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PEABODY'S
CONTROL OF PIPELINE CORROSION
SECOND EDITION
A.W. PEABODY
Edited by
RONALD L. BIANCHETTI
NACE International
The Corrosion Society
1440 South Creek Drive
Houston, Texas 77084
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NACE International
The Corrosion Society
© 1967, 2001 by NACE International
Second Edition 2001. All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Number 99-80032
ISBN 1-57590-092-0
Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the copyright owners.
Neither NACE International, its officers, directors, or members thereof accept any re-
sponsibility for the use of the methods and materials discussed herein. The information
is advisory only and the use of the materials and methods is solely at the risk of the user.
Cover illustration by Mark Lewis, courtesy of the East Bay Municipal Utility District.
NACE Press:
Director of Publications: Jeff Littleton
Manager of NACE Press: Neil Vaughan
NACE International
1440 South Creek Drive
Houston, Texas 77084
http : // w w w.nace . org
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Table of Contents
Preface v
About the Author vii
Contributors ix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Corrosion
John A. Beavers 1
Chapter 2 Pipeline Coatings
Richard N. Sloan 7
Chapter 3 Cathodic Protection — How It Works
John A. Beavers 21
Chapter 4 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
John A. Beavers and Kevin C. Garrity 49
Chapter 5 Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
Ronald L. Bianchetti 65
Chapter 6 Instrumentation
Mark Lewis 101
Chapter 7 Ground Bed Design
Ronald L. Bianchetti 131
Chapter 8 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Ronald L. Bianchetti 157
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Table of Contents
Chapter 9 Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Chapter 10 Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
John A. Beavers
Chapter 11 Stray Current Corrosion
Michael J. Szeliga
Chapter 12 Construction Practices
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Chapter 13 Maintenance Procedures
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Chapter 14 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Brenda J. Little and Patricia Wagner
Chapter 15 Economics
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Chapter 16 Fundamentals of Corrosion
John A. Beavers
Appendix A NACE Glossary of Corrosion-Related Terms
Appendix B Additional Important Information on Underground Corrosion Control
Index
177
201
211
237
261
273
285
297
319
339
341
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Preface
This book was originally published in 1967 by Sam Peabody and is the most quoted and
used document in the corrosion industry for pipeline corrosion control and testing. When
the original book was published, specific criteria for cathodic protection for underground
pipelines were still under evaluation and consideration. Not until 1969 was the first
documented standard approved by NACE International on criteria RP0169. The depth
and vision that Peabody incorporated in the first version of the book has stood the test
of time.
This revised version of the 1967 book is not an attempt to make radical changes to the
original document. Much of the original text and concepts remain intact. We attempted,
however, to incorporate original traditional elements of the book with updates and
expanded discussions on equipment, testing techniques and criteria, coatings, survey
methods, and data analysis.
An integral part of this revision is a CD-ROM that contains formulas of key design
calculations, case examples of corrosion control designs which provide a set-by-step
overview of how to design various components of cathodic protection systems, and an
electronic copy of the revised book edition.
As described in the Preface of the original 1967 edition, every attempt has been made
to check the accuracy of all statements and other data. However, it is unreasonable
to assume that everything in this book is accurate and exact. Any suggestions will be
considered when future editions of this book are prepared.
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About the Author
1915-1998
This updated version of NACE International's book titled Control of Pipeline Corrosion is
dedicated to the memory of its original author, A. W. (Sam) Peabody. Since its publication
in 1967, the book has been translated into at least seven different languages and is
considered by most as the definitive work on pipeline corrosion.
Sam received his bachelor's degree from the University of Maine and pursued grad-
uate studies at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in New York. He worked for Ebasco
Services Inc. (no longer in existence) for over 40 years until his retirement in 1980 as
Director of Corrosion Engineering. He was an active member of NACE since 1947. His
accomplishments, awards, and recognitions are too many to list here. His biggest legacy,
especially to those of us who had the privilege of working for and with him, is that he
was the perfect example of "a gentleman and a scholar." He was an excellent teacher
who always emphasized professional integrity, a quality he instilled in so many.
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Contributors
John A. Beavers
John A. Beavers is Vice President of Research at CC Technologies, a corrosion engineering
and research company. He received B.S. and Ph.D. degrees in metallurgical engineering from
the University of Illinois at Urb ana-Champaign in 1973 and 1977, respectively. Dr. Beavers
has directed and contributed to numerous research programs on corrosion performance of
structural materials. These programs included failure analyses, critical literature reviews, and
laboratory and field evaluations of metallic and non-metallic material. Dr. Beavers has utilized
state-of-the-art electrochemical, surface analytical, and mechanical techniques for the evalua-
tion of materials performance. A major emphasis of his research has been the mechanistic and
practical aspects of corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) on underground pipelines.
Dr. Beavers worked at Battelle Memorial Institute from 1977 to 1987, where he was a Senior
Research Leader in the Corrosion Section. He joined CC Technologies in 1987.
Dr. Beavers has authored over 80 papers in the field of corrosion and has received two
U.S. Patents. An active member of NACE, he was Chairman of the Research in Progress
Symposium in 1994 and of the Publications Committee in 1991 and 1992.
Editor's Note: Sincere appreciation to John Beavers for investing a lot of time on a detailed and
productive review of the final draft on the eve before printing.
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Ronald L. Bianchetti is currently a Senior Engineer at East Bay Municipal Utility District
(EBMUD) in Oakland, California. He received a B.S. in engineering in 1975 from the
University of California, Davis and an MBA in 1981 from St. Mary's College of California.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer and has over 25 years of experience. Prior to holding
his current position, Mr. Bianchetti worked in the private sector as a consultant in the cor-
rosion industry from 1975 to 1992. His work includes planning, designing, testing, and the
construction management of cathodic protection systems for underground pipelines, tanks,
refineries, power plants, and marine structures. He has served in NACE International as Past
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Contributors
Chairman of the Publications Committee, ad-hoc member to the Board of Directors, Past
Western Region Chairman and Past Section Chair of the San Francisco Section.
Mr. Bianchetti has published over 30 papers in the field of corrosion and has given hun-
dreds of presentations on corrosion and corrosion control.
Kevin C. Garrity, RE.
Kevin C. Garrity, P.E., is currently Vice President of Engineering at CC Technologies, a cor-
rosion engineering and research company. He received a B.S. in electrical engineering in
1974 from the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. He is a NACE Certified Cathodic Protection
Specialist and a Registered Professional Engineer in seven states. Mr. Garrity has 26 years
of experience in the design, installation, monitoring, and assessment of cathodic protection
systems for buried pipelines, underground storage tanks, concrete structures, and marine
structures. Mr. Garrity worked at Ebasco Services from 1974 to 1982, where he was a Senior
Corrosion Engineer, and at Harco Corporation from 1982 to 1989, where he was Vice President
of Engineering. He joined CC Technologies in 1989.
In 1996, Mr. Garrity received the Colonel George W. Cox Award for outstanding contribu-
tions to the field of underground corrosion control. He has published more than 20 papers in
the field of corrosion control. Mr. Garrity delivered the plenary lecture at Corrosion'98.
Mark Lewis
Mark Lewis is Assistant Corrosion Engineer at the East Bay Municipal Utility District
(EBMUD) in Oakland, California. He is a graduate of Kent State University and attended
Bethany College in West Virginia. He has worked in the cathodic protection and corrosion
engineering field since 1980, both within the United States and internationally. He is a Past
Chairman of the San Francisco Bay Area Section of NACE International.
He is the author of several technical and historical articles on cathodic protection and has
made numerous presentations on the subject. Mr. Lewis has a patent pending for a distribution
system rectifier design.
Brenda J. Little
Brenda J. Little, Senior Scientist for Marine Molecular Processes at the Naval Research Labora-
tory, has a Ph.D. in chemistry from Tulane University and a B.S. in biology and chemistry from
Baylor University. She is a member of the American Chemical Society and the National As-
sociation of Corrosion Engineers (NACE International). She is a NACE International Fellow
and the recipient of a 1999 NACE International Technical Achievement Award.
Dr. Little serves on the editorial board for Biofouling and is the author of one book, 20
book chapters, and over 80 peer-reviewed journal articles.
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Contributors
Steve McKim
Since 1989, Steve McKim has been Vice President of American Construction & Supply, Inc.
Based in Mill Valley, California, his company specializes in cathodic protection construction
services. Mr. McKim previously worked with Harco Corporation and Chevron USA. He has
been in the corrosion industry since he graduated from the University of Illinois with a B.S. in
mechanical engineering in 1983. He is a Past Chairman of the NACE San Francisco Bay Area
Section.
Richard N. Sloan
The late Richard Sloan, was an authority in the field of pipeline coatings. He worked for over
45 years with a company that was first known as HC Price. (The company changed its name
several times: HC Price, Ameron Price, Bredero Price, and Energy Coatings.) He attended
Drexel University and graduated with a bachelor's degree in Industrial Administration.
During his professional career, Richard Sloan taught various short courses in pipeline
coatings, and was a speaker at numerous seminars on the subject. The late Mr. Sloan was an
active and long-standing member of NACE, AWWA, and Western Pipeliners.
Michael J. Szeliga
Michael J. Szeliga, P.E., is the Chief Engineer for Russell Corrosion Consultants, Inc. He has
more than 23 years of experience in corrosion control engineering. Much of his work has
involved the analysis and control of stray current from DC-powered transit systems and
from impressed current cathodic protection systems. A Licensed Professional Engineer in
several states and certified by NACE International as a Corrosion Specialist and a Cathodic
Protection Specialist, Mr. Szeliga has been and is the principal corrosion consultant for the
design, construction, and maintenance of many light and heavy rail transit systems. He is
presently chairman of the NACE (05)024X Committee on Interference Problems Associated
with Rail Transit. Mr. Szeliga is also chairman of the ASTM subcommittee on stray current.
He has edited a book for NACE International titled Stray Current Corrosion and has pub-
lished several articles on the subject.
Patricia Wagner
Patricia Wagner retired from the Naval Research Laboratory in 1998 after 14 years of extensive
experience in microbiologically influenced corrosion. She is the coauthor of one book and the
author of numerous articles on corrosion.
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Chapter
Introduction to Corrosion
John A. Beavers
WHAT IS CORROSION?
One general definition of corrosion is the degradation of a material through environ-
mental interaction. This definition encompasses all materials, both naturally occurring
and man-made and includes plastics, ceramics, and metals. This book focuses on the
corrosion of metals, with emphasis on corrosion of carbon and low-alloy steels used
in underground pipelines. This definition of corrosion begs the question; why do met-
als corrode? The answer lies in the field of thermodynamics, which tells whether a
process such as corrosion will occur. A second logical question is what is the rate
of corrosion or how long will a pipeline last? Corrosion kinetics can help provide an
answer to this question. Both topics are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16. Chap-
ter 1 contains an introduction to the subject of underground corrosion. A glossary of
terms is included in Appendix A of this book to help with the sometimes confusing
terminology.
A significant amount of energy is put into a metal when it is extracted from its
ores, placing it in a high-energy state. These ores are typically oxides of the metal such
as hematite (Fe203) for steel or bauxite (AI2O3H2O) for aluminum. One principle of
thermodynamics is that a material always seeks the lowest energy state. In other words,
most metals are thermodynamically unstable and will tend to seek a lower energy state,
which is an oxide or some other compound. The process by which metals convert to the
lower-energy oxides is called corrosion.
Corrosion of most common engineering materials at near-ambient temperatures oc-
curs in aqueous (water-containing) environments and is electrochemical in nature. The
aqueous environment is also referred to as the electrolyte and, in the case of under-
ground corrosion, is moist soil. The corrosion process involves the removal of elec-
trons (oxidation) of the metal [Equation (1)] and the consumption of those electrons by
some other reduction reaction, such as oxygen or water reduction [Equations (2) and (3),
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Introduction to Corrosion
respectively]:
Fe -> Fe ++ + 2e~
2 + 2H 2 + 4e~ -> 40H"
2H 2 + 2e~ -> H 2 + 20H~
(1)
(2)
(3)
The oxidation reaction is commonly called the anodic reaction and the reduction
reaction is called the cathodic reaction. Both electrochemical reactions are necessary for
corrosion to occur. The oxidation reaction causes the actual metal loss but the reduction
reaction must be present to consume the electrons liberated by the oxidation reaction,
maintaining charge neutrality. Otherwise, a large negative charge would rapidly develop
between the metal and the electrolyte and the corrosion process would cease.
The oxidation and reduction reactions are sometimes referred to as half-cell reactions
and can occur locally (at the same site on the metal) or can be physically separated.
When the electrochemical reactions are physically separated, the process is referred to
as a differential corrosion cell. A schematic of a differential corrosion cell is given in
Figure 1.1. The site where the metal is being oxidized is referred to as the anode or
anodic site. At this site, direct electric current (defined as a positive flow of charge) flows
from the metal surface into the electrolyte as the metal ions leave the surface. This current
flows in the electrolyte to the site where oxygen, water, or some other species is being
reduced. This site is referred to as the cathode or cathodic site. There are four necessary
components of a differential corrosion cell.
1 . There must be an anode
2. There must be a cathode
Anode
Metal
Cathode
Current
Figure 1.1 Schematic showing a differential corrosion cell.
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How Do We Detect Corrosion?
3. There must be a metallic path electrically connecting the anode and cathode. (Nor-
mally, this will be the pipeline itself.)
4. The anode and cathode must be immersed in an electrically conductive electrolyte
(normally, moist soil).
Underground corrosion of pipelines and other structures is often the result of differ-
ential corrosion cells of which a variety of different types exist. These include differential
aeration cells, where different parts of a pipe are exposed to different oxygen concen-
trations in the soil, and cells created by differences in the nature of the pipe surface or
the soil chemistry. Galvanic corrosion is a form of differential cell corrosion in which
two different metals are electrically coupled and exposed in a corrosive environment.
Further discussion of these differential corrosion cells is given below and in Chapter 16.
HOW DO WE DETECT CORROSION?
The electrochemical nature of the corrosion process provides opportunities to detect
and mitigate corrosion of underground structures. We can monitor the voltages and the
currents associated with the corrosion process.
When a piece of metal is placed in an electrolyte, such as soil, a voltage will develop
across the metal-electrolyte interface because of the electrochemical nature of the cor-
rosion process. We cannot measure this voltage directly but, using a voltmeter, we can
measure a voltage between two different metals that are placed in the soil. We also can
measure the voltage difference between a metal and a reference electrode, commonly
called a half-cell electrode. This voltage is referred to as a corrosion potential, an open
circuit potential, or a native potential for that metal in the environment in which the mea-
surement is being obtained. For soil environments, the most common reference electrode
used is the copper-copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE).
Potential measurements can be used to estimate the relative resistance of different
metals to corrosion in a given environment. Noble metals, such as gold and platinum,
have more positive potentials and are more resistant to corrosion than are the more
common engineering metals such as steel and aluminum. A galvanic series is a list of
metals and alloys arranged according to their relative corrosion potentials in a given
environment. Table 1.1 shows a galvanic series for metals and other materials in neutral
soils and water, indicating that carbon has the most positive potential of the materials
listed and magnesium has the most negative potential. The potentials measured for the
different metals in a galvanic series vary somewhat, depending on the nature of the
environment, but the relative position of the metals is similar for natural environments
such as soil and seawater.
Another use for corrosion potential measurements is to establish whether galvanic
corrosion is likely to occur. When two metals are electrically coupled in an environ-
ment, the more negative (active) member of the couple will become the anode in the
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Introduction to Corrosion
Table 1 .1 Practical Galvanic Series for Materials in Neutral Soils
and Water
Material Potential Volts (CSE) a
Carbon, Graphite, Coke +0.3
Platinum to -0.1
Mill Scale on Steel -0.2
High Silicon Cast Iron —0.2
Copper, Brass, Bronze -0.2
Mild Steel in Concrete -0.2
Lead -0.5
Cast Iron (Not Graphitized) -0.5
Mild Steel (Rusted) -0.2 to -0.5
Mild Steel (Clean and Shiny) -0.5 to -0.8
Commercially Pure Aluminum —0.8
Aluminum Alloy (5% Zinc) - 1 .05
Zinc -1.1
Magnesium Alloy (6% Al, 3% Zn, 0.15% Mn) -1.6
Commercially Pure Magnesium —1.75
a Typical potential normally observed in neutral soils and water, mea-
sured with respect to copper sulfate reference electrode.
differential corrosion cell, and the more positive (noble) member of the couple will be-
come the cathode in the cell. In general, the severity of the galvanic couple increases as
the difference in potential between the two members of the couple increases, although
this is not always the case. The galvanic series shown in Table 1.1 indicates that, where
copper is electrically coupled to mild steel in soil, the copper will become the cathode and
the steel will become the anode, accelerating corrosion of the steel. A further discussion
of galvanic corrosion is given in Chapter 16.
Table 1.1 also shows that the potential of mild steel can differ depending on whether
the surface is clean or covered with mill scale. The potential of steel also is a function of
soil properties, including pH, ion concentration, oxygen, and moisture content. The po-
tential differences that develop on underground pipelines and other structures as a result
of these factors can result in severe corrosion. Further discussions of these differential
corrosion cells are given in Chapter 16.
Potential measurements are commonly used on underground pipelines to detect the
presence of these types of differential corrosion cells. An electrical connection is made to
the pipe, and the potential of the pipe is measured with respect to a reference electrode
placed over the pipe. This process is shown schematically in Figure 1.2. Normally, the
reference electrode is connected to the negative lead of a digital voltmeter to obtain a
negative reading. As shown in Table 1.1, most potentials in soils are negative. With this
type of measurement, the most negative regions of the structure are the anodes and are
undergoing accelerated corrosion due to the differential corrosion cells.
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How Do We Mitigate Corrosion?
Copper
Sulphate
Reference
Electrode
Figure 1.2 Schematic showing a pipe-
to-soil potential measurement.
Current measurements also can be used to detect differential corrosion cells if the
anodes and cathodes are large. These large cells create long-line currents that can be
detected by measurements made over the pipe or other underground structure. Through
Ohm's law (V = IR, where V is the voltage, I is the current, and R is the resistance)
we know that current flow in the soil will create a voltage gradient. This gradient can
be detected by placing identical reference electrodes over the pipe and measuring the
voltage difference. The voltage measurements can be used to indicate the direction of
the differential cell current. The anodic and cathodic sites on the pipeline can be located
by performing a series of cell-to-cell potential measurements taken along the pipeline.
Another possible source of current flow in the ground is stray currents. These issues are
discussed further in Chapter 5.
HOW DO WE MITIGATE CORROSION?
The principal methods for mitigating corrosion on underground pipelines are coatings
and cathodic protection (CP). Although each will be treated in greater detail in the
following chapters, these two methods are briefly described here.
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Introduction to Corrosion
Coatings normally are intended to form a continuous film of an electrically insulating
material over the metallic surface to be protected. The function of such a coating is to
isolate the metal from direct contact with the surrounding electrolyte (preventing the
electrolyte from contacting the metal) and to interpose such a high electrical resistance
that the electrochemical reactions cannot readily occur. In reality, all coatings, regardless
of overall quality, contain holes, referred to as holidays, that are formed during appli-
cation, or during transport or installation of mill-coated pipe. Holidays in coatings also
develop in service as a result of degradation of the coating, soil stresses, or movement of
the pipe in the ground. Degradation of the coating in service also can lead to disbonding
from the pipe surface, further exposing metal to the underground environment. A high
corrosion rate at a holiday or within a disbonded region can result in a leak or rupture,
even where the coating effectively protects a high percentage of the pipe surface. Thus,
coatings are rarely used on underground pipelines in the absence of CP. The primary
function of a coating on a cathodically protected pipe is to reduce the surface area of
exposed metal on the pipeline, thereby reducing the current necessary to cathodically
protect the metal. Further discussion of coatings is given in Chapter 2.
One definition of CP is a technique to reduce the corrosion rate of a metal surface
by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. This is accomplished by shifting the
potential of the metal in the negative direction by the use of an external power source
(referred to as impressed current CP) or by utilizing a sacrificial anode. In the case of an
impressed current system, a current is impressed on the structure by means of a power
supply, referred to as a rectifier, and an anode buried in the ground. In the case of a
sacrificial anode system, the galvanic relationship between a sacrificial anode material,
such as zinc or magnesium, and the pipe steel is used to supply the required CP current.
Further discussions of CP are given in Chapters 3 and 16.
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Chapter
Pipeline Coatings
Richard N. Sloan
When the first edition of Control of Pipeline Corrosion by A.W. Peabody was published in
1967, there were few governmental regulations to contend with. Today the Department of
Transportation-Office of Pipeline Safety (DOT/OPS), Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), and the Department of Environmental Resources (DER) are
among the many regulatory agencies influencing or controlling the pipeline industry
Governmental regulations, along with the development, introduction, and acceptance of
new pipeline coatings, have made major changes and will continue to affect the selection
and use of pipeline coatings in the future.
Economics, while still a factor, is being replaced by safety and environmental con-
cerns to obtain the best available pipe-coating systems. This trend was first apparent in
Europe where permanence, instead of cost, led to the use of multi-layer systems that
have proven to be most effective and more economical over the life of the pipeline. In
today's regulated environment, all new hazardous pipelines (carrying oil, gas, or other
potentially dangerous substances) are required by federal regulation to use an effective
coating and cathodic protection (CP).
EFFECTIVENESS OF COATINGS AS A MEANS OF CORROSION CONTROL
First attempts to control pipeline corrosion relied on the use of coating materials and the
reasoning that if the pipeline metal could be isolated from contact with the surrounding
earth, no corrosion could occur. This concept is entirely reasonable and logical. Further-
more, a coating would be completely effective as a means of stopping corrosion if the
coating material:
• Is an effective electrical insulator,
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Pipeline Coatings
• Can be applied with no breaks whatsoever and will remain so during the backfilling
process, and
• Constitutes an initially perfect film that will remain so with time.
While this is possible with some of the advanced multi-layer systems, it may not be
practical from an initial cost analysis.
Although coatings by themselves may not be the one perfect answer to corrosion
control, they are extremely effective when properly used. Most operators plan coatings
and cathodic protection (CP) for all their pipelines as a matter of course. A properly
selected and applied coating will provide all the protection necessary on most of the
pipeline surface to which it is applied. On a typical well-coated pipeline this should be
better than 99% and, along with the CP, should give total protection.
It is not the intent of the chapter to make specific recommendations for coating ma-
terials to be used. However, the capabilities and limitations of various pipeline coating
materials will be discussed as well as desirable characteristics and how to get the most
of any material used. Types of coatings now used on pipeline systems will be described
briefly.
NACE Standard RPO 169-96 Section 5: Coatings, is a comprehensive guide to pipe
coatings, and is required reading for a better understanding of their importance. This
Standard lists the following desirable characteristics of coatings:
1 . Effective electrical insulator. Because soil corrosion is an electrochemical process,
a pipe coating has to stop the current flow by isolating the pipe from its installed
environment /electrolyte. To assure a high electrical resistance, the coating should
have a high dielectric strength.
2. Effective moisture barrier. Contrary to the theory that water absorption is good
because it increases the effectiveness of CP, water transfer through the coating may
cause blistering and will contribute to corrosion by prohibiting isolation.
3. Applicability. Application of the coating to the pipe must be possible by a method
that will not adversely affect the properties of the pipe and with a minimum of
defects.
4. Ability to resist development of holidays with time. After the coating is buried, two
areas that may destroy or degrade coatings are soil stress and soil contaminants. Soil
stress, brought about in certain soils that are alternately wet and dry, creates forces
that may split or cause thin areas. To minimize this problem, one must evaluate the
coating's abrasion resistance, tensile strength, adhesion, and cohesion. The coating's
resistance to chemicals, hydrocarbons, and acidic or alkaline conditions should be
known for evaluating their performance in contaminated soils.
5. Good adhesion to pipe surface. The pipe coating requires sufficient adhesion to
prevent water ingress or migration between the coating and the pipe, along with
cohesion to resist handling and soil stress. Soil stress is the main cause of pipe coat-
ing failure. "Soil stress effects can be seen on flexible PE coatings with elastomeric
adhesives as a characteristic wrinkling. However, other types of coatings can fail
by blistering fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) or fatigue cracking coal tar enamel (CTE)
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Effectiveness of Coatings as a Means of Corrosion Control
that are exacerbated by soil movement resistance to shear must be combined
with a measurement of the resistance of the backing material (or outer jacket) to
deformation and tensile force. The two properties combine to determine the ability
of a pipeline coating to resist damage to soil movement/' Soil stress resistance is
measured by shear resistance, not by peel strength.
6. Ability to withstand normal handling, storage (UV degradation), and installation.
The ability of a coating to withstand damage is a function of its impact, abrasion,
and flexibility properties. Pipe coatings are subject to numerous handlings between
application and backfill. Their ability to resist these forces vary considerably, so those
factors need to be evaluated to know if any special precautionary measure should be
used. Ultraviolet rays can be very destructive to pipe coatings. Storage life may vary
from 6 months to 5 years so resistance to ultraviolet is a very important consideration.
7. Ability to maintain substantially constant electrical resistivity with time. The ef-
fective electrical resistance of a coating per average square foot depends on the
following.
• Resistivity of the coating material
• Coating thickness
• Resistance to moisture absorption
• Resistance to water vapor transfer
• Frequency and size of holidays
• Resistivity of the electrolyte
• Bond or adhesion of coating
If the effective resistance is unstable, the CP required may double every few years. It
is easy to obtain misleading higher resistance measurements if the soil has not settled
around the pipeline and if the moisture has permeated to any holidays in the coating.
Experience is necessary to evaluate the validity of these resistance measurements and
to use them for designing the CP system.
8. Resistance to disbonding. Because most pipelines are cathodically protected, the
coating must be compatible with CP. The amount of CP required is directly propor-
tional to the quality and integrity of the coating. The negative aspects of CP are that it
may drive water through the coating and that the interface bond surrounding a hol-
iday may have a tendency to disbond. No coating is completely resistant to damage
by CP. When large amounts of current are required, stray current and interference
problems may arise. This emphasizes the importance of proper coating selection,
application, and installation.
9. Ease of repair. Because the perfect pipe coating does not exist, we can expect to make
some field repairs as well as field-coating of the weld area. Check for compatibility
and follow the manufacturer's recommendations. A field repair is never as good as
the original coating. Tight inspection should be maintained.
1 0. Nontoxic interaction with the environment. Some coating materials have been mod-
ified, restricted, or banned because of environmental and health standards. Asbestos
felts and primers with certain solvents have required substitution of glass rein-
forcements and modification of solvents; changes in fusion-bonded epoxy powders
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Pipeline Coatings
to eliminate carcinogenic agents have also been necessitated by health and envi-
ronmental concerns. This has been a major influence of change on today's pipe
coatings.
In addition to the above characteristics, the following typical factors should be con-
sidered when selecting a pipe coating.
Type of environment
Accessibility of pipeline
Operating temperature of pipeline
Ambient temperatures during application, storage, shipping, construction, and in-
stallation
Geographical and physical location
Type of coating on existing pipeline
Handling and storage
Installation methods
Costs
Pipe surface preparation requirements
Good practice in modern pipeline corrosion control work comprises the use of good
coatings in combination with CP as the main lines of defense. Supplementary tactics,
such as the use of insulated couplings and local environmental control may be used to
reinforce these basic control methods.
In selecting a coating system for a given pipeline project, one of the most important
characteristics to design for is stability. By this we mean a coating combination that will
have a high electrical resistance after the pipeline has been installed and the backfill
stabilized and will lose the least electrical resistance over time.
Those characteristics are important in any event but particularly so where CP is used
to supplement the coating. When used with an unstable coating, a CP system that is fully
adequate during the early life of a pipeline may no longer provide full protection as the
coating deteriorates (as indicated by a reduction in the effective electrical resistance of the
coating), which will require additional current. This means that continued expenditures
will be necessary for additional CP installations. The overall economics of the coating-
plus-CP concept are adversely affected by poor coating performance.
In a review of 50 years of literature on pipeline coatings, the following concepts
emerged:
• Selection of the best coating and proper application are very important.
• CP must supplement the coating for 100% protection.
• In-the-ground tests are more reliable than laboratory tests.
• Results of adhesion tests do not correlate with those of cathodic disbondment tests.
• Cathodic disbondment tests are the best tests to measure coating performance.
• The current required for CP is the best measure of coating performance.
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Specifications 11
• Optimum coating thickness is important.
• Soil stress is one of the main problems.
• Resistance to cathodic disbondment and soil stress are very important requirements
of a pipe coating. For a pipe coating to be effective, it should meet these criteria:
adhesion, adequate thickness, low moisture absorption /transfer, chemical resistance
(especially alkalis from CP), and flexibility.
• Selection of the best appropriate system is important, but proper application is the
most important consideration.
A major cause of pipeline coating failure is improper application. A quality material
poorly applied is of little value, and the quality of a pipe coating is only as good as the
quality of application. To assist in the evaluation of an applicator, the following points
should be considered.
1 . Experience. Research and trial and error have gone into the development of every
coating, with close cooperation between applicator, coating manufacturer, equipment
manufacturer, and customer. The transition from laboratory to production line is usu-
ally a costly experience, which should not be ignored.
2. Reputation. This is an asset earned by consistent performance. Not only good quality
work but also solving problems and correcting mistakes help to develop a reputation.
3. Reliability. Many variables affect the application of coatings. A reliable work force,
well-maintained equipment, and consistent quality performance are prerequisites for
an applicator.
4. Conformance to the coating manufacturer's specifications. The manufacturer's es-
tablished minimum specifications for application of materials should be met.
5. Modern automated equipment. Capital expenditure on automated application equip-
ment is an important part of the success of plastic coatings. Elimination of human er-
rors through automation and controls continues to be an important factor in improved
pipe coatings.
6. Quality control. Conformance to specifications has to be checked regularly. Knowl-
edge of the applicator's quality control procedures on materials, application, and
finished product is essential in the selection of an applicator.
SPECIFICATIONS
Pipeline coating should not be attempted without rigid specifications that precisely spell
out every step of the coating procedure to be used. Such specifications are necessary to
ensure that the materials being used are applied in a manner that will permit develop-
ment of the best coating of which those materials are capable.
Because many materials may be used, no specific example of coating specifica-
tions will be attempted here. Specifications can be prepared in accordance with the
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12 Pipeline Coatings
manufacturer's recommendations with such modifications as may be dictated by con-
ditions applicable to the particular project and requirements of the pipeline system in
which the coated pipe is to be used.
Areas to be covered by specifications should include the following.
• Cleaning the pipe surface
• Priming, if required
• The coating materials to be used and (if more than one material) the order in which
they are to be applied
• Total thickness with permissible tolerances
• Specifications applicable to the particular materials to be used, such as application
temperature and thickness, tension (for tapes or wrappers), and other items of a similar
nature
• Handling requirements for coating materials, such as storage provisions and mainte-
nance of dry and clean conditions
• Inspection requirements
• Procedure for repair of coating defects
• Basis for rejection of unacceptable coating
• Requirements for handling and transporting the coated pipe
• Details of coating field joints when factory coated pipe is used
• Backfilling requirements
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Once the coating system and applicator are selected, an important part of a quality
installation is good inspection. Inspection should begin with the stockpile of bare pipe
through coating operations, load out, coated pipe stockpile, field inspection, joint coating
procedure, and backfill of coated pipe. Knowledge of the coating system, plant facilities,
quality control methods, shipping requirements, handling, joint coating, field conditions,
field holiday detection, and repair are requirements for proper installation. Experience
and common sense in interpretation of specifications and analysis of test results will
contribute to obtaining the best possible coating results.
As a final backup to application supervision exercised by the coating inspector, usual
pipelining practice includes a final test with a holiday detector (or "jeep"). This device
impresses an electrical voltage across the coating. An electrode is passed over the entire
coating surface and, as it passes over a coating defect, there is an electrical discharge
between electrode and pipe. This discharge, or spark, actuates a signaling device, which
warns the operator that a holiday has been detected. The operator marks the defect for
the repair crew and continues.
Refer to the proper NACE specification when examining for holidays: RP02-74 (latest
revision) for the thicker coatings, or RP04-95 (latest revision) for the thinner coating
systems.
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Inspection Procedures 13
Plant Holiday Inspection
Pipe coated at a coating plant normally is passed through a holiday detector before
shipment. Both mill-coated pipe and that coated over the ditch should be subjected to a
final holiday test before being placed in the ditch.
The fewer the defects in a coating which is to be repaired, the better the quality of the
completed coating. Nevertheless, if all holidays are picked up by a detector in proper
operating conditions, and if they are repaired to conform to an effective procedure, then
the quality of the coating as it enters the ditch will at least approach an optimum.
Field Holiday Inspection
Several types of holiday detectors are suitable for field use at the pipeline construction
site. The most common ones are usually battery operated and equipped with some type
of pipe-encircling electrode. The electrode is arranged so that the ring may be pushed or
rolled along the pipe by the operator, allowing the electrode to sweep all portions of the
coating surface.
The holiday detector should be operated in strict accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. The coating inspector should be sure the operator has been trained properly
and is using the equipment correctly. Some practical operating procedures that apply to
any type of holiday locator include the following.
1 . Use only adequately charged batteries in battery-operated models.
2. Use detectors that are set to operate at a voltage suitable for the coating being applied.
Thick coatings require a high voltage to spark through at defects. On the other hand,
too high a voltage may break down thin film coatings such as tapes or other thin
plastic coatings.
