guntur. farmers stopped spraying insecticides for control of
insect pests. Instead the farmers erected perches to
encourage insectivorous birds in their fields. The farmers
estimated their total savings to be 1 million rupees since
their expenditure for pesticides was about Rs.25007ha. The
pesticide free groundnut fields yielded well and were on par
with insecticide sprayed plots (Anonymous. 1993).
Termite, Odontotermes wallonensis is a polyphagous
pest infesting several crops during kharif (June -October)
under rainfed conditions in red sandy soils. Observations in
such cultivated tracts at South Bangalore were recorded
from 1980 to 1982. Birds predating on termites were
identified by a pair of 7 ± 35 binoculars. At each
observation period, species and numbers of birds were
recorded.
Eleven species, viz. Indian Myna. Acridotheres tristis;
Jungle Myna, Acrido theres fuscus; Spotted Owlet, Athene
brama; Common Indian Nightjar, Caphmulgus asiaticus;
Jungle Crow. Con/us macrorhynchos; Orongo, Dicrurus
adsimilis. Bee-eater. Merops orientalis; Pariah Kite, Milvus
migrans; House Sparrow, Passer domesticus and Indian
Robin, Saxicobides fulicata were observed feeding on
termites which emerged from soil during twilight hours
between 6.30 to 9.30 hr.
References
Anonymous. 1992. Research Highlights of AICRP on
Agricultural Ornithology. Hyderabad, pp.14.
Anonymous, 1993. Newsletter of the ICRISAT. No.13,
Jan-Mar 1993. pp.15.
Chakravarthy. A.K.. 1979. Bird predators of termites.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers, XIXI, 3.
Chakravarthy. A.K.. 1986. Predaton of Goldenbacked
Woodpecker, Dinopium benghalense Linn, on
cardamom Shoot-and-fruit borer, Dichocrocis
punctiferalis (Gueue). J. Bombay Natural History Soc..
85(2) : 427.
Acknowledgements
Assistance received from Dr.A.K. Chakravarthy is
gratefully acknowledged.
232
Birds Damage to Pineapple Ananas comosus in Coastal and Hill Regions of
Karnataka
A.K. Chakravarthy and P. Balakrishna
University ot Agricultural Sciences. GKVK, Bangalore 560 065
Pineapple. Annas comosus L. (Merr.) is cultivated along
borders ot vegetable and fruit gardens in coastal
region. Porcupine {Hystrix indica). Wildboar {Sus scrofa).
Jackal (Canis sureus). Jungle Crow (Corvus
macrorhynchos). Koel {Eudynamys scohpacea). Crow-
pheasant (C&ntropus sinensis) and other birds depredate
pineapple, sometimes incurring economic losses to
farmers. In most situations in coastal region and in some
situations in hill region, Jungle Crow was found to be the
dominant species. On an average, it was estimated from a
survey during 1991 to 1993 that pineapple fruit yield losses
in coastal region amounted to 22% (n - 16) and 12%
(n - 18) in hill region due to the vertebrate pests including
birds.
The crows preferred well-ripened (6 months old) fruits
but also attacked partially ripened ones (4 to 5 months old).
A fruit was destroyed by a crow on an average on 12 min
(n - 14). Subsequently the damaged fruits are rapidly
prone to black or soft rot. The fruits lose market value and
become unfit for consumption.
In order to protect the fruits from crow damage, a trial
was laid out in Dharmastala, Ujjare taluk. The fruits were
covered externally by a thatch of dry grass and leaves of
the plant itself to prevent the crow from alighting on the
plant. When the fruits became more than four months old.
the rosette of spiky leaves was tied over 50 fruits,
randomly. A set of another 30 fruits were covered with
grass in the same pitch. Twenty fruits left uncovered,
served as control. After three weeks, it was found that while
70% of uncovered fruits were destroyed, the fruits covered
either by grass (none destroyed) or leaves (8% destroyed)
remained comparatively unattacked. The practice of
covering ripening pineapple fruits would help to minimize
bird damage
Pesticide Hazards to Non-target Birds
M.S.Sainl and V.R.Parshad
Dept. ot Zoology . Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004
Pesticide hazards to non-target animals are gaining
' attention worldwide in pursuit of developing
narrow- spectrum and biodegradable pesticides. Evidences
indicate that certain pesticides are more toxic to birds than
to mammals of similar body weight. Several reports have
revealed that acute rodenticides used in grain baits posed
primary hazards to gallinaceous birds, waterfowl and many
seed eating birds. This trend became more pronounced
with anti coagulant rodenticides which also pose a serious
threat to raptors due to their secondary toxicity. Insecticides
like DDT(organochlorine) and Dieldnn have a greater
capacity for bio accumulation in birds and result in mortality
and depressed reproduction (due to eggshell thinning and
nestling poisoning). Carbamate and Organophosphate
insecticides along with certain avicides like avitrol have
devastating effects on birds both from primary and
secondary toxicity. A wide variety of pesticides which are
sprayed cause dermal toxicity in birds and impair their
nervous system leading to disorientation and erratic
behaviour before death.
There is also evidence that birds are deficient in certain
enzymes which a*d to detoxification of pesticides.
It has been observed that migratory birds carry nesticide
residues to other ecosystems and poison their predators
and/or cause reproductive failures, thus revealing a global
impact of pesticide hazards.
233
Relative Susceptibility of Wheat Hybrids to Bird Damage
R.K. Bhatnagar, R.P. Paltaand M. Raizada
Entomology Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi 110 012, India
Introduction
Dirds damage wheat from sowing to sprouting, grain
^setting to harvest, in the threshing yard and storage
godowns (Mehrotra and Bhatnagar. 1979). At sowing to
sprouting control is possible with seed dressings using
0.025% Landrin and Methiocarb (Dolbeer et a/.. 1979;
Mehrotra and Bhatnagar, 1979 and Poche et al.. 1980).
Methiocarb seed dressings in wheat and barely have also
been shown to provide simultaneous control of
sub-terranean cutting insects like Grylbtalpa spp.
(Bhatnagar and Singh, 1982). Even use of metallised
reflective ribbon, 70 cm above seed bed and at inter
distance of 1.5 to 2.0 m. provides high efficacy as
compared to its efficacy at grain setting to harvest. These
appear quite safe to even protected and endangered or
migratory birds many of which depredate sown and
sprouting wheat fields (Mehrotra and Bhatnagar, 1979).
At grain maturity, no chemical spray provides significant
protection against bird species like Ouelea (DeGrazio.
1974; Dehaven and DeGrazio, 1974; Knittle et al.. 1971;
Cunningham, 1974; Cunningham and Knittle. 1975).
Similar situation exists in India against parakeets, sparrows
and weaver birds. Obviously, alternative measures for
integrating in bird damage control have to be developed.
One such approach is to identify resistant or less
susceptible varieties for use in habitat manipulation
(cultivation in vulnerable regions in relation to bird
abundance over crop). Previous studies from Bihar
(Ambastha. 1959-60, and Bhatnagar, 1979 in Mehrotra
and Bhatnagar, 1979) are not appropriate with
development of newer hybrids/varieties of high yielding
nature and other agronomical factors. With these
objectives, studies were taken on eight new promising
wheat hybrids during 1992-93. These are presented in this
paper.
Material And Methods
A implicated field trial was taken on eight hybrids,
namely, HD-2329. RAJ-1555. PDW-34, HD-4550.
HD-4642, HD-4633, PDW-215 and HD-4640. Each of
these were cultivated in large plots (7 x 15 m ), with three
replication for exposed, and three for partly protected with
metallised reflective ribbon and paper bags. This layout
was designed to provide wider exposure of each variety
within larger plots Along with these, each hybrid was
cultivated in 30 m king rows (three for each cultivar) to
provide multiple choice within short distance. The
recommended agronomical practices (Tandon and Sethi,
1991) (without pesticide) were followed. Data are given in
Table 1 .
Results And Discussion
Data revealed that per cent yield output in unprotected
plots vs. partly protected plots and index of susceptibility
(figures in parentheses) ranged as follows: HD-2329 : 4.21
(95.79); RAJ-1555 : 23.45 (76.55); PDW-34 : 27. 94
(72.06); HD-4530 ; 33.65 (66.35); HD-4642 ; 56.13 (43.86);
HD-4633 : 82.57 (17.43); PD-215 : 91.70 (8.3); HD-4640 ;
97.85 (2.15). The study thus showed that most susceptible
variety was HD-2329; moderately susceptible varieties
were RAJ-1555, PD-34, HD-4530 and least susceptible
varieties with yield output ranging from 56.13 to 97.85%
were HD- 4642. HD-4633. PD-215 and HD-4640. Thus with
manipulations or designing a layout in relation to
abundance of depredatory birds from roost distance
(Ambastha. 1959-60). reduction in bird damage with
cultivation of less susceptible varieties appeared useful in
integrating with control measures.
Acknowledgemen t
Authors are thankful to various Institute authorities for
facilities.
REFERENCES
Ambastha, H.N.S., 1959-60. Tolerance of wheat varieties.
Proc. Bihar Acad, agric. Sci. 55-59.
Bhatnagar. R.K., 1979. In Mehrotra. K.N. and Bhatnagar.
R.K. Status of Eco-Ornithology in India, pp.41-42,
Memoir Indian Council ot Agricultural Research. New
Delhi. 79 pp.
Bhatnagar, R.K. and Singh. VkJya Sagar. 1982. In
Management of Problem Birds in Aviation and
Agriculture by R.A. Agarwal and R.K. Bhatnagar (Edrs.),
1982, Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi.
224 pp.
Ciir.niiigham, D.J. and Knittle. C.E. 1975. Evaluation of
Methiocarb as a chemical repellent for protecting wind
rowed grain from damage by water fowl. Report
DF-102-3. No.65, Denver Wildlife Res. Centre, 6 pp
De Graze, J.W., 1974. Vertebrate damage Control
Research. Ouelea Bird Problems in African Agriculture.
Report, 25 pp. In Crase, F.T and R.W. Dehaven, 1976.
Proc. 7th Vertegrate Pest Control Conl. 1976, Univ. of
California, Davis, pp.46-50.
Dolbeer. R.A., Stickley, A.R. Jr. and Woronecki. PP.. 1979.
Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, damage to sprouting wheat in
Tennessee and Kentucky, USA, Protection Ecology. 1 :
159-169.
Knittle, C.W., Cunningham, D.J. and Quellette, M.R., 1975.
Methiocarb as a black bird repellent on ripening wheat
234
in N. Dakota. Report Work Unit DF-102-3. No.64 in
Crase, T.F. and Dehaven, R.A.. 1976. Op. tit.. 46-50.
Poche. R.M.. Karim. M.A. and Haque, M.E.. 1980. Bird
damage control in sprouting wheat. Bangladesh Journal
of Agricultural Research, 5 : 41-46.
Mehrotra, K.N. and Bhatnagar, R.K.. 1979. Status ot
Economic Ornithology in India: Depredents,
Depredations and management. Memoir Indian Council
ol Aghcultural Research, New Delhi, 79 pp.
Tandon. J.P. and Sethi, A.P., 1991. Wheat Production
Technology. 1991. Directorate ol Wheat Research,
Kama). 43 pp.
Table 1 : Relative susceptibility of eight wheat hybrids to bird damage In un-protected (UN) and partly protected
plots (PP), with average yield
Parameter
Mfh«
hybrtfB
(ave.'plot ot
4 replicates
Hd-2329
Raj- 1555 Pdw-34
Hd-4530
H04642
HO ^33
Pcfw-215
HD-4640
UN:Ave.yld
/plot(gm)
9.96
53.3 99 38
67.58
84.2
2100
144.8
330.0
PP:Ave.yU.
/plot(gm)
236.48
227 29 355.59
200.83
150.0
254 32
157.9
3372
% of ytd out
put from PP
Index of susce
ptibiltty (%of
yld output
-100)
4.21
-
95.79
23.45 27.94
76.71 72.06
33.65
66.35
56.13
43.87
1257
1743
91.70
8.3
97.85
2.15
235
Depredation of Guava Fruits [Psidium gujava) by Birds at Mudigere,
Chickmagalur, Karnataka
K. Krishnappa and J.B. Narendra Kumar
University of Agricultural Sciences, Regional Research Stalton, Mudigere 577 132
At Mudigere guava fruits were found to be depredated by
*\Jungle Crow, Corvus macrobynchos. Small Green
Barbel (Megalaima viridis) and Parakeet (Psiftacula
kramen). Observations on number of unripened, partially
ripened and fully ripened fruits damaged by birds revealed
that the depredative loss and rate of depredation on guava
varied depending upon the maturity of fruits. Birds
destroyed, on an average, about 14 per cent unripened.
23.7 per cent partially ripened and 32.8 per cent fully
ripened fruits (Table 1), there being significant and positive
correlation (r - 0.2169) between the two. The rate of
depredation on unripened, partially ripened and fully
ripened fruits was 2-4, 2-3 and 3-2 fruits per day,
respectively.
In order to reduce the bird depredation, that portion of
the guave tree canopy was covered where fruits were
exposed with dried grass, thatched materials and mat of
dried leaves.
In an orchard of 600 trees, 25% of trees were so
covered randomly. Weekly observations recorded on fruit
depredation for one month showed that in protected trees
the percent fruit depredation was 16.80% compared to
33.61% in unprotected trees.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the Director of Research, UAS.
Bangalore. This study was supported financially by a
project grants from the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi to Dr A.K. Chakravarthy.
Table 1 : Bird depredation on Guava fruits at Mudigere
Date
Fruit (Nos) damagedlree Unprotected
Unripened
Partially
fjpened
Fully ripened
Protected
11.08.92
10.55
25.55
30.25
11.05
15.08.92
20.50
32.50
45.95
16.49
19.06.92
10.55
35.45
50.25
16.04
23.08.92
20.25
15.25
35.45
11.82
30.08.92
18.75
25.35
32.45
12.75
08.09.92
16.36
20.35
17.58
9.04
16.09.92
18.25
19.75
30.45
11.40
24.09.92
10.35
35.25
43.75
14.89
02.10.92
8.35
12.35
20.35
6.84
10.10.92
6.25
15.45
22.15
7.30
Total
140.20
237.30
328.60
117.50
Mean
14.20
23.73
32.86
% Loss
33.61
16.80
r at 5%
8.87
6.07
236
Plastic Bagging for Controlling Bird Damage In Sunflower Heads
R.K. Bhatnagar, K.P. Srivastava' and R.K. Palta
Division of Entomology. Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi 110 012
'Present Address: Division of Mycology and Plant Pathology, IARI, New Delhi 110 012
Introduction
Ounflower is important lor its edible oil (Stndagi and
^Wupakshappa, 1986). Bird damage at sowing to
sprouting and at seed setting to harvest is high almost
Vvoughoul the country (Mehrotra and Bhatnagar. 1979;
fcor and Ramzan, 1974 and Dhindsa et al.. 1991). House
Crows (Corvus splendens) alone were estimated to
eamage 65.1% in Punjab (Dhindsa et al.. 1991) at
sprouting. At this stage, in other areas, Common Pigeons
Cokjmba livia). Ring Doves {Streptopelia decaocto),
Peafowls (Pavo crislatus) and migratory birds like Indian
Crane. Demoiselle Crane and Sarus Cranes also
depredate. Dhindsa et al., (1991) have shown that seed
dressings with commonly used fungicides, 0.5%
IHramethyl-Thiuram Sulphide and 0.5% Copper
Oayehloride did not reduce damage by Crows. This can,
•owever, be reduced with use of reflective tapes at 70 cm
aocve seed beds at 1.5 m interdistance with double
horizontal rows (upto height 1 m) on borders of plots.
Bad damage in crops at seed setting to harvest is well
mown throughout world {Dolbeer, 1975 and Besser, 1978).