3. Verify periodically that the detector is operating properly. This may be done by
purposely making a coating defect (such as a pinhole made with a knife) and pass-
ing the detector over the hole. Failure to detect the hole properly indicates the need
for prompt corrective adjustment. During production work, verification should be
made at least twice a day and at such other times as the inspector may suspect poor
performance.
4. Keep the contact electrodes clean. A buildup of coating material on electrodes may
interfere with efficient detection or even prevent it entirely. This possibility is greater
with some materials than others. Where found to be a factor, keeping the electrodes
clean of the insulating coating material must be insisted on.
5. Maintain a good ground. To be complete, the detector circuit must contact the earth,
with a trailing ground wire for example. This trailing wire should be checked for
damage daily (or whenever faulty detector operation is suspected) and replaced or
repaired if faulty. When working on long sections of line, there usually will be sufficient
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Pipeline Coatings
conductance between line and earth to permit adequate detector operation. On the
other hand, a short length of well-coated pipe on dry skids may have to be grounded
to the pipe to establish an adequate circuit.
TYPES OF PIPELINE COATINGS
The types of pipeline coatings and their characteristics are summarized in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Types of Pipeline Coatings
Pipe coating
Desirable characteristics
Limitations
Coal tar enamels
Mill-applied tape
systems
Crosshead-extruded
polyolefin with
asphalt/butyl
adhesive
Dual-side-extruded
polyolefin with
butyl adhesive
Fusion-bonded
Multi-layer epoxy/
extruded polyolefin
systems
80+ years of use
Minimum holiday susceptibility
Low current requirements
Good resistance to cathodic disbondment
Good adhesion to steel
30+ years of use
Minimum holiday susceptibility
Ease of application
Good adhesion to steel
Low energy required for application
40+ years of use
Minimum holiday susceptibility
Low current requirements
Ease of application
Nonpolluting
Low energy required for application
25 years of use
Minimum holiday susceptibility
Low current requirements
Excellent resistance to cathodic disbondment
Good adhesion to steel
Ease of application
Nonpolluting
Low energy required for application
35+ years of use
Low current requirements
Excellent resistance to cathodic disbondment
Excellent adhesion to steel
Excellent resistance to hydrocarbons
Lowest current requirements
Highest resistance to cathodic disbondment
Excellent adhesion to steel
Excellent resistance to hydrocarbons
High impact and abrasion resistance
Limited manufacturers
Limited applicators
Health and air quality concerns
Change in allowable reinforcements
Handling restrictions — shipping and installation
UV and thermal blistering — storage potential
Shielding CP from soil
Stress disbondment
Minimum adhesion to steel
Limited storage (except with carbon black)
Tendency for tear to propagate along pipe length
Difficult to remove coating
Limited applicators
Exacting application parameters
High application temperature
Subject to steel pipe surface imperfections
Lower impact and abrasion resistance
High moisture absorption
Limited applicators
Exacting application parameters
Higher initial cost
Possible shielding of CP current
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Enamels
Types of Pipeline Coatings 15
Bituminous enamels today are formulated from coal tar with a low carbon content,
plasticized by the digestion of coal and heavy aromatic coal tar distillates followed by
the addition of an inert mineral filler. Petroleum asphalts with select air-blown asphalts
are still used internationally as a pipe coating but their use today in North America is
almost nonexistent.
The early coal tar enamel (CTE) coatings usually had an outerwrap of rag felt to
provide a backfill shield. However, the rag felt did not prevent the tendency of the CTE
to creep and cold-flow under soil stresses at the higher operating temperature range of the
pipeline. The use of asbestos felt minimized this problem but the manufacture of asbestos
wraps has been discontinued; resin-bonded glass fiber mats are being used at present.
CTE systems have been used over 80 years, and a recently introduced two-component
epoxy primer when used with special hot service enamel has increased the exposure
temperature of a CTE coating system to 230 °F. Today an inner and outer glass fiber mat
are incorporated into the CTE coating system simultaneously with the application of the
hot CTE. The inner glass mat is pulled into the center of the coating. The outer glass
mat is usually presaturated with coal tar to assist wetting and is pulled into the outer
surface of the CTE. Extra-heavy-duty outer reinforcement wraps have been developed
with woven glass filaments and resin-bonded glass mats to further guard against the
effects of soil stresses.
The use of CTE is not expected to increase in the future because of the increased
acceptance of fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE), extruded polyolefin, and the FBE-polyolefin
combination coatings; decreasing numbers of suppliers; and restrictive regulations.
Extruded Asphalt Mastic
Introduced over 75 years ago, this thick (1/2 to 5/8 in [1.2 to 1.6 cm]), dense mixture of
select graded sand, crushed limestone, and glass fiber bound with an air-blown asphalt
proved to be a prominent pipe coating. Its weight, cost, and limited availability, however,
led to its manufacture being discontinued.
Mill-Applied Tape Coating Systems
Fabric-reinforced petrolatum-coated tapes were first used over 65 years ago. Polye-
thylene tapes for pipeline coatings were introduced 46 years ago, and mill-applied
tape systems were introduced 20 years ago. The mill-applied tape systems consist of
a primer, a corrosion-preventative inner layer of tape, and one or two outer layers for
mechanical protection. Concern regarding shielding of CP on a disbonded coating has
led to development of fused multi-layer tape systems and also of a backing that will
not shield CP. Environmental restrictions on solvent-based primers is being resolved by
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Pipeline Coatings
Quench
Electrical
Inspection
Stockpile
Figure 2.1 Crosshead extruded polyolefin over asphaltic mastic application schematic.
introducing environmentally acceptable primers. In spite of these limitations, the ready
availability, ease of application, and cost mean the use of mill-applied tape systems
will continue.
Extruded Polyolefin Systems
The first extruded polyolefin system was introduced in 1956 as a crosshead-extruded
polyethylene over an asphalt mastic adhesive. Originally introduced for small-diameter
pipe (up to 4 1/2 in [11.4 cm]), the material is now available for pipe up to 24 in (61 cm) in
diameter; the most popular size is 16 in (40.6 cm). Recent improvements in the adhesive
yield better adhesion, and selection of polyethylenes has increased stress crack resistance.
Available with polypropylene for use at higher temperatures (up to 190°F [88°C]), these
systems have been used in Europe since the mid-1960s, along with the side extrusion
method for larger diameters through 60 in (152.4 cm). A copolymer adhesive is applied
to eliminate cold flow and minimize shrink-back of the coating. This is followed by the
application of an epoxy primer. In late 1972, the side-extrusion method was introduced
in the United States. This is a dual-side extrusion, where the butyl rubber adhesive is
extruded onto the pipe, followed by the polyethylene extrusion. Side extrusion can coat
pipes as great as 145 in (368 cm) in diameter, the only restriction being cleaning and
pipe-handling capacity. The extrusion process is a dependable production method with
exacting controls. The extruder heats, melts, mixes, and extrudes the materials onto the
steel pipe at the desired temperature and pressure. One may select the best polyolefin
to meet the end-use requirements, and the process consistently produces holiday-free
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Types of Pipeline Coatings
17
Figure
Quench Electrical s^^ Inspection Stockpile
2.2 Side extruded polyolefin over side extruded butyl adhesive application schematic.
coatings. Extrusion systems are nontoxic and do not degrade air quality. Use of these
systems will continue to grow because of handleability, moisture resistance, and overall
consistent reproducibility.
Fusion-Bonded Epoxy
Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings were first commercially available in late 1961. For
many years they were available only on 3/4 to 8 5/8 in (1.9 to 21.9 cm) pipe but now
are available in North America for pipe up to 48 in (122 cm) in diameter. For many
years FBE was applied at 8-10 mil (203.2-254.0 /xm) to be more competitive with other
coatings. At present, it is applied at 12 mil minimum up to 25 mil (304.8-635 /urn). Over
the past 35 years, the resins have evolved through those requiring a primer and some
requiring post application heat. None of the present epoxy pipe coatings require a primer,
and most plant applications do not require post application heat. Most of the FBE pipe-
coating powders have remained the same for the last 18 years. Newer dual-FBE systems
were introduced in the early 1990s, to improve resistance to moisture absorption and
abrasion.
FBE coatings require great care to apply them properly. In addition to the NACE
No. 2 near- white metal finish, a phosphate wash and demineralized water rinse have
proven essential to remove potential chloride contamination and improve performance
properties. Among the advantages of FBE is that it does not cover up any steel defects
present, thus permitting inspection of the pipe after the FBE has been applied. Resistance
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Pipeline Coatings
Cure Time
Quench
Figure 2.3 Fusion-bonded epoxy powder application schematic.
Electrical Separators
Inspection
Stockpile
to soil stress and cathodic disbondment has made FBE the most specified pipe coating
in the United States. The trend is to thicker applications with 16 mil (406.4 ^m) being
the norm. FBE will continue its prominence in the near future but will gradually share
this position with improved extruded polyolefin coating systems and the multi-layer
(FBE-extruded polyolefin) coating systems.
Liquid Coating Systems
Epoxy coal tars and urethanes are currently the most used liquid pipe-coating systems.
They are applied in custom coating or modified plant systems, usually on larger-diameter
pipes or ductile iron pipes that may not be compatible with existing pipe-coating plants.
Specific manufacturers' specifications must be strictly followed with emphasis on surface
cleaning, preparation, and times for cure and overcoat.
These systems are constantly evolving. The largest growth has been in the use of
urethane systems.
Multi-Layer Epoxy/Extruded Polyolefin Systems
First introduced in Europe in the mid-1960s as a hard adhesive under polyethylene, fol-
lowed by the addition of an epoxy primer (FBE or liquid), multi-layer epoxy /polyolefin
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Conclusion
19
d
Preheat
Blast Ctean Grind Surface
Defects
Surface
Inspection
— a~ r — g*^***.*
■
■
I I
■ ■
I J
■ ■
i i
■ ■
- - I
m m
I J
■ ■
\ I
Pofyolefin
Copolymer
FBE Application induction
Heat
Final Surface
Treatment
SESESL
3*
^
Quench
Electrical
P Inspection
Stockpile
Figure 2.4 3-Layer copolymer coating application schematic.
systems are the most-used pipe-coating systems in Europe. These systems are now avail-
able throughout the world.
CONCLUSION
In summarizing this chapter on coatings, pipeline corrosion engineers should stress two
areas of knowledge:
• Full information on all details of characteristics, performance, and limitations of the
coatings considered for various pipeline projects.
• As complete a summary as practical of the conditions existing along the route of
proposed pipeline projects together with information on the manner in which the
pipeline will be operated.
When well informed in these matters, corrosion engineers will be able to advise
management effectively in the selection of suitable protective coating systems. They also
will be able to prepare application specifications and plan inspection programs that will,
if effectively implemented, ensure getting the best possible coating job.
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20 Pipeline Coatings
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.D. Kellner, "Shear Strength Testing of Pipeline Coatings and Soil Stress/' Corrosion '96, paper
no. 199 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1996).
NACE Standard RP0169-92, Section 5, "Coatings" (Houston, TX: NACE, 1967).
A.W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion (Houston, TX: NACE, 1967).
W. Roder, Personal correspondence to R.N. Sloan, Oct 3, 1997.
R.N. Sloan, "50 Years of Pipe Coatings — We've Come a Long Way," Corrosion '93, paper no. 17
(Houston, TX: NACE, 1993).
R.N. Sloan and A.W. Peabody, Steel Structures Painting Council, Steel Structures Painting Manual,
Vol. 1 (Pittsburgh, PA), 1982.
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Chapter
Cathodic Protection
How It Works
John A. Beavers
Over the years, cathodic protection (CP) has continued to be treated as a somewhat
mysterious term by those not fully conversant with this most useful means of corrosion
control. Apparently, many feel that CP is a complicated procedure. In actuality, the basic
idea of CP is very simple. Any complications arise during the application of this basic
idea. Trained pipeline corrosion engineers, however, are equipped with the knowledge
needed to apply the basic concept of CP to pipeline systems and to attain a very high
level of effective corrosion control.
In this chapter, a simple theory of CP is described. Factors involved in application
as well as limitations that must be kept in mind also are outlined. A more detailed
description of the theory of CP is provided in Chapter 16.
BASIC THEORY OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
As defined in Chapter 1, CP is a technique to reduce the corrosion rate of a metal surface
by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. This definition is explained in greater
detail here.
Various conditions that cause pipeline corrosion are described in Chapter 1, and in
greater detail in Chapter 16. In each case, anodic areas and cathodic areas are present
on the pipe surface. At the anodic areas, current flows from the pipeline steel into the
surrounding electrolyte (soil or water) and the pipeline corrodes. At the cathodic areas,
current flows from the electrolyte onto the pipe surface and the rate of corrosion is
reduced.
In light of the above, it becomes obvious that the rate of corrosion could be reduced if
every bit of exposed metal on the surface of a pipeline could be made to collect current.
21
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Cathodic Protection — How It Works
BURIED
EARTH CONNECTION
(GROUND BED)
INTERCONNECTING
PIPELINE, CURRENT
SOURCE, AND
GROUND BED
SOURCE OF DIRECT
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
SHADED AREA ON PIPELINE
DENOTES ANODIC AREAS
EXISTING PRIOR TO APPLICATION
OF CATHODIC PROTECTION.
Figure 3.1 Basic CP installation.
DOTTED LINES REPRESENT
CURRENT DISCHARGE
FROM ANODIC AREAS
WHICH HAS BEEN
ELIMINATED BY
CATHODIC PROTECTION.
This is exactly what CP does. Direct current is forced onto all surfaces of the pipeline.
This direct current shifts the potential of the pipeline in the active (negative) direction,
resulting in a reduction in the corrosion rate of the metal. When the amount of current
flowing is adjusted properly, it will overpower the corrosion current discharging from
the anodic areas on the pipeline, and there will be a net current flow onto the pipe surface
at these points. The entire surface then will be a cathode and the corrosion rate will be
reduced. This concept is illustrated in Figure 3.1. A major activity of a CP engineer is to
determine the actual level of CP required to reduce the corrosion rate to an acceptable
level. Monitoring, in conjunction with the application of CP criteria, are used for this
determination. Details of these activities are given in Chapters 4 and 5 of this book.
If, as shown by Figure 3.1, current is forced to flow onto the pipe at areas that were
previously discharging current, the driving voltage of the CP system must be greater
than the driving voltage of the corrosion cells that are being overcome. The original
cathodic areas on the pipe collect current from the anodic areas. Under CP, these same
cathodic areas (which were corroding at a negligible rate in the first place) collect more
current from the CP system.
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 23
For the CP system to work, current must be discharged from an earth connection
(ground bed). The sole purpose of this ground bed is to discharge current. In the process
of discharging current, the anodes in the ground bed are consumed by corrosion. It is
desirable to use materials for the ground bed that are consumed at a much lower rate
(pounds/per ampere/per year) than are the usual pipeline metals. This will ensure a
reasonably long life for the anodes. Further discussion of ground-bed design is covered
in Chapter 7.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
With the simple theory of CP in mind, a preliminary discussion of the techniques of
putting CP into actual use is given below. Details of each of these techniques are covered
in later chapters.
Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
The corrosion cell resulting from contact of dissimilar metals is discussed in Chapters 1.
In such a cell, one metal is active (negative) with respect to the other and corrodes. In
CP with galvanic anodes, this effect is taken advantage of by purposely establishing a
dissimilar metal cell strong enough to counteract corrosion cells normally existing on
pipelines. This is accomplished by connecting a very active metal to the pipeline. This
metal will corrode and, in so doing, will discharge current to the pipeline as shown in
Figure 3.2. In the case of CP with galvanic anodes, CP does not eliminate corrosion;
rather, it displaces corrosion from the structure being protected to the galvanic anodes.
Under normal circumstances, the current available from galvanic anodes is limited.
For this reason, CP by galvanic anodes normally is used where the current required
for protection is small. Similarly, the driving voltage existing between pipe steel and
galvanic anode metals is limited. Therefore, the contact resistance between the anodes
and the earth must be low for the anodes to discharge a useful amount of current. This
means that, for normal installations, galvanic anodes are used in low-resistivity soils.
A normal installation, as considered here, is one in which the current from a galvanic
anode installation is expected to protect a substantial length of pipeline. There are also
instances where galvanic anodes are placed at specific points on a pipeline (often termed
hot spots) and may be expected to protect only a few feet of pipe, especially where the line
is bare. This is an application of the close anode concept, as discussed later in the chapter.
Details of the design of galvanic anode installations are discussed further in Chapter 9.
Cathodic Protection with Impressed Current
To be free of the limited driving voltage associated with galvanic anodes, current from
some outside power source may be impressed on the pipeline by using a ground bed and
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Cathodic Protection — How It Works
WORKING GALVANIC
ANODE OF ZINC OR
MAGNESIUM BURIED IN
EARTH AND CONNECTED
TO PIPELINE WITH WIRE
WILL DISCHARGE CURRENT
AND PROTECT PIPELINE
AS SHOWN.
DRIVING VOLTAGE CAN BE
DEMONSTRATED BY CONNECTING
ANODE AND UNPROTECTED
PIPELINE TO VOLTMETER AS
SHOWN. TYPICALLY, PIPELINE
COULD BE APPROXIMATELY
1.0 VOLT POSITIVE TO
MAGNESIUM ANODE AND
0.5 VOLT POSITIVE TO
ZINC ANODE.
^ PROTECTED
PIPELINE.
UNPROTECTED
PIPELINE.
Figure 3.2 Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes.
a power source. Figure 3.1 illustrates this situation. The most common power source is
the rectifier. This device converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage
direct current (DC) power. Rectifiers usually are provided with the means for varying
the DC output voltage, in small increments, over a reasonably wide range. Although
the maximum output voltage may be less than 10 V or close to 100 V, most pipeline
rectifiers operate in the range between 10 and 50 V and can be obtained with maximum
current outputs ranging from less than 10 A to several hundred amperes. This serves
to illustrate the flexibility in choice of power source capacity available to the corrosion
engineer when planning an impressed current CP system.
Any other reliable source of DC electric power can be used for impressed current
CP systems. Some of these are discussed in Chapter 10. Details of the design of rectifier
installations are treated in Chapter 8.
Criteria for Cathodic Protection
Although the basic theory of CP is simple (impressing DC on a structure to reduce the
corrosion rate), the obvious question that arises is: How do we know when we have
attained adequate protection on a buried structure? The answer to this question is that
various criteria have been developed over the years that permit a determination of
whether adequate protection is being achieved. Those criteria in more common usage
involve measuring the potential between the pipeline and earth. The measurement per-
mits a rapid and reliable determination of the degree of protection attained. Basically,
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 25
potential criteria are used to evaluate the changes in structure potential with respect to the
environment that are caused by CP current flowing to the structure from the surrounding
soil or water. The potential measurement criteria, as well as other criteria, are discussed
in detail in Chapter 4.
The potential of a pipeline at a given location is commonly referred to as the pipe-
to-soil potential. The pipe-to-soil potential can be measured by measuring the voltage
between the pipeline and a reference electrode placed in the soil directly over the pipeline.
The most common reference electrode used for this purpose is a copper-copper sulfate
reference electrode, which is commonly given the acronym CSE. The potential is referred
to as an on potential if the measurement is made with the CP system energized. The off
or instant ojff potential estimates the polarized potential when the measurement is made
within one second after simultaneously interrupting the current output from all CP
current sources and any other current sources affecting that portion of the pipeline. See
Chapters 4 and 5 for further details on potential measurements.
Selection of Type, Size, and Spacing of a Cathodic Protection System
Some of the questions to be resolved when planning a pipeline CP system include the
following:
1. Shall galvanic anodes be used or would an impressed current system be a better
choice?
2. How much total current will be required to attain adequate CP?
3. What should be the spacing between installations, and what will be the current output
required from each installation?
4. What provisions should be made to permit testing the completed installation?
5. Are there special conditions at certain locations that will require modifications in the
general plan for CP?
These questions cannot be answered using only material covered up to this point.
The needed information that will influence the decision includes such items as:
• The corrosivity of the environment;
• The soil structure and resistivity;
• Whether the pipeline is bare or coated;
• If coated, the quality and electrical strength of the coating and the presence of envi-
ronmental conditions that may cause the coating to deteriorate;
• The metal or alloy used in the pipeline;
• The size of the pipeline and its ability to conduct CP current;
• The presence of metallic structures from other resources (usually termed foreign struc-
tures) crossing or close to the pipeline to be protected;
• The presence of stray current from man-made or natural sources.
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Cathodic Protection — How It Works
As this list makes apparent, an appreciable quantity of information and data must
be accumulated with respect to the pipeline for which CP is planned. Once reliable
information is obtained in sufficient detail, answers to the questions posed earlier in this
section can be developed and a sound engineering design can be prepared. Chapters 5
through 12 are concerned with getting the needed data and using it in the CP design.
Effect of the Coating on Cathodic Protection
In the discussion of coatings in Chapter 2, it was stated that better than 99% of the
surface of a well-coated pipe would be completely free of corrosion. Also, it was stated
that CP would be relatively easy to apply because only minute areas of exposed steel
would require protection. Let us look at these statements again and get an idea of their
significance in terms of the amount of current that must be supplied for CP.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the pattern of current flow that is expected for protection of
a section of bare pipeline. The picture is quite different with a high-resistance barrier
coating between the pipeline and the environment, as illustrated by Figure 3.3.
In Figure 3.3, current from the CP ground bed is shown flowing to all areas where pipe
metal is exposed. In so doing, the original corrosive current discharge from defects in
anodic areas is reduced. In addition to the current shown flowing to defects, current also
flows through the coating material itself. No coating material is a perfect insulator (even
when absolutely free of any defects whatsoever) and will conduct some current. The
amount will depend on the electrical resistivity of the material (expressed in ohm-cm)
and its thickness. When a high-resistivity coating is used, the current passing directly
GROUND BED
Figure 3.3 Cathodic protection of a coated pipeline.
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 27
Table 3.1 Range of Current Required for Protection of 10 Miles
of 36-in Diameter Pipe (under conditions stated in text)
Effective coating resistance in ohms
for one average square foot Current required in amperes
Bare Pipe 3 500
10,000 14.91
25,000 5.964
50,000 2.982
100,000 1.491
500,000 0.2982
1,000,000 0.1491
5,000,000 0.0298
Perfect coating 0.000058
a Bare pipe assumed to require a minimum of 1 mA/ft 2 .
through the coating will be negligible compared with that flowing to coating defects
unless the number and size of the defects are unusually small.
Table 3.1 gives some idea of the CP current range that may be encountered. The
current required to protect a 10-mile section of 36-in diameter pipeline is compared for
a wide range of coating resistances, from bare pipe to a holiday-free coating 3/32 in
thick with a resistivity of 1 x 10 13 ohm-cm. The pipeline section is assumed to be in soil
having an average resistivity of 1 x 10 3 ohm-cm. The current required is that needed to
cause a 0.3 V drop across the effective resistance between the pipeline and remote earth
(polarization effects are neglected).
The effective coating resistances given in Table 3.1 all could be obtained with the same
coating for which the perfect coating current figure is given but with varying numbers
of coating defects. For the examples used in the table, effective resistances of 1 x 10 4 to
2.5 x 10 4 ohms for one square foot of coating reflect either poor handling and installation
of the coated pipe or degradation of the coating after installation. For pipelines in 1 x 10 3
ohm-cm soil, average resistances of 1 x 10 5 to 5 x 10 6 ohms for one square foot of coating
indicate good to superior construction work and little or no degradation of the coating
with time.
The table shows that a bare pipeline can accept thousands of times more current
than the same line with a superior coating. An ordinary two-cell flashlight bulb draw-
ing ~0.5 A can take nearly 17 times as much current as that required to cathodically
protect 10 miles of 36-in diameter pipe with a superior coating (5 x 10 6 ohms for one
square foot). In contrast, the current required to protect a line with a poorly applied
coating (2.5 x 10 4 ohms for one square foot) could be at least 200 times more than the
current required if the same coating were applied and handled in a superior manner.
The examples given are meant to stress a most important point. Because of the wide
variation possible, the pipeline corrosion engineer must know the present condition of
the coating on the pipeline before determining how much current will be needed from a
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28 Cathodic Protection — How It Works
proposed CP system. The engineer also must be able to estimate the rate of degradation
of the coating so that the CP system can be designed to protect the pipeline as the coating
degrades.
Very long lengths of pipeline can be protected with a single CP system. For example,
it is frequently possible to protect over 50 miles of cross-country pipeline from one
location, if the pipeline has a large-diameter and is well coated. Oddly enough, it is
easier to protect long lengths of large-diameter pipe than of small-diameter pipe from
a single CP installation. In a CP installation such as that shown in Figure 3.1, current
flow at any location on the pipe is inversely proportionally to the total resistance of the
system at that location, based on Ohm's law. Once the current enters the mass of the
earth from a ground bed, it is in a very low resistance conductor and theoretically will
travel great distances if there is a suitable return conductor. In pipeline work, the pipe
itself is the return conductor. For a given wall thickness, large-diameter pipe has a lower
resistance than small-diameter pipe because the former has a larger cross-sectional area
and the resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.
Therefore, a larger-diameter pipe will permit extension of effective CP for substantially
greater distances. It also follows, then, that better coatings cause less rapid buildup of
current in the pipe and extend the distance of effective protection from a single CP
installation.
Over-Protection of Coated Lines
Under some conditions, excessive amounts of CP current to a coated pipeline may dam-
age the coating. This process is called cathodic disbondment. The current flow promotes
water and ion migration through the coating and an increase in the electrolyte pH at the
pipe surface. If the polarized potential is sufficiently negative, hydrogen can also evolve
in the form of gas bubbles on the pipe surface. All of these processes are detrimental to
coatings and promote degradation and disbondment.
The polarized potential at which significant damage to a coating occurs is a function
of many factors, including the inherent resistance of the coating to degradation, the
quality of the coating application, the soil conditions, and the pipeline temperature.
As a rule of thumb, off -potentials that are more negative than —1.1 V (CSE) should
be avoided to minimize coating degradation. In this connection, it should be noted that
damaging conditions can be created readily by an improperly adjusted impressed current
CP system, and can sometimes result when using high-potential galvanic anodes such as
magnesium, but seldom if ever will develop when using low-potential galvanic anodes
such as zinc.
Remote vs Close Ground Beds
Flow of current from an external source to a pipeline (as is true when the pipeline is
cathodically protected) will be accompanied by a potential difference between the earth
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 29
and the pipeline, the earth being positive (+) and the pipeline negative (— ). The potential
difference is used in certain criteria for determining the degree of CP, as will be covered
in Chapter 4. Developing the desired potential difference can be accomplished in either
of two ways:
• By making the pipeline negative with respect to remote earth, or
• By making the earth positive with respect to the pipe in local areas.
The first method uses remote ground beds, from which substantial lengths of pipeline
can be protected. The second method uses close ground beds or anodes, which afford
protection only in their immediate vicinity.
Remote Ground Beds
The sketch in Figure 3.1 may be used yet again to illustrate the remote ground bed type
of installation. Current discharge, from an anode or group of anodes forming the ground
bed, will cause voltage drops in the earth between points along lines radiating from the
ground bed. Close to the ground bed, the voltage drop per unit of distance is relatively
high. As one moves away from the ground bed, this voltage drop per unit of distance
becomes less and less until a point is reached beyond which no further significant voltage
drop can be observed. This point may be considered as remote earth and establishes the
radius of what is termed the area of influence surrounding the ground bed.
Exactly as described above, current flowing to the protected pipeline also will cause
a voltage drop in the soil adjacent to the line, and there will be an area of influence
surrounding the pipeline. The ground bed shown in Figure 3.1 may be said to be remote
from the pipeline if it is far enough away such that there is no significant overlap between
the area of influence surrounding the ground bed and the area of influence surrounding
the pipeline. Under such conditions, current flows from the ground bed into the general
mass of the earth, which may be considered a resistance-less, or infinite, conductor. Cur-
rent will then flow from this infinite conductor to the pipeline to be protected and cause
a voltage drop across the resistance between the pipeline and this infinite conductor.
The simple equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.4 illustrates this concept. Under these
conditions, the pipeline will be made negative with respect to remote earth and, if made
sufficiently negative, effective CP will result.
With current flowing in an infinite conductor as illustrated, the resistance of the
pipeline itself may limit the length of pipeline that can be protected from one ground bed.
As described above, pipelines having lower incremental longitudinal resistances (large
diameter lines) can have longer sections protected from one ground bed, other conditions
being equal. A limitation at the most remote point from the ground bed is the minimum
potential required for adequate CP. A limitation near the ground bed is the need to
maintain the pipe-to-soil polarized potential at values that are less negative than about
1.1 V (CSE) to avoid coating damage and hydrogen effects in susceptible steels.
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30
Cathodic Protection — How It Works
GROUND BED
(+ WITH RESPECT
TO REMOTE EARTH).
■PIPELINE
INCREMENTAL
PIPELINE
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE, GROUND
BED TO REMOTE
EARTH.
INFINITE (RESISTANCE-
LESS) CONDUCTOR
REPRESENTING REMOTE
EARTH.
+
POWER
SOURCE
■ INCREMENTAL
RESISTANCE,
PIPELINE TO
REMOTE EARTH.
Figure 3.4 Simple equivalent circuit of a pipeline with a re-
mote ground bed.
Close Ground Beds
The use of close anodes, or a series of anodes, is quite different from the remote type
of installation just described. Their successful use depends on the area of influence sur-
rounding each ground bed anode as has been discussed in general terms. For a better
understanding of how close anodes are used, the conductive path between a ground bed
anode and remote earth is examined in greater detail.
The current per unit of cross-sectional area of earth (current density) flowing away
from a ground bed anode is highest close to the anode and decreases with distance.
Where the current density is highest, the greatest point-to-point potential drops can be
observed in the earth. The net result of this effect is that most of the potential drop to
remote earth of a single anode normally is encountered within the first few feet. This is
illustrated by Figure 3.5, which shows the percentage of the total resistance or potential
drop (with respect to remote earth) as a function of distance from an anode that is
discharging current.
The curves in Figure 3.5 are based on a 3-in diameter x 60-in long anode discharging
2 A of current in 1 x 10 3 ohm-cm resistivity soil. Other anode sizes will result in somewhat
different shaped curves, but the one illustrated is typical. Non-uniform soil conditions
also will change the shape of the curve. The curve is based on the following formula
from Rudenberg (1945):
V x
o.038ip 1 (y + Vy 2 + x 2 )
ny ° Sl ° x
(1)
where:
V x = Potential at x (see Figure 3.5) in volts caused by ground anode current
I = Ground anode current in amperes
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection
31
100
LU
Q
o
j< DC
cn \-
LU LU
DTLU
DC .
o ><
LU .
CD 5
§1
3 IE
LL DC
o <
o o
DC ^
LU LU
D_ DC
O
DC
2 3
20 30 40 50
DISTANCE "X" IN FEET
Figure 3.5 Gradients at a ground bed anode.
p = Earth resistivity in ohm-centimeters
y = Length of anode in earth in feet
x = Distance from anode in feet
If x is greater than lOy, then
Vr =
0.0052Ip
(2)
Note that the same curve may be used to indicate the percentage of total voltage drop
as well as resistance. This is because both properties are directly related through Ohm's
law, which says that the voltage drop across a resistance is equal to the value of the
resistance multiplied by the current flowing through it (volts = amps x ohms; V = IR).
Therefore, if current flows from a ground anode to a point that is far enough away to
include 50% of the total resistance of the anode to remote earth, then the voltage drop
between the anode and that point will be 50% of the total voltage drop between the
anode and remote earth. Further, it is important to note that the earth within the area
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Cathodic Protection — How It Works
CIRCLES REPRESENT
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
ANODE POTENTIAL
BETWEEN THAT POINT
AND REMOTE EARTH. THESE
ARE BASED ON CURVES
FROM FIGURE 3.5. /
' ANODE
\
X
POWER SOURCE.
5 VOLTS IMPRESSED
ON ANODE.
\ SJ
Ca
X
\
30 20
/ /
/
10
I
5%
I
\
EARTH POTENTIAL N
CHANGE ADDED TO
POTENTIAL TO EARTH
OF PIPELINE BEFORE
ANODE IS ENERGIZED. -
\
/
LU
I Q
|f
! a
• erf
_1 LJJ 03
LU _l ,
\~ =)
O co
D_
DC
LJJ LU
0- D_
o
1.5
1.0
0.5
AREA OF
— FULL —
PIPELINE. POTENTIAL TO
EARTH ASSUMED TO BE
-0.5 VOLT BEFORE
ENERGIZING ANODE.
PROTECTION
POTENTIAL AT
WHICH PIPELINE
WILL BE PROTECTED,
-0.85 VOLT BETWEEN
PIPE AND COPPER
SULPHATE ELECTRODE
DIRECTLY OVER LINE
(SEE CHAPTER 4).
DISTANCE ALONG PIPELINE-FEET
Figure 3.6
anode.
Protective potentials impressed on a pipeline by a close ground bed
of influence surrounding a current-discharging anode will be positive with respect to
remote earth and the most-positive earth will be closest to the anode. Let's see how this
positive potential gradient can be used to advantage.
In the upper portion of Figure 3.6, it can be seem that a pipeline will pass through the
area of influence surrounding a ground bed anode located close to the pipe. This means
it will pass through earth that is at a positive potential with respect to remote earth. As
shown in the potential plot in the lower half of Figure 3.6, there will be a limited area
along the pipeline opposite the anode in which the net potential difference between the
pipe and adjacent soil will, because of this effect, be sufficient to attain CP. This is in
accord with the criterion for protection of steel (pipe-to-soil potential of at least —0.85 V
[CSE]). For the analysis shown in Figure 3.6, it is assumed that the IR voltage drop error
in the pipe-to-soil potential measurement is negligible. Where this assumption does not
hold, the area of full protection will be smaller. A further discussion of criteria and their
application is given in Chapter 4.
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 33
Figure 3.6 indicates that approximately 35 ft of the pipeline would be protected under
the conditions given when 5 V are impressed on the anode. A galvanic anode will operate
similarly, but because its voltage output is less (see Chapter 9), the length of pipeline
protected likewise would be less. Typically, with anodes spaced 1 foot from the pipe,
protection could be expected for 4 to 5 ft if using zinc anodes and 8 to 10 ft if using
magnesium anodes.
When only a few anodes are close to a large pipeline (particularly if uncoated), not
enough current will be discharged from them to change the potential of the pipeline to
remote earth to any appreciable degree. If, however, many such close anodes are used,
enough current may be flowing to all portions of the line to make the line more negative
with respect to remote earth. This would approach the results discussed previously for
remote ground beds.
The region of a pipe protected by a single anode is analogous to a flashlight beam
that is shined on a wall. As the flashlight is moved closer to the wall, the area illuminated
decreases but the light intensity increases (the light gets brighter). In this analogy, the
brightness of the light is equivalent to the current flow to the pipe. The objective of
optimizing a CP design is to select the type and location of the anode ground beds to
deliver the optimum level of protection that covers the largest area of the structure.
Electrical Shielding and Cathodic Protection
An electrical shield can be defined as any barrier that will prevent or divert from a
pipeline, for which protection is intended, the flow of CP current from soil or water. This
electrical shielding can be of two types. One may result from a nonmetallic insulating
barrier that prevents current flow. The other involves diversion of current to other metal-
lic structures surrounding and in electrical contact with a pipeline to be protected. Each
type will be discussed.
Shielding by an Insulating Barrier
Figure 3.7 illustrates a condition in which part of a coated pipeline is surrounded by a
loose insulating barrier. The space between this barrier and the pipeline may be filled
with earth or water. In the absence of CP, the exposed steel will be subject to corrosion if
there are defects in the pipeline coating. If the pipeline is under CP, the protective current
may not reach the exposed steel at coating defects under this barrier.
One may argue that CP current could flow to the shielded coating defects through the
soil or water between the insulating barrier and the pipeline. In fact, it can, but often not in
sufficient amounts for protection. The amount of current reaching bare metal at a coating
defect will be a function of the longitudinal resistance of the layer of soil or water between
the shield and the pipe through which the current must flow. The closer the spacing
between the shield and the pipeline, the higher the per-unit longitudinal resistance of
the electrolyte (soil or water) because of a reduced cross-sectional area carrying the
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Cathodic Protection — How It Works
SOIL, WATER, OR MIXTURE
OF THE TWO, BETWEEN
COATED PIPELINE AND
INSULATING BARRIER
INSULATING
BARRIER
'SURROUNDING
PIPELINE.
• COATING DEFECTS OUTSIDE
INSULATING BARRIER —
COLLECT CATHODIC
PROTECTION CURRENT
FREELY.
COATING DEFECTS UNDER
INSULATING BARRIER -
REACHED BY LITTLE
OR NO CATHODIC
PROTECTION CURRENT.
Figure 3.7 Electrical shielding by an insulating barrier.
protective current. This means that the ability of electrical current to penetrate such
spaces is not great. As a practical matter, one normally should not expect to force current
into the space a distance greater than about 3 to 10 times the thickness of the layer
between the shield and the pipeline. This figure is not rigorous but serves as a guide to
the approximate relationships involved.
The foregoing discussion applies to a completely insulating barrier. It need not com-
pletely encircle the pipe, as is shown in Figure 3.7, but may partially shield an area, the
way a large rock might. If the barrier is an insulating material but is sufficiently porous
to absorb moisture and become conductive, enough current may pass to partially or
completely protect the pipe at coating defects. Such a barrier would not, then, act as a
complete shield.
Shielding by Shorted Cased Crossing
Figure 3.8 illustrates a common situation involving a metallic shield that diverts CP
current from its intended path. This condition occurs at cased pipeline crossings where
the casing is in metallic contact with the pipeline. In the example, water has accumulated
between the casing and the pipeline but the metallic contact prevents CP of the pipe
within the casing.
With the short circuit in place, CP current collects on the outside of the casing and
flows along the casing to the point of contact between the pipe and the casing. At the
point of contact, the CP current flows to the carrier pipe through the metallic contact and
then along the carrier pipe back to the CP installation. Under these conditions, essentially
no CP current will flow through the casing wall to the pipe surface, leaving pipe inside
the casing free to corrode even though the rest of the line is fully protected.
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection
35
CONNECTION REPRESENTING SHORT
CIRCUIT (CONTACT) BETWEEN CASING AND
PIPE, WHICH PREVENTS CATHODIC
PROTECTION OF PIPELINE INSIDE CASING.
CURRENT INTERCEPTED BY THE
CASING FLOWS TO CARRIER PIPE THROUGH
THE CONTACT AND RETURNS TO THE
POWER SOURCE VIA THE CARRIER.
INSULATING SPACER
■n
>o >o >o
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// T
ssssssssss
■///// /TTT
/74?f£
CARRIER
PIPE
■ I / \ / / / ^X / \ /
CURRENT FLOW
FROM CATHODIC
PROTECTION
INSTALLATION
SECTIONAL VIEW
WATER
ACCUMULATION
BETWEEN PIPELINE
AND CASING
Figure 3.8 Electrical shielding by a shorted pipeline casing.
If the casing pipe is free of a metallic contact with the carrier pipe (i.e., properly
insulated), the metallic casing material simply serves as part of the conducting environ-
ment. Cathodic protection current then is able to flow straight through the casing walls
to those portions of pipeline in contact with any electrolyte inside the casing. It should
be recognized that current discharging from the inner surface of the casing wall would
corrode the inside of the casing. Furthermore, the level of protection of a cased carrier
pipe will be less than that afforded an uncased carrier pipe, even in the absence of a
short, because of the voltage drops across the metal-electrolyte interfaces on the ID and
OD surface of the casing. For these reasons, it is important to keep the number and size
of coating defects to a minimum on the carrier pipe within a casing.
Figure 3.8 shows a pipeline in half-section as well as a casing installed with end seals
and insulating spacers. The spacers and seals are intended to keep the casing completely
free from metallic contact with the pipeline. This is not always accomplished. Contacts
may develop from such conditions as the following:
Improperly installed end seals
Insufficient number of, or failed, spacers
Crooked or out-of-round casing
Curved carrier pipe
Welding icicles inside the casing
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36 Cathodic Protection — How It Works
• Test point wiring (see Chapter 12) contacting the end of a casing or vent pipe
• Metallic objects or scrap inadvertently left in the casing during construction
Whatever the cause, the condition may be represented by a connection bond as shown
in Figure 3.8.
If the pipe inside the casing is coated perfectly or if the space between the pipe and
casing is dry, there would be no corrosion problem other than atmospheric corrosion
of exposed steel. These conditions are not likely to be present. Pipeline coatings are
likely to be damaged when coated pipe is being pushed into a casing, and the longer the
casing, the greater the probability of damage. Water sometimes enters the casing through
defective end seals, or it can condense from air entering through the vents. Figure 3.8
shows water in the space between the pipe and casing, as is found in a surprisingly large
percentage of cased crossings. If the oxygen supply to the water accumulated inside a
casing is restricted sufficiently, this will tend to slow the rate of corrosion. But failures
do occur and when they do, repair is much more involved and expensive than at places
where pipe is buried directly in earth along the right-of-way. The critical nature of cased
crossings from the standpoint of safety hazards and repair difficulty justifies taking pains
to ensure that pipe inside casings is protected properly.
For new construction, cased crossings should be avoided whenever structural analy-
ses indicate they are not needed and codes/regulations permit uncased crossings. Where
the use of casings cannot be avoided, care must be exercised in selecting the proper ma-
terials and design for casing spacers and end seals.
Recent practices have incorporated pumping mortar /concrete into the annular space
between the carrier pipe and the casing. This is a questionable practice because stresses
may result in cracking of the concrete, potentially causing coating damage. At road
crossings, chlorides from deicing salts may migrate to the areas of coating damage, and
cause corrosion damage to the carrier pipe.
On some pipeline systems, bare or poorly coated casing pipe is used on well-coated
pipelines. If such casings are shorted to the line, there is a disadvantage in addition to
the loss of protection on the pipe inside the casing. This is because a single bare cased
crossing in contact with the coated pipe can absorb as much CP current as several miles of
pipeline. Therefore, shorted casings impose an unnecessary load on the CP installations.
Chapter 13 includes suggested procedures for clearing short circuits at cased cross-
ings. Also, if the short circuit cannot be cleared because of inaccessibility, suggestions
are given for corrosion-proofing the pipe inside the casing by methods other than CP.
Shielding by Reinforcing Wire in Weight Coating
A shielding action, similar to that encountered at a shorted cased crossing, can occur if
reinforcing wire in concrete weight coating is accidentally in electrical contact with the
pipe. The condition is illustrated in Figure 3.9. Although the reinforcing wire mesh or
spiral wound wire does not form a solid shield as with a shorted cased crossing, the
closely spaced wires can intercept most of the CP current if the wires are in electrical
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Practical Application of Cathodic Protection
37
.JOINTS OF WEIGHT- -
COATED PIPE FREE
OF CONTACTS BE-
TWEEN REINFORCING
WIRE AND PIPE.
CURRENT FLOWS
THROUGH WEIGHT-
COATING TO PIPE
STEEL AND PIPE
, IS PROTECTED.
, JOINT OF WEIGHT-COATED PIPE
WITH ACCIDENTAL CONTACT BE-
TWEEN PIPE AND REINFORCING
WIRE. WIRE INTERCEPTS AND
COLLECTS CATHODIC PROTECTION
CURRENT. PIPE IN ENTIRE JOINT I
SHIELDED FROM EFFECTIVE /
r CATHODIC PROTECTION. /
r WEIGHT-COAT
PROTECTIVE
COATING -
CATHODIC PROTECTION
INSTALLATION
Figure 3.9 Electrical shielding by shorted reinforcing wire in weight coating.
contact with the pipe. Just one point of contact in a length of weight-coated pipe can
shield the entire length.
Wire reinforcement applied at a coating mill should not contact pipe steel. Further-
more, particular care must be taken at field joints if reinforcing wire is applied to them
after welding and coating. Careful inspection is necessary to ensure that wire is applied in
such a manner that contact does not occur. This is very important because such contacts
will reduce or completely nullify the beneficial effects of CP in their vicinity.
Furthermore, in underwater installations, the weight-coated pipe will, for all practical
purposes, be inaccessible for elimination of the contacts. To ensure that contacts do not
exist, it is good practice to make resistance measurements between the pipe steel and
wire mesh. Instrumentation and techniques for such measurements are discussed in
Chapter 6. This problem can be completely avoided by using nonmetallic reinforcing
wires in concrete weight coating.
Shielding in Congested Areas
Piping in congested areas, such as pumping stations and tank farms, may encounter
a form of shielding that is the result of the close proximity of the underground metal
structures. In Figure 3.10, a condition is represented wherein a network of piping in a
restricted area is protected by a remote-type ground bed. The remote ground bed and
suitably sized rectifier may change the potential of the entire structure sufficiently to
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38
Cathodic Protection — How It Works
' GROUND
BED
REPRESENTATION
OF CLOSELY
SPACED PIPING
NETWORK.
D-C
POWER
SOURCE
f±
-1.5
REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
CONTACTING
SOIL AT
ELECTRICALLY
REMOTE
EARTH.
REFERENCE^
ELECTRODE
CONTACTING
SOIL IN
CENTER OF
CONGESTED
AREA.
Figure 3.1 Electrical shielding in congested areas.
give an indication of full protection when measured with respect to a remote reference
electrode, such as the —1.5 V indicated in Figure 3.10. But, if a measurement is made
between remote earth and earth in the midst of the congested area, the potential of the
whole earth mass in the area may have been changed as indicated by the —0.8 V reading.
When this occurs, there may be relatively low potentials between the pipe and adjacent
earth. This is indicated by the —0.7 V reading in Figure 3.10, which is less than full
protection using the —0.85 V (CSE) criterion (see Chapter 4). The shielding effect will
tend to be greatest near the center of the congested area.
Conditions at each such congested area will determine whether or not the effect
described in the preceding paragraph will be serious. The effect may not be important
if all piping is well coated and if there are no other underground metallic structures
(particularly uncoated ones) in electrical contact with the piping to be protected. In this
situation, the protected pipe can polarize readily and the amount of current flowing in the
earth within the congested area may not be sufficient to change the potential of the earth
mass itself to any substantial degree. In an area such as a pumping station, however,
there may be contacts with such things as the station grounding system, reinforced
concrete foundations, the electrical system, tanks, and water piping. Total current flow
to the area then may be enough to cause potential gradients in the earth, which will
create the shielding effect described. If all bare piping (rather than coated piping) were
used, the effect could be very severe.
Where congested area shielding is a problem, it may not be practical to rely on a
remote type of CP system. Cathodic protection still can be attained by the use of the
close anodes discussed earlier in this chapter. Such anodes (either galvanic or impressed
current) must then be distributed throughout the congested area in such a way that the
areas of influence surrounding the anodes overlap sufficiently to permit development
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Effectiveness of Cathodic Protection
39
of protective potentials on the entire interconnected structure. See Chapter 7 for further
discussion. Chapter 9 also mentions the use of galvanic anodes for electrical grounding
to help relieve the congested area shielding effects at pumping stations and similar
areas.
EFFECTIVENESS OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
Stopping the Development of Pipeline Leaks
That CP, properly designed and maintained, can control pipeline corrosion effectively
on steel systems has been demonstrated in countless instances. Chapter 4 describes
criteria for determining whether adequate corrosion control has been achieved. Chapter 5
describes field-monitoring techniques required for the assessment of these criteria.
The proof of the effectiveness of CP is most apparent where protection has been
applied to old piping systems that had been developing leaks at a rapidly increasing
rate. Suitable protection systems can stop the development of further leaks in dramatic
fashion. Woody (Collection of papers on underground pipeline corrosion, Vol. IX) pro-
vides an example of such results on a section of natural gas mains in Houston, Texas,
which had been under protection for over 20 years. Reduction in the number of leaks
was impressive, as shown in Figure 3.11. The curve shows that further leak development
was stopped once CP was applied to the pipeline. This study was made on mains in cor-
rosive soil, where leaks were becoming so numerous that abandonment was seriously
considered prior to the decision to apply CP. Stetler (1980) reported a similar impressive
reduction in the frequency of leaks on a cast iron water main after application of CP.
150
140
130
120
£ 110
< 100
- 1 90
S 80 H
!< 70
^ 60
^ 50
O 40 "
30
20 -
10
CATHODIC PROTECTION
COMPLETED
1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965
YEARS
Figure 3.1 1 Effectiveness of CP in stopping the development of leaks.
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40 Cathodic Protection — How It Works
Presence of Stray Current
Where stray current corrosion is a factor, CP alone may not be the best method of con-
trolling corrosion. The stray currents can be man-made or natural direct currents from
sources other than galvanic corrosion cells on the pipeline itself. The applicability of CP
depends to a great extent on the severity and degree of variation of the stray currents
picked up and discharged by the pipeline. Low-level steady-state (static) currents or
currents that vary within reasonable narrow limits may be controlled with CP systems.
Larger stray currents, particularly those showing wide variation and reversals in di-
rection of flow (dynamic stray currents), usually require special analysis and corrective
measures, as discussed in Chapter 11.
Aluminum Pipe
Cathodic protection of aluminum pipe is a special problem, in that aluminum is sensitive
to alkali (high-pH environments). As previously discussed, the cathodic reactions in a CP
circuit generate alkali at the cathode surface. If too much CP is applied, the alkalinity at
the surface of an aluminum pipe may become sufficient to break down the passive films
on aluminum, resulting in significant rates of attack, even in the presence of CP. This
process, sometimes termed cathodic corrosion, does not occur on iron or steel pipelines.
The danger is that a buried aluminum pipeline under strong CP actually may corrode
faster than it would if it had not been cathodically protected at all.
Precise limitations for CP of aluminum pipe have not been established. Experience
indicates that low-level CP can be beneficial. As a guide, the protective potentials on
aluminum pipe should be maintained at a less negative value than about —1.00 to —1.10 V
(CSE). Because of this limitation, the CP design for an aluminum pipeline generally
requires greater care and precision than one for a steel pipeline. Criteria for effective CP
of aluminum piping are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4.
EFFECT OF CATHODIC PROTECTION ON OTHER STRUCTURES
It is quite possible to design a CP system for a pipeline that will protect the line, but,
through stray current effects, may promote corrosion of neighboring underground metal-
lic structures. It is important that the corrosion engineer be fully informed about con-
ditions that can result in such adverse effects to these foreign structures. The designs
can then minimize this possibility, and the engineer will know where to look for other
structures that may be subject to damage.
Corrosion damage to an underground structure caused by a CP system on another
structure is commonly called interference. This is actually the result of a form of stray
current corrosion. Corrective measures for such problems are treated in Chapter 11. This
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Effect of Cathodic Protection on Other Structures 41
form of stray current damage is most commonly associated with impressed current CP
systems. Galvanic anode systems, because of their low voltage, are not as likely to cause
trouble, but they are not completely free of the possibility
One way to think of interference effects is to consider the earth between a ground bed
and a pipeline under CP as one resistance path for the current flow. A foreign pipeline
or other metallic structure forms a second resistance path, where the current can jump
onto and off of the structure to complete the circuit. According to Ohm's law, the relative
amount of current in the two paths is inversely proportional to the relative resistances
of those paths.
Another way to consider the problem of interference effects is to consider the voltage
gradients associated with the flow of current in the earth. As previously described in
this chapter, the resistance and voltage drops are directly related. A further discussion
of the problem, with this in mind, follows.
Foreign Pipelines Close to Cathodic Protection Ground Beds
A CP ground bed installed too close to a foreign pipeline can be harmful. Two general
conditions will be discussed.
Case 1
In Figure 3.12, a foreign pipeline is shown passing through the zone of positive earth
potentials (area of influence) surrounding an impressed current ground bed and then
crossing the protected pipeline at a more remote location. The positive earth potentials
will force the foreign pipeline to pick up current at points within the area of influence.
This current must then complete the electrical circuit and return to the negative terminal
of the rectifier power source. Figure 3.12 illustrates this by showing most of the picked-
up current flowing along the foreign line toward the point where the two lines cross and
then leaving the foreign line in the vicinity of the crossing. This current is then picked
up by the protected pipeline and returned to the rectifier. Where the current leaves the
foreign line in the vicinity of the crossing, accelerated corrosion of the foreign pipeline
occurs.
Usually, a small amount of current will flow along the foreign pipeline in the opposite
direction from the ground bed area. This is indicated as endwise current in the figure. This
current will leave the foreign pipeline at remote locations, usually in areas of relatively
low soil resistivity. The severity of the effect is largely a function of the impressed voltage
on the ground bed and the proximity of the foreign pipeline to the ground bed. Where
the impressed voltage is high and the foreign pipeline is close to it, current forced onto
the foreign pipeline tends to be high and can cause damage. In such instances, the foreign
pipeline can fail within a short time if corrective action is not taken. Aluminum and lead
structures can suffer corrosion damage at both the pick-up and discharge points because
of the mechanism described in the section on aluminum piping.
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42
Cathodic Protection — How It Works
AREA OF INFLUENCE SURROUNDING
GROUND BED. WITHIN THIS AREA
SOIL POTENTIALS ARE POSITIVE
(+) WITH RESPECT TO REMOTE
EARTH.
CURRENT FLOW
FROM FOREIGN
STRUCTURE TO
PROTECTED LINE
IN CROSSING
AREA^
Figure 3.12 Foreign pipeline damaged by CP installa-
tion — Case 1.
In cases where the current pickup by the foreign pipeline is not too great, a metallic
bond can be installed between the two lines as discussed in Chapter 11. However, severe
cases may necessitate abandonment of the ground bed when an adequate bond between
the two systems circulates so much of the rectifier current through the foreign pipeline
that little is left for CP of the pipeline for which the CP system was installed. This
emphasizes the need for care in selecting CP installation sites so that conditions such as
these can be avoided.
Case 2
Figure 3.13 illustrates a condition where a foreign pipeline (or other buried metallic
structure) closely approaches a CP ground bed but does not cross the protected pipeline.
In this case, as in the preceding case, the foreign pipeline is forced to pick up current
in the area of positive earth potentials surrounding the ground bed. Current will flow
endwise along the foreign pipeline in both directions from the ground bed. This stray
current must then leave the foreign pipeline in more remote areas (such as at areas of low
soil resistivity) to flow to the protected pipeline and then back to the rectifier to complete
the circuit. This means there may be many areas of current discharge and damage to the
foreign pipeline rather than a single discharge area as in the preceding case.
Corrective actions may include the use of bond cables from the foreign pipeline to the
negative terminal of the rectifier or the installation of CP systems on the foreign pipeline
to reverse the flow of endwise current, all of which are discussed further in Chapter 11.
As in the preceding case, current pickup by the foreign pipeline may be so intense that
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Effect of Cathodic Protection on Other Structures 43
AREA OF INFLUENCE
PROTECTED LINE. _
FOREIGN PIPELINE SURROUNDING THE
NOT CROSSING S GROUND BED.
X __ \ ENDWISE
/ / Z^N \ C CURRENT FLOW.
/ / X ^. \ , f >
W
CURRENT
GROUND / DISCHARGE
_BED / ^FROM FOREIGN
y A PIPELINE IN
REMOTE
AREAS
\
~\ RECTIFIER
p \ \
^ PROTECTED PIPELINE
Figure 3.1 3 Foreign pipeline damage caused by CP installa-
tion — Case 2.
correction of the condition may not be practical if the ground bed is too close to the
foreign pipeline. The ground bed then may have to be abandoned.
In selecting ground bed sites for impressed current systems, the presence of foreign
pipelines, which could be adversely affected, must be carefully explored. In areas of high
soil resistivity, where relatively high voltage rectifiers may be used, the area of influence
surrounding a ground bed may extend for several hundred feet. Small units in low-
resistivity soil will not create as extensive a problem. In any event, tests must be made
by the corrosion engineer to assure that neighboring pipelines will not be damaged or,
if there is some influence, that the possibility of damage can be corrected economically.
In many major metropolitan areas, corrosion control coordinating committees reg-
ularly meet to manage interfering systems. The corrosion engineer has an ethical re-
sponsibility to inform and cooperate with representatives of neighboring facilities when
designing and installing a potentially interfering source of stray current. Coordinating
committees are discussed further at the end of this chapter.
In the preceding sections, impressed current CP systems were used to illustrate stray
current corrosion on foreign pipelines because these systems are most likely to promote
this form of corrosion. The same conditions can be established with galvanic anodes but
the anodes would have to be very close to the foreign pipeline for the line to pick up
any appreciable portion of their output. This is because the area of influence surround-
ing galvanic anodes is relatively small. Nevertheless, the corrosion engineer must make
certain not to establish conditions that will lead to stray current corrosion, regardless
of the type of CP system used. As with impressed current systems, care must be used
in selecting galvanic anode installation sites; however, much closer spacing to foreign
pipelines is permissible in most cases. Usually, a spacing of 15 ft would be ample, al-
though the corrosion engineer should check for current pickup on foreign structures this
close. Even closer spacing might be tolerated in instances where tests show that the area
of influence surrounding the galvanic anodes is sufficiently limited.
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44
Cathodic Protection — How It Works
Foreign Pipelines Crossing Bare Cathodically Protected Lines
Earlier in the chapter, a potential gradient in the earth surrounding a cathodically pro-
tected pipeline was mentioned. This gradient is caused by current flowing onto the
pipeline from remote earth and is the reverse of the potential gradient or area of influ-
ence surrounding a ground bed that is discharging current. As a result of this gradient,
the earth in the immediate vicinity of the pipeline is negative with respect to remote
earth. This is illustrated by Figure 3.14.
The size of the area (zone) of influence around a protected pipeline is a function of the
amount of current flowing to the line per unit area of pipe surface (current density). The
greater the current density, the greater the zone of influence. For well-coated pipelines,
the current is so small that potential gradients in the earth around the line are negligible.
A cathodically protected bare line, however (or large holidays on coated lines), can collect
so much current that substantial voltage drops can be measured in the earth around the
line. A foreign pipeline or other buried metallic structure crossing the protected bare
line will pass through the potential gradient region and be subject to possible corrosion
damage. This is illustrated by Figure 3.15.
Within the potential gradient region, the foreign pipeline tends to become positive
with respect to adjacent soil. This is most pronounced at the point of crossing. The voltage
difference between pipe and earth can force the foreign pipeline to pick up CP current in
electrically remote sections and discharge it to the protected line in the crossing area. The
foreign pipeline will be damaged by such discharge to earth, with the point of greatest
probable damage being directly at the point of crossing with the protected bare line.
Figure 3.1 4 Potential gradients in earth around cathod-
ically protected pipeline.
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Effect of Cathodic Protection on Other Structures
45
FOREIGN LINE TENDS
TO BECOME POSITIVE
TO SOIL WITHIN AREA
OF INFLUENCE AND
IS FORCED TO DISCHARGE
CURRENT
■ MOST INTENSE CURRENT
DISCHARGE AND GREATEST
CORROSION DAMAGE TO
FOREIGN LINE IS NORMALLY
AT POINT OF CROSSING.
FOREIGN
^ PIPELINE
/T?^S^T
CURRENT [
PICKED UP , "l I \ v
BY FOREIGN
PIPELINE \ \
OUTSIDE AREA\ \
OF INFLUENCE ^ \
^ AREA OF
\* INFLUENCE
SURROUNDING
PROTECTED
PIPELINE.
Figure 3.15 Effect on foreign pipeline passing through earth
potential gradients around cathodically protected bare line.
A foreign pipeline can develop leaks in a short time in extreme instances. If the
foreign pipeline happens also to be too close to an impressed current ground bed on
the protected line, as previously discussed, the two effects are additive and the rate of
corrosion at the point of crossing with the protected line will increase. Damage to the
foreign pipeline can occur even if it has a CP system of its own. This takes place if the
potential gradients surrounding the cathodically protected bare line are strong enough
to offset the protective potential on the foreign pipeline and force it to discharge current
(and accelerate corrosion) at the point of crossing.
If the foreign pipeline had a perfect coating, there could be no current discharge and
no corrosion despite the existence of potential gradients where it passed through the
zone of influence around the cathodically protected bare line. This, however, is unlikely
for typical pipeline coatings and field conditions. Even a single coating defect within the
gradient can cause a leak. The rate of penetration would tend to increase with increasing
coating quality because the current discharge would be concentrated at smaller breaks
in the coating.
The existence of a possibly damaging effect on a foreign pipeline at a point of crossing
can be ascertained readily. This is accomplished by measuring potentials between the
foreign pipe and a close electrode located directly over the foreign line. The measure-
ments are obtained at close intervals because the rate of potential change, point-to-point,
can be quite rapid. Thus, these measurements simply comprise a close interval survey
of the foreign line in the area near the crossing of the two pipelines. Typically, the plot-
ted result will look like Figure 3.16. This figure illustrates the effect on a cathodically
protected foreign pipeline and shows a severe potential dip at the point of crossing.
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46
Cathodic Protection — How It Works
(-)
>
Q
LU
<
V
CTr>
._ + -.!.!. i \. .!.
LU
Q
o o
P DC
1 A
FOREIGN-^ PROTECTED -*0
LU
h- w
2^
LU ^
^3
- 1 CO
LU
D- DC
Q_ LU
D_
CD O
Dj °
DC ljj
O CO
O
LU
h-
n
LINE BARE LINE
AREA OF
CC
Q_
POSSIBLE DAMAGE
-
Q
LU
h-
o
LU
h-
o
DC
D_
"\:
-0.85 VOLT ^\ /S
^ POINT OF CROSSING
(+)
3
WITH PROTECTED
U- O
i
p
BARE LINE.
O
DISTANCE IN FEET ALONG FOREIGN LINE
Figure 3.1 6 Pipe-to-soil potentials on foreign pipeline pass-
ing through area of influence around cathodically protected
bare line.
Damage to the foreign pipeline would be expected unless its coating is perfect. Such
a plot clearly identifies the length of foreign pipeline affected. The length of foreign
pipeline subject to depressed potentials can vary from just a few feet in mild cases to
hundreds of feet when the potential gradients are severe and the angle between the
two crossing lines is small. Other factors being equal, the amount of foreign pipeline
subjected to depressed potentials is least for a right-angle crossing.
If there is any question that the potential dip is caused by the CP system on the bare
pipeline, the CP current sources can be turned off and the potential measurements along
the foreign pipeline repeated. If the dip disappears, or nearly so, this is adequate proof
that the CP system on the bare line is the cause of the trouble.
Corrective measures are discussed in Chapter 11. Metallic bonds are suitable in some
instances. In other cases, the bare, cathodically protected pipeline may be coated in the
vicinity of the crossing to reduce the intensity of potential gradients by locally reducing
the amount of current flow to the pipeline per unit area. Galvanic anodes can be used to
advantage where conditions are favorable, as described in Chapter 11 in the subsection
on use of galvanic anodes.
Sources of Information on Interference
It is desirable, and usually saves considerable time, to seek the help of a corrosion coor-
dinating committee when a pipeline is being installed in an area in which a committee
exists. Corrosion coordinating committees are made up of representatives from many of
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References 47
the principal owners of underground metallic structures in an area (usually a metropoli-
tan district where many pipelines cross) that work cooperatively to solve their corrosion
problems. Many of these committees have been in existence for decades and have accu-
mulated useful data, maps, and other information that will help avoid the destructive
effects associated with interfering CP systems. These committees can assist in locating
underground structures in the area, ascertaining the extent and nature of existing CP
systems, and making cooperative surveys or cooperative contracts for protection.
REFERENCES
R. Rudenberg, Grounding Principles and Practices, I — Fundamental Considerations on Ground
Currents, Electrical Engineering, January 1945.
F.E. Stetler, Accelerating Leak Rate in Ductile Cast Iron Water Mains Yields to CP, Materials Perfor-
mance, Vol. 19, No. 10, October 1980.
C.L. Woody, Is 0.85 Volts to Cu/CuS0 4 the Only Criteria for Protection? Collection of papers on
Underground Pipeline Corrosion, Vol. IX, Library of Congress Catalog Number: 59-54031.
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Chapter
Criteria for Cathodic
Protection
John A. Beavers and Kevin C. Garrity
In Chapter 3, the theory and principles of how cathodic protection (CP) works were
presented and discussed. To assure that CP is applied in accordance with these principles,
criteria and methods of assessment are required. This chapter describes the industry-
accepted criteria, and Chapter 5 describes the survey methods and techniques used to
assess whether the criteria are met. The discussion below is a review of the NACE criteria
presented in NACE Standard RP-01-69 (1996 Revision) Control of External Corrosion of
Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems. This document lists criteria and other
considerations for CP that will indicate, when used either separately or in combination,
whether adequate CP of a metallic piping system has been achieved. The document states
that the corrosion control programs are not limited to the primary criteria listed: "Criteria
that have been successfully applied on existing piping systems can continue to be used
on those systems. Any other criteria used must achieve corrosion control comparable to
that attained with the criteria herein," referring to the three primary criteria described
below. Other criteria that have been used for underground piping include the 300 mV
shift criterion, the E-log I criterion, and the net current flow criterion.
CRITERIA FOR STEEL AND CAST IRON PIPING
Three primary criteria for CP of underground or submerged steel or cast iron piping are
listed in Section 6 of NACE Standard RP-01-69 (1996 Revision):
1 . -850 mV (CSE) a with the CP applied,
2. A polarized potential of -850 mV (CSE)
3. 100 mV of polarization.
Saturated copper-copper sulfate reference electrode.
49
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50 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
A fourth criterion, the net protective current criterion, is also listed in Section 6 under
a special conditions section, for bare or poorly coated pipelines where long-line corrosion
activity is the primary concern. The application and limitations of each are given below.
-850 mV with Cathodic Protection Applied Criterion
The full criterion states that adequate protection is achieved with:
a negative (cathodic) potential of at least 850 mV with the CP applied. This
potential is measured with respect to a saturated copper/ copper sulfate
reference electrode contacting the electrolyte. Voltage drops other than
those across the structure-to-electrolyte boundary must be considered for
valid interpretation of this voltage measurement. Consideration is under-
stood to mean application of sound engineering practice in determining
the significance of voltage drops by methods such as:
• measuring or calculating the voltage drop(s),
• reviewing the historical performance of the CP system,
• evaluating the physical and electrical characteristics of the pipe and its
environment
• determining whether or not there is physical evidence of corrosion.
Applications
Of the three primary criteria listed above, the first, —850 mV criterion with CP applied,
is probably the most widely used for determining if a buried or submerged steel or cast
iron structure has attained an acceptable level of CP. In the case of a buried steel or
cast iron structure, an acceptable level of protection is achieved, based on this criterion,
if the potential difference between the structure and a CSE contacting the soil directly
above and as close as possible to the structure is equal to or more negative than (larger
in absolute value) —850 mV. As described above, voltage drops other than those across
the structure-to-electrolyte boundary must be considered for valid interpretation of this
voltage measurement. These voltage drops are a result of current flow in the electrolyte
(soil) and are generally referred to as ohmic or IR voltage drops. IR voltage drops are
more prevalent in the vicinity of an anode bed or in areas where stray currents are present
and generally increase with increasing soil resistivity.