Fmm India, excessive depredations in flower heads by 10
spades of parakeets (out of 14) in different regions are
anown. The known control methods (Mehrotra and
Baatnagar. 1979) have not provided any efficacy. This led
B »w investigation on mechanical exclusion approach
aaaatanad with scaring by use of reflective ribbon.
laaaarial and Methods
SaaJtower variety 'Morden' was cultivated in three large
each comprising of three sub-repltcafes of fifteen
each of 1 5 m length. Each of the replicates was at an
stance of 70 m. Of these, six sub- replicates were
caad al random and treated, as replicates were large
Data was recorded from commencement of bird
when plastic bags were put on flowerheads and
u the stalk.
taste bagging involved use of ordinary plastic bags of
■ 46 5 cm. These were punched with 7-8 rows of 6 x
aaai holes, at an inlerdistance of 2.5 cm. Between rows
:* puncned holes strips of metallised reflective ribbons in
alternating colours (red and silver) were affixed with
synthetic resin. Petrovis-100. This was done to combine
scaring with bagging. Flowerheads were bagged after
setting. Data are given in Table 1 .
Results and Discussion
Study showed that average number of flowerheads in
various replicates ranged from 33.33 to 101.73. This
variation was due to complete loss of small matured
flowerheads cut from stalks by parakeets. Thus average
number of damaged flowerheads in six replicates ranged
from 15.8 to 86.48 which on quantification to per cent
damage ranged 26.34 to 95.31. None of ihe bagged
flowerhead suffered damage.
Results indicated the combined effects of exclusion with
bagging and behavioural scaring with affixed ribbon strips
on the bags is economical in preventing bird damage.
Acknowledgement
Authors wish to thank the Director and Head of the
Division of Mycology and Plant Pathology. IARI, New Delhi
for providing facilities.
References
Besser, J.F., 1978. Protecting seeded rice from blackbirds
with Methiocarb. International Rice Commission
Newsletter, 22(3) : 9-14.
Dhindsa, M.S.. Sandhu. P.S.. Saini, H.K. and Toor, H.S.,
1991. House Crow damage to sunflower. Tropical Pest
Management. 37(2) : 178-181.
Dolbeer, R.A.. 1975. A compaiiscn of two methods for
estimating bird damage to Sunflower. J. Wildlife
Management. 39 : 802-806.
Mehrotra, K.N. and Bhatnagar, R.K.. 1979. Stalus ol
Economic Ornithology in India: Bird depredents.
depredations and their management. Memoir Indian
Council of Agril. Research, New Delhi. 79 pp.
Sindagi. S.S. and Virupakshappa, K., 1986. Sunflower.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Table 1 Relative bird damage In Sunflowerheads unprotected and protected with plastic bagging
Replicates
number of flowerheads per row
number of damaged per row
- mame
R-1
R-2
R-3
R-4
R-5
R-6
101.73
69.12
90.33
68.06
33.33
43.06
(1526.0)
(1336.0)
(1355.0)
(1021.0)
(500.0)
(646.0)
86.86
74.00
34.13
17.93
17.60
15.80
(1303.0)
(1110.0)
(512.0)
(269.0)
(264.0)
(237.0)
95.H1
83.034
37.78
26.34
52.80
36.68
Nil
Nil
Nil
2.86
5.51
4.31
NA
NA
NA
Nil
Nil
Nil
are on total numbers per plot
237
Effect of Cultural Practices on Jungle Crow {Corvus macrohynchos) Damage to
Transplanted Paddy Seedlings in Hill Region of Karnataka
P.L. Chandrappa and K. Krishnappa
University of Agricultural Sciences. Regional Research Station , Mudigere 577 132
Jungle crow, Corvus macrorhynchus Vielliot in
Iransplanted paddy fields, remove seedlings
immediately after transplanting, as a playful behaviour.
Observation on the impact of playful behaviour on seedling
loss was recorded. Depending on the growth, seedlings
were categorised into 15 days old and 15 days old. There
were significant differences in crow damage between the
two groups of seedlings. Less than 15 days oJd seedlings
suffered significantly more damage (29.70%) than older
seedlings (2.40%) (Table 1).
The bird while disturbing the surface soil in search of
earthworms, coleopterous and lepidopterous larvae and
other soil fauna incidentally may cause economic loss of
seedlings especially in small paddy fields ( 1 acre).
The effect of water level and age of the seedlings on
Jungle crow damage on transplanted seedlings was
studied. H appeared that paddy seedlings form a physical
obstruction to search by crows. So. the birds habitually
uprooted the seedlings. It was clear that higher seedling
loss (98.80%) due to Jungle Crows was observed in paddy
fields having no water. Fields with 3 cm water was free
from crow damage. Maintaining the water level at 3 cm
depth in paddy fields during transplanting therefore can
minimise the seedling loss by crows.
Acknowledgement
Thanks are due to the Director of Research, UAS.
Bangalore. This study was supported financially by a
project grant from the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi to Dr A.K. Chakravarthy.
Table 1 Paddy seedlings uprooted by Jungle Crows
In relation to the age of the seedlings and water levels at Mudigere during 1991-92
Paddy field Seedlings (per cent) uprooted
Age of seedlings Damage in relation to water level
15 days old 15 days old Without 3 cm standing 3 cms
water water water
1
9.60
1.80
100.00
30.50
0.0
2
14.40
4.00
98.00
24.60
0.0
3
44.30
2.50
99.50
22.40
0.0
4 .
41.50
1.70
98.90
20.90
0.0
5
47.70
0.80
96.80
25.00
0.0
6
20.70
3.60
100.00
28.00
0.0
llonn
29.70
2.40
98.80
25.20
0.0
CD. at 5%
3.93
6.75
■
236
Effects of 4-Aminopyridine on Vultures
R.K. Bhainagar, A.K. Chakravarthy and R.K. Palta
Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012
1 Present address: Entomology Division, University of Agricultural Sciences. Bangalore
Introduction
Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps bengalensis Linnaeus is a
well known scavenging bird (Ali. 1972). At times
droppings of the bird Irom monuments and avenue trees
become a nuisance (Bhatnagar, 1976). tt is now
recognised as a problematic bird in aviation (Agarwal and
Bhatnagar, 1984a & b 1 & 2 and Bhatnagar. 1985). Among
the incidents of bird aircraft collisions, nearly 58 per cent
cases are due to vultures in India (Rao, 1984 and Barnwal.
1984). So In this context a study on the effect of
4-aminopyridine N-oxide on Whitebacked Vulture was
initiated.
4-aminopyridine is an acutely toxic substituted pyridine
reported to cause various clinical signs that commence
with hyperexcrtability. The initial effects are noted usually in
10-15 minutes (at doses near LD50). Death occurs within
15 min to 4 hours (Schafer et at.. 1973). In birds the
compound produces pronounced behavioural responses in
many gregarious avian species (Goodhue etal. 1964) like
disoriented behaviour and emitting of distress cries. This
frightens untreated birds (Frynn. 1965; Goodhue and
Baumgartner, 1 965 a & b — 1 & 2). This led to the selection
of the compound for testing on vultures.
Material and Methods
In the study live birds were trapped from Timarpur
Sanitary Land Fills by the method described by Bhatnagar
et at., 1964), and were maintained in large {2rrr) cages for
acclimatisation (Agarwal and Bhatnagar, 1984). During
acclimatisation water and dressed buffalo meat were
provided. Tests were carried out on two individuals to avoid
unwanted mortality. The treatment comprised of 500 g of
meat with 75. 100, 125, 150 and 175 mg of 4-
Aminopyridine N-oxide for five days separately for each
treatment. The data are given in Table 1.
Results and Discussion
The details results are in Table 1.
Lethal symptoms were noticed on 21st day when given
4-Aminophyridine @ 350 mg/kg meat. These commenced
with blood vomit and death resulted after two days.
The studies have indicated that 4-Aminopyridine baits
markedly affected the behaviour of Whitebacked Vultures
and affected responses comprised of increased body
movements, pronounced wing flapping and wing closing,
scratching and preening, tendency to drink water frequently
and restlessness in comparison to untreated birds. These
hyper activities are important negative responses to
soaring which involves balanced behavioural interaction
with meteoro log teal conditions especially the thermals. The
data indicated that treated birds were not expected to f»y
and soar to pose any hazards to aviatcn. The chemical a
apparently tolerated at subacuted chronic levels over
extended periods (Holler and Schafer, 1982). Further fieid
tests for practical utility is recommended.
Acknowledgement
Authors wish to express their grateful thanks to the
authorities of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi for providing various facilities and to the Director.
Aeronautics Research & Development Board. Ministry of
Defence.
References
Agarwal. R.A. and R.K. Bhatnagar. (Eds.). 1984a.
Management of Problem Birds in Aviation and
Agriculture. Proc. Seminar on Management of Problem
Birds. New Delhi, 241 pp.
Agarwal, R.A. and R.K. Bhatnagar, 1984b. Management of
Vultures and Pariah kites in problematic situations
around Delhi. Proc. Seminar on Management of
Problem Birds, New Delhi. 93-122.
Ali, S,, 1972. Common Birds of India, Bombay Natural
History Society. Oxford University Press. Madras.
Barnwal. R.P., 1984. Management ol Bird Problem in
indian Airlines, in Agarwal and Bhatnagar (1984), pp
31-40.
Bhatnagar. R.K.. 1976. Significance of bird management
and control. Pesticides Annual. 197G. 74-83.
Bhatnagar. R.K.. R.A. Agarwal and M. Raizada. 1984.
Trapping techniques for vultures and pariah kites, in
Agarwal and Bhatnagar (1984-1). pp 123-125.
Bhatnagar. R.K., 1985. Bird problem in Aviation and its
management. Proc. 18th Annual Convention, Indian
Pest Control Association, 23-31.
Flynn, R.G., 1965. New techniques for reducing bird strikes
at airports. Aircraft Design and Technology. Nov 16-18.
Amencan Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics.
65-748, 18 pp (Abstract)
Goodhue. L.D.. A.J. Reinert and R.D. Williams. 1964
Amino substituted heterocyclic nitrogen compounds as
bird and rodent repellents. U.D. Patent, 3.150.041.
Goodhue, L.D. and Baumgartner, F.M., 1965a. Appkcatcns
of new bird control chemicals. J. Wild. Manag . 29
830-637.
Goodhue, L.D. and F.M. Baumgartner. 1965b. The AvM
Method of Bird Control, Pest Control. 33 : 1 6-1 7.
239
Grubh. R.B. and S. Ali, 1984. Potential Problem Birds at
Indian Aerodromes. Bombay Natural History Society.
Bombay. 59 pp
Holler. N.R. and E.W. Schafer, 1982. Potential secondary
hazards of avitrol bails to sharpskinned Hawks &
American Kestrels. J. Wild. Manage., 6(2) : 457-462.
Rao. P.R.P.. 1984. Bird Strikes. In Agarwal and Bhatnagar
(1984). pp. 41-54.
Schafer. E.W.. J.R. Brunton. B. Ronald and J. Cunningham
Donald. 1973. A summary ol the acute toxicity of
4-AminopyrkJine to birds and mammals. Toxicology and
Applied Pharmacology, 26 : 532-538.
Table 1 Comparison of different behavioural responses of vultures'lO m In/observation, at different
concentrations of 4-aminopyridine with normal behaviour under caged conditions
Behavioural
parameter
Experimental bird
Control bird
■Paired test
at p-0.05
Exp. Bird
vs control
■Paired f test at P-0.05 tor different con.
Cone. Of
4-Amino-
pyridine/kg
of meat
average
SD
(Standard
Deviation)
Average
SO
(Standard
Deviation)
Body
movements
75 mg
100 mg
125 mg
150 mg
175mg
6.60
13.80
1060
520
620
3.37
544
343
383
258
720
7.20
720
7.20
720
657
6.57
6.57
657
657
0.18 N.S
1.73 N.S.
1 07 N.S.
60 N.S.
034 N.S.
75 mgvs 100 mg; t = 2 528"
125 mgvs 150mg;t -2 35"
I50mgvs. 175 mg;t = 19N S.
Flying
attempts
75 mg
100 mg
I25mg
150 mg
175 mg
7.00
7.00
7.00
6 20
2.20
490
680
7.03
277
238
020
0.20
020
20
0.20
44
44
0.44
044
0-14
4.02k"
2 96*
288'
592"
2.32*
75 mg vs 100 mg; t - N S.
I25mgvs 150 mg. t - 25 N.S.
150 mgvs 175 mg; I = 2.5
Wing
spaning
75 mg
100 mg
125 mg
150 mg
175mg
660
280
3.80
580
820
4.70
430
389
438
5.60
120
1 20
1 20
1.20
1.20
2.03
2.03
2.03
2 03
203
253"
0.80 N.S.
1.38 N.S.
227xpL025
2.48"
75 mg vs. 100 mg; t - 1 32 N.S.
125 mgvs 150 mg. t = .76 N S.
150 mgvs 175 mg. 1 = 0.75
Preening
75 mg
100 mg
125 mg
150 mg
175mg
280
1.20
1.20
560
120
438
260
204
4.03
1.78
0.20
020
0.20
020
20
44
044
44
0.44
044
1 70 N.S.
1 03 N.S.
2.03 NS.
3.82"
1 42 N.S.
75 mg vs. 100 mg, t = 71 N.S.
125mgvs 150mg;t = 1.98 N S
150 mgvs. 175 mg. t = 239"
240
'Watch and Ward* : A Tool for Protecting Orange Fruits from Bird Damage
N.E. Thyagaraj and Y.M. Somasekhara
University of Agricultural Sciences. Regional Research Station, Mudigere 577 132
^^andarins (Citrus sinensis) are cultivated in the hill
' " 'region of Karnataka along with coffee as an intercrop.
Fruit losses due to birds is one of the important constraints
for the growers. About 50-55% fruit losses was assessed
due to Jungle Crow (30%), Small Green Barbet (10%),
Bluewinged Parakeet (5%), Chloropsis (3%) and others
viz.. Coppersmith, bulbul. thrush, etc. (4%). Jungle Crow
was the most dominant in depredating orange fruits. Crow
damaged the fruits by making circular cuts on the skin to
feed on the internal contents, leaving empty or hollow skin
intact with plant or detached. Other species of birds also
makes a small irregular hole for feeding on fruits intact on
the plant.
Watch-and-ward was evaluated as a means of
protecting oranges by employing a trained scarer to move
around the plantation for about 6-8 hours a day. using
crackers and tin rattling. In the control plots, 2.5 km away
where bird species composition was simitar, no
watch-and-ward was maintained. Watch-and-ward lasted
for 35 days. Management practices were carried out to
reduce the fruit loss due to different bird species by
watch-and-ward at Cholikere Estate, Mudigere (17* 7'. 29".
75' 37' 35") during 1992-93. At weekly intervals, fruits
damaged per tree were counted and finally fruit loss/tree
was expressed in terms of percentage.
On an average, 1 78 fruitstreeAveek were damaged by
Jungle Crow and 64 fruits by other birds in the plot where
no watch and ward was carried out, while 60
fruitsrtree/week were damaged by Jungle Crow and 31
fruits by other birds were damaged in the plot with
watch-and-ward. Jungle crow preferred fully ripened fruits
and other birds preferred about to ripen or even light yellow
coloured fruits.
By watch-and-ward, average fruit damage could be
prevented by about 66.29% from Jungle Crow and 55.57%
from other birds (Table 1).
Acknowledgements
We thank Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New
Delhi for having provided funds under Ad-hoc Research
Project on Vertebrate Pests Management in Hill region of
Karnataka. We also thank Dr A.K. Chakravarthy, Principal
Investigator of the project, who encouraged us in carrying
out these investigations.