For bare or very poorly coated structures, IR voltage drops can be reduced by placing
the reference electrode as close as possible to the structure. For the majority of coated
structures, most of the IR voltage drop is across the coating, and the measurement is less
affected by reference electrode placement. The IR voltage drop can also be minimized
or eliminated by interrupting all of the direct current sources of the CP system and
measuring the instantaneous off-potential. Details on this measurement technique are
given in Chapter 5. The off -potential will be free of the IR voltage drop errors if all of the
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping 51
current sources, including sources of stray currents, have been properly interrupted and
if long-line currents are negligible. Long-line currents occur on a structure as a result of
the presence of macro-cells, as described in Chapter 1 and Chapter 16. The difference
between the on- and the off-potential indicates the magnitude of the IR voltage drop
error when the measurement is made with the protective current applied.
This criterion was originally adopted based on the observation that the most negative
native potential observed for coated underground steel structures was about —800 mV
(CSE). The assumption was made that macro-cell corrosion would be mitigated if suffi-
cient CP current were applied to raise (in the negative direction) the potential of the entire
structure to a value that is more negative than the native potential of the local anodic
sites. A potential of —850 mV was adopted to provide a 50 mV margin of protection. The
effectiveness of the criterion has been demonstrated over many years of application.
Limitations
This criterion has a number of limitations. The potential reading should be taken with
the reference electrode contacting the electrolyte directly over the structure, to minimize
ohmic voltage drop errors in the measurement and to minimize the extent of averaging
over large areas of the structure. Alternative criteria may be required where the refer-
ence electrode cannot be properly placed, such as at river crossings or road crossings.
The criterion also is most commonly used for well-coated structures, where it can be
economically met. For poorly coated or bare structures, the high CP currents required to
meet this criterion can be prohibitive, such that alternative criteria are typically used.
Potentials can vary significantly from one area of an underground structure to another
as a result of variations in soil conditions, coating damage, interference effects, etc. This
creates the possibility that potentials less negative than —850 mV (CSE) exist between
the measurement points. This problem can be addressed for pipelines by means of close-
interval surveys, as described in Chapter 5. If the close-interval survey establishes that
this problem exists, one should maintain more-negative potentials at the test stations to
ensure that adequate protection is achieved on the entire structure. However, the more
negative potentials required will result in increased power consumption.
Potentials more negative than —850 mV (CSE) also are required in the presence of
bacteria or with a hot pipeline. In the latter case, the current required for CP can increase
by a factor of two for every 10°C (18°F) increase in temperature of the pipe. The potential
criterion is adjusted to compensate for the increased anodic current kinetics. Typically, a
potential of —950 mV (CSE) is used for hot pipelines. In the case of microbes, the kinetics
of the corrosion reaction and the environment at the pipe surface are altered such that a
more-negative potential is typically required to mitigate corrosion. Where the presence
of microbes is confirmed or suspected, a minimum potential criterion of —950 mV (CSE)
is typically used. A more detailed discussion of microbially influenced corrosion (MIC)
and CP is given in Chapter 14.
Care should be exercised to avoid overprotection, which can result in coating dam-
age and may promote hydrogen damage of susceptible steels. The potential above which
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52 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
coating damage can occur is a function of many variables, including the soil composi-
tion and moisture content, the temperature, the coating type, the quality of the coating
application, and the presence of microbes. The general consensus in the industry is to
avoid polarized (instant off) potentials more negative than —1.05 to —1.1 V (CSE).
The older steels generally contain higher levels of impurities, such as sulfur and
phosphorus, and exhibit greater susceptibility to hydrogen damage than do the newer,
cleaner steels. In the older steels, the microstructures associated with hard spots and
welds typically are more susceptible to hydrogen damage than is the microstructure
of the wrought base metal. Again, the general consensus in the industry is to avoid
polarized (instant off) potentials more negative than —1.05 to —1.1 V (CSE) to minimize
hydrogen damage in these steels.
Potentials also can vary seasonally as a result of variation in the soil moisture content.
Thus, some pipeline companies perform annual surveys at the same time each year, so
that trends in the behavior of a pipeline can be properly interpreted. This approach does
not, however, preclude the possibility that the criterion is not being met on some parts
of the structure during portions of the year.
Limitations also exist in the ability to accurately measure the potential of the struc-
ture in the presence of telluric currents or where shielding by disbonded coatings, rocks,
thermal insulation, etc., has occurred. Similarly, the accuracy of the potential measure-
ment is compromised by stray currents that cannot be interrupted or by the presence of
multiple pipelines in a right-of-way where the pipelines have varied coating conditions.
Dynamic stray currents, from sources such as DC transit systems and mining activi-
ties, pose a significant challenge in applying this criterion. Where dynamic stray currents
are suspected, it is generally necessary to obtain potential values over the duration of
the stray current activity, typically for twenty-four hours or longer. For example, for DC
transit systems, it is often possible to obtain fairly stable on-potentials of the structure in
the early morning hours when the transit system is not operating. These potentials can
provide baseline data for use in evaluating other measurements. Of course, appropri-
ate interpretation of such data is required. DC stray currents not only affect the ability
to obtain accurate off -potentials, but also influence the polarized potential of the pipe.
Nevertheless, the —850 mV criterion with CP applied is the criterion most commonly
used in areas of significant dynamic stray current activity. It is generally accepted that
the structure is protected at a test location if the potential of the structure remains more
negative than —850 mV (CSE) at all times, even with significant fluctuations associated
with the dynamic stray currents. It may be necessary to increase the number of test points
and the frequency of surveys in areas of dynamic stray DC currents.
Polarized Potential of —850 mV Criterion
This criterion states that adequate protection is achieved with "a negative polarized
potential of at least 850 mV relative to a saturated copper/copper sulfate reference
electrode." The polarized potential is defined as the "potential across the struc-
ture/electrolyte interface that is the sum of the corrosion potential and the cathodic
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping
53
-1200
-ST -1100
(0
3
(J)
<D -
Q.
Q.
O
O
i_
<D
Q.
Q.
O
o
>
E
-1000
-900
-800
Z -700
D.
-600
-• — On Potential, mV
-■- Off Potential, mV
-♦ — Native Potential, mV
-x- -850 mV Criterion
50
100
250
300
150 200
Distance, Meters
Figure 4.1 Close interval survey data showing on, off, and native potentials.
350
polarization." The polarized potential is measured directly after the interruption of all
current sources and is often referred to as the off- or instant off-potential. The difference
in potential between the native potential and the off or polarized potential is the amount
of polarization that has occurred as a result of the application of the CP. As previously
stated, the difference in potential between the on-potential and the off-potential is the
error in the on-potential introduced as a result of voltage drops in the electrolyte (soil)
and the metallic return path in the measuring circuit. Typical close interval survey data
showing these potentials are given in Figure 4.1.
Applications
This second criterion is more direct than the —850 mV criterion with CP applied by clearly
defining the method by which voltage drops errors in the on-potential are considered.
In the second criterion, these errors are minimized or eliminated. The voltage drop
errors, which are often referred to as ohmic potential drop or IR drop errors, occur as a
result of the flow of CP or stray current in the electrolyte (soil) or in the structure. They
are measurement errors because the cathodic polarization at the structure-to-electrolyte
interface is the only part of the on-potential measurement that contributes to a reduction
in the rate of corrosion of the structure. As described above, polarization is defined as the
difference in potential between the native potential and the off- or polarized potential;
it is referred to as cathodic polarization if the potential shift is in the negative direction.
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54 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
This criterion is most commonly applied to coated structures where the sources of DC
current can be readily interrupted. An example would be an FBE-coated gas transmission
pipeline in a rural area with an impressed current CP system.
Limitations
An important limitation of this criterion is the requirement that all sources of DC current
be interrupted. For standard survey techniques, the interruption must be performed
simultaneously on all current sources. On gas transmission pipelines, interrupting all
current sources may require the use of a large number of synchronous interrupters for
all rectifiers, sacrificial anodes, and bonds affecting the section of pipeline that is being
evaluated. In some cases, the number of rectifiers affecting a test section is not known
without experimental verification. On gas distribution systems, sacrificial anodes are
more commonly used for CP and the electrical leads for the anodes are usually bonded
directly to the pipe with no means available to interrupt the current. For those situations,
this criterion cannot be used. Achieving the criterion also may require the application
of high CP currents, resulting in overprotection of some portions of the structure and
related problems such as cathodic disbondment of coatings and hydrogen embrittlement
of susceptible steels. As described above, a potential more negative than —850 mV (CSE)
may be required to mitigate corrosion on hot pipelines or in the presence of MIC, further
increasing the likelihood of overprotection.
Many of the difficulties of accurately measuring pipe-to-soil potentials that were de-
scribed under limitations to the —850 mV criterion with CP applied apply to the polarized
potential of —850 mV criterion as well. These include access to the structure, seasonal
fluctuations in the potential between testing times, spatial fluctuations in potential be-
tween test stations, the presence of multiple pipelines with different levels of coating
quality in a right-of-way, telluric current effects, and shielding of the structure surface
by disbonded coatings, rocks, and thermal insulation.
100 mV of Polarization Criterion
This criterion states that adequate protection is achieved with "a minimum of 100 mV
of cathodic polarization between the structure surface and a stable reference electrode
contacting the electrolyte. The formation or decay of polarization can be measured to
satisfy this criterion/' Of the three criteria, this criterion has the most sound fundamental
basis. As described in Chapters 3 and 16, the corrosion rate decreases and the rate of
the reduction reaction on the metal surface increases as the underground structure is
polarized in the negative direction from the native potential. The difference between the
corrosion rate (expressed as a current) and the rate of the reduction reaction is equal
to the applied CP current. These processes can be shown graphically in a diagram of E
versus log I, referred to as an Evans diagram (see Chapter 16). The slope of the anodic
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping 55
(corrosion) reaction is referred to as the anodic Tafel slope and typically has a value of
~100 mV per decade of current. With this Tafel slope, the corrosion rate of a structure
decreases by a factor of 10 (an order of magnitude) for every 100 mV cathodic shift
in the polarized potential. An order of magnitude decrease in the corrosion rate of an
underground structure typically is more than adequate to effectively mitigate corrosion.
The cathodic polarization also promotes beneficial changes in the environment at the
pipe surface, such as reducing oxygen, increasing the pH, and moving halides such as
chlorides away from the metal surface, which further decreases the corrosion rate. These
beneficial changes in the environment at the metal surface are referred to as environmen-
tal polarization, in that the environmental changes typically result in a shift in the free
corrosion potential of the pipe in the negative direction. Thus, the total potential shift
from the native potential (excluding IR voltage drops in the soil) includes components
attributable to environmental polarization and cathodic polarization.
As described in the criterion, the magnitude of the polarization shift can be deter-
mined by measuring its formation or decay. To determine the magnitude of the shift as
a result of the formation of polarization, one must first determine the native potential
of the underground structure at test locations before applying CP. The potential is then
re-measured after the CP system is energized and the structure has had sufficient time
to polarize. Typically, the on-potential is continuously monitored at one test location
directly after energization the CP system, and an off-potential reading is made when
there is no measurable shift in the on-potential reading for several minutes. The off-
potential is then compared with the native potential; if the difference exceeds 100 mV,
then the 100 mV criterion has been satisfied at that location. These measurements are
shown graphically in Figure 4.2. Off-potential readings are then obtained at the other test
locations to determine whether the criterion is met at these locations. The time required
for sufficient polarization to develop is highly dependent on the nature of the structure
(coating condition, underground environment, types and number of bonds, and so forth)
and the design of the CP system. From a practical standpoint, it is wise to reexamine
the overall structure and the CP system if a reasonable amount of polarization does not
develop within a few hours of energizing the CP system.
An alternative method of assessing the formation of cathodic polarization is to mea-
sure the on-potential immediately after energizing the CP system and then re-measure
the on-potential after a few hours to days of operation. If the on-potential shifts in the
cathodic (negative) direction by >100 mV, then one can conservatively assume that the
criterion has been met. Because the applied CP current generally decreases with time,
the magnitude of the IR voltage drop also decreases. Thus, the total shift in the on-
potential must be a result of the sum of the additional cathodic polarization and the
environmental polarization of the pipeline, both of which reduce the corrosion rate of
the structure and are included in the 100 mV of polarization in the criterion. If this
method is used, the engineer should confirm that the applied CP current decreased with
time.
Measuring the positive potential shift associated with polarization decay that occurs
after de-energizing the CP system is the most common method to determine the amount
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Criteria for Cathodic Protection
CP System
Turned On
CP System
Turned Off
Figure 4.2 Pipe-to-soil potential as a function of time following energizing
CP system.
of polarization. Figure 4.3 is a schematic that shows the pipe-to-soil potential follow-
ing de-energizing of a CP system. When a CP system is de-energized, the pipe-to-soil
potential undergoes an instantaneous positive shift as a result of elimination of the IR
voltage drop in the soil. The potential measured at this time is referred to as the off-
potential, as previously described, and is used as the starting point for assessing the
polarization shift. There may be a spike in the potential reading immediately after inter-
ruption of the CP system, a result of inductive effects of the pipeline and the CP system.
Because this spike may last a few hundred milliseconds, the off-potential is typically
measured 200 to 500 ms after the interruption.
The potential will then exhibit an exponential decay with time in the positive direction
as the capacitor across the structure-to-electrolyte boundary discharges. This component
of the potential shift is the cathodic polarization of the structure as a result of the applied
cathodic current. A gradual linear decay in the potential will then occur over minutes
to weeks as a result of a return of the environment at the pipe surface to its native
condition. This component of the potential shift is the environmental polarization. To
obtain the total polarization shift, the final potential after polarization decay is measured
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping
57
Environmental
Depolarization
2 4 6 8 10
Time, Seconds
Figure 4.3 Pipe-to-soil potential as a function of time following de-energizing
CP system.
and subtracted from the off -potential. If this difference is >100 mV, then the criterion has
been satisfied.
Applications
The 100 mV polarization criterion is most commonly used on poorly coated or bare
structures where it is difficult or costly to achieve either of the —850 mV criteria. In many
cases, 100 mV of polarization can be achieved where the off-potential is less negative than
—850 mV (CSE). The application of the 100 mV polarization criterion has the advantage of
minimizing coating degradation and hydrogen embrittlement, both of which can occur
as a result of overprotection. In piping networks, the 100 mV polarization criterion can
be used for the older, poorly coated pipes; whereas, a —850 mV (CSE) polarized potential
criterion can be used for the newer piping in the network. Because of its fundamental
underpinnings, the 100 mV polarization criterion also can be used on metals other than
steel, for which no specific potential required for protection has yet been established.
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58 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
Limitations
This criterion has several limitations. The time required for full depolarization of a poorly
coated or bare structure can be several days to several weeks, making the method very
time-consuming and leaving the structure unprotected for an extended period of time.
Fortunately, much of the depolarization occurs within a few hours and waiting for the
full decay frequently is not necessary, except where the total polarization is very close
to 100 mV. Once the criterion has been met, it is not necessary to continue waiting for
further depolarization. At the other extreme, if a depolarization of <50 mV is measured
within a few hours, it is questionable whether the 100 mV polarization criterion can
be achieved. At this point, it may be prudent to assess whether a longer wait for total
depolarization is justified.
The 100 mV polarization criterion is frequently used to minimize the costs for up-
grading CP systems, and the associated increase in power costs, in areas with degrading
coatings. Because of the complicated nature of the measurements, the cost of conducting
surveys for the assessment of the 100 mV polarization criterion is considerably higher
than for the —850 mV criteria. Thus, an economical analysis may be required to determine
whether an actual cost savings is associated with application of the 100 mV polarization
criterion.
The 100 mV polarization criterion should not be used in areas subject to stray currents
because 100 mV of polarization may not be sufficient to mitigate corrosion in these areas.
It is generally not possible to interrupt the source of the stray currents to accurately
measure the depolarization. To apply this criterion, all DC current sources affecting the
structure, including rectifiers, sacrificial anodes, and bonds must be interrupted. In many
instances, this is not possible, especially on the older structures for which the criterion
is most likely to be used.
The 100 mV polarization criterion should not be used on structures that contain
dissimilar metal couples because 100 mV of polarization may not be adequate to protect
the active metal in the couple. This criterion also should not be used in areas where
the intergranular form of external stress corrosion cracking (SCC), also referred to as
high-pH or classical SCC, is suspected. The potential range for cracking lies between the
native potential and —850 mV (CSE) such that application of the 100 mV polarization
criterion may place the potential of the structure in the range for cracking.
Net Protective Current Criterion
RP0169-96 (latest revision) states under paragraph 6.2.2.2 (Special Conditions): "On bare
or ineffectively coated pipelines where long-line corrosion activity is of primary concern,
the measurement of a net protective current at predetermined current discharge points
from the electrolyte to the pipe surface, as measured by an earth current technique, may
be sufficient" for CP to be achieved.
This statement establishes the fourth criterion for CP of underground piping, referred
to as the net protective current criterion. This criterion was originally based on the
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping 59
concept that if the net current at any point on a structure is flowing from the electrolyte
to the structure, there cannot be any corrosion current discharging from that point on
the structure. The theory of electrochemical kinetics, described in Chapter 16, shows that
corrosion can occur at a point on a structure that is collecting net cathodic current from
the electrolyte, as long as the polarized potential is more positive than the equilibrium
potential. Nevertheless, the criterion can be effective, from a practical standpoint, because
the collection of net cathodic current at any point along the structure produces beneficial
cathodic polarization and also promotes beneficial changes in the environment at the
structure surface, as described above.
Typically, the criterion is applied by first performing, with the CP system de-
energized, a close-interval pipe-to-soil potential survey, or a cell-to-cell potential survey
to locate the anodic discharge points along the pipeline. Further details on these survey
methods are given in Chapter 5. For the surveys to be effective, the CP systems must
be de-energized long enough for all polarization to decay. The CP system is then ener-
gized and the structure is allowed to polarize. A side drain method is then used at the
anodic discharge points to determine whether the structure is receiving cathodic current
at these locations. With the side drain method, the potential difference between an elec-
trode placed directly over the structure and one placed on either side of the structure
is measured. If the electrode located over the pipe is negative with respect to the other
two electrodes, then current is collecting on the pipe at the location and the criterion is
satisfied.
Applications
The net protective current criterion is normally used on poorly coated or uncoated
pipelines, where the primary concern is long-line corrosion activity. The technique also
is normally only used in situations where other criteria cannot be easily or economically
met. With these exceptions, this criterion is not a standard criterion for establishing the
effectiveness of a CP system.
Limitations
There are a number of limitations to this criterion. First and foremost is the fact that
the criterion essentially states that any magnitude of net current flow to the structure
(and therefore, any amount of cathodic polarization of the structure) is adequate to
mitigate corrosion. In general, that is not the case and therefore, the criterion should be
considered for use only as a last resort. Application of the criterion should be avoided in
areas of stray current activity or in common pipeline corridors because of the possibility
of misinterpretation of the potential readings. The criterion also may not be effective
in areas with high-resistivity soils, for deeply buried pipelines, or where the separation
distance of the corrosion cells is small. Finally, the side drain measurements at a given
location are indicative of the direction of current flow at that location only and are not
necessarily representative of behavior elsewhere on the pipeline. Thus, for the application
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60 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
of this criterion, it is generally necessary to perform side drain measurements at close
intervals (2 to 20 ft) along the pipeline.
Other Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron
The four criteria listed for steel and cast iron piping are the only acceptable criteria listed
in RP-0 1-69-96 for underground or submerged metallic piping. However, other criteria
can be used on a piping system for which they have been used in the past and it can
be demonstrated that their use has resulted in effective CP. Other criteria are also useful
for underground structures such as reinforced concrete pipe and piling. The two most
common other criteria that have been used in the past for underground structures are
the 300 mV potential shift criterion and the E-log I curve criterion.
300 mV Potential Shift Criterion
The 300 mV potential shift criterion was contained in the original version of RP 01-69
and stated that adequate protection is achieved with "a negative (cathodic) voltage shift
of at least 300 mV as measured between the structure surface and a saturated copper-
copper sulfate half cell contacting the electrolyte. Determination of this voltage shift is
to be made with the protective current applied/' This criterion is similar to the 100 mV
polarization criterion, which is assessed on the basis of the formation of polarization on
a structure. With both criteria, it is first necessary to determine the native potential of
the underground structure at test locations before CP is applied. The potential is then
re-measured after the CP system is energized and the structure has had sufficient time to
polarize. The difference between the two criteria is that, in the case of the 300 mV potential
shift criterion, the on-potential is used for assessment of the criterion; whereas, in the case
of the 100 mV polarization criterion, the off-potential is used for assessment. Regarding
the 300 mV potential shift criterion, the standard states "The Corrosion Engineer shall
consider voltage (IR) drops other than those across the structure-electrolyte boundary
for valid interpretation of the voltage measurements." Thus the relationship between the
300 mV potential shift criterion and the 100 mV polarization criterion is analogous to the
relationship between the —850 mV (CSE) with CP applied criterion and the polarized
potential of —850 mV (CSE) criterion.
The 300 mV potential shift criterion has mainly been used for mitigation of moderate
rates of uniform corrosion of bare steel pipelines. It has been applied for protection of
entire pipelines and also for hot-spot protection. On these pipelines, native potentials of
—200 to —500 mV (CSE) are common and a 300 mV shift has been found to be adequate
to mitigate corrosion in some instances. Thus, the development of the criterion was
empirically based. The 300 mV potential shift criterion is more applicable to impressed
current CP systems than to galvanic anode systems because galvanic anodes may not
have sufficient driving voltage to meet the criterion when negative native potentials are
encountered.
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Criteria for Steel and Cast Iron Piping 61
Probably the most successful application of this criterion has been on steel reinforced
concrete structures. These structures typically have native potentials in the range of —200
to —400 mV (CSE) and passive steel surfaces, with the exception of hot spots, such that
a potential shift of 300 mV can be readily achieved. Application of this criterion avoids
problems associated with overprotection.
Many of the limitations associated with the 100 mV polarization criterion are appli-
cable to the 300 mV potential shift criterion as well. These include the time required for
polarization, the possibility of moving the potential into the cracking range for SCC,
and difficulties in areas containing stray currents or galvanic couples. In general, the
300 mV potential shift criterion should not be used where high-pH SCC is confirmed or
suspected, or where stray currents or galvanic couples are present. The original version
of RP 01-69 states, "This criterion of voltage shifts applies to structures not in contact
with dissimilar metals/'
Probably the single greatest limitation of the 300 mV potential shift criterion is that
situations will exist in the field where the criterion will appear to be applicable yet
corrosion may not be mitigated. In some situations, the majority of the potential shift
will be the result of IR voltage drops in the soil or across the coating, and very little
polarization of the structure will occur. For this reason, the criterion was removed from
the primary list of criteria in the 1992 and 1996 revisions of RP-01-69.
E-Log I Curve Criterion
The E-log I curve criterion also is found in the original version of RP-01-69, which states
that adequate protection is achieved with "a voltage at least as negative (cathodic) as
that originally established at the beginning of the Tafel segment of the E-log I curve. This
voltage shall be measured between the structure surface and a saturated copper-copper
sulfate half cell contacting the electrolyte." The criterion was originally developed based
on an incorrect interpretation of a plot of potential versus the log of the current (E-log I
curve). The cathodic E-log I curve, which is generated as a structure is polarized from the
native potential, was thought to exhibit a break that had some fundamental significance.
This break was thought to occur at the beginning of the Tafel region. A review of the
theory of CP, given in Chapter 16, indicates that the net cathodic current measured at any
applied cathodic potential is equal to the difference between the rate of the reduction
reaction and the rate of the oxidation reaction. An E-log I curve shows a smooth transition
from zero current, at the native potential, to the linear Tafel region. The Tafel region starts
when the rate of the oxidation (corrosion) reaction is negligibly small in comparison with
the rate of the reduction reaction. Depending on the Tafel slopes for the oxidation and
reduction reactions, the beginning of the Tafel region can vary between 50 and 100 mV
cathodically from the native potential.
At present, the E-log I curve criterion is rarely used for evaluating existing CP sys-
tems. However, the measurement technique, originally developed for applying the E-log
I curve criterion, is now most commonly used to determine the minimum current re-
quired for protection. The pipe-to-soil potential, determined by using a remote reference
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62 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
electrode, is plotted as a function of the current output of a CP system. Typically, it is
necessary to use an interruption technique and off-potentials for constructing the E-log I
plot in order to accurately establish the curve. The potential required to achieve a desired
minimum current value is identified on the curve. This value should be at least as nega-
tive as the value at the beginning of the Tafel region of the E-log I curve. Once the potential
and current values have been established, future surveys consist of checking the current
output of the CP system and the potential of the structure with respect to the remote
reference electrode, placed in the same location as was used in the original E-log I tests.
Because of the elaborate nature of the technique, its use is generally limited to struc-
tures where conventional means of assessment are difficult. Examples include river
crossings for pipelines, well casings, and piping networks in concentrated areas such
as industrial parks. The technique can give erroneous results in areas of stray currents.
The reference electrode must be placed in the same location each time the potential is
measured. Furthermore, there is no guarantee that a repeat E-log I curve will yield the
same results as the original curve.
CRITERION FOR ALUMINUM PIPING
RP01 69-96, lists a single criterion for aluminum piping, identical to the 100 mV polariza-
tion criterion used for cast iron and steel. According to paragraph 6.2.3.1, "The following
criterion shall apply; a minimum of 100 mV of cathodic polarization between the struc-
ture and a stable reference electrode contacting the electrolyte. The formation or decay
of this polarization can be used in this criterion."
Two precautionary notes included in Section 6.2.3.2 are unique to aluminum piping:
one dealing with excessive voltages (paragraph 6.2.3.2.1) and one dealing with alkaline
conditions (paragraph 6.2.3.2.2).
Paragraph 6.2.3.2.1, states that:
Notwithstanding, the minimum criterion in Section 6.2.3.1, if aluminum
is cathodically protected at voltages more negative than -1200 mV mea-
sured between the pipe surface and a saturated copper/ copper sulfate
reference electrode contacting the electrolyte and compensation is made
for the voltage drops other than those across the pipe-electrolyte bound-
ary, it may suffer corrosion as a result of the buildup of alkali on the metal
surface. A polarized potential more negative than —1200 mV should not
be used unless previous test results indicate that no appreciable corrosion
will occur in the particular environment.
Paragraph 6.2.3.2.2 states that:
Aluminum may suffer from corrosion under high-pH conditions and ap-
plication of CP tends to increase the pH at the metal surface. Therefore,
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Criterion for Copper Piping 63
careful investigation or testing should be made before applying CP to stop
pitting attack on aluminum in environments with a natural pH in excess
of 8.0.
The basis for these cautionary notes is the incompatibility of aluminum in high-pH
environments. The protective passive films on aluminum break down in high-pH elec-
trolytes, leading to significant increases in the corrosion rate, even at relatively negative
potentials. In addition to these precautionary notes, several of the limitations for the
100 mV polarization criterion for steel and cast iron also apply to aluminum. These
include the time-consuming nature of the measurement technique, difficulties associ-
ated with interrupting all current sources, and limitations in applying the criterion to
structures with dissimilar metals and in the presence of stray currents. Because no other
criterion is applicable to aluminum, good engineering practice must be used to address
these limitations. For example, sources of stray current should be identified and elim-
inated, if possible. Aluminum piping should be isolated from other metals before CP
is applied (isolation of aluminum is required for the CP criterion of dissimilar metals
under Section 6.2.5 of RP0169; see below).
CRITERION FOR COPPER PIPING
RP0169-96 has a single criterion for copper piping. According to paragraph 6.2.4.1, "The
following criterion shall apply; a minimum of 100 mV of cathodic polarization between
the structure and a stable reference electrode contacting the electrolyte. The formation
or decay of this polarization can be used in this criterion/'
This criterion is identical to the 100 mV polarization criterion used for cast iron,
steel, and aluminum. There are no precautionary notes with this criterion, but several of
the limitations with the 100 mV polarization criterion for steel and cast iron also apply
to copper. These include the time-consuming nature of the measurement technique,
difficulties associated with interrupting all current sources, and limitations in applying
the criterion on structures with dissimilar metals and in the presence of stray currents.
Sources of stray current should be identified and eliminated, if possible. Because copper is
a noble metal, steel, cast iron, or other metals usually will undergo preferential galvanic
attack when coupled to copper. Therefore, it is desirable to eliminate such dissimilar
metal couples before applying CP.
Criterion For Dissimilar Metal Piping
RP01 69-96 contains a single criterion for dissimilar metal piping. Under paragraph
6.2.5.1, the following criterion is listed: "A negative voltage between all pipe surfaces
and a stable reference electrode contacting the electrolyte equal to that required for the
protection of the most anodic metal should be maintained. "
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64 Criteria for Cathodic Protection
There is one precautionary note, under Paragraph 6.2.5.2: "Amphoteric materials that
could be damaged by high alkalinity created by CP should be electrically isolated and
separately protected/' Amphoteric metals include aluminum, titanium, and zirconium.
In practice, this criterion applies only where carbon steel or cast iron is coupled to a
more noble metal such as copper. In this situation, either of the 850 mV criterion would
apply: —850 mV (CSE) with the CP applied or a polarized potential of —850 mV (CSE).
Other criteria, such as the 100 mV of polarization criterion would not be applicable.
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Chapter
Survey Methods and
Evaluation Techniques
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Various testing methods and techniques may be used on underground pipelines during
the course of field surveys.
DATA ASSEMBLED BEFORE STARTING A FIELD SURVEY
Before any field survey, the corrosion engineer should gather as much information as
possible about the pipeline to be studied. This may provide valuable data on corrosion
conditions to be expected and should be helpful in planning a survey program that will
yield useful data for design purposes.
The following items of information are typical of those which should be accumulated
before planning and starting the field survey.
• Pipe material: Steel (including grade of steel), cast iron, wrought iron, or other material
of known electrical resistance.
• Is the line bare or coated? If coated, what is the coating material and what coating
specifications were used?
• If it is an existing line, is there a leak record? If so, information on the location and
date of occurrence of each leak will positively indicate the more serious problem
areas.
• Pipe diameter, wall thickness, and weight per foot; data on any changes in these items
along the route of the line.
• Size or sizes of casing pipe used, with wall thickness or weight per foot; grade of
steel used; data on insulators used between pipe and casing and on casing end
65
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66 Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
seals; if coated casing was or is to be used, type of coating and application specifica-
tions.
Location and construction details of all corrosion test points that have been installed
along the line. If no test points have been installed for corrosion test purposes, deter-
mine locations where contact can be made with the pipeline for test purposes (other
than by driving contact bars down to the pipe).
Is the line of all-welded construction, or are mechanical couplers used?
Location of branch taps.
Location of insulated flanges or couplers, if any, purposely used to sectionalize the
line or to isolate it electrically from other portions of the system or from piping of
other ownership.
Route maps and detail maps giving as much data as is available.
Location of underground structures of foreign ownership that cross the pipeline to be
surveyed; if any of these structures are cathodically protected, determine the location
of cathode protection (CP) current sources (particularly rectifiers) that may be close
to the line being surveyed.
Location of possible sources of man-made stray current (such as DC electric transit
systems or mining operations) that could affect the line under study.
Do any sections of the pipeline closely parallel (within 200 ft or so) high voltage
electric transmission lines? If so, what is the length of such exposure, how close is
the pipeline to the towers, at what voltage does the electric line operate, and what
method is used for grounding the towers? (This information is significant because
rectifier installations and insulated joints in well-coated pipes closely parallel to high
voltage electric lines may be damaged by induced AC voltage surges under electric
system fault conditions if preventive measures are not taken.)
Is the line now operated at elevated temperature or will it be so operated in the
foreseeable future. (High temperature could cause deterioration of coatings used.)
SURVEY METHODS AVAILABLE
The actual field survey should be organized to use several or all of the following pro-
cedures. The actual selection and the relative importance of data obtained from each
method selected will depend on the particular situation. Survey methods for different
situations are listed below to guide the corrosion engineer. These tests should supple-
ment information gathered under Data Assembled Before Starting a Field Survey.
Survey of Pipeline Routes before Construction
• Measurement of the electrical resistivity of the soil environment around the pipeline
• Determination of conditions suitable for anaerobic bacterial corrosion
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods 67
• Determination of various chemical constituents in the soil environment (chlorides,
sulfate, sulfides, bicarbonates)
Survey of Pipeline Not under Cathodic Protection
• Measurement of the electrical resistivity of the soil environment around the pipeline
• Determination of conditions suitable for anaerobic bacterial corrosion
• Determination of various chemical constituents in the soil environment (chlorides,
sulfate, sulfides, bicarbonates)
• Potential surveys: measurements of potentials between pipeline and environment
• Line current survey: measurement of electrical current flowing on the pipeline
• Measurement of the effective electrical resistance of any coating on the pipeline being
studied
• Bellhole examinations for evidence of corrosion activity
• Use of recording instruments for the study of unstable (stray current) conditions
• If cathodic protection (CP) is deemed necessary: evaluation of electric current require-
ments for CP.
Survey of Pipeline under Cathodic Protection
• Potential surveys: measurements of potentials between pipeline and environment
• Line current survey: measurement of electrical current flowing on the pipeline
• Measurement of the effective electrical resistance of any coating on the pipeline being
studied
• Bellhole examinations for evidence of corrosion activity
• Use of recording instruments for the study of unstable (stray current) conditions
From the listings above, a corrosion survey might seem to be a rather involved process.
It is the responsibility of the corrosion engineer to select the proper survey "tools" that
will be best suited for a specific situation and provide adequate design information at
the least expense. It is easily possible to // overengineer ,/ corrosion surveys and to put
the greatest emphasis on what may turn out to be relatively unimportant data. This is
where knowledge and — particularly — experience are important.
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES AND SURVEY METHODS
In this section, we will discuss some of the more important field test measurement proce-
dures for typical test equipment described in Chapter 6. These measurements procedures
will be incorporated into survey methods commonly utilized for assessing pipelines both
with and without CP.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
Potential Measurements
Measurement of potential between a pipeline and a copper sulfate reference electrode
(CSE) is the most frequent test performed in the corrosion industry. All discussions in
this book that deal with potential measurements will be referenced to the CSE.
Pipe-to-earth potential measurements are performed by placing the electrode over the
pipeline for "close" readings or at remote earth for "remote" readings. The porous plug,
with cap removed, should be in firm contact with moist earth. This may require "digging
in" at places where the earth's surface is dry. In extremely dry areas, it maybe necessary
to moisten the earth around the electrode with fresh water to obtain good contact. Do not
permit grass or weeds (particularly when wet) to contact exposed electrode terminals
because that may affect the observed potential.
For the purposes of standardized convention in this book the reference electrode will be con-
nected to the negative terminal of a high-impedance voltmeter and the positive terminal to
the pipeline (via test point terminal, probe rod, or direct contact with pipeline), as shown in
Figure 5.1.
Pipelines Not under Cathodic Protection
Potentials reveal several things about the pipeline being evaluated. These include a
general idea of the extent to which corrosion has progressed, the location of hot spots
where corrosion is most severe, and the location of areas that are subject to stray current
electrolysis.
Digital
Voltmeter
©
©
850
X
VOLTg,
*'co'M < f
i _
Reference
^^ Electrode
Pipe Test Lead —
1
Electrode potential
does not vary
Pipe potential
'v i *
v is the variable
Figure 5.1 Pipe-to-earth potential measurement.
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods 69
A general idea of corrosion extent can obtained from the average pipeline potential.
When potentials are measured with respect to a reference electrode every mile or so along
a pipeline or at test stations and the readings are then plotted (excluding those subject
to stray current or other external influences), the newer and less corroded pipelines will
typically have more negative potential values. Newly laid, coated steel pipelines may
have an average potential in the range of —0.5 to —0.7 V, whereas old, bare steel lines
may have an average potential more in the range of —0.1 to —0.3 V (CSE).
Location of "hot spots" (corroding areas) can be determined by making what is known
as an over-the-line potential survey. This technique is particularly useful on both bare
and coated pipelines. In an over-the-line survey, measurements are taken at fairly close
intervals (about 3 ft apart) between the pipeline and copper sulfate electrode directly
over the line.
Pipelines under Cathodic Protection
Protection criteria based on potential measurements are a logical development of under-
standing how CP works. As demonstrated in Chapter 3, a flow of current to a cathodically
protected pipeline from its environment causes a change in potential, a combination of
the voltage drop across the resistance between pipeline and environment and the po-
larization potential developed at the pipe surface. The resistance between pipeline and
environment includes the resistance of the pipeline coating, if any. The net result is that
the pipeline will become more negative with respect to its environment. This is illustrated
by Figure 5.2.
As discussed in Chapter 4, if cathodic areas on a corroding pipeline are polarized to
the open circuit potential of the anodic areas, corrosion will be mitigated. Ideally, based
on this concept, potentials should be measured directly across the interface between
the pipeline and its environment. This location is represented by the terminals marked
"polarization potential" on the equivalent circuits shown in Figure 5.2. However, this is
difficult when working with buried pipelines. In common practice, the usual approach is
to measure the potential between the pipeline and the earth at the surface directly above
the pipeline. As shown by the equivalent circuits, the observed potential thus includes
the polarization potential plus a potential created by current flowing through a portion
of the resistance (IR drop) between pipeline and earth.
Under some conditions, it is not necessarily desirable to approach the ideal measure-
ment of polarization potential indicated previously. A measurement of potential between
pipeline and remote earth then may be in order. This alternative location is indicated
in Figure 5.2. Reasons for using a remote earth location are discussed in the section on
Remote vs Close Potential Measurements.
Assuming that potential measurement is a reasonable approach to a workable crite-
rion, the next question is how much potential should be present to indicate protection
and how is it measured. The actual potential measured varies with the method used to
contact the pipeline environment. The contact must be made by means of a reliable and
stable reference that will permit reproducible results.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
POINT "C". CONTACT WITH ■
"REMOTE" EARTH TO (-)
TERMINAL OF VOLTMETER.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
POWER SOURCE
WHEN CONNECTED AS
SHOWN, DIGITAL VOLTMETER
WILL SHOW MORE NEGATIVE
VALUES WHEN CATHODE
PROTECTION SYSTEM IS
ENERGIZED AND FORCES
CURRENT TO FLOW TO THE
PIPE SURFACE
COMBINATION OF ANODE-TO-EARTH
RESISTANCE AND PIPE-TO-EARTH
RESISTANCE WHICH IS LESS THAN
THE SUM OF PIPE AND ANODE
RESISTANCES TO REMOTE EARTH.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 1
PIPELINE WITHIN "AREA OF
INFLUENCE" OF GROUND BED
RESISTANCE
OF GROUND
BED ANODES
TO REMOTE
EARTH
RESISTANCE -
BETWEEN
PIPELINE
AND REMOTE
EARTH
i- POINT
^POLARIZATION
POTENTIAL
POINT "A"
ON EARTH
ABOVE PIPE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 2
GROUND BED ELECTRICALLY
REMOTE FROM PIPELINE
Figure 5.2 Pipe-to-environment potential change with flow of cathodic protection current.
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods 71
With the background developed above, a discussion of actual potentials can be un-
dertaken. In Chapter 4, we discussed the concept that if cathodic areas on the pipeline
are polarized to the open circuit potential of the anodic areas, macrocell corrosion will
cease. As established by various investigators, the most highly anodic areas to be ex-
pected on a steel pipeline in most soils and waters will have a potential of around —0.8 V
as measured with respect to a CSE contacting the environment immediately adjacent to
the anodic area. For usual potential measurements, it is not practical to excavate so that
the electrode can be placed at pipe depth. The most common approach is to place the
CSE at the ground surface directly above the pipeline. To allow for a drop in potential in
the soil between this point and the pipe, and to allow for some latitude in the potential
of the most highly anodic areas, the practical value of —0.85 V (CSE) has been adopted
as an indication of satisfactory protection. This criterion along with its applications and
limitations is discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Remote vs Close Potential Measurements
Pipeline potential readings usually are referred to either "close" or "remote" electrodes.
If neither is designated, "close" electrode will be meant in most cases.
Close Earth
A reading to close electrode usually means an observation made with the reference placed
on the ground (or water) surface directly above the pipeline being studied. A reading to
remote electrode means the reference is placed in earth that is electrically remote from the
pipeline. Often, to permit reproducing similar conditions, the distance and direction will
be indicated, as "potential to remote CSE, 100 east" or similar notations. Applications of
both types of reading are covered below.
Remote Earth
Under certain testing conditions, it may be desirable to know how far one has to go
from a structure before the potential represents an electrically remote distance from
the structure being evaluated. Examples are the area of influence around an impressed
current ground bed and the area affected by potential gradients around a cathodically
protected pipeline. This distance may be determined by a series of readings between
the structure being evaluated and a CSE moved away from the structure at specified
intervals. When the data are plotted for a cathodically protected pipeline, it might appear
as illustrated by Figure 5.3.
The plot taken at an impressed current ground bed would look similar except that
potentials would increase in the positive direction instead of negative and the distance
to remote earth could be greater.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
-1 n
LU
(f)
O
-0 9
2«
■- o
0) £=
Q_ O
-— <D
-0.8
0- r^
M- U- 1
O Q)
CO ,£
-()./
C =5
CD C/}
££
-0.6
Q.
O
O
o
-0.5
o a o o
50
100
Distance (feet) Between Pipeline and Copper Sulfate Electrode
Figure 5.3 Determination of remote earth.
It should be pointed out that the distance to remote earth will not necessarily be the
same at all points along a protected line nor will the distance to remote earth necessarily
be the same for all similarly sized impressed current ground beds at different locations.
Both soil resistivity and soil structure have an effect. In high-resistivity soil areas, the
distance to remote tends to be greater. Probably the greatest effect causing extension of
the distance to remote earth is observed at areas where pipelines or ground beds are
in relatively shallow surface layers of earth overlying material of much higher resis-
tivity (such as rock). In these instances, the current to the pipeline or from the ground
bed tends to concentrate in the surface layer rather than come from or flow to the gen-
eral earth mass. This substantially extends the distance from the structure to electrically
remote earth. Awareness of this effect, when working in such areas, is important in
considering the possible interference effect of potential gradient fields on other struc-
tures.
Over-The-Line Potential Surveys (Close Interval Surveys)
So why are different readings obtained when the reference is placed directly over the
line? The readings are affected by corrosion current flowing to or from the pipe. Such
currents cause voltage drops in the soil in the immediate vicinity of the pipeline, which are
reflected in the readings to a close electrode. Which readings then indicate unfavorable
conditions?
In general, when interpreting over-the-line potential survey readings, for pipelines
without CP the worst corrosion will be where the potential readings are the most nega-
tive, and there will be little or no corrosion at the points of least negative readings.
To illustrate results that can be obtained with an over-the-line potential survey on
a well-coated pipeline without CP, Figure 5.4 represents plotted data taken from an
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods
73
-1.0
-0.9
III
CO
-OH
o
CO
-0.7
h
o
-0.6
>
_l
<
-0.5
h-
7
-0.4
LU
s
-0.3
Q_
C/)
-0.2
Q_
-0.1
CLOSE
ELECTRODE
READINGS
I I I I
1000 2000 3000 4000
PIPELINE LENGTH-FEET
Figure 5.4 Close interval potential survey (w/o CP applied).
actual field survey. The plotted data do not form a smooth curve. Peaks in the plot
indicate locations to be suspected as corroding areas. Major peaks mark those areas that
require closest attention and coordination with other survey data to be discussed later.
If areas are encountered where stray current electrolysis is a problem, this will be
apparent from the potential measurements. Potentials attributable to soil conditions
only show little or no variation during measurements made with indicating voltmeters,
whereas the effects of a DC transit system, for example, can cause observation of erratic
and extreme variations in potential values. In severe cases, the variation can be from
several volts positive to several volts negative with respect to the copper sulfate electrode.
When such conditions are encountered, electrolysis preventive measures may be needed
as discussed in Chapter 11.
To illustrate information that can be obtained with an over-the-line potential survey
on a well-coated pipeline with CP, Figure 5.5 represents plotted data taken from an
actual field survey. The plotted data again do not form a smooth curve even when taken
on a cathodically protected pipeline. Depressions in the plot (least negative potential)
indicate locations where CP may not be adequate because of underground contacts to
other pipelines or structures or areas of possible coating damage. These areas of potential
depressions may require close attention and coordination with other survey data to be
discussed later.
Over-the-line potential surveys provide measurement of potentials to a reference
electrode directly above the pipe and at frequent intervals along the pipe; survey results
can be used to locate the more actively corroding areas (hot spots) on a pipeline not
under CP or areas of depressed potentials on cathodically protected pipelines. A detailed
discussion can be found in Chapter 16. Three methods that may be used for taking these
closely spaced readings are as follows:
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
-2500
-2000
>
E
O -1500
-1000
-850
-500
-000
,„....„...,,:::::;::::::,.„..:
— "On" pote
ntial
— "Off" potential
*x
....,,/""*
" yK \kl"
J \r-
Distance
Figure 5.5 Over-the-line survey (with cathodic protection).
Method 1
The principle involved in the over-the-line survey is illustrated in Figure 5.6 which shows
readings taken on a continuous basis at 3- to 5-ft intervals along the pipeline. For an all-
welded steel pipeline, there would be negligible voltage drop through the pipe between
any two points tested (at the usual soil corrosion currents flowing in the pipe). Typically,
VOLTMETER
/^" LOCATION
REFERENCE
ELECTRODES
OVER PIPELINE
< 3 - 5FEET > l
SPACING
PIPELINE
Figure 5.6 Over-the-line potential surveys (Method 1).
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods
75
a measuring device, with light wire for continuous contact to the pipeline, is used with
a data logger to capture data as the survey is being performed. The location of each
electrode position is recorded with the observed potential. Different types of over-the-
line survey equipment are discussed in Chapter 6.
In areas where traffic conditions, terrain features, or other obstructions do not in-
terfere, long distances can be surveyed on either side of each pipeline connection. The
distance is limited only by the length of test conductor available. The resistance of the
light-wire test lead should not be sufficient to cause noticeable error in potential measure-
ments made with a suitable high-resistance voltmeter. This is true if spools of light wire
conductors 3 to 5 miles long are maintained properly and have no high-resistance connec-
tions. For example, 15,000 ft (3 miles) of no. 34 gage light wire would have a resistance of
approximately 2,800 ohms. A high-impedence voltmeter or datalogger with a minimum
input impedence of 20 x 10 6 ohms typically reduces any errors from the wire resistance.
Method 2
Another measurement technique involves the use of a pair of CSE in leapfrog fashion,
as illustrated in Figure 5.7.
ELECTRODES ARE
PLACED ON SURFACE
DIRECTLY ABOVE PIPE.
HIGH RESISTANCE
VOLTMETER
.REAR ELECTRODE "LEAP-FROGGED"
TO FORWARD POSITION FOR EACH
SUBSEQUENT READING.
FIRST READING
SECOND READING
— mm&wm^
CUS0 4
ELECTRODE "A"
POSITION 1
CUSO4
ELECTRODE "B"
POSITION 2
:— KNOWN SPACING-
CUSO4 '
ELECTRODE "A"
POSITION 3
PIPELINE
TEST POINT WIRE OR OTHER
METALLIC CONTACT WITH
PIPELINE.
Figure 5.7 Over-the-line potential surveys using two copper sulfate electrodes (Method 2).
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76 Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
Table 5.1 Data Record for Leap Frog Potential Surveys
Position (or
Potential Drop
From
Polarity of
Pipe to CuS0 4
Pipe-line Station)
CuS0 4
at Last Position
Forward CuS0 4
Potential
1
—
—
-.625volt (1)
2
.08
+
-.705
3
.04
+
-.745
4
.075
-
-.670
5
.10
-
-.570
(1) Initial value measured via direct pipeline contact at Position 1.
When using this technique, the survey may be started with a measurement to
the pipeline at a connection point (ETS) in the usual manner, as shown at Position
1 in the figure. The value observed and the electrode position are recorded. Leaving
this electrode (A) at that location, a second electrode (B) is placed at the next location
along the pipeline (Position 2 in the figure), and this potential difference is observed
and recorded, together with the polarity of the forward electrode. Electrode A at Po-
sition 1 is leapfrogged to Position 3 and the potential between the electrodes is mea-
sured as above. The procedure is continued in the same manner along the length of the
pipeline.
The actual pipe-to-electrode potential at Position 2 is the observed potential at Po-
sition 1 with the potential between Positions 1 and 2 being numerically added to the
Position 1 value if the polarity of the forward electrode is (+) or subtracted if it is (— ).
This is continued for each subsequent reading. The data may be recorded as shown in
Table 5.1.
The two-electrode technique avoids the need to string out long leads but does in-
volve greater probability of error, particularly in areas having variable DC stray current.
Leapfrogging the electrodes avoids any cumulative error caused by potential difference
between electrodes. Potential drops between electrodes must be measured accurately
and using a high-impedance voltmeter will typically eliminate that error. An error in ob-
serving and recording the data at any one position will be reflected in all the subsequent
calculated pipe-to-electrode potentials.
Where this method is used, good practice calls for checking the cumulative pipe-to-
electrode potential by direct measurement to a pipeline contact every thousand feet or
so and adjusting accordingly. This will guard against unnoticed errors in the data. With
careful work, however, this method is quite reliable.
Method 3
This method, often called the side drain technique, measures the potential drops between
two copper sulfate electrodes, as shown in Figure 5.8. Electrodes used should be matched
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods
11
Copper copper sulfate half cell
High Impedence Voltmeter
s :::: i
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3
Figure 5.8 Over-the line (Method 3).
distance (5-10 feet)
Pipeline
(not more than 5 mV difference in electrode potential). Measurements are made on
each side of a unprotected pipeline, typically in areas in question, to identify areas of
current flow onto and off the pipeline. In Fig 5.8 positive voltage reading would indicate
current flow to the pipe. A negative voltage reading would indicate current flow off the
pipeline.
This technique is not widely used because it is time-consuming. Direct contact poten-
tial measurements as described in Method 1 are easier than the other methods described.
Methods 2 and 3 are typically used to qualify specific areas of concern identified using
Method 1 survey techniques.
Line Current Measurements
Measurement of pipeline current by the resistance drop method is useful in pipeline
survey work. It is also useful in determining the distribution of current along a cathodi-
cally protected pipeline and for other applications such as stray current. The procedures
outlined typically use permanent test points to contact the pipe.
Permanent Two-Wire Test Points
Where the two-wire test points spanning a known length of pipe are available, cur-
rents may be measured by determining the potential drop across the span, selecting the
pipe resistance from tables, and calculating the current using Ohm's law. The general
arrangement is shown in Figure 5.9.
The procedure may be performed as follows:
1 . Measure the circuit resistance of the test leads and pipe span by passing known battery
current through the circuit and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the test
point terminals. Calculate resistance in ohms by Ohm's law: R (resistance) = V (volts)
divided by I (amperes). If the resistance obtained is higher than reasonable for the
size and length of test wires, defective leads may be suspected.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
CLOSE SWITCH FOR
STEP 1 ONLY
FOR STEP 1
ONLY >
PIPE SIZE AND WALL
THICKNESS OR WEIGHT
PER FOOT MUST BE
KNOWN v
— I |l|l|-
BATTERY
TEST POINT
TERMINALS
■ AMMETER
MV
O Q
WIRES MUST BE-
COLOR CODED
■ VOLTMETER
PIPELINE
PIPE SPAN IN FEET -
Figure 5.9 Current measurement, 2-wire test point.
2. Measure the voltage drop across the test point terminals caused by the normal current
flowing in the pipeline. Usually this will be millivolts or microvolts. Instrument resis-
tance must be known and correction made for the external circuit (measured in Step 1).
Note the polarity of the meter connection to the test point terminals and indicate the
direction of current flow (+ to — ) along the pipeline.
3. Using pipeline resistance tables, determine the resistance of the pipeline span.
4. Calculate the pipeline current flow by Ohm's law. Current in milliamperes = corrected
millivolt drop (from Step 2) divided by pipe span resistance in ohms.
Table 5.2 may be used as a general guide to pipeline resistance. Resistivity values for
steel typically range between 15 and 23 /i^-cm, depending on the composition of the
steel. The average value is ~18 imQ-cm.
Sample determination of current flow on a 200-ft span of 30-in-diameter pipe weigh-
ing 118.7 lb /ft (pipeline runs east and west) requires the following measurements and
calculations:
Step 1. (Battery current = 1.2 A; voltage drop = 0.108 V; circuit resistance = 0.108/1.2 =
0.09 ohm.
Step 2. Potential drop at test point terminals = 0.16 mV; the west terminal is (+).
Step 3. Resistance of pipeline span (from Table 5.2) = 2.44 x 10" 6 x 200 = 0.49 milliohm.
Step 4. Current = 0.17 mV/0.49 milliohm = 346 mA; flow is from west to east.
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Table 5.2 Steel Pipe Resistance 1
Pipe Size,
Inches
Outside
Diameter, Inches
Wall Thickness,
Inches
Weight Per
Foot, Pounds
Resistance of One Foot 2 in
Ohmsx 10" 6 (Millionths of an Ohm)
2
2.375
0.154
3.65 79.2
4
4.5
0.237
10.8 26.8
6
6.625
0.280
19.0 15.2
8
8.625
0.322
28.6 10.1
10
10.75
0.365
40.5 7.13
12
12.75
0.375
49.6 5.82
14
14.00
0.375
54.6 5.29
16
16.00
0.375
62.6 4.61
18
18.00
0.375
70.6 4.09
20
20.00
0.375
78.6 3.68
22
22.00
0.375
86.6 3.34
24
24.00
0.375
94.6 3.06
26
26.00
0.375
102.6 2.82
28
28.00
0.375
110.6 2.62
30
30.00
0.375
118.7 2.44
32
32.00
0.375
126.6 2.28
34
34.00
0.375
134.6 2.15
36
36.00
0.375
142.6 2.03
1 Based on
steel density of 489
pounds per cubic
foot and steel resistivity of 18 mi(
2 p _ 16 - 061
x Resistivity in Microhm-cm
Weight per foot
= resistance of one foot of pipe in microhms.
Permanent Four-Wire Test Points
Pipelines having four- wire test points with two color-coded wires at each end of a current-
measuring span are best equipped for accurate measurements of pipeline current because
each such span can be calibrated accurately. This avoids errors in length of pipe span
and pipe resistance that may occur when the two-wire test point is used. The general
arrangement for a pipeline current measurement is shown in Figure 5.10.
The test procedure is as follows:
1 . Measure the circuit resistance in the current measuring span (between terminals 2 and
3) by using Step 1 for the two-wire test point procedure.
2. Calibrate the span by passing a known amount of battery current between the outside
leads (terminals 1 and 4) and measure the change in potential drop across the cur-
rent measuring span (terminals 2 and 3). Divide the current flow in amperes by the
potential drop in millivolts to express the calibration factor in amperes per millivolt.
Normally, when the pipeline operating temperature is stable, the calibration factor
remains constant and does not need to be recalibrated. However, on pipelines where
the temperature of the pipe changes considerably (with accompanying changes in
resistance), more frequent calibration may be necessary
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
CLOSE SWITCH FOR
STEPS 1 AND 2 ONLY
BATTERY
< AMMETER
STEP1 ONLY-
STEP2 ONLY-
TEST POINT
TERMINALS "
MV
Q O
1 2
COLOR CODED _
TEST POINT LEADS
VOLTMETER
PIPELINE
■ CURRENT MEASURING SPAN ■
■ FIVE PIPE DIAMETERS SUGGESTED ■
Figure 5.1 Current measurement, 4-wire test point.
3. Measure the potential drop in millivolts across the current-measuring span (termi-
nals 2 and 3) caused by the normal pipeline current. Calculate the current flow by
multiplying the measured potential drop by the calibration factor determined in Step
2. Note the direction of current flow.
Sample determination of current flow in the same pipeline section used for the exam-
ple on two-wire test point current determination requires the following measurements
and calculations:
Step 1. Circuit resistance between terminals 2 and 3 measured as 0.09 ohm.
Step 2. Ten amperes of battery current passed between terminals 1 and 4. Corrected
potential drop, current on = 5.08 mV. Corrected potential drop, current off = 0.17
mV. Change in potential drop (AV) = 4.91 mV. Calibration factor = 10 A/4.91
mV = 2.04 A/mV.
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AMMETER
ADJUSTABLE
BATTERY
VOLTAGE SUPPLY
i- VOLTMETER
(-)
MV
H
(+)
'(+)
FOUR-WIRE TEST _
POINT TERMINALS
COLOR CODED LEADS ■
m'&m&i& j E 7 R7mm>M$
LL
PIPELINE
DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW
TO BE MEASURED
Figure 5.1 1 Null ammeter circuit.
Step 3. Potential drop across current-measuring span (terminals 2 and 3) = 0.17 mV (cor-
rected) with west end terminal (+). Pipeline current = 0.17 mV x 2.04 A/mV =
0.346 A (346 mA); flow is from west to east.
An alternative method for measuring line current is to use a null ampere test cir-
cuit arrangement based on procedures described by Werner. 6 The circuit, illustrated by
Figure 5.11, is used with four-wire test points. With a high-impedance voltmeter con-
nected between the inner pair of wires, current from the battery flows between the outer
pair of wires in opposition to the measured current flowing in the pipe. As the opposition
current is increased, the voltage measured will move towards zero. When the voltage
reading is at or very near zero, the subsequent opposition current measured on the am-
meter represents the magnitude of current flow in the pipeline span under consideration.
Remember the measured opposition current is flowing in the opposite direction of the
actual current flow on the pipeline, so be sure to document the actual direction of pipeline
current flow (the opposite of that of the opposition current).
Probe Rods
Where necessary, pipeline current may be measured by obtaining the potential drop
across a pipe span of measured length. The pipe may be contacted at each end of the span
by using pipe-contacting probe rods as described earlier. Otherwise, the test arrangement
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is generally similar to that illustrated in Figure 5.9. There are, however, several additional
steps (to ensure accuracy) to those outlined for the two-wire test point procedure.
The set-up and test procedure may be performed as follows:
Step 1. Locate the pipeline with a pipe locator so that probe rods may be worked into
the ground squarely above the pipe.
Step 2. Measure and mark off the current measuring span (such as 100 ft) to an accuracy
of ±1 in.
Step 3. Insert the probe rods, working them down to a solid contact with the pipe steel.
The rods must be kept vertical so that the span length will not deviate from the
measured value.
Step 4. The two leads used to connect the measuring instrument to the probe rods should
be connected together first, so the series resistance of the two leads can be mea-
sured and the value noted.
Step 5. Connect the two leads to the probe rods and measure the circuit resistance, which
includes the test lead resistance and that of the pipe span. This value should
be the same, for all practical purposes, as the resistance of the test leads only
(measured in Step 4). This is because the resistance of an electrically continuous
pipe span is so low compared with that of the test wires that the difference will
not be detectable by the usual test procedures (except for long spans of very
small pipe). If the resistance is measurably higher, it would be assumed that
good contact between probe rods and pipe has not been attained. Work the rods
against the pipe until the circuit remains stable. (If the circuit resistance does
not drop to the desired value with solid contacts between rods and pipe, it is an
indication of a possible extraneous resistance in the pipe span, such as a pipe
fitting or mechanical coupling. In this event, current flow cannot be measured
accurately and it will be necessary to move the probe rods to another point where
they will span solid pipe.)
Step 6. Measure the millivolt drop between the two probe rods and correct the reading
for the effect of the external circuit resistance. Note the polarity to determine
direction of current flow.
Step 7. Repeat the circuit resistance measurement of Step 5 to be sure that the circuit has
remained stable while the test was being made. If not, repeat the procedure.
Step 8. Determine pipe span resistance from Table 5.2 and calculate the current flow
by Ohm's law, following the procedure established for two-wire permanent test
points.
Line Current Survey Evaluation Methods
If corrosion is taking place on a pipeline, there will be current flow to the line at some
points and current flow away from the line at others. For small local cells, often termed
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods 83
"long line/' the current may follow the pipe for hundreds or thousands of feet. It is these
long-line currents that can be detected in a line current survey.
Because the pipe itself has some resistance to the flow of electric current, there will be
a voltage drop in the pipe if current is flowing through this pipe resistance. The voltage
drops are usually very small but can be determined by using suitable instrumentation
(discussed in Chapter 6). The resistance per foot of steel pipe is not great and becomes
progressively smaller as the pipe size and weight per foot increases. Many pipeline
companies install permanent test point installations with wires of a known span length,
for example, 100 ft. To see how sensitive such a span would be to small values of pipeline
current, consider two examples:
1 . If the pipeline is an 8-in-diameter line with 0.322-in- thick wall weighs 28.6 lb /ft and
is made of 5LX32 steel, the resistance across a 100-ft span would be 9.75 xlO -4 ohms.
If the available test instrument is sensitive to a potential as small as 0.02 mV, a current
of only 20.5 mA flowing through the span resistance would cause this minimum
deflection.
2. A 30-in-diameter line with 0.375-in-thick walls weighs 118.7 lb/ft (also of 5LX32 steel)
will have a 100-ft span resistance of ~2.36 x 10 -4 ohms. With this lower resistance
span, a current flow of 84.7 mA through the pipeline will be required to give the
assumed minimum deflection of 0.02 mV. Obviously, a given test span length is much
less sensitive on large-diameter pipe than on small lines. Using longer span lengths on
large pipes (that is increasing the span resistance) will result in increased sensitivity.
On lines without permanently installed test spans, contact bars may be used to es-
tablish a span for test purposes. This must be done carefully to avoid error as discussed
earlier. This procedure would be necessary, however, to make closely spaced line current
measurements (at 500- or 1000-ft intervals, for example) during a line current survey on
a bare line.
At each point of measurement in a line current survey, the voltage drop is observed
and recorded, together with the polarity of instrument connections to indicate the di-
rection of current flow (plus to minus). Knowing the span resistance of the pipe being
surveyed, one may convert the voltage drops to equivalent current flow by application
of Ohm's law (voltage drop in millivolts/ span resistance in ohms = current flow in mil-
liamperes). The values of current together with the direction of flow then may be plotted
vs line length. The results might be generally similar to the plot shown by Figure 5.12.
As illustrated, at one area the current flows from both directions toward a particular
point on the line. This must be a point of current discharge and, unless the current is
being drained off by a metal contact such as through another structure, corrosion may
be expected in that area.
Line current surveys in most cases will be more meaningful for bare lines than for
well-coated lines. On coated pipe, current can enter or leave the pipe only through breaks
or pinholes in the coating. With current concentrated at these coating defects, current
density in terms of milliamperes per square foot of exposed steel usually is greater than
on bare pipe. This means that the degree of attack will be greater at coating defects in
anodic areas on coated pipe with a greater rate of penetration than would be the case
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
400
co 350
Q_
| 300 H
_l
^ 250
LU
cr 200
DC
=)
o
150 -
LU
100
q_
50
1000
2000
PIPELINE LENGTH-FEET
3000
4000
Figure 5.1 2 Line current survey.
with bare pipe under similar soil conditions. Nevertheless, the total long-line current
flow on the coated pipe between anodic and cathodic areas would be much less than on
bare pipe (again, under similar soil conditions) because, with reasonably good coating,
all but a very small percentage of the pipeline steel is insulated from the surrounding soil.
There are several possibilities of error in making line current surveys. Care must be
taken when using probe bars to contact the pipe as mentioned earlier. Unless actual
resistance is measured for each test span, changes in pipe size or wall thickness (that
is, differences from what may be normal for the line being surveyed) can result in the
actual span resistance being substantially different from that calculated from the normal
pipe dimensions. Likewise, unless the span resistance is measured, the presence of an
unknown mechanical pipe coupling in the test span could introduce enough resistance
to make results completely erroneous. Permanently installed test spans are usually put
in at the time of pipeline construction, using span length and color-coded wiring in
accordance with an established specification. Errors in color coding may result in the
current flow being indicated in the wrong direction.
When planning test point installations for new pipeline systems (or when installing
them on an existing system), it is good practice to provide current-measuring test spans
with two separate wires connected to the pipeline at each end of the span. This permits
measuring the actual span resistance, as described earlier.
Soil Resistivity Survey
This indication of a tendency for current to flow becomes more important if something
is known about the soil resistivity. High-resistivity soils may offer so much resistance
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85
100,000
10,000
b lu
> tH 8,000
Ml
S g 6,000 -\
S g 4,000
2,000
| | | |
1000 2000 3000 4000
PIPELINE LENGTH-FEET
Figure 5.1 3 Soil resistivity survey.
to current flow that conditions are not as severe as the plotted potential data might
lead one to believe. Conversely, severe potential peaks coupled with a relatively low
resistivity environment may mean a truly serious condition. Frequent soil resistivity
determinations are important when making a detailed survey on a pipe line. In addition
to being a valuable aid when interpreting the severity of corrosive areas, a soil resistivity
profile is extremely helpful in the later selection of sites for CP installations. Figure 5.13
is a plot of the soil resistivity measurements taken along the same section of pipeline
used as a basis for the plots shown in Figures 5.4 and 5.12.
Data plotted in the figure represent average soil resistivity to approximate pipe depth.
In this example, a very wide range of soil resistivity is represented. Other cases would not
necessarily have such a large difference between maximum and minimum resistivities
along a similar length of line.
Along well-coated pipelines, measurements of soil resistivity can be of great assis-
tance in the later selection of CP installations. This may be particularly true to identify
areas where soils of suitable low resistivity for such installations.
Instruments used for measuring soil resistivity by the four-pin method are described
in Chapter 6. Certain precautions to be observed in using the method are given below,
together with suggestions for planning soil resistivity measurements.
In the example shown, resistivity of the soil was measured at ~100-ft intervals along
the proposed alignment. Soil resistivity measurements were conducted by the Wenner
four-pin method, utilizing a soil resistance meter (see Chapter 6). The Wenner method
requires the use of four metal probes or electrodes, driven into the ground along a straight
line, equidistant from each other, as shown in Figure 5.14. An alternating current from
the soil resistance meter causes current to flow through the soil, between pins CI and
C2. The voltage or potential is then measured between pins PI and P2. The meter then
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
PIN
C1
PIN
P1
PIN
P2
■ho
pi
■e
C1
P2
C2
PIN
C2
\— Soil Resistance Meter
Figure 5.1 4 Soil resistivity test set-up (Wenner four pin method).
registers a resistance reading. Resistivity of the soil is then computed from the instrument
reading, according to the following formula:
p = IttAR
where p = soil resistivity (ohm-centimeters)
A = distance between probes (centimeters)
R = soil resistance (ohms) {instrument reading}
n = 3.1416
The resistivity values obtained represent the average resistivity of the soil to a depth
equal to the pin spacing. Resistance measurements are typically performed to a depth
equal to that of the pipeline being evaluated. Typical probe spacings are in increments
of 2.5 ft (76.2 cm).