Table 1 : Effect of Watch-and-ward and ward on
mandarlm loss due to different species of birds at
Mudigere
No. of fruits loss/tree'
Jungle Crow
Othe
birds
date
a b
a
b
22.01.93
10 7
4
3
24.01.93
12 3
5
2
28.01.93
15 5
6
2
02.02.93
18 4
7
2
06.02.93
20 3
8
2
1 0.02.93
15 2
9
2
14.02.93
12 2
6
1
18.02.93
14 3
5
3
232.02.93
15 4
4
2
26.02.93
16 10
3
2
30.02.93
17 9
2
3
10.03.93
14 8
5
4
Total
178 60
64
31
% Loss reduction
66.29
57.57
= n = 10 trees
a = Without watch and ward
b - With watch and ward
241
Watch-and-Ward : A Method for Preventing Bird Damage on Sunflower
J.B. Narendra Kumar and A.K. Chakravarihy
University of Agricultural Sciences. Regional Research Station, Mudigere577 132
Difds damage to Sunflower at Bukkasagara ol Kadur
'-'taluk was recorded from 13.7.1992 to 1.9.1992. Twenty
five, fifty and hundred per cent damaged sunflower heads
were counted in 'watch-and-ward' and without
watch -and -ward fields. The seed depredation is expressed
in terms of percentage damage to sunflower heads.
Parakeet (Psittacula kramen). Jungle Crow {Corvus
macrohynchos). House sparrow (Passer domesticus):
Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata). Blackheaded Munia
{Lonchura malacca), Baya weaver (Ploceus phillippinus)
were the important birds observed feeding. Many species
of birds prefer sunflower seed because it helps in growth,
moult, fat storage and weight maintenance (Besser, 1978).
The number of sunflower heads lost per acre due to
birds was 416.7. 341.6 and 245.1 in 25. 50 and 100 per
cent heads damaged, respectively in fields without
watch-and-ward.' In 'watch-and-ward' fields, the number of
sunflower heads toss/acre was 325.9, 253.1 and 153.9 in
25. 50 and 100 per cent heads damaged, respectively.
Total sunflower heads loss due to birds without
watch-and-ward was 1003.8/acre. In watch-and-ward field
the loss could be prevented upto 731.9 heads/acre (Table
1 ). 28.3 per cent loss due to birds can thus be prevented by
watch-and-ward for 30 to 40 days of the crop at head
stage.
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to Director of Research. UAS,
Bangalore. We thank Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi for funds under ad-hoc Research
Project on Vertebrate Pests Management in Hill Region of
Karnataka.
Reference
Besser, J.F.. 1978. Sunflower Science and Technology-
Birds of sunflower. 263-200, Corter. Jack F (ed.).
Agronomy 19. American Society of Agronomy, Crop
Science Society of America and USA.
Table 1 : Birds damage to sunflower at Bukkasagar of Kadur taluk, 1 992-93
Dates
Sunflower heads (Nos.) damaged/acre
Percent of heads damaged
25
50
100
a
b
a
b
a
b
13.07.92
18.07.92
28.07.92
12.08.92
13.08.92
14.08.92
24.08.92
25.08.92
26.08.92
03.09.92
35.8
36.3
37.5
38.8
39.8
42.3
45.8
45.3
49.8
45.3
32.4
35.0
15.8
22.5
25.2
42.8
33.3
32.8
40.3
45 8
25.4
23.3
22.8
18.8
35.3
42.8
45.3
48.8
40.3
38.8
15.3
18.4
22.5
19.3
19.8
35.3
23.8
24.4
36.3
38.0
15.2
18.2
22.5
18.5
25.5
32.6
33.5
32.8
25.5
30.8
10.2
11.2
15.9
10.5
8.5
19.5
25.0
15.8
20.5
15.8
Total
416.7
325.9
341.6
253.1
245.1
152.9
%loss
reduced by
watch/ward
21.39
25.91
37.62
a ■ Without watch - and - ward
b - Watch - and - ward
242
Relative Susceptibility of Maize Hybrids to Bird Damage
R.K. Bhatnagar
Division of Entomology. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012
aw far its susceptibility to parakeets. Some
ids o< Oeocan and Ganga series are less
t tightness of spathes over cobs. This has
integrated bird management. The
-boons and manual scaring are either poor
r an expensive. Use of 6 mm wide rubber
rbaei c*3 bicycle tube) affixed over cob (Mathur,
I enpprvj of leaf over cobs to camouflage it
* jL 1992). pose their own limitations.
Br*it attention of ornithologists and breeders
mm -rdertaken.
tod Methods
Mtfom wi taken in replicated trial with
•-: - random blocks 'plots, having 6
~ f ~ p length. The recommended agronomical
any pesticidal treatment at any stage
Ftx convenience, the hybrids were put in
aaph si ng of 49 hybrids. Amongst these.
recorded on hybrids showing noticeable
16 n set-1, 25 in set-2 and 18 in set-3.
were taken on percent damage and
cobs and spathe arrangement as seen from
' of a cob. The data are discussed.
Discussion
revealed that it is hard to correlate spathe
■ad configuration other than its tightness and
•ear the cob. With these a simple categorisation
r lesser susceptible, moderately susceptible and
ftybnds is feasible under three sets. Relative
under different sets ranged as folbws:
lavage per cent damage ranged from 0.0 to
aabn ds Piralo Piraciba and DComposite
damage. In the former, the spathe covered
the length of cob and first inner spathe
: length of the cob. In the latter, outer spathe
than hat the length of the cob and laterally
the whole cob width. Thus even two
double covering. The most susceptible
mga Safed-2 with 75.0 per cent loss. In this
■ay due to biochemical features of grain and
spetfie covering less than halt the cob length
» cover for the whole cob width upto the tip.
hybrids were C.B.W.R., Comp x 1.
Comp 1 C4; Suwan DMR Source-8; Phil
5- Syn. Eslaq Hv.-1; Gautemala DMR and
Amongst these, average per cent damage,
27 27. 28.57, 33.33. 33.3. 37.5. 42.86.
52.5V In these two basic type ol spathe
eat observed: (i) outer spathe covering half the
-I outer spathe covering less than the half
Hybrid of intermediate degree of
b Thai Comp x 4; Suwan
t Suwan DMR Source- 1 and Hybrid Comp
DMR in which average per cent damage was 6,15; 14.29;
14.0 and 11.11. respectively. In these hybrids too. outer
most covering was more than the half the length of cob.
Set-2; The average percent damage was 66.67 and the
least susceptible hybrids were Khyber x Sarhad, CB x Syn.
Early Local Malkapur and Swahi White x Sarhad. These
did not show any damage. Here, the spathes covered upto
cob tip in straight flaps, and laterally also covering the cob.
In hybrids of low range susceptibility (1.0 to 16.67%) the
spathes overlapped outer most which nearly covered half
the length of cob, as in Sadal (t2.5%). BS-8 (16.67%) and
Sarhad (16.67%).
In hybrids of higher susceptibility the spathe structuring
comprised of two types. In varieties having outer most
covering nearly upto tip of cob, as in VaCB x2 ?; PI-31 1 240
x Sarhad; Dentado Comp Blanco (has keeled outer spathe
but is loose); KCE (F); Suwan-1 (has loose outer spathe
and (OH x 545 x FR-3) x (FR 4-A x FR-4-C) x Sarhad.
These, respectively, sustained depredations of 66.67%;
30.0%. 60.0%. 75.0%; 25.0%; 60.0% and 54.55%. Hybrids
having outer spathe covering nearly half the cob length had
per cent damage 28.57%; 66.67%; 41.7%; 40.0%; 66.67%
and 25.0%. respectively, in IA-2 EAR Syn.; Zia; Sadaf x
Sarhad (has loose outer spathe); CBW-1; KCA (FT) and
CBWR-Comp.
Set-3: ft comprised of comparatively less susceptible
hybrids in which damage ranged upto 26.0 per cent. Of
these the least susceptible were var. Sc. 48-A;
Antigua-Gr-t; Early DMR Comp-2; Suwan DMR Source-2;
(Thai Comp-1 x DMR) x (DMR Punjabman); Yurpo 60-B
F-3 and USDA-I 21873. These did not sustain any damage
and had two types of spathe configuration, i.e. outer most
covering more than half the cob length and those having
outer most spathe covering less than the cob length. Highly
susceptible hybrids were Syn.550; Phil DMR Comp-2;
Early DMR Comp-1, etc.
The study indicated the need for further observations on
spathe structuring/con figuration in relation to bird damage,
besides biochemical properties of grains in different
popular hybrids in the country. These results are expected
to be of use to breeders in development of 'resistant
hybrids'.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to various Institute authorities for
facilities and to colleauges for help in field work.
References
Dhindsa, M.S., H.K. Saini and H.S. Toor. 1992. Wrapping
leaves around cobs to protect ripening maize from
Roseringed Parakeet. Tropical Pest Management 38(1)
: 98-102.
Mathur, L.M.L., 1993. Economically viable technology for
protecting maize (Zea mays) grain from bird damage.
Indian J. Agric. Sci. 63(2) : 130-133.
243
Behavioural Responses of White Backed Vulture {Gyps benghalensis)
to Coloured Lights
R.K. Bhatnagar, A.K. Chakravarthy 1 , R.B. Singh 2 and R.K. Palta
Division ot Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012
Introduction
One way of reducing bird-hits to aircrafts could be to
distract or 'guide away' birds from flyways of aircrafts.
This could be achieved by affecting phototaclic responses
as phototaxis is governed by light in specific wavelengths
or by exposing birds to intolerable wavelengths of energies.
However, hitherto phototactic responses on Indian
Whrtebacked Vultures are not known. Studies were.
therefore, warranted as the species is largely involved in
bird aircraft strike hazards in India.
Material and Methods
Individual birds were maintained in iron cages (5 cu ft) at
the IARI laboratory. These were exposed to 1000 C.P.
Halogen tube light ("Movie Light") with coloured tissue
papers affixed in front. Each cage was covered, except the
front, with thick black cloth.
In all cases responses to tights were studied in
comparison with sunlight. The orientation behaviour had
parameters, given in Tables 1 and 2.
Results and Discussion
Based on this preliminary investigation, it is suggested
that light source of 1000 watt may cause no appreciable
difference or changes in visual behaviour of vulture. The
paired T test revealed non -significant differences in all
treatments (Table 1).
Under non-visual behavioural responses of vultures to
coloured lights (Table 2). differences were not large enough
to produce any significant difference in the choosen
behavioural parameters.
It is concluded that varying phototactic responses
warrant studies with higher intensity source.
Acknowledgements
Authors express their grateful thanks to the Director.
Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi and to
Aeronautics Research & Development Board. Ministry of
Defence, for various facilities and permissions.
Table 1 : Orientation responses of white backed vultures to coloured lights
Pairs of light tested
Mean' frequency of
Eye blinking
Neck movements
Kinosis
Taxis
RigM
Left
1
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
1.
White and sun light
4.55
4.38
4.31
2.88
4.16
1.85
9.19
N.R.
1.83
N.R.
2
Whie and sun light
4.47
4.33
4.37
3.36
4.02
2.44
6.83
1.36
7.01
1.40
1.
Blue and sun light
4.52
2.17
4.90
1.94
4.28
1.56
9.13
1.52
7.94
1.32
2.
Blue and sun light
4.48
4.26
3.65
3.66
3.03
3.26
7.04
1.40
2.44
0.48
1.
Red and sun light
470
4.85
4.07
333
4.25
2.86
1.87
0.62
1.87
0.62
2
Red and sun light
4.70
4.33
4.40
3.70
3.70
2.94
3.39
1.13
3.56
1.18
3.
Red and sun light
4.62
4 22
4.09
2.21
4.39
4.33
5 26
0.87
4.53
0.90
4.
Red and sun tight
4.52
4.33
3.30
4.01
3.69
3.57
2.44
0.81
4.31
1.40
1.
Green and sun light
4.70
4.26
4.55
4.25
4.64
4.54
9.90
3.30
1.20
0.40
2.
Green and sun light
4.48
3.97
2.75
3.38
3.21
3.33
2.44
0.81
4.31
1.43
3.
Green and sun light
4.22
4.10
3.31
3.68
2.72
4.63
4.67
1.55
2.44
0.81
4.
Green and sun light
4.26
4.05
3.71
3.97
3.15
4.07
3.09
1.03
2.54
0.84
1.
Yellow and sun light
4.21
3.97
4.73
3.63
4.30
3.98
1.22
0.40
4.92
1.64
2.
Yellow and sun light
4.26
4.01
4.34
4.31
4.16
4.26
2.80
0.93
Nil
Nil
3.
Yellow and sun light
4.14
3.97
3.92
3.88
3.79
3.92
N.R.
N.R.
N.R
N.R.
4.
Yellow and sun light
4.44
4.10
3.96
3.03
4.76
3.65
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
I, II correspond to the birds exposed to the first and second lights, respectively.
• Mean of ten observations/day.
For all pairs combinations at 0.05 level, t - value non -significant.
Present Address: ' Entomology Division. University of Agricultural Sciences. Bangalore
2 Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay
244
Table 2 : Non orientational behavioural responses of white backed vultures to coloured lights.
Mean frequency
Pairs of light tested
Flapping
Preening
Scratching
Wing spanning
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1.
Blue light and sun light
0.69
1.69
1.15
0.58
0.52
0.00
0.40
1.20
2.
Blue light and sun light
0.40
0.62
1.83
3.97
0.00
0.40
0.00
0.91
1.
Red and sun light
0.00
1.18
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
2.
Red and sun light
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.00
0.00
3.
Red and sun light
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.00
1.11
4.
Red and sun light
0.00
0.00
2 28
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.62
5.
Red and sun light
0.00
0.40
0.78
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.40
1.
Green and sunlight
0.00
1.55
0.00
2.58
2.58
4.62
0.00
0.00
2.
Green and sunlight
3.21
3.33
0.00
1.05
1.05
4.25
0.00
0.40
3.
Green and sunlight
2.72
4.63
0.00
0.81
0.81
1.60
0.00
0.00
4.
Green and sunlight
3.15
4.07
0.40
1.55
1.55
4.40
0.00
0.00
1.
Yellow and sunlight
0.30
4.40
0.80
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.00
0.40
2.
Yellow and sunlight
0.30
1.46
2.83
0.40
0.40
0.00
0.40
1.43
3.
Yellow and sunlight
0.00
1.53
2.78
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.37
4.
Yellow and sunlight
0.00
0.52
291
0.00
0.00
0.40
0.40
0.78
1 . 2 correspond to the brids exposed to the first and second lights, respectively.
Mean of ten observations/day.
For all pair combinatins, t at 0.05 level, non -sign if team.
245
Cultural Tool for Bird Pest Management in Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)
Y.M. Somashekar and P.L. Chandrappa
University of Agricultural Sciences, Regional Research Station, Mudigere577 132. Kamataka
f^rain losses in Sorghum {Sorghum vulgare) due to bird
^-^depredation often reach economic levels in
Chickmagalur. Birds, viz., Roseringed Parakeet {Psrttacula
krameri). Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos). House
Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Spotted Munia (Lonchura
punctulata), Blackheaded Munia {Lonchura malacca),
Baya Weaver (Ploceus phillippinus} were observed with a
pair of binocular (8 x 30) feeding on sorghum. In order to
study the damage of birds in protected and unprotected
sorghum earheads, an experiment was conducted at
Sakrepatna in 0.1 acre. To cover flag leaf and dried
sorghum leaves were used. Another sorghum ptot one km
apart with earheads uncovered, served as control.
Observation on bird feeding were recorded for 15 days.
Birds damage on sorghum earheads was expressed as
earheads damaged/acre.
Results showed that 35.97 per cent earheads could be
saved by covering (Table 1 ).
Acknowledgement
Thanks are due to the Director of Research,
UAS.GKVK, B'lore-65. This study was supported financially
by a project grant from the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research. New Delhi to Dr A.K. Chakravarlhy.