If the line of soil pins used when making four-pin resistivity measurements is closely
parallel to a bare underground pipeline or other metallic structure, the presence of the
bare metal may cause the indicated soil resistivity values to be lower than it actually
is. Because a portion of the test current will flow along the metallic structure rather
than through the soil, measurements along a line closely parallel to pipelines should be
avoided. When making soil resistivity measurements along a pipeline, it is good practice
to place the line of the pins perpendicular to the pipeline with the nearest pin at least
15 ft from the pipe — further, if space permits.
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Table 5.3 Format for Recording Soil Resistivity Measurements
Nominal Pin
Resistivity in
Test Location
Spacing, Feet
Ohms
Factor
Ohm-cm
No. 1
Pipeline Station
2.5
4.40
500
2200
1000 + 00. Nearest
5
2.05
1,000
2050
pin 100 ft west of pipe.
7.5
1.26
1,500
1890
Line of tests perpendicular
10
0.96
2,000
1920
to pipe. Clay Moist
12.5
0.78
2,500
1950
15
0.62
3,000
1860
50
0.17
10,000
1700
No. 2
Station 1001 + 00.
2.5
1.30
500
650
Nearest pin 200 ft
5
0.60
1,000
600
east of pipe. Line of
7.5
0.45
1,500
675
tests parallel to pipe.
10
0.36
2,000
720
Edge of swamp. Wet
12.5
0.34
2,500
850
15
0.33
3,000
990
25
0.34
5,000
1700
Soil resistivity data taken by the four-pin method should be recorded in tabular form
for convenience in calculating resistivities and evaluating results obtained. The tabular
arrangement may be as shown in Table 5.3. Where many soil resistivity measurements
are to be made, field time will be saved by using printed forms arranged for entering the
necessary data.
With experience, much can be learned about the soil structure by inspecting series
of readings to increasing depths. The recorded values from four-pin resistivity measure-
ments can be misleading unless it is remembered that the soil resistivity encountered
with each additional depth increment is averaged, in the test, with that of all the soil in
the layers above. The indicated resistivity to a depth equal to any given pipe spacing is
a weighted average of the soils from the surface to that depth. Trends can be illustrated
best by inspecting the sets of soil resistivity readings in Table 5.4.
Soil resistivity is an electrical characteristic of the soil /groundwater which affects
the ability of corrosion currents to flow through the electrolyte (soil /groundwater).
Resistivity is a function of soil moisture and the concentrations of ionic soluble salts
and is considered to be most comprehensive indicator of a soil's corrosivity Typically,
the lower the resistivity, the higher will be the corrosivity
Table 5.5 correlates resistivity values with degree of corrosivity The interpretation
of soil resistivity varies among corrosion engineers. However, this table is a generally
accepted guide.
The first set of data in Table 5.4, Set A, represents a uniform soil conditions. The
average of the readings shown (~960 ohm-cm) represents the effective resistivity
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Table 5.4 Typical Soil Resistivity Readings Using
4 Pin Method
Pin Spacing
Soil Resistivity (ohm-
cm)
(Feet)
Set A
Set B
SetC
SetD
2.5
960
1100
3300
760
5
965
1000
2200
810
7.5
950
1250
1150
1,900
10
955
1500
980
3,800
12.5
960
1610
840
6,900
15
955
1710
780
12,500
that may be used for design purposes for impressed current ground beds or galvanic
anodes.
Data Set B represents low-resistivity soils in the first few feet. There may be a layer
of somewhat less than 1000 ohm-cm around the 5-ft depth level. Below 5-ft, however,
higher-resistivity soils are encountered. Because of the averaging effect mentioned ear-
lier, the actual resistivity at 7.5-ft deep would be higher than the indicated 1250 ohm-cm
and might be in the order of 2500 ohm-cm or more. Even if anodes are placed in the
lower-resistivity soils, there will be resistance to the flow of current downward into the
mass of the earth. If designs are based on the resistivity of the soil in which the anodes
are placed, the resistance of the completed installation will be higher than expected. The
anodes will perform best if placed in the lower resistance soil. The effective resistivity
used for design purposes should reflect the higher resistivity of the underlying areas. In
this instance, where increase is gradual, using horizontal anodes in the low-resistivity
area and a figure of effective resistivity of ~2500 ohm-cm should result in a conservative
design.
Data Set C represents an excellent location for anode location even though the surface
soils have relatively high resistivity. It would appear from this set of data that anodes
Table 5.5 Soil Resistivity vs. Degree of
Corrosivity
Soil resistivity
(ohm-cm) Degree of corrosivity
0-500 Very corrosive
500-1,000 Corrosive
1,000-2,000 Moderately corrosive
2,000-10,000 Mildly corrosive
Above 10,000 Negligible
Reference: NACE Corrosion Basics.
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located >5-ft deep, would be in low-resistivity soil of ~800 ohm-cm, such a figure being
conservative for design purposes. A lowering resistivity trend with depth, as illustrated
by this set of data, can be relied upon to give excellent ground bed performance.
Data Set D is the least favorable of these sample sets of data. Low-resistivity soil is
present at the surface but the upward trend of resistivity with depth is immediate and
rapid. At the 7.5-ft depth, for example, the resistivity could be tens of thousands of ohm-
centimeters. One such situation could occur where a shallow swampy area overlies solid
rock. Current discharged from anodes installed at such a location will be forced to flow for
relatively long distances close to the surface before electrically remote earth is reached. As
a result, potential gradients forming the area of influence around an impressed current
ground bed can extend much farther than those surrounding a similarly sized ground
bed operating at the same voltage in more favorable locations such as those represented
by data Sets A and C.
One mathematical procedure, known as the Barnes method, is based on calculating
the resistivity of the soil in each incremental layer of soil. This is done by using the
data from the four-pin soil resistivity test but extending the calculations by determining
the conductivity of each incremental layer and converting this conductivity to resistivity.
Applying the procedure to the Set B soil resistivities (Table 5.6) provides a demonstration
of the method.
The Barnes method of analysis is not infallible because its accuracy requires soil
layers to be of uniform thickness and parallel to the surface. In cases, where this is true,
each added layer of earth must increase the total conductivity from the surface to the
bottom of the added layer, no matter what the resistivity of the added layer may be. If, as
Table 5.6 Calculation of Soil Resistivity by Layers
4-PIN DATA, SET B 1
BARNES PROCEDURE
Ri
Resistivity
Mhos 2
Mhos 3
R 2 Ohms
Layer Resistivity
Spacing
and Layer
Feet
Ohms
Factor
Ohm-Cm
l/Ri
Al/Ri
1/A 1/R:
Factor 4
Ohm-cm
Depth, Feet
2.5
2.2
500
1100
0.455
—
—
—
1100
0-2.5
5.0
1.0
1000
1000
1.0
.545
1.84
500
920
2.5-5.0
75
0.833
1500
1250
1.2
.20
5.0
500
2500
5.0-7.5
10.0
0.75
2000
1500
1.33
.13
7.7
500
3850
7.5-10
12.5
0.645
2500
1610
1.55
.22
4.55
500
2275
10-12.5
15.0
0.57
3000
1710
1.75
.20
5.0
500
2500
12.5-15
^rom Table 5.4
2 This is the conductivity in mhos (reciprocal of resistance) to the indicated depth.
3 This is the increase in conductivity caused by the added layer of earth.
4 The factor used here is for nominal 2.5 foot layer increments. If other layer thickness are used, the factor must
be changed accordingly (191.5 x layer thickness in feet).
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in the sample calculations above, the conductivity (the column headed 1/Ri) continues
to increase with depth, conditions appear to approach the ideal closely enough to make
the method usable. Decreases in the conductivity at any point in a series are an indication
that soil layers are too distorted to permit use of the method for analysis of data at that
depth. For example, if the Barnes method procedure is applied to soil data Set D, results
cannot be calculated by this method below the 5-ft level. One inference from this type
of data is that the low resistivities observed near the surface indicate the presence of
a limited pocket of favorable soil in an area of soil having predominantly very high
resistivity.
In some areas, experience will show that soil resistivities may change markedly within
short distances. A sufficient number of four-pin tests should be made in a ground bed
construction area, for example, to be sure that the best soil conditions have been located.
For ground beds of considerable length (as may be the case with impressed current
beds), four-pin tests should be taken at intervals along the route of the proposed line
of ground bed anodes. If driven rod tests or borings are made to assist in arriving at
an effective soil resistivity for design purposes, such tests should be made in enough
locations to ascertain the variation in effective soil resistivity along the proposed line of
anodes.
Soil Chemical Analysis
If soil samples are not measured "on location" but are collected for later measurement,
they should be kept in air-tight containers to preserve the normal moisture content. In
some instances, abnormally dry surface soils may be moistened with distilled water to
obtain their resistivity under wet conditions.
A wide variety of soluble salts are typically found in soils. Two soils having the
same resistivity may have significantly different corrosion characteristics, depending
on the specific ions available. The major constituents that accelerate corrosion are chlo-
rides, sulfates, and the acidity (pH) of the soil. Calcium and magnesium tend to form
insoluble oxide and bicarbonate precipitates in basic environments, which can create a
protective layer over the metal surface and reduce the corrosion. In contrast, the chloride
ion tends to break down otherwise protective surface deposits and can result in corro-
sion and corrosion pitting of buried metallic structures. Bicarbonates are not typically
detrimental to buried metallic. However, high concentrations of bicarbonates found in
soils /groundwater tend to lower the resistivity without the resulting increase in corro-
sion activity.
Soil samples should be taken at the depth of the pipeline in areas where soil resistivity
data may indicate corrosive conditions. Samples should be sent to a qualified laboratory
to perform the analysis in accordance with standard practices.
Table 5.7 correlates the effect of chlorides, sulfates, and pH on the corrosion of buried
steel or concrete structures. Acidity, as indicated by the pH value, is another aggressive
factor of soil /groundwater. The lower the pH (the more acidic the environment), the
greater the corrosivity with respect to buried metallic structures. As pH increases to >7
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Measurement Procedures and Survey Methods 91
Table 5.7 Effect of Chlorides, Sulfates, and pH
on Corrosion of Buried Steel Pipelines
Concentration (ppm)
Degree of corrositivity
Chloride 1
> 5,000
Severe
1,500-5,000
Considerable
500-1,500
Corrosive
<500
Threshold
Sulfate 1
> 10,000
Severe
1,500-10,000
Considerable
150-1,500
Positive
0-150
Negligible
pH 2
<5.5
Severe
5.5-6.5
Moderate
6.5-7.5
Neutral
>7.5
None (alkaline)
Reference: ACI-318, Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (American Concrete Institute,
1999).
2 Reference: M. Romanoff, Underground Corrosion,
1957.
(the neutral value), conditions become increasingly more alkaline and less corrosive to
buried steel structures.
In many areas, soils encountered along a pipeline route will be approximately neutral
(pH 7). There may, however, be locations where unusual environmental conditions exist,
either alkaline (pH values >7) or acid (pH values <7).
Alkaline conditions do not pose any serious difficulty to steel pipelines because such
an environment is not aggressive toward steel. Strongly alkaline conditions can be detri-
mental to aluminum piping, however. Under some conditions, use of CP may not be
able to prevent alkaline attack on aluminum.
Acid conditions around the pipe have the general effect of making it much more
difficult to polarize the line to protective potentials (the acid acts as a depolarizing agent)
when CP is applied. This increases the current requirements in the area.
Clearly, during a corrosion survey, it would be of value to check the soil pH in
areas where there is a possibility of unusual chemical conditions. The results could
have considerable effect on the locations selected for CP rectifiers or galvanic anodes.
A particularly acid soil condition, for example, would indicate the need for a relatively
high current density to maintain CP. This could in turn make it desirable to locate CP
installations at or near the area of high current requirement.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
CURRENT REQUIREMENT TESTING FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION
Bare Lines
Current Applied Method
The most widely used method for current requirement testing of a pipeline is represented
below in Figure 5.15. Basically, direct current is forced to flow from a temporary ground
connection to the pipeline section being studied, and determining how much current
will be needed to protect that section.
The output of the current source shown in the figure may be adjusted until protective
potentials are attained at the ends of the section to be protected. When working with
bare line, the current should be allowed to flow steadily, which will permit the line to
polarize to some degree, depending on the duration of the test. Full polarization on a bare
line may take weeks to achieve; if, however, during the test, the increase in protective
potential is plotted versus time at a fixed current output, the curve can be extended
to give a rough approximation of the potentials that would be obtained with complete
polarization. Current flowing into the protected section from the pipeline on either side
may be measured by the voltage drop across a known pipe span as described previously.
These two values may then be subtracted from the total current to obtain the net flow
into the protected section. Getting the net current in this manner is significant if, when
making permanent CP installations, there will be CP units in adjacent areas that would
TEMPORARY
GROUND CONNECTION
1.7 A (CALCULATED)
MV
m
BARE
PIPELINE
SOURCE
OF D-C
1.2 A (CALCULATED)
IZ.
AMMETER
59.0 AMPS
MV
t£
V
V
V
V
V
+
-0.85 V
+ ■
-1.02 V
+ ■
-3.20 V
+ ■
-1.10V
+
-0.85
VOLTMETER
Figure 5.1 5 Current requirements for CP.
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Current Requirement Testing for Cathodic Protection 93
reduce or eliminate the current flow from remote areas into the area being tested as
described.
Current requirement tests of the type described do not give more than a reasonable
close approximation of current needs. Variations will be caused by such things as ground
bed resistance and location with respect to the pipeline, polarization effects (as mentioned
above), the amount of line that is protected by each installation, and whether or not
adjacent installations will affect the amount of current flowing to the pipeline beyond
the area to be protected. Such variables can cause appreciable differences between survey
results and the ultimate performance of permanent installations. Interpretation of survey
test results on bare lines is seldom simple. Experience is most valuable when developing
a final design from field survey data of the nature discussed.
Because bare line current requirements usually are high, substantial currents will be
flowing along the pipeline. These, in turn, will cause significant voltage drops in the
line, which will limit the length of pipe that may be protected from one point without
producing excessive potentials at the point of current drainage. Unless circumstances
are unusual, only a few hundred up to a thousand feet or so of bare pipe should be
tested at one time. As a general rule, longer pipe lengths can be tested when working
with larger-diameter lines because their longitudinal resistance is less. When planning a
current requirement test on bare line, the current source needed should have sufficient
capacity to supply, as a guide, at least 1-3 mA per square foot of pipe surface plus 25%
more. The voltage of the power source must be sufficient to force the needed current
through the temporary ground connection used. Storage batteries may be adequate for
testing short lengths of small-diameter pipe, whereas a source such as a DC welding
generator may be needed for longer lengths of larger-diameter pipe. See Chapter 7 for
information on the resistance of ground beds.
Coated Pipelines
When surveying a coated pipeline system, data on the electrical strength of the coating
and on current requirements for CP can be taken concurrently. If the coating is in rea-
sonably good condition, current requirements are much smaller than on bare lines. This
makes it possible to test many miles of pipeline with one test set-up and a modest power
supply. Batteries are usually sufficient.
Although the same coating specification may be used throughout the length of
a given pipeline, the effective electrical strength of that coating (in terms of its ability
to resist the flow of current) may vary considerably along the route. Variations may
be due to the type of terrain, construction difficulties (rocky pipe-laying conditions
may result in many more accidentally damaged areas), changes in average soil resisti-
vity, and different degrees of quality of pipeline construction work and inspection. In
any event, knowledge of areas where abnormally low coating resistances are preva-
lent on a given line will assist the corrosion engineer in planning the corrosion control
system.
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Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
n
. TEMPORARY
GROUND BED
D.C. POWER
SOURCE ^L
POTENTIAL
TEST POINT
NO. 1
«_ REMOTE
ELECTRODE
CURRENT
^-7
INTERRUPTER
POTENTIAL
TEST POINT
NO. 2
-| ^_ REMOTE
^ ELECTRODE
CURRENT
MV
CURRENT
FLOW
MV,
PIPELINE
(COATED)
■3 TO 5 MILES TYPICAL -
COATING RESISTANCE -
DETERMINED FOR THIS
SECTION OF PIPELINE
Figure 5.1 6 Coating resistance and CP current requirement tests.
When making the combined survey on a coated line, a test arrangement may be used
as illustrated by Figure 5.16. At the test battery location, a current interrupter (see Chapter
6) is used to automatically switch the current source on and off at a convenient time inter-
val (such as 10 s on and 5 s off). This way the data needed for coating resistance calcula-
tions are obtained. At the same time this procedure assures the test engineer at remote lo-
cations that the battery installation is still operating properly as long as the potential and
line current measurements continue to change in accord with the established on-off cycle.
On a reasonably well-coated pipeline, test data taken at intervals of, typically, 3 to
5 miles will give satisfactory information on the average coating resistance within each
section tested. Testing section by section can be continued in each direction from the
temporary CP location until the changes in the observed currents and potentials (as the
current interrupter switches on and off) are no longer large enough to result in accurate
data. The limits of the area that can be maintained above the protected ctiterion of —0.85 V
or better will be established at this same time.
Coated pipelines polarize very rapidly. The better the coating, the faster the polariza-
tion. This means that conditions stabilize within the first few minutes (and sometimes
in a matter of seconds) after the test current is applied.
On coated pipeline systems provided with test points for potential and line current
measurement, a survey will proceed rapidly. Data may be taken with reasonable accu-
racy by a single test engineer. For maximum accuracy, however, two engineers in radio
communication can observe data simultaneously at each end of each section tested. This
becomes essential if the pipeline under test is affected by stray current. Strays may make
it necessary to take a series of simultaneous readings and average them to obtain usable
data.
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Current Requirement Testing for Cathodic Protection 95
To obtain data for calculations of coating resistance, readings are taken along the
pipeline to a copper sulfate electrode with the interrupter on and off, and pipeline cur-
rent is measured with the interrupter on and off at each end of each line section. From
these readings one can determine the change in pipe potential (A V) and the change in
line current (A J) at each end of the test section. The difference of the two A I values
will be equal to the test battery current collected by the line section when the current
interrupter is switched on. The average of the two A V values will be the average change
in pipeline potential within the test section caused by the battery current collected. The
average A V in millivolts, divided by the current collected in milliamperes, will give the
resistance to earth, in ohms, of the pipeline section tested. From the length and diame-
ter of pipe in the section tested, its total surface area in square feet may be calculated.
Multiplying the pipe-section-to-earth resistance by the area in square feet will result in
a value of ohms per average square foot, the effective coating resistance for the section
tested. Some workers express coating condition in terms of conductivity (in mhos or
micromhos). This is simply a matter of conversion. The reciprocal of the resistance per
average square foot is the conductivity in mhos. The reciprocal of the resistance per aver-
age square foot is the conductivity in mhos. The reciprocal times 10 6 is the conductivity in
micromhos.
Here is an example of data and its treatment as described in preceding paragraph.
Referring to Figure 5.16, assume that the section between test points 1 and 2 is under test
and that this section consists of 15,000 ft of coated pipeline having a total external pipe
surface area of 50,070 ft 2 . Test data taken at test point 1 are as follows:
PipetoCuS0 4 = -1.75 volts, ON and -0.89 volts, OFF
AV = -0.86 volt
Pipe span potential drop = +0.98 MV, ON and +0.04 MV, OFF
With span calibrated at 2.30 amps per mV (discussed earlier in this chapter.),
Pipeline current = +2.25 amps, ON and +0.09 amps, OFF
AI = 2.16 amps
Test data taken at test point 2 are
Pipe to CuS0 4 = -1.70 volts, ON and -0.88 volts, OFF
AV = -0.82 volt
Pipe span potential drop = +0.84 MV, ON and -0.02 MV, OFF
With span calibrated at 2.41 amps per MV,
Pipeline current = +2.03 amps, ON and —0.05 amps, OFF
(negative off currents indicate current flow in opposite direction)
AI = 2.08 amps
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Calculation of coating resistance is therefore:
Average AV = (-0.86 + -0.82) -r- 2 = -0.84 volt
Current collected = 2.16 - 2.08 = 0.08 amp
Pipe to earth resistance = 0.84 V -r 0.08 A = 10.5 ohms
Effective coating resistance = 10.5 ohms x 50, 070
= 526,000 ohms for an average square foot (approx.)
(ohms-ft 2 )
Note that the average soil resistivity has an effect on the effective coating resistance
measurement. In part this is because the apparent pipeline resistance to remote earth
measure in the procedure described is a combination of the coating resistance and the
resistance to remote earth of the pipeline itself. In the example given, if we assume that
the test section was in 1000 ohm-cm soil, the resistance to earth of the 15,000 ft of 12-in-
diameter line, if bare, would be in the order of 0.0062 ohm. If the average soil resistivity
were 100,000 ohm-cm, this resistance would be 0.62 ohm. If the difference, ~0.6 ohm, is
added to the 10.5 ohms of pipe-to-earth resistance calculated in the example, the new
total of 11.1 ohms, multiplied by the 50,070 ft 2 surface area, would give an indicated
effective coating resistance of 606,000 ohms per average square foot.
Actually, however, the resistance to earth of exposed steel at coating defects may
have a much greater effect on the apparent coating resistance with variation in soil
resistivity Using the example again, if the coating were perfect (10 13 ohm-cm resistivity),
the resistance of the pipeline section to remote earth would be in the order of 50,000
ohms — whereas the measured value was only 10.5 ohms. Now if we assume that the 10.5
ohms (in 1000 ohm-cm soil) is primarily the resistance to earth at pinholes distributed
along the 15,000 ft section, this resistance will vary in approximate proportion to the
soil resistivity The resistance in 100,000 ohm-cm soil, then, would be in the order of
(100,000/1,000) x 10.5 or 1050 ohms x 50,070 ft 2 , or 52.5 x 10 6 ohms for an average
square foot (ohms-ft 2 ). This relationship is not rigorous and depends on the relative
size and spacing of coating defects as well as the ratio between the section resistance
with perfect coating and that as actually measured (when the ratio is high, as in this
case, pinhole resistance prevails). This does, however, demonstrate the effect that soil
resistivity can have on apparent coating resistance. In particular, it shows that something
must be known about the soil resistivity when evaluating a section of pipeline coating.
The method described for obtaining an approximation of effective coating resistance
depends, for accuracy, on the precision with which field data are taken. The potential mea-
surements pose no particular problem (unless erratic stray current effects are present),
but the line current measurements are another matter. Unless current-measuring test
points of a type that can be calibrated are permanently installed, errors in span length or
variations in pipe span resistance may make calculated currents erroneous. Also, as was
demonstrated earlier, it may not be possible to detect small currents or current differ-
ences that are below the sensitivity range of the millivoltmeter being used. Nevertheless,
as long as these limitation are recognized, the procedure is fully practical in establishing
relative coating quality from section to section.
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Additional Considerations 97
An initial coating resistance profile along a new pipeline will serve as a reference
to which similar data taken in later years may be compared. Such comparisons reveal
information on the long-term performance of the coating. For example, detrimental
effects caused by such things as high pipeline operating temperature, areas of abnormal
soil stress, areas subject to a high degree of bacterial activity, or any other condition that
may affect the coating.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is one manifestation of the effect on corro-
sion by soil bacteria. MIC is discussed in detail in Chapter 14. Certain bacteria, which can
exist under anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) at the pipeline surface, have the
ability to reduce any sulfates present and consume hydrogen in the process. Consump-
tion of hydrogen at the pipe surface acts to depolarize the steel at cathodic areas and
permits more rapid consumption of the metal by galvanic corrosion cells. The bacteria,
then, do not directly attack the pipe but provide conditions conducive to a more rapid at-
tack by existing corrosion cells, which are normally partially stifled by the development
of an insulating polarization film of hydrogen.
The practical effect of anaerobic bacteria activity on the application of CP is an in-
crease in the amount of current required to maintain CP. Some workers have reported
that higher-than-normal protective potentials should be used in areas where anaerobic
bacteria are active because the open circuit potentials of anodic areas are more negative.
An additional 100 mV of protective potential has been suggested (—0.95 V to copper
sulfate electrode instead of the usual —0.85 V).
Bellhole Examinations
Sometimes there is nothing that will satisfy the corrosion engineer more than having
an actual look at the pipe that has been surveyed by electrical methods. Actually, this
is an acceptable and desirable procedure for use in evaluating the relative severity of
corrosive areas detected during a survey.
Typical hot-spot corrosive areas found during a corrosion survey on an older bare
line may be uncovered and inspected. This will give the corrosion engineer a guide for
evaluating other corrosive areas on the line.
Areas where anaerobic corrosion is suspected may be exposed for examination. If
anaerobic bacteria are present and active, a layer of black iron sulfide will coat the pipe
surface. The deposit would be expected only at coating defects on pipelines having a
bonded coating. If this black material is iron sulfide, treating it with a dilute solution of
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98 Survey Methods and Evaluation Techniques
hydrochloric acid will release hydrogen sulfide gas, which is recognized by its charac-
teristic rotten egg odor.
If areas have been found where pipe coatings have unusually low resistance values,
bellhole inspections may be in order to trace the causes of coating damage. This may be
particularly valuable in connection with older pipeline coatings to determine the nature
of deterioration over time as a guide to selection of materials for future coating projects.
EXAMPLES OF CORROSION SURVEYS
Corrosion Survey on a Typical Coated Line
To conduct a corrosion survey on a 100-mi-long, 30-in-diameter pipeline having an very
good dielectric coating, what should one know? In the first place, particularly if the
line was recently laid, the usual intent is to cathodically protect the line. Accordingly,
information to be obtained during the survey will be based on this objective. With this
in mind, the following types of data may be procured for such a line:
1 . Soil resistivity information at intervals along the line, including locations suitable for
CP installations. If at sites where electric power is available, note details of power
supply line: company, voltage, pole number, single or three-phase, and so forth.
2. Effective electrical resistance of the coating.
3. Current requirements for CP.
4. Location of unusual environmental conditions along the pipeline route such as acidic
areas, sections where severe bacterial attack may be suspected, or any other condition
that might tend to result in increased corrosion rates or rapid coating deterioration.
5. Effect of stray current, if any.
6. Tests at crossings with structures of other ownership to see if mutual interference
effects may be a problem.
7. Condition of cased crossings at roads and railroads.
All the above types of information can have a direct bearing on the type and design
details of the CP system to be developed for the pipeline being surveyed. Only when such
information is complete can a protection system be designed for optimum performance
from the standpoint of protection coverage, reliability, and economy. Survey methods
used to obtain most of the above-listed types of information have been described earlier
in this chapter.
At crossings with underground structures of other ownership, tests will be made
to make sure that the two systems are electrically insulated from one another. If the
foreign system is cathodically protected, the possibility of adverse effect on the line being
surveyed is investigated. Likewise, it may be necessary to determine if a CP system on
the line being surveyed will affect the foreign structure to a degree requiring corrective
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Examples of Corrosion Surveys 99
action. These effects are a form of stray current and are discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 11.
Corrosion Survey on a Typical Bare Line
Bare line surveys are time-consuming and expensive when compared with corrosion
surveys on coated pipelines of the same length. Because of this, careful planning is
necessary to be sure that all needed information is obtained without extending the scope
of the survey beyond the requirements of the pipeline situation involved.
Example No. 1
Assume that a bare line to be surveyed is old and has an extensive leak record. Also,
although the line is planned to be in use for only another 10 years, the cost of repairing
leaks is becoming prohibitive. In this instance, the line operators might elect to adopt
stop-gap measures by applying CP at the worst spots. A field corrosion survey, then,
would be confined to those trouble areas where leakage is a problem, as defined by the
leak records.
One approach to surveying this pipeline would be to make soil resistivity measure-
ments for the selection of rectifier-powered CP units at each trouble area and to make
current-requirement tests to assist in the design of the final installations. This approach
would be adopted logically if the leakage areas were relatively few and well defined but
large enough to justify the installation of one or more rectifier units in each area.
Another survey approach might be adopted if the leakage areas were frequent and
small such that the use of rectifiers might not seem justified. Galvanic anodes might
be the better choice. In this event, the corrosion survey would consist of soil resistivity
measurements to assist in the selection of size and type of anodes to be used.
Either approach described should be supplemented by sufficient pipeline potential
readings to establish whether or not stray current damage is a possibility if there is any
reason to suspect an effect from such sources. Locating foreign pipeline rectifiers is also
necessary where they are close enough to the line being surveyed to be a possible source
of damaging interference. The location of all foreign underground structures should be
known in areas where CP installations are to be made, particularly if rectifier units are
contemplated.
Example No. 2
Assume that the bare line to be surveyed is relatively new but corrosion has started to
become apparent through leak development. Assume further that the line is of a critical
nature, requiring corrosion control throughout its length, and that its life is to be extended
indefinitely. This could be a line, for example, that was expected to have a short economic
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life when installed originally (hence laid bare) but was found later to be needed for as
long as possible.
For such a line, a complete corrosion survey would be indicated. As a minimum, the
survey techniques should include an over-the-line potential survey and a soil resistivity
survey, both described earlier in the chapter.
Field survey data accumulated as above will serve as an adequate basis for the design
of CP installations.
RECORDING SURVEY DATA
No corrosion survey will be of value unless data are recorded in such form that they
can be analyzed properly during and after the survey. This requires planning before
the survey starts. When a considerable amount of any one type of data is expected to be
taken, time will be saved in the field by having data forms on which to enter the readings.
In addition to reducing paper work in the field, such forms will serve as a reminder of
readings that should be taken.
An area of particular importance in recording field data is designating where the
readings are taken. Location may be identified by pipeline station numbers when maps
showing this information are available. If there is no station numbering system, distances
from the closest positively identifiable landmark should be recorded. For example, if
corrosive areas are found during potential surveys on bare lines, the information will be
of value only if the precise location can be found again later when corrective CP is to be
installed.
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Chapter
Instrumentation
Mark Lewis
The corrosion engineer must have a sound basic knowledge of the variety of test instru-
ments used in corrosion work and he or she must know how to use them effectively in
the field. Only with such knowledge can engineers obtain reliable and meaningful data.
The corrosion engineer will routinely employ not only common electronic multimeters
but also very specialized instrumentation.
Section 1 of this chapter includes a discussion of typical equipment used for the vari-
ous field tests. Section 2 covers the variety of accessories and supplementary equipment
that may be needed along with the basic test instruments. Section 3 addresses the care
and maintenance of corrosion instrumentation.
EQUIPMENT
This section will examine the operating characteristics and capabilities of instrumenta-
tion suitable for corrosion testing. Although typical instrumentation will be illustrated,
all available devices cannot be covered. For more thorough coverage of these instru-
ments, as well as others not described, consult the manufacturer's operating instruc-
tions, or an instrumentation supplier. Equipment vendors can also offer operating
advice, as well as firsthand instruction on the operation of the more specialized in-
struments.
Voltmeters
Measurement of voltage, such as that between a pipeline and a reference electrode, is
probably the most frequently made determination in corrosion testing work. If suitable
101
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102 Instrumentation
voltage measuring equipment is not used (or if the right equipment is not used properly),
the values obtained may be misleading or completely meaningless.
Voltmeters and Resistance
Because of improvements in measurement technology, electronic voltmeters are manu-
factured with an enormous variety of capabilities. Many commonly available voltmeters
are referred to as multimeters because they have the ability to measure multiple electrical
values in addition to voltage. The features offered on a given instrument may be tailored
to the needs of a particular industry or discipline, or the device may offer a combination
of test capabilities common to many applications.
It is important to understand the versatility of these devices as well as their limitations.
Certain multimeter functions and features are valuable for corrosion engineering work,
while others can be insufficient or unnecessary.
When measuring, for example, the voltage difference between a pipeline and a ref-
erence electrode, two important resistance values must be kept in mind. To determine
a pipe-to-soil potential value, a voltmeter must measure across an external circuit re-
sistance, which may vary widely from one environment to another. For instance, the
resistance of a reference electrode in contact with moist or wet soil will be considerably
less than one in contact with dry sand or frozen or oily soil. Therefore, the reference
electrode's contact resistance represents a large portion of the overall resistance of the
circuit across which a voltage is to be measured.
To compensate for these variations in the measuring circuit, voltmeters must be
equipped with a high impedance, or input resistance. A high external resistance re-
quires a high input resistance to maintain accuracy during measurements. Most conven-
tional multimeters currently produced have an internal impedance of 10 million ohms
(10 7 ohms, or 10 megohms), or more. However, some inexpensive voltmeters are avail-
able that are not intended for use in the measurement of high resistance circuits, such as
those encountered in corrosion testing. The use of a meter with, for example, an internal
resistance of only 2 x 10 3 ohms per volt can cause significant error when used to measure
pipe-to-soil potentials.
Measurement of other voltage values, such as rectifier output voltage or voltage drop
across a current measuring shunt does not require such a high impedance voltmeter.
However, it is prudent to select a voltmeter suitable for every anticipated field test.
To determine the input impedance of a particular voltmeter, consult the instrument's
technical specifications.
Voltmeter Selection
In addition to high input impedance, it is important to select a voltmeter with the appro-
priate range, resolution and accuracy. Many standard voltmeters are available off-the-shelf
that are suitable for measuring corrosion-related voltages. Figure 6.1 shows a typical
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Equipment
103
*■■■
Figure 6.1 Battery powered multimeter. (Photo
courtesy of Farwest Corrosion Control and John
Fluke Mfg. Co. Used with permission.)
hand-held battery-powered multimeter. The meter illustrated can measure a maximum
of 1,000 volts (both AC and DC) in any of five different ranges and features a ba-
sic accuracy of 0.1%. The device has a 10 megohm input resistance, which is suitable
for all but the highest resistivity environments. This instrument also has the capabil-
ity to measure resistance, capacitance, frequency, and both DC and AC current. Dig-
ital multimeters such as that illustrated are widely available and produced by many
manufacturers.
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Instrumentation
Figure 6.2 Specialized voltmeter with variable input resistance. (Photo
courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.)
Figure 6.2 shows a specialized voltmeter which has a selectable input resistance. This
meter can be used where very high input resistance is required, such as in extremely
high resistivity soils. It is also useful in the verification of structure-to-soil potential
data. Changing the resistance-selector switch can validate a particular pipe-to-soil poten-
tial measurement. No change in potential while switching between resistance ranges
indicates a valid reading. This instrument also incorporates the ability to measure up to
600 volts AC, and resistance values as high as 200 ohms.
When selecting a voltmeter it is important to consider the meter's measuring range
and resolution. To measure small voltage increments, such as the voltage across a shunt,
a meter should offer an appropriate combination of range and resolution. For instance,
when using a 0.001 ohm shunt to measure current to within 0.1 ampere accuracy, a
voltmeter with a 0.1 millivolt resolution is necessary. Conversely, if a meter's resolution
is 0.1 millivolt, that same shunt will yield an accuracy of +/— 0.1 amp.
The importance of a meter's resolution becomes apparent when measuring the cur-
rent output of a galvanic anode using an external shunt. To measure, for instance, 54
millamps flowing through a standard 0.01 ohm shunt, a meter must have a resolution
of 0.01 millivolts. If the meter has only 0.1 millivolt resolution, as in the above example,
the current will be measured as 50 mA, not 54 mA. The meter shown in Figure 6.2 has a
lower range of 0-20 millivolts DC, and a resolution of 0.01 millivolts. This combination
is ideal for measurement of direct current through external shunts.
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With regard to meter accuracy, many meters offer a 3% or 4 1 /, digit resolution. This
refers to the number of significant digits that will be used to display an accurate voltage
value. For cathodic protection measurements, where a voltage of, for instance, minus
0.972 volts is being measured, a more accurate measurement of minus 0.9721 may not
be relevant to a field determination of protection. The significance of extreme precision
must be viewed in conjunction with the necessity of such accuracy.
The selection of voltmeters should also include an evaluation of cost versus practi-
cality. Many commercially available meters are hand-held, battery-powered, and well
suited for field applications, while others are primarily suitable for bench tests or labo-
ratory work. Voltmeters can be purchased with an array of features such as large data
storage capacity, oscilloscope display, recording capability and computer interface con-
nections. A voltmeter should be chosen for its applicability to the work at hand, with
the proper balance of cost, durability, and accuracy.
Resistivity Test Instruments
The corrosion engineer has many occasions to measure soil resistivity during corrosion
surveys, selecting locations for cathodic protection groundbeds and other similar work.
These tests may be made with a battery and an individual DC ammeter and voltmeter.
For greater speed and convenience in making field determinations, however, there are
specialized instruments available that can be read directly.
Soil resistivity field measurements are often made using ASTM 1 G57 or IEEE 2 Stan-
dard 81, more commonly known within the corrosion industry as the "Wenner 4-Pin
Method". This procedure involves driving four steel pins into the earth in a straight
line, equally spaced, with the pin spacing equal to the depth to which knowledge of the
average soil resistivity is desired. Soil resistivity is a simple function of the voltage drop
between the center pair of pins, with current flowing between the two outside pins.
Meters such as that shown in Figure 6.3 can provide the necessary current supplied
to the outer pins, while simultaneously measuring the voltage drop between the center
pair of pins. The resistance, in ohms, is then the reading on the dial multiplied by the
range switch position. The instrument can measure resistance values between 0.01 ohm
and 11 x 10 5 ohms depending on which multiplier (scale) is selected. The meter also
uses alternating current, which overcomes the problem of polarization of the pins, an
inherent problem with direct current tests.
The meter shown is Figure 6.3 is also useful for other measurements, such as during
anode installation or for measuring the resistance of anode beds and grounding systems.
The resistance-to-earth of ground rods can be measured when used in the 3-pin config-
uration. It is important to remember not to measure across energized circuits to avoid
damaging the meter. In addition, the resistance of the test leads might be included in the
measurement, depending on the test lead configuration.
1 American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
2 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
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Figure 6.3 Soil resistivity meter. (Photo courtesy of Nilsson Electrical Laboratory.)
Recording Instruments
Some cathodic protection measurements are best made in relation to specific periods of
time, or distance, to quantify values that change or fluctuate. A number of recording
voltmeters are available which can measure and record readings while left unattended,
such as during interference testing. The chart recorder shown in Figure 6.4 records volt-
age values on a continuous basis and prints a graphical copy of the data. Other recording
devices, such as that shown in Figure 6.5, operate on an electronic basis and can interface
with computers to facilitate data plotting and presentation. The electronic chart recorder
shown in Figure 6.5 is very small and compact, allowing it to be inconspicuously lo-
cated during testing. Such recording devices can measure and plot several parameters
simultaneously to enhance data collection and interpretation.
Other recording instruments are used to measure and store pipe-to-soil potentials
while traversing a pipeline during an over-the-line type survey. Figure 6.6 shows a data
recorder that can store many thousands of data entries, including text comments. When
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Figure 6.4 Strip-chart recorder. (Photo courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.)
Figure 6.5 Electronic dual-channel recorder.
(Photo courtesy of Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
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Figure 6.6 Electronic data recorder.
(Photo courtesy of Corrpro Compa-
nies, Inc.)
used with a distance measuring "chainer," data can be gathered and plotted showing
voltage versus distance. Several of the accessories used in the over-the-line survey are
illustrated in Section 2 of this chapter.
Wall Thickness and Pit Gages
While the corrosion engineer is primarily concerned with the elimination or reduction of
corrosion, sometimes it is necessary to quantify the remaining wall thickness of a pipeline.
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s | n i i i r ii i | i i i i | i i ii| i * t \ \\ ii i 3 | i i
6
o
ui
a.
DC
O
PIPE PIT GAGE
IP AT t,97« H ftl2)
USEFUL FORMULAS
AREA s 0.7B54 X D 2
CIRCUM = 3.1416X0
SURFACE = 3.1416 X OXL
PRESSURE s-^f^-
S = FIBER STRESS
T = WALL THICKNESS
D ^ PIPE DIAMETER
P. PRESSURE
L = LENGTH
1 US. GAL ^231CUIMS.
1 U.S, GAL. = 8.33 LBS, - WATER
1 U,S. GAL. = 83 IMPERIAL GAL.
7.48 U.S. GAL* = 1 CUBIC FOOT
42U.S,GAL. = 1 BAHREL ^^
&P
1 CU. FT AIR
s 0,0009 LBS
Figure 6.7 Pipe pit gage. (Photo courtesy of KTA Tator and W. R. Thorpe Co.)
The traditional pit gage, as shown in Figure 6.7, is a very handy tool for the measurement
of pit depth. These gages are small, reasonably accurate and can be carried easily in a
toolbox or briefcase. Care must be taken to use them properly, and to understand their
limitations.
For instance, on all but the largest diameter pipes, this instrument must be aligned
lengthwise with a pipeline, and must rest on an even surface. On severely pitted or
partially coated structures, such a gage may offer only a rough estimation of pit depth,
if it cannot be properly aligned. A more accurate pit gage is shown in Figure 6.8. It does
not require such a large, flat surface for accurate positioning. However, it is more fragile
as well as somewhat more expensive.
Another non-destructive device for gathering corrosion data is the ultrasonic wall
thickness gage, such as shown in Figure 6.9. This device, and those similar to it, can ac-
curately measure wall thickness using ultrasonic (sound) waves. They operate by com-
puting the elapsed time between echoes produced when an ultrasonic pulse is passed
through a material. By knowing the velocity of sound in that particular material, the
thickness is calculated. Other more sophisticated versions offer features such as data
storage and data printing capabilities, and display-screens showing the actual wave-
form and soundpath echo. These devices can detect and characterize flaws within the
steel plate itself, and some can measure wall thickness through various coatings. All
ultrasonic measuring devices must be periodically calibrated and have certain impor-
tant limitations to their use. Worn or improperly used transducers, for instance, can give
erroneous readings, sometimes twice or three times the actual value. Knowledge of the
material being tested is also important, because the speed of sound varies from material to
material, and can be altered by temperature, heat treatment, and other material qualities.
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Figure 6.8 Dial type pit gage. (Photo courtesy of KTA Tator
and the L. S. Starrett Co.)
Current Interrupters
The ability to interrupt cathodic protection current is an important and frequently used
technique in cathodic protection testing. A variety of current interrupters are available,
most of which offer the benefits of precision timing and the ability to synchronize multiple
interrupters. The device shown in Figure 6.10 relies on a quartz crystal for accurate
timing and can serve as a master unit to synchronize similar interrupters. Other devices
are manufactured with sophisticated timing clocks, which can be programmed to run
pre-set timing cycles during the day (when surveys take place), and return to a closed
circuit at night (Figure 6.11). This feature saves time because the survey crew does not
need to return to the unit each morning for re-installation. It also minimizes structure
depolarization because of unnecessary off-cycling.
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Figure 6.9 Ultrasonic wall thickness gage. (Photo courtesy of Panametrics.)
When using any interrupter it is important to follow the manufacturer's recommen-
dations on the maximum allowable current (either AC or DC) that the instrument can
safely handle. It is also important to recognize the amount of drift in the timing of multiple
current interrupters. The industry is beginning to overcome this limitation by using the
clock transmission from satellites for interrupter timing (Figure 6.12). To incorporate this
feature into corrosion testing requires that the interrupter's receiving antenna gathers
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Figure 6.1 Quartz crystal controlled current in-
terrupter. (Photo courtesy of Nilsson Electrical
Laboratory Inc.)
frequent and accurate satellite communication data. If battery operated, these instru-
ments will require monitoring to replace batteries regularly during extended surveys.
Pulse Generators and Analyzers
The pulse generator is gaining acceptance as an alternative to traditional current inter-
ruption. The pulse generator is installed in the cathodic protection power supply and
momentarily interrupts the output in a precisely timed pattern. The interruptions are ex-
tremely brief and occur in a repetitive cycle. Pulse generators can be installed in multiple
rectifiers (or other CP power sources, including galvanic systems) and an "on/ off" sur-
vey conducted with a portable analyzer.
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Figure 6.1 1 Programmable current interrupter. (Photo courtesy of
M. C. Miller Co.)
Figure 6.12 Satellite controlled current interrup-
ter. (Photo courtesy of Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
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The analyzer recognizes these multiple momentary current interruptions and, using
an algorithmic analysis, calculates the overall "off " potential of the protected structure.
It is critical to ensure that all pulse generators are operating, and that they are each set
to a timing cycle that exactly corresponds to the algorithm analyzer. These analyzers
also have a finite limit to the number of pulse generators that they can recognize, so
this must also be taken into consideration when surveying or interpreting survey data.
When used correctly they offer the advantage of measuring "off" potentials at every test
site, without the installation of numerous specialized test stations. A disadvantage to
permanent pulse generator installation is that the pulsing signal may be confusing to
the operators of neighboring utilities who happen to see this pattern during surveys of
their own structures. To avoid this, permanently installed generators can each be set to
steady-state operation.
Pipe and Cable Locators
During the course of corrosion testing, it is sometimes necessary to determine the location
of buried items such as the pipeline being worked on, the location of foreign utilities,
groundbed cables and other concealed metallic structures. The pipe and cable locator
can be a great time-saver in such a case. Pipe and cable locators impress an electrical
signal onto the target line, and this permits a hand-held receiver to detect their location.
Electrical contact with the metallic structure being located need not be made, although
conductive locating is generally much more accurate than inductive. Figure 6.13 (a) and
(b) show two commercially available instruments.
The type of signal that is transmitted to the pipe (or cable) can vary from manufac-
turer to manufacturer, and can even be variable within a single locator. Alteration of
the signal frequency allows the operator to select the most appropriate signal for the
application. For example, poorly coated pipes, well coated pipes, shorted pipelines, and
insulated cables, might each be best located using different frequencies. It is imperative
to remember to set both the transmitter and the receiver to matching frequencies.
Other locator features can be useful in cathodic protection work. Some transmitters
have a clamp accessory that can be clipped around a conductor to induce the signal,
such as when tracing a live electrical cable. This technique saves time as well as enhances
safety. The clamp can be placed around an electrical conduit leading to a rectifier, for
instance, so that unlocking and opening the rectifier enclosure becomes unnecessary. Of
course, if the conduit contains multiple conductors, verification of a correct tracing may
be necessary.
Advances in locator technology have also enabled a variety of attributes to be incorpo-
rated into pipe and cable locators. Depth measurement capability has greatly improved
and allows the operator to measure, with increasing confidence, the depth of the target.
Other pipe locators have the ability to measure and trace the amount of signal current be-
ing conducted by the pipeline or cable (Figure 6.14). These locators can trace the pipeline
as well as improve the operator's ability to analyze and evaluate the pipe's current-
carrying characteristics. Tools such as these are becoming accepted in locating electrical
shorts to distribution networks. By tracing current flow and magnitude, unintended
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Figure 6.1 3(a) Pipe and cable locator. (Photo courtesy of Radiodetection.)
shorts can be rapidly found. Operator experience with pipe locators is valuable in utility
operations in general, and particularly effective in cathodic protection administration.
Ammeter Clamps
The measurement of AC or DC current flowing through a pipeline or cable is obviously
a useful kind of measurement in cathodic protection work. However, shunts or "current
spans" may not exist at a location where a measurement is necessary. If the pipe or
cable is made accessible, a portable non-contact ammeter clamp can measure the current
magnitude and direction of flow. These devices rely on the relationship between current
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Instrumentation
Figure 6.13(b) Pipe and cable locator. (Photo cour-
tesy of Fisher.)
flow in a conductor and the electro-magnetic field that it generates. They use amplifying
coils positioned around the pipe or cable such as shown in Figure 6.15. These clamps
are quite specialized in that they must fit around the pipe being tested. They are also
a tool for which there is no substitution in certain applications. They can be used in
interference testing, short locating, fault detection, and to identify bad insulating joints.
The proper use of ammeter clamps requires careful attention to coil orientation, magnetic
interference, nearby current flow, and polarity interpretation.
Insulator Checkers
Portable, battery-operated instruments that check the integrity of insulators find a very
valuable place in cathodic protection and corrosion control.
Devices such as that shown in Figure 6.16 can not only identify shorted flanges,
but when tested individually, can detect shorted bolt-sleeve-washer assemblies. They
can also test other insulating assemblies, such as dielectric insulating unions. These
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Figure 6.14 Pipe and current tracing transmitter. (Photo courtesy of Radio-
detection.)
instruments are affordable and can rapidly test critical insulating devices before they are
backfilled.
Test Rectifiers
Current requirement tests, groundbed testing and CP design work require portable
power supplies. A common automobile battery may suffice for some of these tests, but
an adjustable power supply is more appropriate and more versatile (Figure 6.17). Most
rectifier manufacturers offer portable, adjustable power supplies that can be carried into
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Figure 6.1 5 Non-contact ammeter clamp. (Photo courtesy of William H. Swain Co.)
the field and used as convenient and temporary rectifiers. Optional features, such as
built-in current interrupters or unusual input/ output options can be ordered with such
equipment.
Portable rectifiers, of course, require an AC power source. Low-current power sup-
plies that are battery powered are also available. They are adjustable, and within the
limits of their battery source, are very useful in short-term tests, such as current require-
ment testing, short-locating, and tests of steel casing-to-pipeline continuity. Figure 6.18
shows one such compact power supply.
Holiday Detectors
Many corrosion engineers might never use a holiday detector because the pipelines they
protect have been buried and, perhaps, well protected for many years. However, in
new construction and during rehabilitation projects, these instruments are important to
corrosion control.
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Figure 6.1 6 Insulator checker. (Photo courtesy of Tinker and Rasor.)
For bonded dielectric coatings, one must ensure that a pipeline, for instance, is in-
stalled with a coating of the highest integrity. Scrapes and tears are readily discernible by
visual inspection; however, pinholes and small holidays are not. A holiday detector will
help to find them by impressing an electrical voltage across the coating. An electrode
then passes over the entire coating surface and as it crosses a coating defect, it gives
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Figure 6.1 7 Portable test rectifier. (Photo courtesy of Corrpro Companies, Inc.)
off an electrical discharge, or spark, which signals the operator that a holiday has been
detected. The operator can then mark the holiday for subsequent repair prior to company
acceptance. Holiday detectors must be selected for the thickness and type of coating be-
ing tested. Excessive voltage can stress or damage thin coatings if the detector has been
set too high. Adherence to the manufacturer's instructions is recommended, including
both the manufacturer of the coating and the manufacturer of the holiday detector. NACE
International also publishes a recommended practice (RP0274) for high voltage holiday
detection.
ACCESSORIES
Reference Electrodes and Coupons
Cathodic protection testing depends largely on the proper use and interpretation of pipe-
to-electrolyte measurements. These determinations, in turn, rely on reference electrodes.
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Figure 6.18 Portable battery operated D.C. power supply. (Photo cour-
tesy of Tinker and Rasor.)
Similarly, the use of buried test coupons is another tool in the evaluation of CP's effec-
tiveness.
The type of reference electrode the corrosion technician uses is dictated by the
environment in which the electrode is used. Predominantly, copper-copper sulfate
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Figure 6.1 9 Portable copper-copper sulfate reference electrodes. (Photo
courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.)
(CSE) electrodes are used, but other types are common and often necessary. Silver-silver
chloride and zinc-zinc sulfate are also used in corrosion measurement applications, par-
ticularly in high chloride environments such as seawater. All reference electrodes are
available in transportable models as well as models manufactured for permanent burial
or immersion.
Portable reference electrodes have a variety of configurations as seen in Figure 6.19.
Note that some have a large sensing area for use where maximum soil contact is desirable.
Other slim models can be used where only a narrow soil access is available, such as in
small test holes drilled through pavement. These can also be easily transported in a shirt
pocket or briefcase.
The antimony electrode (Figure 6.20) is an accessory that can measure the pH (acidity)
of soil or water. It does not measure a cathodic protection potential, but can help conduct
soil evaluations, and is helpful during forensic work.
Reference cells are also used in permanent installations. These are buried or sub-
merged adjacent to a structure with test leads routed to an accessible test station. Other
reference electrode configurations (Figure 6.21) incorporate a test coupon built into the
electrode assembly. These devices represent a discreet sample of the subject steel, usu-
ally connected within the test station. The coupon simulates a bare portion of, or coating
holiday in, the steel. This device enables the corrosion engineer to determine the amount
of protection being afforded the structure. The devices can also be disconnected (or
interrupted) from the CP system to evaluate the polarization level.
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Figure 6.20 The antimony electrode for measurement of
pH. (Photo courtesy of Agra.)
Figure 6.2 1 Reference cell equipped with a test coupon.
(Photo courtesy of Borin Manufacturing.)
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When using test coupons, it is important to use an alloy identical to that of the
protected structure. Following coupon installation, it will take some time to stabilize the
coupon at a level representative of the true corrosion activity.
Reference electrodes should always be selected for compatibility with the environ-
ment in which they will be used. Copper sulfate electrodes are easily contaminated by
saline or brackish environments that have high levels of ionic chlorides. If a portable
reference electrode is suspected of contamination, it should be cleaned and re-filled with
fresh solution. Reliance on a single electrode for field work is never advisable, for it pre-
cludes both cell-to-cell comparison, and the redundancy of having a spare cell on hand.
Reference electrodes require maintenance to ensure accuracy, and must be periodically
"re-charged". They should also be periodically checked against a standard to determine
if further maintenance is required.
Reference electrodes also can be equipped with accessories to make them more ver-
satile. Waterproof adapters can be fitted onto the cell, which attaches it to a long, well-
insulated and waterproof wire and makes the electrode submersible. Electrode exten-
sions can also be fabricated or purchased for over-the-line walking type surveys on land.
Meter Accessories
Meter manufacturers as well as corrosion specialty suppliers offer many accessories to
be used with corrosion test equipment. Wire reels, for instance, are indispensable for
many test applications. They can be configured in many ways, dependent upon wire
gage and length of cable. Figure 6.22 shows several of those available. The integrity of
the insulation must be maintained for accuracy, as 'skinned' insulation can compromise
many measurements if the copper wire becomes shorted to other structures, or to earth.
Meter manufacturers also offer a variety of test leads, carrying cases, and complemen-
tary accessories, such as temperature probes. These usually plug directly into the meter
and will accommodate the variety of conditions encountered by a corrosion technician.
Insulated leads and test clips are always recommended, especially if higher current or
voltage applications are encountered. Custom-made leads and connectors can also be
fabricated to suit a particular situation.
Portable shunts are available, some, such as in Figure 6.23, can plug directly into the
voltmeter and allow current measurement to be made at any cable connection point.
As with any permanently installed shunt, portable shunts must be used with careful
observation of rating and capacity.
Resistance Accessories
Several complementary accessories are available for use with a resistivity meter. Soil
pins can be purchased, and should be selected for the degree of service to which they
will be subjected. A corrosion engineer with only an occasional need to measure soil re-
sistivity might suffice with the use of large screwdrivers, or other improvised temporary
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Figure 6.22 Wire reels. (Photo courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.)
Figure 6.23 Portable shunt. (Photo courtesy of Agra.)
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Figure 6.24 Soil resistivity pins. (Photo courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.)
electrodes. Alternatively, a substantial amount of survey work, or work in highly com-
pacted soil, might justify the purchase of more durable electrodes. Long stainless steel
pins equipped with handles suitable for repeated hammering are available if needed
(Figure 6.24).
If multiple soil-depth resistivity measurements are to be taken, a convenient selector
box can be used. It enables the technician to install a long series of properly spaced
pins into the ground, and then gather data for many soil depths without returning to
reposition the pins. This is done by switching the selector box to connect the correct 4-pin
array to the resistance meter.
The soil box is a valuable accessory used in conjunction with a standard resistivity me-
ter. Soil boxes are designed for connection to the potential and current terminals of these
meters, usually with only a multiplication factor to remember (Figure 6.25). However,
the soil box can permit the disadvantages of improper sample handling, compaction, and
moisture preservation. Nevertheless, the soil box offers substantial information about
the corrosivity of a particular soil, and can be valuable when combined with laboratory
soil work.
Close Interval Survey Accessories
A number of accessories have been developed to gather multiple pipe-to-soil potentials
in relation to distance. These include wire carrying and measuring backpacks, refer-
ence electrode extensions, and numerous other devices to make the long pipeline survey
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Figure 6.25 Soil resistivity box. (Photo courtesy of M. C. Miller Co.
accurate and efficient (Figure 6.26). Many of these systems are designed to work in
conjunction with proprietary software and plotting programs. Close interval survey
equipment may also include related current interruption equipment that can be inte-
grated into the survey to gather "on" and "off" data.
Figure 6.26
nies, Inc.)
Close interval survey equipment. (Photo courtesy of Corrpro Compa-
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CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Correct handling and maintenance of corrosion test equipment used in the field will pay
dividends in ensuring the reliability of the instruments and the procurement of accurate
test data. The following suggestions are given as a guide.
Probably the greatest cause of damage to sensitive test equipment is inadequate
protection during transportation. When carrying equipment in cars or trucks, sensitive
instrumentation should be protected from road shock and should be secured so that
the various items of equipment will not slide about and knock against each other. In
addition, electronic instrumentation should be protected from moisture and road dust.
The corrosion engineer must also decide which instruments are needed on a routine basis,
and which are better left in storage and carried into the field as necessary. Deploying
every imaginable instrument into the field may be impressive; however, it brings a greater
obligation to proper equipment care and maintenance.
Long-term reliability of corrosion test equipment also involves documentation and
record keeping.
Meter serial numbers, warranties, instruction manuals, and purchase records should
be kept in an orderly fashion so that repair or replacement can be done as necessary with
minimal interruption to productivity.
Calibration records should also be kept, particularly when survey work involves legal
or regulatory issues. Oftentimes calibration must be traceable to the National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST 3 ), and such documentation should be maintained.
Evidence of traceability for a particular instrument is available from the instrument
manufacturer, although certain limitations and fees are usually involved.
Portable instruments rely on batteries that are inexpensive and easily replaced, but
easily overlooked. The corrosion technician should carry spares for each type of battery
used. Consideration should be given to the use of rechargeable batteries for instruments
using larger, frequently drained batteries (Figure 6.27). Meters used infrequently should
have the batteries removed to prevent leakage and subsequent damage to the instrument
components.
Copper sulfate reference electrodes should be kept clean and uncontaminated. The
copper sulfate solution must be a saturated solution; that is, crystals are visible in the solu-
tion at ambient temperature after sufficient time is allowed to reach solution equilibrium.
The copper rod may be cleaned when it becomes encrusted or if it is suspected that the
copper sulfate solution is contaminated. The rod can be sanded with fine, nonmetallic
sandpaper. The use of metal-containing sandpaper will embed foreign metallic particles
in the copper rod and can compromise accuracy. Disposal of used copper sulfate solution
is also now regulated in some areas because of its potential for environmental impact.
Consult with local regulations before disposing copper sulfate solution.
Reference cells stored in or subject to freezing conditions can be filled with anti-freeze
solution. These must be periodically refreshed, just as with ordinary electrodes. Electrode
tips may occasionally require replacement, particularly if they are routinely used in close
interval survey work.
3 National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
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Figure 6.27 Rechargeable battery. (Photo courtesy of Nilsson Electrical Laboratory.)
Always remember that test equipment should be handled and maintained in top
working condition. This is essential for optimum results when conducting field tests and
surveys. Even the most sophisticated instrumentation is of no value if used incorrectly
or improperly maintained.
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Chapter
Ground Bed Design
Ronald L. Bianchetti and Steve McKim
This chapter will provide a guideline for design of anode ground beds and serve
as a nucleus for the development of design procedures for the pipeline corrosion
engineer.
LOCATING GROUND BED SITES
Previous chapters (3, 4 and 5) have provided basic considerations involved in deciding
approximately where cathodic protection (CP) current will be needed and how much
will be required. Once these decisions have been made, specific installation sites for
ground beds may be selected and proper designs prepared.
In selecting ground bed sites, the most important consideration from a design stand-
point is determination of effective soil resistivity. The discussion on measurement and
analysis of soil resistivity in Chapter 5 serves as a guide. Other considerations that must
be taken into account when selecting a site include the following:
• Are other underground metallic structures within the area of influence surrounding
the ground bed? If so, they may pick up current from the ground bed and create a
stray current interference problem that will require corrective measures if the site is
used. This is important when planning impressed current ground beds.
• Is the proposed site on or off the pipeline right-of-way? If off (as is apt to be the case
with impressed current ground beds), can right-of-way be procured? Check with the
pipeline right-of-way department on this.
• If a rectifier-powered impressed current system is to be installed, is there a power line
present? If not, is a power line extension from the nearest source practicable?
• Is the site reasonably accessible for construction and maintenance purposes?
• Are there plans for building construction (new pipelines, highway development, or
other similar work) that will make the site untenable in the near future?
131
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132 Ground Bed Design
In most cases, locations for galvanic anode installations are easier to select than those
for impressed current ground beds because they usually can be placed within the pipeline
right-of-way, are independent of power sources, and are relatively free of interference
with foreign underground structures. Impressed current ground beds may be located at
certain sites by compromise rather than other sites with more favorable soil resistivity
DESIGNING THE GROUND BED
Once ground bed locations have been selected for either impressed current or galvanic
anode systems and the effective soil resistivities for design purposes have been deter-
mined, the design process can proceed. Designs are reasonably simple when design
charts are available, and many companies utilize such charts. These charts are typically
based on the type of anode and construction to be employed. Determining effective soil
resistivity is prerequisite to all decisions before designing the system. Because of all of
the variables involved, it should be recognized that the design calculations for completed
ground bed resistance may not be highly precise. The design engineer can consider the
design successful if the final completed ground bed resistance is consistently within 10%
of design calculations.
Impressed Current Ground Beds
Design charts for impressed current ground beds should be based on the types of an-
ode construction adopted by the corrosion engineer for his pipeline system. Typical
construction sketches will be shown to illustrate principles involved, but others may be
used if found more suitable for specific pipeline conditions.
Figure 7.1 illustrates one form of vertical anode installation. The figure includes the
essential features only. The carbonaceous backfill surrounding the anode, when well
tamped, serves two functions:
• Being of a very low resistivity, it has the effect of increasing the anode size with
resulting reduction in resistance to earth, and
• Most of the current is transmitted to the backfill from the anode by direct contact so
that the greater part of material consumption should take place at the outer edges of
the backfill column.
Since a positive potential (voltage) is impressed on the entire ground bed assembly,
it is absolutely essential that all header cable insulation, anode pigtail wire insulation,
the connection between anode and pigtail (a manufacturer's function) and insulation of
connections between pigtails and a header cable or cable runs to a test or junction be
completely intact and moistureproof . If this is not maintained, current will be discharged
through insulation imperfections, causing wires to corrode and sever in a relatively short
period of time, thus losing connections to all or part of the ground bed. Connections
between header cable and anode pigtail must be of permanent low resistance. This may
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Designing the Ground Bed
133
INSULATED HEADER CABLE TO
POWER SOURCE AND TO OTHER
ANODES IN GROUND BED
mrm.&&&wn&%
FILL CABLE TRENCH
AND TOP OF ANODE
AUGER HOLE WITH
TAMPED EARTH AFTER
COMPLETING
CONNECTIONS
INSULATED CONNECTION
BETWEEN HEADER CABLE
AND ANODE PIGTAIL WIRE
INSULATED CONNECTION WIRE
FURNISHED WITH ANODE
ANODE-HIGH SILICON
CAST IRON OR GRAPHITE
CARBONACEOUS BACKFILL
MATERIAL, WELL TAMPED
AUGERED HOLE FOR
< ANODE AND BACKFILL
LENGTH OF SPECIFIED ANODE
L + 5FEET(MIN)
Figure 7.1 Typical vertical anode installation.
be accomplished by methods such as thermite welding, soldering, or high compression
crimp-type connections.
The number of vertical anodes required to attain a required ground bed resistance
can be determined by using the typical chart in Figure 7.2. The figure is based on
all anodes being along a straight line, the most favorable ground bed configuration in
most instances. This chart is for use with the type of anode installation illustrated by
Figure 7.1. Similar graphs can be prepared for anode-backfill combinations of other
dimensions. Curves on these graphs were developed using the following formulas and
procedures.
Total resistance of each anode to earth consists of the resistance of the anode to the
carbonaceous backfill plus the resistance to earth of the backfill column itself. Resistance
of the anode to backfill is obtained by using the following equation.
0.00521p / 01
R v = ^(2.3 log
8L
-1
(1)
where:
R v = resistance of vertical anode to earth in (ohms)
p = resistivity of backfill material (or earth) in (ohm-cm)
L = length of anode in (feet)
d = diameter of anode in (feet)
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Ground Bed Design
on- X
O 1
^ X
O IS
i \
5 i n V
:
° °- 7 JllllllEi||l|llllllllllllllllM°- F00T ANODE SPACING HHHl
O ========== = = =========== = = Ui^^=~~?as^= = ========= =====
Z ""^^ "*s»,^ '-•«..*„,_
1— no ^»,^^^ — »>^ — — *>«.«
■*-
_i - I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
10 15 20
NUMBER OF ANODES
25
30
Figure 7.2 Typical vertical anode design chart.
Using a value of 50 ohm-cm for the resistivity of the carbonaceous backfill material,
resistances are calculated for the backfill column and the anode (7 ft x 8 in and 5 ft x 2 in
respectively in this case). The difference between the two figures is the resistance from
the anode to the outer edges of the backfill column. For the anode construction shown
in Figure 7.1, this was calculated to be 0.106 ohm.
Resistance of several anodes in parallel can be calculated by the following equation:
K „ = ^( 2 . 31 „ g ^- 1 + ! ( 2.31o g 0.6 5 6N>)
(2)
where:
R v = resistance of vertical anode to earth in (ohms)
p = resistivity of backfill material (or earth) in (ohm-cm)
L = length of anode in (feet)
d = diameter of anode in (feet)
N = number of anodes in parallel
S = anode spacing in (feet)
The dimensions of the backfill column (7 ft x 8 in in this case) are used in applying the
formula. Curves for 10, 15, 20 and 25-ft anode spacing are included in the Figure 7.2. The
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Designing the Ground Bed 135
curves do not include the anode internal resistance (anode to backfill). The resistance
for any number of anodes in parallel from the curves must be added to the internal
resistance of one anode divided by the number of anodes in parallel. The effect of this
internal resistance becomes less as the number of anodes is increased.
Curves of Figure 7.2 are for anodes in 1000-ohm-cm soil. The resistance for the
selected number of anodes from the curves varies directly with the resistivity. For ex-
ample, if a combination of anodes has a resistance of 0.40 ohm in 1000-ohm-cm soil
(as indicated by the curves) but the soil resistivity for design purposes at the installa-
tion site selected is 2400 ohm-cm, the ground bed resistance for the same number of
anodes is 0.40 x 2400/1000 = 0.96 ohms, plus the internal resistance. For a second ex-
ample, assume the soil resistivity for design purposes was 750 ohm-cm, the resistance
of the same anode combination would be 0.40 x 750/1000 = 0.30 ohm plus the internal
resistance.
Extending this analysis, assume that a ground bed installation site has been se-
lected where the effective soil resistivity for design purposes has been determined to
be 2800 ohm-cm. Assume that the nearest ground bed anode will be 300 ft from the
pipeline and that No. 4 copper connecting cable will be used. Also assume that the
ground bed is to discharge 20 A at 24 V applied from a rectifier.