Table 1 : Bird damage to CSH-5 Sorghum at Sakrepatna
Date
Earheads (Nos.) damaged/ac. (n ■
10)
Unwrapped
Wrapped
{% earheads save
by wrapping)
13.07.92
43.92
30.44
30.69
18.07.92
41.64
18.44
55.71
25.07.92
68.12
19.32
71.63
08.08.92
66.24
16.64
74.87
14.08.92
99.64
20.32
79.60
24.08.92
59.12
20.64
65.08
30.08.92
46.32
20.00
56.82
08.09.92
48.92
15.64
68.03
16.09.92
35.24
19.32
45.18
23.09.92
42.72
14.00
67.22
30.09.92
36.72
17.00
53.70
Total
588.60
211.76 —
CO M 5%
7.0
x = 35 .97
246
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Crop Depredation
by Pigeons and Doves (Columbidae : Aves) in Karnataka
A.K. Chakravarthy, E. Gangappa, Nagaraju and K. Sriharl"
'Department of Zoology. U.A.S., G.K.V.K., Bangalore 560 065
A number of granivorous birds damage ripening
sunflower {Helianthus annuus L) world over (Seiler and
Rogers, 1987). In India, Roseringed Parakeet {Psittacula
krameri Bechastein) by its ubiquitous abundance and
wasteful feeding habits is considered the most destructive
pest on sunflower (Ali and Ripley. 1983). In many areas,
bird damage is one of the main factors affecting the
profitability of sunflower crop (Oeodikar et at., 1968).
However, doves are known to glean only spilled grain in
stubble, weed and cultivated patches because the birds are
essentially ground feeding granivores. As also the pigeon,
Columba livia that causes damage to newly sown
sunflower seeds. In this paper, the damage done by
pigeons and doves to sunflower crop is reported.
During June-Jury, 1990 to 1993, observations on
feeding by pigeons on newly sown sunflower seeds in four
acres, at GKVK farm campus of the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore were recorded. The
number of sunflower seeds removed to the total number
present in 20. randomly selected 3 x 3 m or 4.5 x 3.0 m
plots/year was recorded to get percentage seed loss.
Pigeons foraged fields during morning (6.30 a.m. to 8.30
a.m.) evening, (4.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.) or during hours of
no human activities. Data on seed kiss was recorded three
days after sowing. Bird sighting, presence of guano and
plume feathers were confirmatory pointers to the pigeon
feeding on sunflower seeds.
While on a survey of sunflower fields for vertebrate
pests at Sakrayapatna (13' 22' N Lat., 76' 0V E, 754
AMSL) Chickmagalur, the Western Turtle dove
(Streptopelia orientals meena Sykes) was found feeding
on sunflower during October, 1990. The variety Morden
was grown in 0.5 ha in red sandy soils. The sunflower field
was surrounded by coconut {Cocos nucftora), sugarcane
(Sacchanjm officinarum) and mulberry (Morus alba) fields
bordered with tall trees of various species. Turtle doves
began feeding on sunflower three weeks before harvest.
So, during early October, observations with 8 x 30
binoculars were recorded on number, feeding rate and
feeding bouts throughout the day.
At Bangalore (12* 58'N. 77* 35'E, 921 m AMSL)
observations with 8 x 30 binoculars were recorded on
Spotted dove {Streptopelia chinensis Gmelin) feeding on
sunflower at Main Research Station. University of
Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal. Sunflower crop for seed
production with CMS -234 A (female parent) and
RHA-6D-1 (male parent) in 3:1 was sown on 27 February,
1992 in 0.25 ha on red sandy soils. The fields were located
adjacent to a mixed thicket of Bamboo + Acacia from which
doves could get unrestricted access to sunflower. At both
locations, estimation of seed yields, losses due to doves
feeding, damage on sunflower were made by a product of
three parameters viz. number of feeding bouts, size of
feeding bouts and feeding rates. The 1-Test was used to
seperate significant means.
The average flock size of pigeons in the sunflower plots
was six (n-15) during the three years. The feeding was
highly localised and damage was restricted to few patches.
The birds foraged in flocks and were found digging out mud
along rows to remove seeds. The average seed loss
recorded for 1990-91. 1991-92 and 1992-93 was 1.8%,
2.3 and 1.2%, respectively. Seed loss by pigeon was
observed to be more two days subsequent to rains than the
day after rains. Pigeons preferred to forage rainted sown
plots compared to the very wet or irrigated plots. Although,
in the present study the seed loss was negligible, pigeons
in large flocks can cause considerable local damage to
seeds.
The feeding patterns of both species of doves on
sunflower consisted of pecking, grasping the seed,
mandibulalion (process by which seed is moved from the
beak-tip to the buccal cavity) and swallowing. At milky
stage (70-80 days old) doves perched on thalamus (back
of head), removed peripheral portion of rind bit-by-bit first
and then pecked on seeds. At maturity stage (90-100 days
old) doves directly extracted seeds from heads. The turtle
doves at Sakrayapatna generally pecked on sunflower
from 6.15 a.m. to 10.30 a.m., 11.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon and
from 12.20 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. In Bangalore, Spotted doves
generally pecked on head from 6.30 a.m. to 9.00 a.m..
10.20 a.m. to 12.50 noon and from 2.15 p.m. to 6.20 p.m.
So feeding in doves occurred intermittently in bouts
interrupted by activities like scan and preen. Continuous
observations through binoculars revealed that not all
pecking was followed by mandibulalion nor mandibulation
was inevitably followed by swallowing.
Details concerning numbers and feeding of Turtle and
Spotted Doves are given in Table 1. With feeding rate of
9/min. 121 bouts, teeding bout period of 4.5 min. and 14
birds on an average/0.5 ha. Turtle Doves population /day
devoured about 38,000 seeds at Sakrayapatna. The doves
were observed for three weeks on sunflower. So, the Turtle
Doves removed, an estimated 760,000 seeds, weighing
(@ 100 seed weight - 0.5 g) about 38.0 kgs. Similarly with
feeding rate of 0.25/min., 110 bouts and on an average. 20
birds/0.25 ha, Spotted Dove population/day devoured
49,500 seeds at Bangalore. So the doves removed, an
estimated 939,500 seeds, weighing (@ 100 seed weight -
3.5 g) about 32.88 kg. The amount devoured represented
18 per cent and 25 per cent of the total yield, respectively
by Turtle and Spotted Doves (@ 10 q yield/ha in
Sakrayapatna and 8 q yield/ha in Bangalore). While
247
feeding, generally the doves seldom allowed spilling of
seeds. Instead the doves accumulated seeds in buccal
cavrty to feed at perch.
Turtle and Spotted Doves are known to glean only
spilled grains/seeds of paddy, sorghum and other cereals,
lentils and pulses, grasses and weeds (Ali and Ripley,
1983). However, observations reported here established
that doves caused economic losses to sunflower by
feeding on standing crop. This is because, as Zeigler
(1976) noted doves possess a great flexibility in feeding
behaviour pattern that play an important role in animal's
adaptation to metabolic and environmental demands.
Scaring, timely harvests and watch-and-ward would reduce
doves depredation on sunflower.
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to the Director of Research. UAS,
Bangalore. This Study was a part of ICAR ad-hoc project.
References
Ali. S. and Ripley. S.. 1983. Hand book of the birds of India
and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi, p.222.
Deodkiar, G.B., Seethalakshmi, T.S. and Suryanarayana,
M.C., 1978. Ind. J. Genet, and Plant Breeding. 38 :
372-374.
Seiler. G.J. and Rogers, C.E., 1987. Agriculture,
ecosystems and environment. 20(1) : 59-70.
Zeigler, H.P.. 1976. Feeding behaviour of the pigeon
Advances in the study of Behaviour, 7 : 286-381 .
Table 1 : Numbers and Feeding details of Doves on Sunflower
Bird species
Numbers per 0.5 ha
(n-20)
Mean maximum
Mean pecking
rate/min on head
(N-14)
Mean size (min) of
feeding bout (n-14)
Mean no. of feeding
bouts'day (n*14)
Western turtle dove
Spotted dove
Calculated t at 5%
14 30
40 56
11.40
9.00
8.25
N.S.
4.5
3.3
N.S.
121
110
N.S.
(Mean of observations at Sakrayapatna and Bangalore)
248
I
Eco-bio-Control of Pest And Nuisance Birds at Agriculture Farms Urban Areas Land
Aerodromes in Western Rajasthan Thar Desert
Indra Kumar Sharma
Bhagwati Bhavan, Ratanada Road, Jodhpur342 020
K^any species of birds are commensal with man and
'"'have become serious pests lo agriculture and
nuisance in urban areas. This problem was studied tor the
last 25 years from 1967 to 1993 in western Rajasthan Thar
desert. Jodhpur division, with special reference lo their
eco-bb -control.
The House Sparrow and the Blue Rock Pigeon are the
most serious pests at agriculture farms particularly at barns
and granaries. Covering of grain heaps is effective
practice against depradation by birds and rats. It was
observed that keeping of domestic cat and dog significantly
scare and check invasion of pest birds at barns and
granaries. As rural people protect and feed the sparrow and
pigeon with religious sentiments, these have multiplied.
This practice should be abandoned by villagers to reduce
the population and nuisance.
As the peafowl enjoys rigid protection and generous
feeding by villagers, it has also multiplied and become a
serious pest to agriculture. The domestic cat and dog
considerably check invasion and population of this.
At food-grain shops and markets and flour-mills where
the House Sparrow and the Pigeon are serious pests,
thread-net of small mesh over heaps of food-grains
considerably check invasion birds, besides rat and squirrel.
Urban people negligently dump leftovers in open, that
has highly increased the population of the House Crow and
the Pariah Kite, which are serious robbers of edibles at
Railway stations and bus- stands. It was observed that
wide shed at such sites prevent air- raids of these birds.
WhitebacKed Vulture. Long billed Vulture and Pariah
Kite are serious nuisance at aerodromes as serious hazard
to flight safety. The vulture soars around the aerodromes in
search of carcases or to enjoy warm thermal winds. Strict
prohibition of dumping of municipal carcases around 15 km
radius of the aerodrome considerably reduced the soaring
of the vulture. Offals of restaurants and meat-shops near
aerodrome encourage hovering of the Pariah kite and the
House crow; strict restriction against such practices have
been found effective in reducing the kite near the
aerodrome.
The Blue Rock Pigeon is serious nuisance near air
terminal buildings and hangers of aerodromes as it haunts
projections and clefts to buildings. Reduction o( projections
and clefts of buildings, may considerably reduce haunting
of the pigeon.
The Little Egret is serious nuisance to flight safety at
Jodhpur aerodrome. The Egret frequent the sewerage and
pool near the aerodrome. Covering of the sewerage and
eliminating formation of seepage pool has been suggested
to concerned authorities to reduce the nuisance of the
egret there and it is being followed.
249
LATE CONTRIBUTIONS
Preliminary Observations on Factors Governing the Selection of Wintering Sites by
Barheaded goose {Anser indicus) in Karnataka. India
Taej Mundkur and S. Srldhar*
'Flyways Officer. Asian Wetland Bureau. University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 59100. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
+Regional Co-ordinator. Asian Waterfowl Counts. No. 10. Sirur Park B Street, Seshadripurm
Bangalore 560 020
Introduction
T~he Barheaded Goose (Anser indicus) belongs to family
' Anatidae which includes all true waterfowl. There are 34
species ot geese in the world, eleven ol which are tound in
Asia and five of these have been recorded in India.
Barheaded Goose breeds in the high mountains ot Tibet.
Central asia (from Tien Shan to Koknonur) and Ladakh
(India). Birds ringed in Kirghiz of Russia during the
breeding season have been recorded in Gilet of Pakistan
(Chaudhry 1991) It is the only Indian goose whose
breeding range, includes Ladakh (Table 1). The other four
goose species visit India only during the winter months.
Goose play an important role in environment; where
they occur in good numbers, they influence the ecology of
the vegetation on which they torage.
The population ot the species is estimated to be in the
region of about 50.000 birds, and has been suggested to
be a likely candidate for the list of globally threatened
species (Perennou etai, 1993).
A five year survey of the wetlands of Karnataka, in
peninsular India, has revealed twenty important wintering
areas for the Barheaded geese (Table 2).
Material and Methods
Since 1988. select wetlands were surveyed from 10 to
25th January every year, as part of Mid-winter Waterfowl
census being coordinated by Asian Wetland Bureau
(AWB). Malaysia and International Waterfowl and wetlands
Research Bureau. Slimbridge. United Kingdom. Wetlands
were covered by foot and the waterfowl were counted
using a pair of 8 x 40' binoculars. The counts were
recorded using standard forms, by volunteers (NGO's) who
visited the same wetlands every year. Count data were
analysed by the co-ordinators and circulated to all
participants by (WRB/AWB.
Results and Discussions
In Karnataka (Fig.1). the Barheaded geese, frequent
outlying wetlands of the rivers:- Krishna and Bheema in ihe
Northern part of the state; Tungabadra. Varada and
Oharma in the Central region; Kaveri and Arkavathi of
South and South interior Karnataka.
The river basins and rainfed wetlands with vast sand
bars, outlying these rivers are used by the Barheaded
geese for resting during the day time. They also frequent
medium sized wetlands surrounding paddy fields. The
birds forage in paddy fields during the night for feeding on
the crops. Their migration coincides with the paddy harvest
season in Karnataka, during January to March.
Since there is an annual variation in the number of
geese recorded in the state, there is a need to understand
the likely causes for this. A study needs to be undertaken
that will identify the most important sites, examine the
temporal changes in the population at major sites,
behavioural information that addresses feeding, roosting
and other habits of the geese. Interactions of humans and
geese also need to be addressed. It is envisaged that
information gained by such a study can be used to address
management issues related to conserving these sites for
geese and other waterfowl.
Behavioural Responses
There are many other apparently suitable areas in the
state, but they are not preferred by the geese. Reasons
include hunting and disturbance of habitat, extension of
agriculture uplo the margin of wetlands, there by limiting
the visibility range and recognition ot enemy in time.
Hunting and trapping is reported in nearly 67% of the 338
wetlands surveyed in Karnataka ( SrkJhar 1992).
Experiments on behavioral responses have revealed
thai different species clearly respond to the same or similar
enemies, including man. in many different ways (Edwards
etai.. 1949, Brown and Hoogland. 1986).
In Barheaded geese there was variation in response to
humans, from little response at Thailur Lake to extremely
alert and vigilant response in Nelligudda and T.G. Halli
tanks. Such variations in vigilance and response have
been observed for other bird species (Maclean et al.,
1991). The response also varied with season (Shedd,
1982). environmental factors (Lombard* and Curio. 1985a),
Social context (Lombard! and Curio 1985b). behaviour ot
enemy (Burtron. 1983) and previous experience (Knight
etal.. 1987).
Future Studies
A study of the needs of the Barheaded Goose will serve
as guide to its preference of plant species, especially the
crops. Change in crop pattern in future will also influence
their distribution.
For example the population of Brent Goose in Europe
fluctuate according to the supply of its favorite food, the Eel
grass {Zootera marina) In 1935 a disease wiped out almost
all the entire Eel grass and the European population of
251
Food choice depends on the species, individual
preferences, seasonal availability and inter-specrfic
competition (Mundkur and Allport. 1992). Collection of
information on the food of waterfowl has been !he focal
point of the study for many years and has to be
approached from various angles. Analysis of droppings of
birds is gaining increasing importance as they are useful
and non destructive methods that do not involve catching
or killing of the bird. Analysis of the dropping can be used to
quantify the dietary preferences {Bedard, 1986) of the
Barheaded Goose in Karnataka.
In order to further understand what role a particular site
holds in attracting the goose, it is necessary to study the
dairy activity pattern and biology of Barheaded Goose in
their wintering grounds; whether they use the site for
feeding, resting or both.
Presently, changes in the landscape and drainage
pattern, including a major water abstraction scheme are
underway in the Cauvery river delta; surrounding,
Hadinaru. Kaggalipura, Chikkahalli and Yeriur tanks. These
tanks are most important sites for the wintering Barheaded
Goose population. The scheme when implemented could
ultimately lead to undesirable conditions for the Barheaded
Goose.
Goose use a variety of feeding methods (Amart et a/..
1991). The study of various aspects of feeding ecology will
nive crucial insight about their dietary needs which in turn
can be used for forecasting the impact of the water
abstraction schemes on the wintering population of
Barheaded Goose and the likely changes in their migratory
trends. It is therefore crucial to study the ecological
requirements and the thresholds of tolerance of Barheaded
Goose and other important waterfowl in the state and what
effects the alteration of the habitat will ultimately lead to.
Studies in China have revealed that the Bar headed
goose is threatened by habitat loss (due to dry weather),
predators {destroying eggs and nestlings) and over
hunting. The current population of Barheaded Goose in
China is estimated to be about 20,000 individuals, mainly in
Qinghai-Tibet plateau. A complete survey of Hulun Hu in
the inner Mongolia, formerly a main breeding site for the
Barheaded geese was made by Tong Young- cahang, but
none was found (Jianjian, 1991).
H is suggested that efforts should be made to search for
other potential winter areas of the state, with similar
habitats and the distribution pattern of geese in other states
as welt to draw a comprehensive conservation strategy.
References
Ali. S. and Ripley. S. 1987, Compact handbook of the bird
of India and Pakistan, OUP, Delhi.
Amat. J.A.B.. Garcia-Crido and A Garcia-GukJad. 1991.
Food, feeding behaviour and nutritional ecology of
wintering Grey lag Geese {Aser anser), Ardea. 79:
271-282.
Bedard. J. and G. Gauthier, 1986. Assessment of faecal
output in geese. Journal of Applied Ecology, 23: 77-90.
Brown, C.R. and Hoogland, J.L. 1 986. Risk in mobbing for
solidary and Colonial Swallows, Anim. Behav.. 34:
1319-1323.
Buitron, D., 1983. Variability in the responses of Black
bellied Pagpies to natural predators. Behaviour. 88:
209-235.
Chaudhry, AA 1991. Barheaded geese in the Punjab,
Pakistan. Threatened Waterfowl Group Newsletter, 1 :8.
Edwards, G.. Hosking, E. and Smith. S. 1949. Reactions of
some passerine birds to a stuffed cuckoo. Brit. Birds. 62:
13-19.
Janjian Lu. 1991. Notes on Barheaded geese in China,
IWRB Threatened Waterfowl Research Group
Newsletter. 1: 8.
Knight. R.L.. Grant, O.J. and Temple. S.A.. 1987. Nest
defense behaviour of the American Crow in urgan and
rural areas. Condor. 89; 175-177.
Lambardi, CM. and Curio. E. 1985a. Influence of
environment on mobbing by Zebra Finches. Bird
Behaviour. 6: 28-33.
Lombardi, CM. and Curio. E. 1985b. Social felicitation of
mobbing in the Zebra Finch (Taenopygia guttata). Bird
Behaviour. 6: 34-40.
Mclean. I.G. and Rhodes, G. 1991. Enemy recognition and
response in birds. Current Ornithology, 8: 1 73-21 1 .
Mundkur, T. and Allport. G. 1992. Goose training ecology —
an introduction to methods for study, Asian Wetland
Bureau Special Report.
Perennou, C. Mundkur, T„ Scott, D.A., Follestad. A. and
Kvenild, L 1993. The Asian Waterfowl Census 1987-91.
Distribution and status of Asian Waterfowl. AWB Publ.
No.86. Kuala Lumpur and IWRB Spec. Publ. No.24,
SlimbfkJge.
Shedd, D.H. 1982. Seasonal variation and function of
mobbing and related antipredator behaviours of the
American Robin (Turdus migratarins). AUK. 99:
342-346.
Sridhar. S. 1992. Asian and Australian Waterfowl Census
1992. Eds C.Perennou and TMundkhur. IWRB.AWB.
Zheng. X. 1976. Checklist of birds of China, 2nd edition.
Science Press. Beijing.
252
Table 1 . Lisl of Asian Geese and their status in India
English name
Scientific name
Status in India
1.
Swan Goose
Anser cygnoides
2.
Bean Goose
Anser labilis
Rare migrant.
3.
White-fronted Goose
Anser albilrons
Rare migrant to north India, upto Orissa.
4.
Lesser-White-lronted Goose
Anser erylhropus
Rare migrant to N. India upto Maharashtra.
5.
Greylag Goose
Anser anser
Regular migrant upto Orissa. rare in Deccan.
6.
Barheaded Goose
Anser indicus
Breeds in Ladakh, Central Asia from Tien Shan to
Koknonur. Winters - North India, rare in Deccan,
leap froggmg upto Karnataka.
7.
Snow Goose
Anser caerulescens
8.
Emperor Goose
Anser canagicus
9.
Canada Goose
Branta canadensis
10.
Brent Goose
Anser bernica
11.
Red Breasted Goose
Branta rulicollis
Adapt
ad from (Ali and Ripley. 1987; Zheng, 1976).
Table 2. List of importan
t wetlands for the wintering Barheaded Geese population in Karnataka, South India
No. of B.H. Geese
Wetlands
District
Co-ordinates
1001 to 2000
Hadinaru
Mysore
N 1210 E 7645
Kaggalipura'
Mysore
N 1216 E 7653
501 to 1000
Hoskote
Bangalore
N 1308 E 7777
Yeriyur Kere
Mysore
N 1204 E 7702
Chikkaballi
Mysore
N 1240 E 7654
301 to 500
Akkialur
Dharwad
N 1445 E 7610
Naregul
Dharwad
N1447E 7505
101 to 300
T.G. Halli
Bangalore
N 1277 E 7735
Tailur
Mandya
N 1297E 7708
Karanji Kere
Mysore
N 1217 E 7640
Budigere Ammanni
Bangalore
N 1315 E 7775
Melina Thota
Bangalore
N 1327 E 7772
Kunigal Dodda Kere
Tumkur
N 1302 E 7702
Byramangala
Bangalore
N 1277 E 7743
Merchad Tank
Rathur
N 1615 E 7720
Mare Halli Kere
Mysore
N 1221 E 7703
Yedeur Gaddahalla
Mysore
N 1155 E 7655
Halavarada Kere
Mysore
N 1211 E 7654
Dasara Halli
Bangalore
N 1319 E 7743
Khanapur Tank
Gulbarga
N1645E 7702
Note:
1) * Reported more than 500 Barheaded Geese in all the years since 1988.
2) Number of Geese counted on a single visit to the wetland by the survey team.
253
HVMQIUS
c
II
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a a>
gl
C CM
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254
The Avifauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ;
A Review and the Current Scenario
R. Sankaran and L Vljayan
Salim AH Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Kalampalayam P. O. Coimbaiore 6 4 j C.O
Introduction
^"V® r 10% of all bird species are threatened with
''-'extinction today, the majority of these ate found in
tropical forests and islands (Mountford 1988). About 93% of
all avian taxa are island endemics (King 1981). Island
ecosystems, in their natural state, tend to be finely tuned as
the limits on the resources base are acute (Carew-Reid
1990). This ecological refinement makes them, particularly
vulnerable to changes resulting from human activities.
Increased human populations, and increasing demands of
resources in islands have resulted in fragile island
ecosystems being severely threatened today.
India has two main groups of islands, the Andaman &
Nicobar Islands off the easlern coast and Lakshwadeep
Islands off the western coast. The increase over recent
decades in human activity in these islands has resulted in
grave concern of the endemic taxa.
Geographically isolated island groups are of particular
importance in the conservation planning of a country
because of the large number of endemic species found
within them. The Andaman & Nicobar group of islands is no
exception. Of the 270 species and subspecies of birds
recorded from the island group. 105 are endemics. This
high proportion of endemism (38.2%) makes the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands a priority area for avifauna
conservation.
Material and Methods
One of the problems for planning a protected area in the
Andaman and Nicobar islands is the lack of sufficient
information on avifauna of different Islands. Though there
has been a considerable taxonomic work in the Andaman &
Nicobar islands, the segregation of species according to
the islands is incomplete. This study is a beginning in this
direction, ft essentially makes checklists of the species of
each island or group o' islands.
The origins of the avifauna of the Andaman islands were
thought to be from Burma while those of the Nicobar
islands, from Sumatra (Mani 1974). and the avifauna of the
two island groups were thought to differ substantially.
However, Ripley & Beehler (1989) found that the breeding
avifauna of the Nicobars was essentially an impoverished
sub-set of the Andamans, and that the avifauna of the Bay
islands are more closely allied with the source avifauna of
south-western Burma and the Malay Penninsula. with
Burma being substantially more important. In this study, the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are considered as two
distinct groups.
Andaman & Nicobar islands
The Andaman groups of islands in tha Bay e#
are peaks of a submerged mountain rang*.
Arakan Yoma in Burma in the north to Sumatra i
in the south, between Latitudes 6 45' and 13 41' H
Longitudes 92 12' and 93 57"E (SaWanfta, 1*
efa/.1991), and are a southern extensor c4
Yoma mountain range. The island group comprises of >
300 islands and over 260 rocks (Singh, 1981). with a toCaJ
coastline ol 1962 km. The entire island group covers 8.249
sq.km. (Singh. 1981, Saldanha. 1989).
The study consists of two parts, a literature review of the
avifauna of the Andaman & Nicobar islands and a chackfst
of the birds of eight islands of the Nicobars and 4 main
island groups in the Andamans (see Table 1 ). The checkSst
is based on all confimed sightings. In addition, an
approximate count of all the times a species was sighted or
heard was kept, thus giving a relative frequency
occurrence for individuals. As we are mainly interested in
the endemics, information on the same is presented here
Results and Discussion
The total number of species and subspecies recorded
from the Andaman & Nicobar Islands is 270, of these 126
species are exclusive to the Andaman group and 56. to the
Nicobar group (Table 2. for list see Table 5). Five species
recorded during this survey were additions to the Nicobars
and three species were added to the Andaman list.
Endemism
The Andaman & Nicobar Islands have a high proportion
of endemics (38.2% of species recorded from the islands
are endemic), largely due to the high number of endemic
subspecies. Of the 105 species and subspecies endemic,
1 4 are species with 1 7 subspecies. Of the endemics. 82 (or
78.1%) are subspecies of species found on neighbouring
mainlands. (Table 3). Of the 14 species endemic to the
Andaman & Nicobar islands. 5 are exclusive to the Nicobar
islands, 6 to the Andaman islands and 3 to both.
The Andaman group has a greater number of endemic
species exclusive to that group than that of the Nicobar
islands (Table 3). However, if area is taken into
consideration, the ratio ol exclusive endemic species or
subspecies per sq. km. is higher in the Nicobars than in the
Andamans (Nicobars 0.021 spp per sq. km,
Andamans-0.008 spp per sq.km). Similarly, the ratio of
endemic per number of Islands than too Nicobar has a
255
greater degree ol endemicity (Nicobars 1.63 spp. per
island, Andamans 0.16 spp. per island)
Of the 66 endemic species present in the Andaman
group. 52 were seen. Of the 56 endemic species recorded
in the Nicobars. 34 were sighted. The species endemic not
seen during this survey were the Nicobar Hawk-Owl and
the Narcondam Hornbill (Narcondam island was not
surveyed).
Though the avifauna of the Nicobars has been
considered as an impoverished subset of that of the
Andaman group (Ripley & Beehler, 1989). it is clear from
the available information, that the Nicobars has a higher
degree of endemism than the Andamans. One possible
reason is that the inter-island distances are greater in the
Nicobars than in the Andamans.
Within the Nicobar group, there are two species
endemic exclusive to the Great Nicobar group (Blyth's
Nicobar Parakeet and Great Nicobar Crested Serpent
Eagle) while the Nicobar Bulbul is exclusive to the
Nancowry group. The Nicobar Shikra and the Nicobar
Scrubfowl are common to both groups. Similar patterns are
seen with endemic sub-species as well. Thus, based on
the avifauna profiles of fhe Nicobars, two islands
subgroups are evident, these being the Nancowry and the
Great Nicobar groups. The avifauna profile of the Andaman
group is as yet unclear, but some patterns are emerging.
For instance, the large Andaman Drongo occurs in the
middle Andamans while the smalt Andaman Drongo occurs
in the south and Little Andamans. The little, although
isolated from the rest of the Andamans by the Duncan
passage does not seem to have evolved specific avifauna.
Introduced species
Having been colonised by non-ethnic people for over a
century, several species of avifauna have been introduced
in the Andaman & Nicobar islands. The Andaman group
has had a greater number of introductions than the Nicobar
group (TAble 4). Two species introduced from the
mainland, the Common Myna and the House Saprrow have
become very common.
The Nicobars have fortunatety not had many
introductions from mainland India, with only the Blue Rock
Pigeon having been introduced into Car Nicobar. and
domestic strains (perhaps less than 100 birds) now being
present on Great Nicobar as well. The Common Myna was
probably only introduced on Car Nicobar. as rt was not
seen during this survey. The Nicobars have had
introductions from the Andaman group. The two
introductions, the Andaman Red Whiskered Bulbul, an
endemic form has now become very common in the
Nancowry group, and the Andaman Whiteheaded Myna,
another endemic, was supposed to be common on
Camorta but this species was not seen there.
Distribution of avifauna within the island group
Of critical importance to the conservation of avifauna is
the documentation of distributions of species within an
island group. Table 5 summarises the avifauna of the
Andaman & Nicobar group of Islands from an exhaustive
literature review. Tables 6 8 7 present the data collected for
eight islands in the Nicobar group and 4 island sub-group
from the Andamans. and gives an abundance ranking as
well to give some idea of the frequency at which species
were sighted.
Species under pressure
Only four species, the Andaman Teal Anas gibberifrons
albogularism the Andaman Greyrumped Swiftlet Collocalia
fuciphaga inexpectata, the North Nicobar Scrubfowl
Megapodius nicobarensis nicobariensis and the Nicobar
Bulbul Hypsipetes nicobariensis the latter a full species
endemic and the former three subspecies endemics are
threatened. While the Andaman Greyrumped Swiftlet
occurs throughout the Andaman & Nicobar islands, the
Nicobar Bulbul is endemic to Nancowry, Camorta, Katchall
and Trinkat islands of the Nancowry group, and the
Andaman teal is present only in the Andaman group.
Several examples of introduced species causing
extinction or rarity of endemic species in islands
ecosystems are present (e.g. Recher & Clark 1974,
Atkinson 1989. Olson 1989, Carew-Rekf 1990, Baker
1991). The introduction of the Andaman Red Whiskered
Bulbul in the Nancowry group of islands has probably
resulted int he rarity of the Nicobar Bulbul. The Andaman
Red Whiskered Bulbul is currently widespread and very
common in the Nicobar group of islands. The Nicobar
Bulbul. which was said to be common in the Nancowry
group is now very rare. This species was sighted less than
5 times in two separate locations in Comorta. once on
Nancowry and 4 to 5 times in Katchall. In contrast, the Red
Whiskered Bulbul was seen at least more than 75 times. It
is probable that the Nicobar Bulbul is becoming rare
because of competition with the Andaman Red Whiskered
Bulbul. This, however, requires further study.
The Andaman Greyrumped Swiftlet was never as
common in the Nicobars as it was in the Andamans (Alt &
Ripley 1983) This species has become rare in the
Andaman and Nicobars primarily due to over- exploitation
of the nests. This species, belongs to the 'white nest
swiftlet' group, whose nests are made entirely of
agglutinated saliva, and are of a very high commercial
value in the international market. In the Andaman &
Nicobar islands a kg of nests (one kg normally consists of
about 70 nests) fetches between 5 and 8 thousand rupees,
and can cost even as much as Rs.tO or 12,000 in Port
Blair. From the information gathered, virtually all colonies
are exploited, and nest collected goes on irrespective of
whether there are eggs or chicks in them. There have been
instances in the past when a heap of chicks and eggs a
foot high have been left behind after nest collection.
The Andaman teal has become rare due to habitat toss
and hunting. As surface fresh water is scarce in the islands,
human pressures on available water is high, with the
resultant reclamation or disturbances. As a species the
Nicobar Scrubfowl. the only megapode species in India, is
not threatened. However, of the two sub species present in
256
Ihe Nicobar group of Islands, M.n. nicobariensis has
become rare primarily due to the conversion of its habitat to
coconut plantations.
The Nicobar Scrubfowl. Megapodius nicobariensis in
India was considered endangered (Anonymous 1988).
However, as a species it is safe, but Ihe Northern
sub-species M.n. nicobariensis is threatened today. The
Naroondam Hornbill Aceros narcondami was also found to
be common to Naroondam Island (V Prakash pers. comm.)
but is a species whose numbers need To be monitored
because it is endemic to an island of less than 7 sq km.
Conservation Perspectives
As yet, the endemic avifauna of the Andaman & Nicobar
islands are not under immediate threat. However, it
conservation is not implemented now, the fulure wilt be
Weak. Most of the endemic avifauna of the Andaman and
Nicobar are forest dwelling species and some endemics
are restricted to very small islands. As the limits on the
resource base are acute due to strict geographical limits
(Carew-Reid 1990} any change of vegetation cover will
prove detrimental to the endemics.
There are two primary conservation problems in the
island group. The first is by the settlements of mainlanders
who have cleared forest to farm. The second is through the
development of infrastructure for the mainlanders who
have settled in the islands and for the commercial
exploitation of the island group. Until the loss of forest is
controlled, perhaps even reversed, and as much of the
islands are left as we found them, the future is grim not only
for the endemic fauna and flora, but for the indigenous
tribes to whom these islands, in reality, belong.
References
Abdulali, H., 1964 (a). Four new races of birds from the
Andaman and Nicobar J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 61 :
410-417
Abdulali, H., 1964 (b). The birds of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 :483-571
Abdulali, H.. 1966. More new races of birds from the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands J Bombay nat. Hist.
$oc.63:420422
Abdulali, H., 1967. The birds of the Nicobar islands birds
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 64: 140-190
Abdulai, H.. 1971. Naroondam island and notes on some
islands J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.68:385-411
Abdulali, H.. 1974. The fauna of Narcondam Island. Part 1
Birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 :498-505
Abdulali. H., 1978. The birds of Great and Car Nicobar
conservation int he islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.75:744-772
Ali. S. & Ripley, S.D.. 1983. Handbook of the birds of India
and Pakistan Compact edition. Oxford univ. press. New
Delhi.
Anonymous. 1988. Nicobar scrubfowl faces extinction.
Oriental bird club Bulletin7;9
Atkinson, I.. 1989. Introduced animals and extinction.
Pp.S4-69 in Conservation for Ihe twenty-first century
(Western. D. & Pearl. M. aetas .). Oxford Univ. Press.
Oxford
Baker, A. J., 1991. A review of New Zealand Ornithology, Pp
1-67. in current Ornithology Vol.8. (Power D.M. ed.>.
Plenum Press, New York.
Carew-Reid. J., 1990. Conservation and Protected areas
on South- Pecitic Islands: The importance of tradition.
Environmental conservation 17:29-38
Dagere. J.C., Mangia, A.D. & Bandyopadhyay, A.K.. 1991.
Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Oxford &
IBHPuW. Co. New Delhi
Das. P.K.. 1971. Ne* records of birds from the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.
68:459-461
Dasgupta. J.M., 1976. Records of birds from the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands J.Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.73:222-223.
Howard. R. & Moore. A.. 1991. Acomplete checklist of the
birds of the world. Academic press. London.
Hume. A.O.. 1 874. Contributions to Ihe ornithology of India:
The islands of the bay of Bengal. Stray feathers2
29-324
King. W.B.. 1 981 . Endangered birds of the wortd. ICBP red
data book. Smithsonian Univ. Press, Washington D.C
"Mani, M.S. (Ed.), 1974. Ecology and biogeography in
India. W. Junk, the Hague.
Mountford. G.. 1988. Rare birds of the world. Collins,
London.
Olson. S.L.. 1989. Extinction on Islands : Man as a
catastrophe. Pp 50-53 in Conservation for the
twenty-first century (Western. D. & Pearl, M. eds.)
Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
'Rand. L.A. & Gillard. E.T, 1967. Handbook of New Guinea
birds. WeidenfieW and Nicholson, Sydney.
Ripley, S.D.. 1982. A synopsis of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Bom. Nat Hist. Soc.Bombay
Ripley S.D. & Beehler, B.M.. 1989. Ornithogeographic
affinities of the Andaman and Ncobar Islands.
J. Biogeography 16: 323- 332.
Saldhana. C.J., 1989. Andaman, Nicobar & Lakshadweep.
An environmental impact assessment. Oxford & IBH
Publ. Co. Delhi.
' not referred to in the original
Acknowledgements
We like to thank the Forest Department of Ihe Andaman
& Nicobar Islands, without whose support this survey would
not have been possible. Specifically we wish to
acknowledge the friendship and help extended by Mr A.K.
Wahal, CWLW, Mr Panday CF, Mr Balachandran CF, Mr
Ajai Saxena. DCF, Ms Kala, DCF. R.G.C. Jayaraj. DCF,
J. Kurien. DCF, Mr Agarwal. DCF, Mr Prasanth. CDF and
Mr. T Nautiyal, ACF and their staff.
257
Table 1: Time spent on various Islands
Island
Area (sq km)
Dates
No of days
Nicobar group
-
-
-
Great Nicobar
1045.1
11-12-92 to 28-1-93
19-2-93 to 28-2-93
56
Lrttet Nicobar
159.1
28-1-93to 15-2-93
18
Pilo Mito
1.3
16-2-93 to 18-2-93
2
Camorta
188.2
1-3-93 to 18-3-93
17
Trinkat
30
19-9-93 to 24-3-93
5
Nancowry
66.9
26-3-93 to 29-3-93
4
Katchall
174.6
31 -3-93 to 3-4- 93
4
South Andaman
Not available
13-5-93 to 5-5-92
5-5-92 to 11-5-92
9
North Andaman
1348
18-3-93to26-3-93
7
Middle Andaman
1070
26-3-93 to 28-3-93
2
Little Andaman
3
29-3-93 to 1 -4- 93
3
Table 2: Number ol species recorded trom the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Island group
Total spp
Exclusive spp
Andaman
214
126
Nicobars
144
56
Table 3 : Endemism in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
Total spp endemic to A & N Is
Spp endemic to Andaman group
Spp endemic to Nicobar group
Endemic spp common to both groups
Endemic full spp (with 1 7 sub-species)
105
49
39
17
14
Endemtc sub species (incl. those of endemic full spp.) 98
Table 4: Species introduced in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Species
Islands
Year
Grey Patridge
Andamans
C1890
Indian Peatowl
Andaman s
o
Blue Roc* Pigeon
Andamans
-?
Car Nicobar
1898
Utile Brown Dove
Andamans
1899
Roseringed Parakeet
Andamans
1863
Andaman Whiieheadec
Myna Comorta
"1
Indian Myna
A4NIS
1867
Andaman Red Whiskered Bulbul Camorta
*?
Trinkat
House Sparrow
Andamans
1882
1895
Tree Sparrow
' Andamans
< 1866
Red Munia
Andamans
« 1873
Blackheaded Munia
Andamans
< 1906
Status
Uncommon
Uncommon
?
?
?
Died out
Common
V Common
V Common
V Common
Died out
Died out
Died out
258
TABLE 5. THE BIRDS Qf THE ANDAMAN 4 M COB Aft ISLANDS - A LITERATURE REVIEW
Common n«ar
Specie*
E NE A H
Distribution
Wilson's stora petrel
Dusk yv anted stora Petrel
Short-tailed troplc-ttird
Red-tailed troplc-blrd
Long-tailed troplc-blrd
Grey or Spottedbllled Pelican
Red footed booby
Purple heron
Dusky grey heron
Little green heron
Indian Pond heron
Chinese pond heron
Cattle egret
Large egret
Interaediate egret
Little egret
Eaatern reef heron
Might Heron
Nlcobar Tiger bittern
Chestnut bittern
Yellow bittern
Lesser whistling teal
Brahainy duck
Coaaon teal
Andaaan teal
Spotbill duck
Cotton teal
Andaaan blackcrested baza
Pariah kite
Shlkra
Shikra
Horsfield's Goshawk
Sparrow hawk
Eastern iBesra) sparrow hawk
Andaaan crested hawk -eagle
Whitehellled sea eagle
Grey-headed fishing eagle
Pale harrier
Montagu** harrier
Harsh harrier
ndellanus
*
Ocean j res oceanicua oceanicua • •
Frrgrtta tropica melanogaater t
Phaethon aethereua indicua I t
Phaethon rubricauda rubricauda * *
Pharthon lepturua lepturua • •
Pelecanua phi I ippenaxa philzppenaia • •
Sula aula rubrtpea • •
Ardea purpurea manilenata • • •
Ardea aumatrana aumatrana • •
Butoridea striata* apodtogaatei • • •
Ardeola grmyii • • •
Ardeolm bacchua • •
Bubulcua tbta coromandlua • < •
Egretta alba modeata • •
Egretta intermedia intermedia • ■ •
Egretta garzettm garret ta . ♦ ♦
Egretta aacra * * «
Hycticorax nyct tcorax nyct icorax • •
Coraachiua melanolophua minor •
Ixobrychua cinnamomeua • • *
Ixobrychua ainenaia • • «
Dendrocygna javantca » * •
Tadorna ferruginea • •
Anas crecca crecca * * «
Anas gibberlfrona albogularta • *
Anas poeci lorvncha • •
Hettapua coromandel ianua co,
Aviceda leuphotea andaaanlca
MITCH migrmna govinda • •
aceipiter bufieri botleri • •
4ecipirer butler! obaoletua * •
aceipiter soloensis • • •
Aceipiter niaus niaoaimi lis * •
ACCtpiter urgatu* gularia ? *
5pi/aetus nrrnatus andamanenaia • *
Haltar-etus leucogaater * t t
/rnrnvDpnag a ichthvmet us ichthyaetua » ?
Circus aacrouru* » * ?
Circus pvgargus t • •
Cirroi aeruginoatiG aeruginomua • • ?
S Andaaan Is
Car Nlcobar I
S. Nlcobar Is
259
Buraese crested serpent emg.li- Spilornis chaala burmanicus
Andaman pale serpent, eagle Spilornis chaala davinoni
Nicobar crested serpent eagle Spilornis chaala minimus
Great Nicobar created
Andaaan dark aerpent eagle
Oaprey
Peregrine falcon
Peregrine falcon
Keatrel
North Kirobar aegapode
South Nicobar aegapode
Cray partridge
Nicobar bluebreasted quail
Coaaon peafowl
Spilornis klossi
Spi lorn ia •■ in in i
Fandion haliaatus haliaatua
Falco paragrinua japonensta
Falco paragrmus pvragrinator
Fat co tinnunculus subssp
t/egapodius n. mcobarianais
Hagapodiua n, abbotti
Francollnus p. pondlcarlanus
Coturntx chinansia trinkutanais
Pmvo criitatu*
Indian yellow- legged button quail rurni* tanki tanki
Button quail rurni* tank! albiventrta
Andaman bluebreated banded rail JTai/us atriatua obscurio'r
Nicobar bluebreated banded rail Hallux strlatus met/bat ens is
Andaaan banded crake
Bai lion's crake
Andaaan whl tebreasted water-hen
Whlteheaded waterhen
Water cock or Mora
Purple aoorhen
Malay Moorhen
Greyheaded lapwing
Cray plover
Colden plover
Large sand plover
Eastern sand plover
■antlah plover
Little ringed plover
Lasawr sand plover
•hoaaral
Carle*
■aa-tailed godwit
Mallina canning! *
Fvrzana puailla pusilla
Amauromis phoamcurua insular is •
Amaurorms phoamcurua f eucocepn* J us*
.4Miimnii-, p. aldnjcobericus •
Gallicrax cinaraa cinaraa
Forphyrio porphyrio pol iocaphalua
Ga 1 1 inula chloropus oriantalJa
Vane II us cinaraus
Fluvialia aquatorola
Pluvial is dominica tulva
Charadrius laschanaulti i
Charadrius asciaticua varadus
Charadrius alaxandrinua
Charadrius dubius curonicus
Charadrius mongolua atrifrofiv
Numrmus phaaopus phaaopua
Humaniua arauata oriantalis
limosa laponica laponica
Tringa totanua totanus
Trmga nabulana
Tringa Ochropus
Trxnga glareola
Tringa tarak (Xanua cinarausl
Tringa lAciitlsl hypolaucoa
• c
*
•
• c
•
•
u
*
•
» c
»
• ?
*
♦ T C
• c
»
c
*
•
NC
*
* c
• c
•
• c
• c
• ?
• n
• HC
• HC
? n
? M
H
• m
Endeaic to Caaorta-Nancowrv-Tereasa-
katchall group
Endeaic to Great Nicobar
Endeaic to South Andaaan la.
Nicobar la N of Soabrero channel
Endeaic to Great a Little Nicobar
Introduced froa aainland India c. 1S90
Car Nicobar, Trinkut, Caaorta
Introduced
Only H.A.
t Single speciaen froa near Port Blair
260
Turnstone
Pintail snipe
Swinhoe'a snipe
Fsntail snip*
Jack snip*
woodcock
Eastern knot
Uilirn little stint
Littla atlnt
Long toed atlnt
Curlew-sandpiper
Sander ling
Broadbllled sandpiper
Crab plover
Great stone plovar
Large Indian pratincole
White-winged black tarn
Javan gullbilled tarn
Roseate tern
Caatarn blacknaped tern
Brownwinged tarn
Sooty tern
Large crested tern
Indian leaser created tern
Noddy tern
Whitecapped noddy tarn
Andaman pompadour pigeon
Andaman Poaipadour pigeon
Nicobar graan imperial pigeon
Andaman green iaparial pigeon
Pled lapenal pigeon
Blue rock pigeon
Andaman wood pigeon
Nicobar woodplgeon
Andaman cuckoo-dove
Worth Nicobar cuckoo-dove
nicobar cuckoo-dove
Burmese red turtle dove
Burmese spotted dove
Indian little brown dove
Andaman Emerald dov*
Nicobar Emerald dov*
Nicobar pigeon
Large Andaman parakeet
Armaria interprea inferpres
Capella tCallinagot atenura
Capella (Gal Imago) megaia
Capella (Cat I inago) g. galltnago
Capella i Lymnocrypteal minima
Scolopax rusticola ruaticola
Calldria tenuiroatria
Calldria ruficollta
caii.lt 11 mlnutum
Calldria mubmtnutus
Cmlidria taataceus ifaruginea)
calidris albua
Limicolla falcinellua aubap.
Dromaa ardeola
Caacua magniroatria magnlroatna
Clareola pratincola ma Idl varum
Chlidontaa ieucoptera
Gelnchfl itlim ntlotlca atfinia
Sterna dougallii koruatea
Sterna suatatrana suatatraita
Sterna anaethetua aubspp
Sterna fuacata nubiloaa
Sterna bergi subsp.
Sterna bengalenaia bengalenaiw
Anoua atoltdua pileatua
Annus tenuiroatrla Worcester!
Treron pompadora chloroptera
Treron pompadora andamanica
Ducula aenea nicobarica
Ducula aenea andamanica
Ducula bicolor
Columba tivia intermedia
Columbe pal umbo ides palumbotdei
Columba pelumboidea nicobarica
Hacropygia rufipennia andamanica
alacropvgia rufipennia rufipennia
Hacropygia rufipennia Hwarii
Streptopalia tranquaoarlca humtlis
Streptopelia chinenaia tigrina
Streptopalia senegalenaim cambavenaxa
Chalcophapa indica ainaa
Chalcophaps indica augusta
Caloenua nicobarica nicobarica
Faittacula eupatria magnirostris
t
*
n
i
•
MC
t
Ml!
•
H
•
HI!
•
?
■
mi
•
•
n
•
•
M
«
M
t
n
•
*
«
•
n
•
•
n
t
T
r
«
7
(to
»
V?
•
V?
•
»
R
•
•
R
•
VT
f
?
*
?
»
»
*
t
•
IT
t
S
•
•
•
B
•
•
R
*
•
IC
t
1
RC
»
<
•
R
•
•
?
•
»
t
t
♦
?
*
•
4
RC
»
•
?
t
*
RC
t
t
B
*
»
V?
a »
I
?
•
t
R
•
*
R
?
*
•
R
1
t
R
Single ? record from Port Rlair
Common Is S a H Andamans
Host Nicobar la
Throughout the group
Introduced in 1*98 into Car Nicobar
G Hlcobar. ('amort a, Nancowry
Andaman a north Nicobar Is
N Nicobar I*
Credit Nicobar
Single record from Nicobar
Possibly introduced c. 1696
Andaman la only
Nicobar la only
Nancowry. Camorta. Car Nicobar
Not recorded south of 10" channel
261
Rose ringed parakeet
Andaman rebreasted parakeet
Blyth's Nlcobar parakeet
Andaman redcheeked parakeet
Nirobar redcheeked parakeet
Indian lorikeet
Indian cuckoo
Cuckoo
Himalayan cukoo
Saa 1 1 cuckoo
Indian drongo cuckoo
Emerald cuckoo
Violet cuckoo
Andaman Koel
Andaman crow pheaaant
Andaman barn owl
Andaman siupi owl
Andaauin scops owl
Nicobar scops owl
Brown hawk -owl
Andaman hawk-owl
Nlcobar hawk-owl
'-!■■. i t^d wood owl
Fish owl
Migratory nightjar
Andaman long tailed nightjar
H iaa la van swiftlet
Huae'n swiftlet
Andaauin greyruaped swiftlet
Uhitebellied swiftletC
Brovnthroated spinetail awift
F.a».lern swifl
Indian small blue kingfisher
Andaman hlue-eared kingfisher
Andaman three-toed kingfisher
Falttacula kramarl
Pslttacula aieiaodrl abbot t I «
Paittacula canicapa •
Paittacula longicauda tytlarl t
Paittacula longicauda nlcobaricm t
Loriculua vernaJis vermin
CucuIum mlcroptarua mlcroptarua
Cuculua canorous subsp.
Cuculua aaturatua aaturatua
Cuculua pollocaphalua pollocaphmlua
Surniculua lugubria
Chalet t as amculatua
Chalcitaa xanthorhynchua xanthoi-hynchus*
Fudynamua scolopacea doloaa
Cantropua lainanalal andamanaia
Tyto albm daraopatrottl
Otua bmlli
Otua scops modastus
Otua acopa nicobartcua
Sinox scutulata obacura
Sinox afflnla afflnla
Htnox afflnia laolata
Nlnox affima raxplmanta
Strix aalaputo •
Katupa javananala •
Caprlmulgua indicua jotaka •
Ca i'i I mu I «■!!-. macrurua andamanlcua •
Col local ia bravlroatrla braviroatrim *
Col local la b. innominata *
Collocalia fociptiaga Inaxpactata *
Collocalia aaculanra affima •
Chaetura gtgantaa indica •
!;■■■-■ ■/■!■-- pekJnensis •
Alcado atthis bengalanaia *
Alc*do manint ing rutigasira •
Ca>vx arilbacua marrocaru* •
Three-toed kingfisher Cavx arithacua arithacua
Andaman stnrkbilled kingfisher Palargopsi* capanai* oymastom *
NiCOtaU slorkhilleil kingfisher Palargopsia c. intermedia «
(ml. >*. in ruddy kingfisher
Palargopsia cape/ists shakan
Hah von conmanda mtzorhma
Introduced In c. 1863. Died out by 1873
RC
• R Only froai C. Kicobar. ftontschal a Kondul
RC Very common on all Andaman la
• RC Vary common on all Nlcobar Ia
T tV
• ?
V 1 record froa Andaman a
• C
R?
• ? 1 Shot in Ratchal, sighted Campell bay
» r
7 1 specimen froa near Port Blair
• T
? R Andaaans, Great a Little Coco, Table la
R? Pew specimens froa S Andaman
R?
• 7 Caapbell bay.
• RC
RC
• RC Car Nicobar. Trinkat a Caaorta.
• 7 Ct Nlcobar la.
f
7
•C
?
T
*
RC
•
RC
?
RC
*?
*
R?
RC
•
n
•
i
RC
•
R
Less in Nicobara.
Single sneciaen on July 30th 1873
SouUi A Middle Andaaan Is
Coaaon in the Nicobars; 3 records from
the Andaman a
Galatea bay. Kondul, Pi In lilu,
riontfthall a I Nicobar
S And.tmari
Not uncommon V Andaman; Barren a S Jolly
Roy 1b
262
Andaaan whitebreasted kingf tsherffaii von sa<rn«mis saturatiar
H l.t. k- .•|>|-»-.1 kirnjfi-.ii.-i Hmlcvnn pilmmtM
imMaan whltecollared kingf i -.her»-t Icvon chlons dan son i
Nmmlii whltecollared kingf lahertfaicvon chloric occipital ia
Andaaan rhestnutheaded bee-eaterfferops laachanaulti -~ J 'rrh
Blueiailed bee-eater naropn philippinua phillppinua
Andaman broadbillad roller turys lomua ariantalia gigam
Narcondaa hornbill Khyticeros lAcaroat narcondtami
Andaman black woodpecker Oryocopu* Javanaia hodgai
Andaman spottedbreasted pied w.p.'jcoidea aacei andaamnenaia
Nicobar greenbreasted pitta Pitta sordida abbottii
Hirundo ruatica gutturalia
h ir undo tahitica javanlca
Hirundo daurtca japonic*
Laniua criatatua criatatua
Laniua criatatua lucionanata
Oriolua chinensis andamanmnala
Ortnlus ch mens 13 macroum?
Swallow
Javan house swallow
Japanese redruaped swallow
Brown shrike
Philippine shrike
Andaaan blacknaped oriole
Nicobar blacknaped oriole
Blackheaded oriole
Cray or ashy drongo
Whltech«eked trey drongo
Crowbilled drongo
Large Andaauin drongo
Small Andaaan drongo
Andaman racket (ailed drongo
Nicobar racket tailed drongo
Whitebreasted swallow shrike
Andaman glossy stare
Glossy tree stare
Andaman wh ! 1 eheaded avna
Vicohar whiloheaded m>n*
Katchall whitehraded ayna
Daurian ayna
Rnsv pastor
Indian myna
Andaaan hill ayna
Nicobar hill -mi.
Andaman i rM pi"
1. 1 -.( >■ in jungle crow
Inriaaan large cu< koo shrike
Oriolus xanthornua landamananatai ?
Picrurus laucophaaua *
Dicrurua laucophamu* laucoganya t
Dicrurua annactanm *
Dicrurua andamanenaia dlcruri iformif
Dicrurua andaamnana i a andamananaia •
Olrruru* paradisaic otiosua •
Dicrurua paradtaaua nicobar tanmis *
Artamus laucorhvnehua ftuaej »
tplonia panayensis t.t/eri *
Aplonis pJMveniif albirj* •
SCaVStM t\ thropygwa andamanena i s •
Sterous arrthropygiut mthropygtua •
Sferooi ei > rhropvgius safcnaiensia •
Srunsus slurninu* t
Srwraws roseus •
4rridk>rhervs triaita triatia t
Crs.uJa ral igiiaa endaaanenais •
Cracula re/igi.isa haiiftre^ra •
Dfndroci tta bmvlayi t
Comal aecrorftyenus tevai llmntii •
torsr.n* «pv«*«o| Undia- anrlaman* t
RC v coaaon in ri a S Andaaan
t RC
RC Andaaan & Coco la
• RC Nancowry. CarNlc. Trinkut . Caaorta.
■C Coco. Andaaans
» HC
RC S I n Andaaans
1C Endealc to Narcondaa Is
RC
IC
• IT C a L Nicoabr
• nc
R?
V Single doubtful record froa Port Blair
7 H?
t nc
RC S & n Andaaans
• RC CarNic. C Nicobara. Nancowry, Caaorta.
Tnnkat , C Nicobar
T
Single specimen Sth Nov. 1874
?
• ? Single record.
R treat Coco * Table Is
H Little a s Andaaan Ia
RC N, ft. s k Little Andaaan la
• RC CarNic. Katchall. L a C Nicobara
RC Coco. Andaaan Is
• RC
i RC Caaorta. Trinkut, Nancowry A C Nlcohar
• RC Introduced on Caaorta
• RC Only known froa Car Nicobar
• RC Katchall Is only; possibly hybrid
between S.e.a. a S.e.e.
• 0? Three records. Caaorta, hetw«*n CarNic a.
L Andaaan.
• V 2-3 records during severe winters.
• < RC Introduced c. IS6T. Have spread through
aany Islands
. . RC
• ? C a Central Hlcohars
• RC
• RC
• RC
263
Barred cuckoo shrike
Nlcobar pied cuckoo-shrike
Andaman scarlet mlnivet
Eastern aval] alnivet
Fairy blue-bird
Andaman blackheaded bulbul
Andaman red-whiskered bulbul
Nlcobar bulbul
Olive flycatcher
Brown flycatcher
Eaatern redbreaated flycatcher
Pa rad i ae f 1 yea t cher
Andaman blacknaped monarch
Car Nlcobar blacknaped monarch
Nlcobar blacknaped monarch
Mangrove whistler
Andaman palefooted bush warbler
Malay atreaked f entail warbler
Pallaa'e graaahopper warbler
Streaked graaahopper warbler
Thlckbilled warbler
Aaaaa reed warbler
Eaatern great reed warbler
Hani pur dusky leaf warbler
Siberian duaky leaf warbler
Siberian yeljowbrowed l.w.
Largebllled leaf warbler
Eaatern greenish leaf warbler
Pale legged leaf warbler
Bluethroat
Andaman magpie-robin
Andaman shame
Indian collared bush chat
Indian blue rock thrush
whttebrowed ground thrush
Siberian thrush
Andaman ground thrush
Nlcobar ground thrush
Dark thrush
■ithards (pedrtvfield) pipit
llvth's pipit
lied pipit
Coraclna striate dobsoni *
Coraclna ILalage) amlanolauca nigar «
Parlcrocotua fl a amaua andaatananmla *
Paricrocotua ctnnmmomeus vt vidua *
Irene pualla andamanic*
Pycnonotua atrlcapa fuacotlavaacana •
Pycnonotua jocoaua whist leri »
Nypsipitea nlcobarianais *
Mhtnomyias brunnaata nicobaric*
Hualcapa latiroatria
Muaicapa parva albicllla
Tarpaiphona paradimi nicobarica •
Monarch* atura* tytlart *
Monarcha a. idiochroa *
Monarch* e. nicobarlc* «
Pachycaph*!* grisola
Carrie palltdlpaa oamasioni *
Ciaticola Juncidia ma lava
Locuatalla carthiola centrales!**
Locuatalla lancaolata
Pftragammt icola /Acrocaphalua I a. aadon
Acrocaphalua atantoraua rnmyaa
Acrocaphalua oriantalia
Phyl lomcopua fuacatua mariae
Phylloacopoa fuacatua mariaa
Phylloacopus inornatua inornatu*
Phyl toacopua magnlroatris
Phvlloacopua trochiloldea trochi loidea
Pfty I toacopua tanatlipaa
tnthacus lluaclnlal s. svecicus?
Copaychua aaularia andamananata »
Copaychua malabaricua mlbitent ria *
Sasicofa torquata indica
Montlcola so 11 tar I us pandoo
toothara albirlca albirlca
loothara sibrice derisom
loot harm citrine endemanensis *
Zoothara citrtn* albogularia •
rurdus obacurua
Anthua novaeseelandiae richardil
MtJMi poeHewaJkJ
*nthus rervinus
Motacilla tDrndronathuai tndtca
•
I
i R
t
■C
*
It
* •
. RC
•
RR
•
• RC
. RC
• ?
* nc
< •
M
• •
n
•
• p.i
*
RC
» RC
» «C
4 •
R
IC
• RC
. m
* HT
• HC
H?
n?
H?
NT
n
•
M
• r
H?
R
RC
TR
* V?
V
?
RC
• IC
SR
HC
V?
. n?
n?
Trinket , Camorta
San Andaman
Ski Andaman, introduced into Trlnkat A
Camorta
Nlcobar la except Car Nlcobar
C 4 L Nlcobar. Migrant to S China ?
Narcondaa
Common in Nicobars. rare In S Andaman
All Andaaan Is. C 1 L Coco
Restricted to Car Nlcobar
-Nlcobar la except Car Nlcobar
1 record each from Andaman A Nicobar
Narcondaa)
Single record from Ht Harriet
Single record 16 km off C Nicober
N Europe. N Asia >> India. China
Uncommon. S 4 M Andaman Is
Andaman la
3 records. Andaman 4 CarNicobar.
One record from Port Blair.
Trinkut Nancowry. Camorta 4 Katchal
Single record.
264
Creyheaded yellow wagtail
Blueheadt-d yellow wagtail
Grey wagtail
White wagtail
Andaaan f lowei-pecker
Andaaan olivebacked sunbird
Nicobar olivehacked aunbird
Car Nicobar olivebacked sunbt
Nicobar yellowbacked aunbird
Little spiderhunter
Nicobar white-eye
House sparrow
Tree sparrow
Avadavat or red aunla
Andaauiu wbiiebacked aunia
■iCOfeaV whitebacked lunii
Blackheaded aunia
Vel 1nwbrea*ted bunting
Little bunting
fofdcifid flava thunbergi
Hot aci 11a flava baeaa
Hotmcilla c. caapica (c. rjnej-ea
flotacilla alba leucopaia
Dicaeum concolor nraacana
Nactartnla Jugularla andaatanica
Nactartnla Jugularta klosai
d Mectarinia jugular i a procalia
Aathopyga siparaja nicohmi tea
Arachnothara longiroatria
Zoatrapoa palpabroaa nicobarica
Passer dom+at tcua
Passer atontanua
Ealrilda amandava
lonchura striata timigmt*
Lonchura striata aamlatriata
Lonchura malacca
Fmbarlxa auraola auraola
tmbarita puallla
*
•
M?
»
t
n?
*
•
1C
«
n?
RC
RC
*
RC
•
RC
*
■C
S * 1 Andaaans
Andaaans
Nicobar la except Car Nicobar
: Car Nicobar
C, L Nicobar, Kondul a loreo Is
? Single sight record.
RC Andaaan I N Nicobar la; Hot recorded
froa C 4 L Nicobar
c. 12 introduced on Roaa la la 1)82 and
20 in 1895.
Introduced < 1866. Apparently died out.
Introduced < 1813. Apparently died out.
S a H Andaaans
■C Central Nicobar la and car Nicobar
7 Introduced < 1906. apparaat ly died out
? 1 record froa Nicobar.
? 1 rec. rtt. Harriet, S ladaaaa.
RC
T
?
RC
References
AbduUli 1964 a. 1964 b. 1966. I96T. 1971. 1974. 1978; All A Ripley 1983, Ripley 1982, Das 1971, Daagupta 1976.
265
TA&Ii fi.-Dtnricj*JM cf krii of tv ITkout |r»: af iwi
Cam u«
E Of LK PK CA T9 M W
fcrpfemron
1 t
Uttk greet heni
......
India fond heron
. . .
Cmfcffret
* '
ItttruiiiUfitr.
t •
Bmtern reef hem
• • » • * t •
Ckettatit bitttrn
Itllow bitte m
* *
Bin
* *3 »j ♦ ♦: «]
VhttbtUcdmeifle
* . * » t t
Great Ixobv ereittd wrpen'. Mjle
• *S »1
Worth Kicotar wf apadf
1 .2 t (2 *2
South Icobv itgipodf
* ft «s
Vkodbt bluebrevtrd quni
♦ *2 *2 '2
VhftbreMtfd Nttrnen
» * *1 »3 *\
Golden pfawr
* * » * t
lew r nod plow
» . • t .
Wmbre.
• ♦ * * t
bvturdgodiflt
MM
* * * *
Ce—OB mdpptf
* * t • • ♦
Twek Ridp:prr
'.'•.-.:-.-
t
Smpt*
* *
UOit*
* *
Cnbpbcr
« •
Lirj* !nd«r preoneofe
Smtera sklntped Wi
i . . . • «
Ur(f :mwd fcrn
toduu [oipfticur pijK*
. -• .i . H .1 »1 *2
■Vnbtr (reen aptrai p<*ce
• 4 *4 t3 *! •! 4
hrd Impend Mm
t * * * • • ■
266
Nkocv mxcptftcn
- .-
•
CoCIQ0-iJQ*f
4 'I •
♦2 •: .2
»Kobc Ew raid doff
♦I *l
•3 •! tl »3
fahrjkja
rt
♦I
Bljth'r tirobv pankett
.? .1
Inter redclwkfd pmktt t
*8 »T ♦
M ? «
Sramfeiw bird
t
SMUciKkao
*
Indwi euekro
• ♦
SMraldcsekoo
*
Alton Kvt
»
« ♦? •
♦3
Aidau (rf rnaped mftkt
»
♦2 »i
♦1 •;
MubMMmftfet
♦
H t! .
•2 .2
:ma- sbl. Mm i.-.-'.,v-
• •
lEotv MorfcbM ka|(bte
*
•fi *5 *
?1
^,x>:i-f'.v-
1 •
♦ ♦
ftfe-aiirHkmiftfcr
»
•1
•2 M 4 •!
ttrtafci k***
*
■OHTflMNraBlflb
♦
*4 *4 »1
Mn
» *
Bramthrike
»
t » t
BnHr bhcinapd onolt
i
H *3 *
•4 tj .2 *2
lEobv rackrt-UiW dronf g
»
♦T h «
•1
liwylrw stiff
»
♦« *5 *
H ? 4 i3
«*^rt*rt*Wip.
4
.2
■koUrhiBnjfu
*
•8 tS
♦1 *I «2 •!
bate p*d cuckx-thnkr
*
♦2
IrtfiiB-'W
*1
MBBRMfekniMU
*
MM
fc*rWU
»
'2 -1 *2
*tfl|t*fcr
•1
Pitick ftjoKkr
•
•J
'2 .1
M»n.i W nri
*
H -2
♦2 -2 •!
Kiii^r.-U"; htfioHi
•
Gnat reed nrbler
*
Hicobw (round thrwtk
*
■
GnrN|tad
♦ •
-
267
ftwcwutail
Mco6ir ofitekcta niibirt
IKabar jt ItortrH nubiri
>.■- ..- .- >-»?.
Nr.vda: un^tf backed una
i
• 4 *6 t »4 H .3 M
. *C .3 .
M
TI tl
«2 'I
B= bdeir to Ante I Kcottr, OMtat Kcobv, Uttfttie »icob»r, PH= Pik Kik. CA= C»irt4, TS= Trnk*,
NA= Swcowy. (U= lUtrhii Huibfrt bwnin • = »bund«ff rr.nr.| lbufdoniilhtifl(iuid talk heudl where
!■ one, 2= 2-5, 3= 6-10, (■ 11-25, fc 26-SO, fc >S0, 7= >1M, fc >20C.
268
Table
Distnfcvtioa of avifauna within the Andaman group of islands
Sperr
Indian Shag
Little green heron
Indian Pond heron
Cattle egret
Large egret
Intermediate egret
Eastern reef heron
Andaman teal
Andaman blackcrested baza
Sparrow hawk
Andaman crested hawk-eagle
Whitebellied se* eagle
Burmese crested serpent eagle
Andaman pale serpent eagle
Andaman dark serpent eagle
Andaman bluebreated banded rail
Andaman banded crake
Andaman whitbreasted waterhen
Malay moorhen
Golden plover
Large sand plover
Little ringed plover
Lesser sand plover
Curlew
Redshank
Greenshank
Terek sandpiper
Common sandpiper
Turnstone
Javan gullbilled tern
Roseate tern
Eastern blacknaped tern
Sooty tern
Noddy tern
Andaman Pompadour pigeon
Andaman green imperial pigeon
Andaman wood pigeon
Andaman cuckoo-dove
Burmese red turtle dove
Ring dove
Andaman Emerald dove
Nicobar pigeon
Large Andaman parakeet
Andaman redbreasted parakeet
Andaman redcheeked parakeet
Indian lorikeet
♦
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+3
+ 1
+
+
+2
+
+ 1
+
+ 1
+ 1
+
♦
+ 1
+2
+ 1
+
+ 3
+4
+3
+
+2
+
+ 1
+
+
+
+
+
+
*
+
+
+
+
+
♦
+
+
+
*
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4
♦2
♦ 3
♦ 1
+2
+
♦5
♦5
+3
♦ 4
4
♦ 2
♦ 2
+2
»3
+
+2
♦ 2
+2
+
♦
+
+
♦
+
+
♦ 1
-*2
+
♦ 2
+
+2
♦ 3
+2
+
+4
+5
+2
+ 5
+
+3
♦2
♦3
+3
+
+
+
+
269
Drongo cuckoo
Cuckoo
Himalayan cukoo
Small cuckoo
Emerald cuckoo
Violet cuckoo
Andaman Koe 1
Andaman crow pheasant
Jungle nightjar
Andaman longtailed nightjar
Whitebellied swiftlet
Brownthroated spinetail swift
Indian small blue kingfisher
Andaman three-toed kingfisher
Andaman storkbilled kingfisher
Andaman ruddy kingfisher
Andaman whi tebreasted kingfisher
Blackcapped kingfisher
Andaman whitecollared kingfisher
Andaman chestnutheaded bee-eater
Andaman broadbilled roller
Andaman black woodpecker
Andaman spottedbreasted piedwp
Swallow
Javan house swallow
Brown shrike
Andaman blacknaped oriole
Blackheaded oriole
Large Andaman drongo
Small Andaman drongo
Andaman racket-tailed drongo
Whitebreasted swallow shrike
Andaman glossy stare
Andaman whiteheaded myna
Indian myna
Andaman hill myna
Andaman tree pie
Eastern jungle crow
Andaman large cuckoo shrike
Barred cuckoo shrike
Andasan scarlet minivet
Eastern small minivet
Fairy blue-bird
Andaman blackheaded bulbul
Andaman red-whiskered bulbul
Brown flycatcher
Andaman blacknaped monarch
Mangrove whist ler
Andaman pale footed bush warbler
Pallas's grasshopper warbler
Assam reed warbler
+
* +
♦ +
+
+
+
+1
♦ 2
+ 1
♦
♦•1
t
♦ 4
+
+2
♦ 3
+
+ 1
*
+ 2
♦
+
♦ 3
+
+2
+ 1
+
+ 1
*
+ 3
+2
+
+ 1
+
+4
+ 4
+
♦ 1
+ 1
+
+3
+3
♦ 2
♦
♦ 2
♦ 2
+ 1
♦ 2
♦
+ 2
+ 1
+
+ 2
+4
+ 2
t3
♦
+ 1
+3
+2
+
+
+
♦
♦
+
+
+
+
+3
+ 4
*2
+ 4
•f
+
+
*
+ 3
+ 1
*
+3
♦ 4
+
♦ 4
♦5
♦3
+3
+
+ 1
+2
+ 1
+2
*■
♦ 4
♦ 4
♦ 3
+ 4
♦
♦ 4
+
♦ 4
♦ 2
+
♦ 3
+4
♦2
♦4
♦
♦ 2
♦ 2
♦1
■
♦ 3
-
♦3
t
♦3
♦ 3
--
-
♦
♦ 1
*
*Z
♦ 3
+
-1
♦ 4
•1
--
♦
+
*
•
+
♦ 1
+2
♦2
♦ 3
+
+4
+
+4
+3
+5
t
+2
+ 1
+ 1
♦ 4
+
4
♦
♦
+ 1
+
+
+
♦
270
Eastern great reed warbler
Siberian yellowbrowed l.w.
Largebilled leaf warbler
Andaman magp ie- rob i n
Andaman shatna
Andaman ground thrush
Forest wagtail
Grey wagtail
Andaman flowerpecker
Andaman olivebacked sunbird
Nicobar white-eye
House sparrow
+
+
+
+
+
+ 4
+2
+2
+2
+
+ 1
+2
+
+ 1
+
+
+
+
*1
+
+3
+4
+2
+ 3
+
+2
+3
♦2
♦3
♦
+2
♦
♦ 1
E= endemic, S= South Andamans, N= North Andamans, M= Middle Andamans, L=Little Andaman
271
Human Interference in the Habitats of Cranes in Bhutan And Ladakh
Col .R.T. Chacko (Retd)
A-301, Spartan Heights, 16, Richmond Road, Bangalore- 560025
Introduction
"The Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis breed and
■ spend the summer months in China, Ladakh and Tibet.
They spend the winters in Bhutan and Southern parts of
China and Tibet. They no longer come to the Apa Tani
valley in Arunachal Pradesh due to human interference and
destruction of their habitat.
Periodic censuses in their known breeding and
wintering areas indicate that their numbers are decreasing
m some areas. This is mainly due to the destruction of their
habitat by humans.
A 6-months winter study in Bhutan and a 6-weeks study
during summer in Ladakh brought out the direct and
indirect interference in their habitat by humans and its
effect on the Crane population.
This paper describes briefly the main problems created
by human interference in their habitat, what must be done
by the Governments. NGOs and the common man. if these
birds are to be seen in their natural habitat by future
generations.
Interferences In Bhutan
Draining of Wetlands
There are 3 main wintering areas for these Cranes in
Bhutan, ie., Phobjikha in the West, Gyetsa and Thangby
vallies in the middle and Bumdiling in the East. Human
population in these areas has been increasing and the
number of new houses being built every year is a clear
indication of this. Along with this, the cattle and sheep
population has also been increasing due to the good work
being done by the Animal husbandry department.
Naturally, the areas under cultivation and pastu'elands
have also been increased to provide food and fodder. This
has been achieved by draining the wet and marsh lands
when are the feeding areas of the Cranes which reduces
the avaiaMrty of food for the birds.
Tourism
All the roosting areas except Bumdding are now directly
and easi»y a rrero Me by vehicles. With the puberty grven
to the Black-necked Cranes and the* roosting areas, the
number of tounsts veibng these areas are increasing
rapidly. Many of them disturb the Cranes, mtentonalry or
otherwise, when they persist in taking a closer took or try to
take better photographs
Barbed wire Fences
The other problem created by man are the barbed wire
boundary fences. Lately, they have come up around the
fields in fairly large numbers. They have replaced the
traditional Pine wood stakes and scantlings. The wooden
fences were clearly visible from far but the barbed wire
strung across angle iron pickets are not. This change has
resulted in damaged wings in some Cranes, especially
during take off.
Farm Tractors
Under the old traditional farming system in Bhutan,
fallen grains from the harvest in Oct. were left undisturbed
in the fields until Apr. the following year at the end of winter.
This provided plenty of food for the wintering Cranes who
arrive in Oct. each year. Now, with the introduction of Farm
Trctors and the practice of ploughing during the winter
months has reduced Ihe availability of food and feeding
areas.
Interference In ladakh
Vehicular Traftic
In Ladakh, the breeding areas of Ihe few Black-necked
Cranes are in high altitude areas. 3,900-4.1 60m
(14,000-15,000 ft) and human habitation is more or less
confined lo villages where fresh water is available closeby.
All agricultural holdings are in and around the villages.
In the olden days, an occassional traveller went past the
nesting areas along the existing bridle path and this in no
way disturbed the nesting or roosting Cranes. Now, with
the improved road communications and vehicles with cross
country capabilities, the number of noisy vehicles coming
close to their breeding and roosting areas have increased
and they are disturbed often.
Ownerless dogs'
During the summer of 1992. out of a total of the 17
Black-necked Cranes that came to Ladakh, 4 pairs nested
and out of the 8 eggs laid, 2 were destroyed by dogs or
predators. Out of the 6 cheks, 4 were eaten by dogs.
Finally, onry 2 juveniles accompanied their parenls lo their
wintering areas. Thus. India's contribution to the world
populalon of Black-necked Cranes in 1 992 was just 2 !!
Ownerless' dogs are a new phenomenon in Ladakh.
With the establishment of new military and para-military
camps and out- posts and with the availability of food and
shelter at these places, some local dogs have attached
themselves to these camps. They are now a menace in
Ladakh and there have been instances where small
children were badly bitten by some of these dogs. As they
are able to swim, they can easily get across small, wet
gaps and reach the islands where these Cranes nest and
eat their eggs and chicks.
273
Tourism
There was a recent report that Ladakh will be opened to
all tourists. This will have an adverse effect on the Cranes
breeding and roosting in Ladakh. They will have to be
protected from inquisitive and inconsiderate tourists to
ensure that they continue to breed in Ladakh. They are
very shy and sensitive turds and if disturbed, they will
abandon their nests.
Religion and Tradition
It must be recorded that Black-necked Cranes have
found a place in the local folklore and the sentiments of the
people. While the birds themselves are not threatened
directly because of the religion which is Buddhism, there
are clear visible signs of encroachment and destruction of
their habitat both in Bhutan and Ladakh.
Action Needed
Government department concerned, Non-governmental
Organisations and the common man, whether a resident of
those areas or a tourist, must ensure that these Cranes
and their habitat are not disturbed in any way. They should
be allowed to lead their normal life.
Short and long term plans to protect the Cranes and
their habitat has to be prepared and implimented with
regular monitoring.
Protection must be provided to the birds, particularly the
nesting ones and conversion of marsh and wet lands must
be stopped.
Army and para-military units and men deployed in these
areas should be involved in plans to protect the Cranes and
their habitat, besides maintaining accurate data and
recording all sightings.
"Ownerless" dogs destroying eggs and chicks must be
culled it the breeding rate in Ladakh is to be improved.
The present system of appointing part-time guards
during the season to lookafter the Cranes is not
satisfactory. Full time wildlife staff should be responsible for
this and they can record accurate data on the Cranes and
ensure that the birds are not disturbed by inconsiderate
visitors.
Educating the people to create an awareness among
the people about the urgent need to protect the Cranes and
their habitat is the final answer. Once this is achieved, it will
be easy to get to get their active involvement in any
conservation plan and it will be effective and easy.
Conclusion
The disappearance of the Black-necked Cranes from
the Jakhar valley in Bhutan and the Apa Tani valley in
Arunachal Pradesh is entirely due to human interference in
their habitat. Such interference is still continuing and in fact
it is on the increase due to increase in human population.
The time to stop this interference is now. To save these
Cranes from extinction, short-and long-term conservation
plans must be implemented. Otherwise, our
generations will see only stuffed specimens in museums. A
sad outlook indeed.
274
-
A grant from the Wild Bird Society of Japan enabled printing and distribution
of this book to the delegates of the First National Seminar on
'Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology and Conservation'
held at Bangalore, 12-14 November 1993.
Printed al Navbharath Enterprises. Seshadnpuram. Bangalore-20
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