Before using the chart, the maximum permissible resistance of the anodes must be
determined. This is necessary because, in addition to resistance to earth of the anodes,
other considerations must be analyzed to determine the total circuit resistance. These
include the following:
• Back voltage between ground bed and pipeline,
• Resistance to earth of the pipeline at the ground bed location, and
• Resistance of cable from the pipeline to power source and from the power source to
and along the anodes comprising the ground bed.
The back voltage is that which exists between the anodes and pipeline in opposition
to the applied voltage. For ground bed anodes with carbonaceous backfill, this will
be, usually, in the order of 2 V. Some areas of unusual soil composition may result
in higher back voltages but the 2-V figure is used commonly for design purposes un-
less experience in a specific area dictates otherwise. In practice, the back voltage at a
working ground bed is determined by measuring the voltage between ground bed and
pipeline (across the positive and negative rectifier terminals) immediately after switching
the rectifier power OFF. The ground bed will always be positive to the pipeline. If the
back voltage is 2 V, it means it will require 2 V of the rectifier source voltage to overcome
the back voltage before current can flow through the ground bed.
Resistance to earth of the pipeline depends on the quality of the pipeline coating.
The better the coating, the higher the effective resistances at the ground bed location. In
the example being used, if current requirement tests made at (or in the vicinity of) the
selected ground bed location had indicated that 20 A of applied current would cause a
change in pipeline voltage (AV) of —1.5 V to a remote copper sulfate electrode (CSE),
the effective pipeline resistance would be 1.5/20 or 0.075 ohm.
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136 Ground Bed Design
Cable resistance is the additive resistance of the cable from the pipeline via the power
source to the first anode of the ground bed (assuming that the line of ground bed anodes
is perpendicular to the pipeline), plus effective resistance of the header cable along the
line of anodes or individual anode cables. This effective header cable resistance is less
than that of the full length of the ground bed because all current does not flow the full
length of the ground bed but is diminished as each anode connected drains off its share
of current. Although subject to variations with differences in individual anode resistance
and possibly other factors, it is practical to use the resistance of one half of the ground
bed header cable resistance as the effective header cable resistance. Table 7.1 includes
data on resistance of copper conductors in the sizes commonly used in pipeline corrosion
engineering work.
With the above discussion in mind, the design of the vertical anode ground bed for
the example proposed can be estimated as follows:
• Maximum power source voltage will be 24 minus 2 V back voltage or 22 V.
• For 20 A current output, circuit resistance can not exceed 1.10 ohm. This is determined
by using Ohm's law (Voltage (V) divided by Current (I) = Resistance (R ), 22 V divided
by 20 A or 1.10 ohm.)
• Deductions from the circuit resistance must be made for the pipe-to-earth resistance
(0.075 ohm in this example), and the resistance of the cable from the rectifier to the
first anode. In this example use the resistance of 330 ft of No. 4 cable (300 ft distance
given, plus 10% slack) that equals 0.082 ohms. The total resistance is determined
by adding the resistance to earth of the anodes plus the effective resistance of the
ground bed header cable, a variable, (0.075 + 0.082 = 0.157 ohms). These resistances
are deducted from the total circuit resistance allowance (1.10 ohm — 0.157 ohm =
0.94 ohm).
• Make an assumption of the allowance to be made for the header cable resistance. As
a first try, assume that the anode resistance alone should be 0.90 ohm.
• Convert the 0.90-ohm anode resistance to a 1000 ohm-cm base to permit using the
design chart. Because effective soil resistivity for design purposes for the example is
2800 ohm-cm, the converted resistance is 0.90 x (1000/2800) = 0.321 ohm.
• Using the chart of Figure 8.2, the indicated number of anodes at 20-ft spacing would
be at slightly over 11. For design purposes use 12 anodes. (The number of anodes at
other spacing would be determined in similar fashion.)
• Header cable length for 12 anodes would be 11 spaces at 20 ft or 220 ft. Effective
resistance would be approximately 110 ft of No. 4 cable or 0.0285 ohm. For design
use 0.029 ohm.
• Total anode plus header cable resistance for 12 anodes would then be ((0.308 ohm
(from the chart) x (2800/1000)) + internal resistance (0.106/12 = .009) + 0.029 = 0.90
ohm which is within the desired value of 0.94 ohm.
• Following the same procedure for 11 anodes, total resistance would be approximately
0.96 ohm, which is higher than the desired value, indicating that 12 anodes would be
the minimum number to be used at the 20-ft spacing.
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137
Table 7.1 Resistance of Copper Conductors
Resistance of Stranded Copper
Conductors in Ohms per Foot
Times 10" 3 at 25°C 1
General
Conductor
Use
Size (Awg)
4/0
0.0509
3/0
0.0642
Impressed
2/0
0.0811
Current
1/0
0.102
Ground
1
0.129
Beds
2
0.162
4
0.259
6
0.410
Galvanic Anode
8
0.654
Installations
1
10
1.04
Pipeline
|
12
1.65
Test Points
i
14
2.62
16
4.18
Instrument
18
6.66
Test Leads
20
10.6
22
17.0
Correction Factors for Other
Temp
erature Follow:
Multiply
Temperature
Resistance at
C = F
25°C by:
-10 14
0.862
-5 23
0.882
32
0.901
5 41
0.921
10 50
0.941
15 59
0.961
20 68
0.980
30 86
1.020
35 95
1.040
40 104
1.059
^C = 77°F
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Ground Bed Design
INSULATED HEADER CABLE
TO POWER SOURCE AND
OTHER ANODES IN
GROUND BED
INSULATED CONNECTION
BETWEEN CABLE AND
ANODE PIGTAIL WIRE
INSULATED
PIGTAIL WIRE
FURNISHED WITH
ANODE
ANODE CENTERED IN '1 x 1
CROSS SECTIONAL FILL OF
TAMPED CARBONACEOUS
BACKFILL
TAMPED EARTH
FILL
ANODE; HIGH SILICON CAST
IRON OR GRAPHITE
L = LENGTH OF SPECIFIED ANODE
Figure 7.3 Typical horizontal anode installation.
Another important consideration in selecting the number of anodes is desired anode
life. This is discussed in detail in the Chapters 8 and 9 on ground bed materials. If the
minimum number of anodes that will give a satisfactory low ground bed resistance will
not result in adequate life, the number of anodes would have to be increased accordingly.
Although, as a general principle, vertical ground bed anodes are preferable to horizontal
anodes, it may be necessary to use horizontal construction because of unfavorable soil
conditions at depths reached by vertical anodes. A typical method of installing horizontal
anodes is shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.4 includes design charts that may be used for determining the resistance of
horizontal anodes in parallel. These charts are based on the type of construction shown
in Figure 7.3 with all anodes placed along a straight line.
The same general procedure is followed in determining the resistance from the anode
to the outer edges of the backfill as was used in Figure 7.2 except that the applicable
formula (also derived from H. B. Dwight equations) is the following:
Rh
0.00521p / , 4L 2 + 4L{S 2 + L 1 } 1 ' 1 S {S 2 + L 1 } 1 ' 1 \
^^ 2 ' 31 ° g TS + L L 'J
(3)
where
R h = resistance of horizontal anode to earth in (ohms)
p = resistivity of backfill material (or earth) in (ohm-cm)
L = length of anode in (feet)
d = diameter of anode in (feet)
S = twice depth of anode in (feet)
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Designing the Ground Bed
139
o.u ■
o
w 20 ■ ]
S ■
m Y
° 1 n - I
O 08 _= ==^=%F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = E = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
^ 07 .-===^s^=b=^==^=========-=========^===-====
z 06 -=======ii|=============^- 15-FOOT ANODE SPACING :==
rn n ' EEEEEEEEE%f^EEUElE^~^ 20-FOOT SPACING iEE
w 0.5 -========= = 5^ 5 ===== ?= =^=, 25-FOOT SPACING EE
S o.4 -========= = ===S|Jg=H== (CENTERLINE TO CENTERLINE):=z
- 0.3 niinniniiiMi=hip|HiH=iiiMMiiMiiMiiiMiMin=i=i
LU EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE__i|5E,EE__is=EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
O EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE^|s==EE=^=E=EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
j< ::~::::::::~::::::::::::::::: 5 S^^- ( _i::- a ^^;___::~::
CO *=^^_^= *«.___ -="5=-.-.^-
"*-••«.
01 .:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::±:::::::::::::::::
25
5 10 15 20
NUMBER OF ANODES
Figure 7.4 Typical horizontal anode bed design chart.
30
Using this procedure, the resistance in 1000 ohm-cm soil of one horizontal anode installed
per Figure 7.3 is approximately 2.22 ohms (including 0.136 ohm internal resistance).
No specific formula applicable to horizontal anodes in parallel is known. The curves
of Figure 7.4 were obtained by dividing the resistance of 1 anode (excluding internal
resistance) by the number of anodes in parallel and applying paralleling factors obtained
from the curves of Figure 7.2. To the values obtained from the curves must be added an
amount equal to the internal resistance of 1 anode divided by the number of anodes in
parallel. To allow for the reduced distance between nearest portions of horizontal anodes
at a given spacing compared to that for vertical anodes at the same spacing, paralleling
factors for 15 ft horizontal anode spacing were taken from the curve for 10 ft vertical
anode spacing, and so forth. This is not at all rigorous but will serve as a reasonable
guide.
As an example, the paralleling factor for 20 vertical anodes at 15-ft spacing (from
Figure 7.2) is 0.218 ohm. The resistance of one anode calculated from Eq 3 is 2.56 ohm.
Paralleling factor = 0.218/(2.56/20) = 1.70. Using this factor for 20 horizontal anodes
at 20 ft spacing, the parallel resistance would be 2.08 ohm (resistance of one horizontal
anode excluding internal resistance) divided by 20 and multiplied by the factor.
(2.08/20) x 1.70 = 0.177 ohm (see Figure 7.4).
Another approach to horizontal ground bed construction involves the use of a con-
tinuous strip of carbonaceous backfill with anodes located at intervals within the strip.
Construction would be similar to that shown in Figure 7.3 except that the carbonaceous
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Ground Bed Design
==============================================================
^
10-
0-7 -iiE3r==^===========iiIIIIllllIIiIIiiI=ii===iiiiiiii=llIlIIIIII
0.6 -ll|i*p = = = = = = ==lllll^^
0.4 -fEEE_EEE=|EEEEEEEEEEEEEE_EEEEE_EEE_EEEEE_EEEE_EEEE_EEEEE EEE===
U.O " <E
^^
2 -s
, , , .. <^j .. . . , ^S^
-4 k S »»^
1 r ^s,
0>1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ni^-L-U
100
500
200 300 400
GROUND BED LENGTH IN FEET
Figure 7.5 Typical design for continuous horizontal anode.
600
backfill layer is continuous throughout the length of the ground bed. Figure 7.5 is a
design curve for determining the resistance of a continuous horizontal ground bed with
anodes on 15-ft centers with the carbonaceous backfill strip starting 5 ft before the end
of the first anode and ending 5 ft after the end of the last anode.
The curve in Figure 7.5 is based on the formula for a horizontal anode given earlier
plus an allowance for longitudinal resistance of the carbonaceous backfill. This curve
is based on carbonaceous backfill having 50-ohm-cm resistivity, a conservative value
because a good quality backfill, well tamped, should have less than this amount. In
using this curve, as with the other design charts, effective soil resistivity must be known
with reasonable accuracy.
Galvanic Anode Ground Beds
The design of galvanic anode ground beds involves procedures similar to those used for
impressed current ground beds. Design charts, however, differ somewhat with anode
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Designing the Ground Bed
141
17-POUND PACKAGED
MAGNESIUM OR ZINC ANODE
AUGER HOLE
L = LENGTH OF SPECIFIED ANODE
Figure 7.6 Typical galvanic anode installation.
dimensions and backfill used with them. Galvanic anodes (see Chapter 9) use special
backfill having resistivities in the order of 50 ohm-cm. Calculations for design charts in
this chapter, however, are based on a conservative figure of 300 ohm-cm. Using proce-
dures described previously earlier in this chapter under Impressed Current Ground Beds,
similar charts may be developed based on lower resistivity backfill mixtures. Figure 7.6
illustrates two typical types of galvanic anode installation.
The following is a calculation procedure similar to those used for impressed current
anodes. The resistance to earth of a 17-lb packaged anode (at the left of Figure 7.6) is
approximately 7.17 ohms in 1000-ohm-cm soil. Resistance to earth of the longer anodes
(at the right of the figure) will range from 3.48 ohms for a 1.4-in x 1.4-in cross section
anode to 3.38 ohms for a 2-in x 2-in cross-section anode in 1000-ohm-cm soil. As stated
above, these figures are based on 300 ohm-cm chemical backfill resistivity. Comparable
figures using 50-ohm-cm backfill (which reduces the internal resistance between anode
and outer edge of backfill column) would be 6.36, 2.94 and 2.92 ohms respectively.
For vertical galvanic anodes in parallel, design curves are provided in Figure 7.7. The
curves shown are for 17-lb magnesium anodes at 15-ft spacing and for 5-ft long zinc or
magnesium anodes at 15-ft spacing. Similar curves for other spacing may be calculated
by procedures described earlier.
Seventeen-pound anodes, being short, need not be installed horizontally except in
specific circumstances. Longer anodes may require horizontal installation at locations
where soil conditions are not favorable for the more usual vertical configuration. Figure
7.8 includes a design curve that may be used as a guide in determining the parallel
resistance of 5-ft horizontal anodes centered in a 6-ft. length of 8-in x 8-in cross section
clay-gypsum backfill in a 4-ft deep trench with 15-ft spacing, center to center, between
anodes.
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Ground Bed Design
6 ==5============ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\---
5 _===!=========== APPROX. INTERNAL ANODE RESISTANCE ====
EEzEEE IN 300 OHM-CM BACKFILL
_j 4 - 0_ i iliiiil 17-LB MAG ANODE : 0.96 OHM
g 30 _liiiil|liliiiil 5-ft long anode :o.6o ohm u%1
^ EEE£EEE$EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
O zzz^zzzz^zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzE
^ ^ u \ 5
^ \ S_ 17-POUND PACKAGED -
o ^ s s -—MAGNESIUM ANODES
*- \ s s s ? s" 15-FOOT SPACING
Z 1.0 -= = = == :===|= = =|= ==!== = = = = = = = = = === = = = =
O 6 -||==HHHHMe illllllllllll 111111111=11111=
z: 0.5 -EEEEEEEEEEEEhEE^=EEE=*i == EEE = = = EEEEEEEEEE= = = = = 5 = |EEEEEEEEE
O
< o.3 -Mil ill BUI illillli
co eeeeeeeeeeeEz\eee15-FOOJ LONG ZINC OR :eeeeeeee*e^==eeeeee
co =====-MAGNESIUM ANODES. : -
rr 0.2 - " 1 ci-FDOT ^PAPIMn
0-1 _ I I II III III III I I III III I II III I I I II III III III I I III III I II III I
5 10 15 20
NUMBER OF ANODES
Figure 7.7 Typical design charts for vertical galvanic anodes.
o
— 1 zzzEzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
CO ^- u ~ \
^ L
O \
^ \
"E S.
O 1 o %
z o.6 -====================5=1= ==^|rE§?LS^?J^Pl== ==========
1 05 -I^eUeeeUe^He ME^i^lHlHMHMHHHHhHMHH
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LU EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE~Ez\
<£ \J.d ~
\—
CO
n 1
20
5 10 15
NUMBER OF ANODES
Figure 7.8 Typical design chart for horizontal galvanic anodes.
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Designing the Ground Bed
143
2.0 r^
t .
I I
j
V ^
t ^
5 5
\ ,.
> >
0.9 -pHi= - -
;
0-6 ---------- z~s^---------------r
0.5 -^=U^U~Hl~^~~z-
RESISTANCE TO EARTH 1eeeee-_
OF BACKFILL LAYER lll^l
0.3 = = = = == = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = f!s = = ?
2 -
-/ - j ^ ----»»-
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
*> *■ ^
it
0A - I I I IN I I I I I I III I I I I I I III I I I
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.01
50 100 150 200 250
GROUND BED LENGTH IN FEET
300
0.03 E
LU
0.02
Figure
anode.
7.9 Typical design chart for horizontal continuous galvanic
Typically little can be gained by installing individual galvanic anodes in a continuous
horizontal layer of backfill as described for impressed current ground bed installations.
Longitudinal resistance of the higher resistivity backfill tends to prevent good current
distribution along such a bed. If, however, continuous strip anodes are used (available
in both zinc and magnesium), this type of backfill construction becomes practical. The
design curve in Figure 7.9 may be used as a guide for continuous anode strips centered
in a continuous horizontal layer of clay-gypsum backfill, 8-in x 8-in cross section, in a
4-ft deep trench.
As an example of galvanic anode ground bed design, assume a requirement involving
the installation of vertical 2 x 2 x 60-in magnesium anodes (see Figure 7.6) in 800-ohm-cm
soil to furnish 0.5 A of protective current with the pipeline polarized to —1.0 V to CSE.
Assume that anodes will be installed on 15-ft centers, that the nearest anode will be 20 ft
from the pipeline, and that No. 8 copper wire will be used for the header cable. Assume
that effective resistance between pipeline and earth at the installation site is 0.4 ohm.
The driving voltage available to force current from the magnesium anodes through
the circuit resistance will be the polarized open circuit potential of the magnesium used
less the polarized pipeline potential. Assume magnesium open circuit potential of stan-
dard magnesium (Chapter 9) at —1.55 V to copper sulfate. The driving potential in this
case, then, will be 1.55 — 1.00 — 0.10 (anode polarization) = 0.45 V. Maximum permissible
current resistance to provide 0.5 A output will be 0.45 V/0.5 A = 0.90 ohm.
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144 Ground Bed Design
From the 0.90 ohm circuit resistance, subtract the effective pipe-to-earth resistance
(0.4 ohm in this case) and the resistance of No. 8 wire from pipe to first anode (0.02 ohm
used in this case to allow for 35 ft which will permit slack and test point connections).
The total circuit resistance is 0.90 — (0.4 + 0.02) = 0.48 ohm for anode-to-earth resistance
plus effective header cable resistance. Using the design curve of (Figure 7.7), convert the
0.48 ohm to a 1000 ohm-cm soil resistivity base.
0.48 x (1000/800) = 0.60 ohm.
Using the curve for 60 in anodes at 15-ft spacing from Figure 7.7, seven anodes in
parallel would be selected for the first attempt. Assuming 7 anodes, the resistance would
be 0.55 ohm (from the curve) x (800/1000) (to convert to the 800 ohm-cm soil resistivity at
the installation site) + (0.60/7) (the internal anode resistance) + 0.030 ohm (the resistance
of 45 ft of No. 8 wire, half the header cable length). This equals 0.556 ohm, which is too
high. By increasing the number of anodes by trial and error, it is found that 9 anodes will
be the minimum number that will meet the requirements of the example. The resistance,
by the above procedure, will be (0.45 x (800/1000)) + (0.60/9) + 0.039 = 0.466 ohm which
is within the 0.48 ohm requirement. The above calculations were made using the higher
resistivity chemical backfill. Using the lower resistivity (50 ohm-cm) backfill, the internal
anode resistance would be lower and the anode bed resistance lower.
A similar approach to that detailed above would be used for design problems in
which other galvanic anode design charts included herein are employed to arrive at a
desired value of anode bed resistance. The useful life to be expected must be considered
also. See Chapter 9 for data on selection of galvanic anode materials, sizes, and life
calculations.
DISTRIBUTED ANODE SYSTEMS
Distributed anodes, either impressed current or galvanic, should be considered when it
is necessary to protect a limited area of pipeline. Typically, such systems are used on
sections of bare pipeline or coated pipeline in congested areas where electrical shielding
precludes effective protection with remote ground bed installations.
The principle of protection received from distributed anode or close anode systems
is that the length of pipeline protected by a single close anode depends on changing
the potential of the earth around the pipeline rather than changing the potential of the
pipeline with respect to earth. The amount of earth potential change (and hence the
length of pipe that can be protected from a single anode) is a function of voltage impressed
on the anode rather than the amount of current discharged by the anode.
Distributed Impressed Current Anodes
When designing distributed anode systems using an impressed current anode system,
effective soil resistivity along the section of pipeline to be protected should be known.
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Design and Installation of Deep Anode Cathodic Protection Systems 145
(See Chapter 5.) With this information, resistance of individual anodes can be calculated
using procedures described earlier in this chapter. The voltage to be impressed is selected
and anode spacing is calculated using the following principles. Existing potentials to
earth must be known along the section to be protected, so the earth potential change
needed to attain a minimum potential of —0.85 V (pipe-to-close CSE) can be determined
at the midpoint between anodes. The parallel resistance of all anodes is calculated. With
allowances for header cable resistance and back voltage between pipeline and anodes,
voltage and current requirements of the power source may be calculated.
It should be noted if relatively long distances are covered by distributed anodes fed
from one power source, voltage attenuation resulting from potential drop in the header
cable (current flowing through the cable resistance) will result in reduced voltage to
the more remote anodes than that impressed on those close to the power source. This
should be checked during the design phase. If the difference is significant, closer spacing
between the more remote anodes may be required to attain the same level of protection
between anodes along the distributed anode system.
An important consideration in determining spacing between distributed anodes is
the additive effect of earth potential changes at midpoints between adjacent anodes. If,
for example, the earth potential change at the midpoint between two anodes is 0.1 V
from one anode with design voltage impressed on it and is 0.1 V from the second anode,
the total earth potential change will be 0.2 V at the midpoint. This should be considered
when planning spacing between anodes.
Distributed Galvanic Anodes
When protecting a section of line with distributed galvanic anodes by the earth potential
change method, anodes must be close together. Wide spacing is not effective, contrary
to what is true with impressed current anodes, because anode voltage is a function of
the anode material (i.e. magnesium or zinc). Placing galvanic anodes at individual hot
spots (using procedures described in Chapter 5) is a form of distributed anode system
used effectively on bare lines or pipelines that experience random leaks over time.
DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF DEEP ANODE CATHODIC
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Steve McKim
In the past quarter century, deep anode cathodic protection (CP) systems have become
an industry standard. While such installations can be very useful under most conditions,
they are not applicable to all situations. This section discusses design considerations
that may be used as a guide during planning and construction. Local restrictions may
influence installation of certain deep anode configurations, and communications with
the local authorities for further information is always advisable.
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146 Ground Bed Design
DEFINITION
A deep anode system is an impressed current CP arrangement in which the anodes are
located in wholly, or partially, electrically remote earth extending down vertically from
the surface in a hole drilled for the purpose, or an existing hole. This achieves the same
result obtained by locating anodes electrically remote laterally from the structure, and
near the surface as described earlier in this chapter.
USES AND BENEFITS
Deep anodes provide effective CP to facilities as diverse as underground pipelines,
storage tanks, refineries, power plants, treatment plants, pile structures, and well casings
in areas where surface soil resistivities are either very high or, if reasonably low, are
shallow and overlie high resistivity material. These conditions require large surface
anodes too far from the structure to obtain reasonably low resistance electrically remote
from the structure.
Deep earth formations must, however, have low enough resistivity to permit con-
struction of a deep anode that radiates the volume of current at a reasonable necessary
impressed voltage. In deep formations with low resistivity compared to surface soils,
excellent current distribution along the structure is expected. Even where surface soils
are entirely satisfactory for surface anode design, deep anodes can be useful in congested
areas where surface anodes are difficult to locate so that they will be remote electrically
from foreign structures as well as from the structure being protected.
Because remote earth is obtained vertically, the deep anode can be placed within the
structure right-of-way, which is difficult with conventional surface-type remote anodes.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, these remote earth properties provide optimum cur-
rent distribution along the protected structure and minimize voltage gradient variation.
These benefits allow installation of high output systems near foreign utilities and struc-
tures with fewer negative side effects associated with surface anode systems, such as
interference with foreign structures, hydrogen embrittlement of susceptible steels, and
cathodic coating degradation.
Installing systems at greater intervals reduces the overall cost of CP. The compact
installation means less foreign utility damage during installation and less chance of sub-
sequent system damage from other construction activities. Fewer systems mean fewer
locations to coordinate rectifier power and negotiate easement rights, fewer rectifiers to
maintain and less interference to investigate, correct, and monitor.
Installing multiple anodes in one carbon column achieves maximum anode current
discharge balance. The high level of carbon compaction in deep anodes provides maxi-
mum electronic current discharge, thereby increasing anode life. The high probability for
ground water provides the lowest possible circuit resistance. Properly installed venting
systems minimize the risk of gas blockage and allow for anode irrigation with potable
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Design Considerations
147
water. Inherently low circuit resistance of these anode systems minimizes the costs of
AC power consumption. Note that many of the benefits of deep anodes are reduced
substantially if the designer attempts to install too few systems at too great intervals. In
areas with foreign underground structures, the maximum recommended current output
is 30 A.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 7.10, represents a typical deep anode installation.
Standard features include nonmetallic vent pipe, active column consisting of multiple
anodes placed between 5 and 20 ft apart and backfilled with coke breeze (carbon), and
an inactive column consisting of nonconductive backfill and sanitary well seal.
Other early deep anode configurations proved successful, although their use has
diminished in recent years. These configurations included carbon steel pipe or heavy
steel rails in place of fabricated anodes. Another less common deep anode configuration
utilizes multiple anodes attached to a single header cable instead of individual cables
from each anode. Looping the anode header cable back to the rectifier from each end
will increase design reliability.
2" min. annular
cement well seal
around vent pipe
2" min.sch.40
PVC vent pipe with
perforations in
anode interval
Impressed current
anode (number
and size varies)
Entire 10" well
bore cemented
through surface
formations
Coke breeze anode
backfill (fluid or
granular)
Figure 7.1 Typical deep anode ground bed in normal soil strata.
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148 Ground Bed Design
Soil Resistivity
Resistivity of deep formations may be determined by several techniques. Information
gained from existing nearby deep anodes is most valuable. Histories of current output
readings from individual anodes can indicate relative resistivity of downhole formations.
Histories of rectifier outputs can indicate total anode bed resistance values. Existing soil
logs may be available from nearby water wells or monitoring wells. This information
can provide clues to the relative resistivity of downhole formations.
The four-pin method of measuring soil resistivity may be used in some instances.
Techniques described in Chapter 5 are applicable. After determining surface soil re-
sistivities in the usual manner, deep formation resistivities may be measured with,
first, pin spacing of 50 ft and then with spacing increased progressively by 50-ft in-
crements until it is felt that the location has been explored satisfactorily. Relatively thin
strata of either high or low resistivity may be missed, but average conditions will be
determined. Measurements may be made to depths of several hundred feet but resis-
tance values obtained will be so low that the DC method will have to be used in most
cases. The measured change in voltage between potential pins will be small, requir-
ing high impedance electronic circuitry. Data analysis can be achieved as outlined in
Chapter 5.
Obviously, when using the four-pin test to measure at greater depths, the soil pins
will be spread over a wide area (1500 ft, for example, from first to last pin for a reading
to a depth of 500 ft). This requires a large clear area. For accurate results, the pins must
remain clear of all underground structures (pipelines, cables, pole line grounds, etc.)
that could pick up or discharge a portion of the test current and upset the geometry of
the test. Due to the free space requirements, four-pin measurements to sufficient depth
are usually impractical in urban areas.
If existing wells can be found in the area being investigated and if the length of
casing and/ or tubing is known, resistance of such structures may be measured to remote
earth. From this, the effective soil resistivity may be estimated to a depth equal to the
length of casing and /or tubing. This is done by application of the D wight formula for
a single vertical anode and solving for soil resistivity. Other methods of measuring
deep soil resistivity, such as electromagnetic conductivity, are cited by Morgan in CP,
second edition, NACE, 1993. Opportunities for application of these methods may be
infrequent.
Probably the most effective method of proving a location is to drill a small pilot hole to
a depth of the proposed deep well. If natural water is not encountered, the hole must be
filled with potable water to measure the downhole resistance. A single anode is lowered
down the hole with a long attached wire connected to the structure in series with a battery
(or other DC power source) and an ammeter (shunt). By measuring the current output of
power source voltage at intervals as the test anode is lowered, a profile of current output
with depth can be developed. This profile will reveal the best permanent anode locations
opposite the more highly conductive earth layers, as indicated by the highest current
outputs from the test anode. If the pilot hole proves satisfactory, it may be drilled out
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Vent Pipes 149
to full size for a permanent deep anode installation. Applying test anode resistance and
dimensions to the Dwight formula at favorable anode locations may determine effective
soil resistivity Averaging the values obtained through that part of the hole where anodes
could be installed would give a figure that may be used for designing the permanent
installation.
Upon developing a figure for effective soil resistivity, the resistance for a permanent
system may be based on the resistance of a single vertical anode, using the Dwight
formula. As a last resort in areas of varying soil resistivities, it may be advantageous
to install the deep anode before sizing the rectifier. This will allow actual resistance
measurement and accurate rectifier ratings.
Well Dimensions
Common deep anode depths range from 50 ft to 500 ft. Prominant geologic formations
near the proposed location may control final depth. Deeper installations may provide
more remote earth and allow larger coverage, they also allow for more anodes, which will
increase system life. Local regulatory authorities may constrain the design philosophy,
so early contact is recommended.
Most anodes have a nominal diameter of 10 in, which is achieved with a standard
9^ in rotary drill bit. This diameter provides the most cost-effective combination of
system life, installation cost, and operation expense. Other common drill bit diameters
used for deep anodes are 6 in, 7^ in, 8| in, 10 g in and 12^ in. Smaller diameters reduce
initial installation cost; however, they also shorten system life by reducing the bulk
mass of carbon available for consumption. Smaller diameters also raise overall circuit
resistance, which increases rectifier power consumption costs. Larger diameter wells
reverse these effects, but cost of construction increases exponentially. Diameters larger
than 9 1 in become quite costly in hard formations. Applications of Dwight equations
indicate a more efficient reduction in anode resistance by increasing the length of active
anode column rather than by increasing the diameter of active column.
VENT PIPES
All deep anode installations should include a method of venting produced gases to
the atmosphere. Lack of ventilation can lead to gas blockage of anodes and eventual
system failure. Ventilation is normally accomplished by installing nonmetallic pipe with a
diameter between 1 in and 2 in. The vent pipe is perforated throughout the active column
and solid through the inactive column. Standard perforations range from 0.006 in wide
slots to \ in diameter holes and are commonly placed every 6 in of pipe length. To
prevent plugging with inactive column backfill, perforations should end even with top
anode.
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150 Ground Bed Design
Schedule 40 PVC is the most common material used for vent pipe. Schedule 80 is only
required when head pressure from deep cement well seals could cause pipe collapse.
Upper end of vent pipe should be terminated so produced gases are allowed to dissipate
naturally to the atmosphere. Termination should be above any flood plain elevation.
Vent pipe installation should be designed to allow for eventual well destruction. De-
struction procedure could be regulated by local regulatory authorities and may include
filling vent pipe with nonporous materials.
Anode Suspension Systems
The standard method of installation is to lower each anode by its attached wire, suspend
it at the desired depth, and tie it off at the surface. This technique allows adjustment of
anode position to low resistance soil formations and also provides a ready method to
test for proper carbon backfill settlement by pulling on suspended anode wires.
Some installations have separate suspension systems to hold anodes and eliminate
stress on the attached wires using ropes, steel pipe, or the vent pipe. Anode suspension
systems are usually not required when following proper loading procedures. Use of
1^-in diameter steel pipe is the most common suspension system. However, it requires
dielectric unions between anodes to allow resistance logging during backfill. Another
disadvantage of using a metallic support material is its eventual corrosion due to contact
with the anode circuit. This may complicate eventual well destruction.
Use of PVC vent pipe for suspension eliminates need for dielectric unions but is
extremely dangerous during installation. PVC vent pipe suspension is not recommended
because of the dangers associated with vent pipe joint separation during loading. Sepa-
ration will lead to downhole free-fall of anodes, which could result in injury to the
installation crew.
Anode Centering Devices
Anode centralizers may be installed to ensure that carbon backfill surrounds each anode.
Centralizers should be designed to prevent damage to anode wires during installation
and allow anode movement in the well without snagging on downhole formations or
other anode assemblies.
Carbon Backfill
High quality calcined petroleum coke is recommended for all deep anode installations.
Granular carbon sinks readily in fresh water and is normally poured directly from the
bag into the well. Fluid coke is comprised of fine carbon particles that compact tightly
around anodes. Because of small particle size, fluid coke should be pumped from the
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Vent Pipes
151
Figure 7.1 1 Typical deep anode ground bed without surface seal.
bottom up using a pipe installed for this purpose. Fluid coke should normally be allowed
to settle overnight and sounded prior to installation of inactive column.
Inactive Column and Well Seals
To eliminate anode current leakage up the inactive column, the upper section of deep an-
odes should be backfilled with nonconductive materials. Materials include PVC casing,
sand, gravel, and cement. Sand bridges easily during installation and is not recom-
mended. Depth of inactive column will depend on current distribution requirements.
Pea gravel backfill above the active column will increase the probability for ground water
recharge. However, long columns of porous backfill can lead to commingling of aquifers
with differing water qualities.
All deep anodes should include a nonporous sanitary well seal in upper section of
inactive column. Depth of seal should be 50 ft minimum and could be in excess of 100 ft.
Seal materials include cement, concrete, and specially formulated bentonite. Depth may
be dictated by local regulatory agency.
Conductor casings may be required to prevent caving of surface formations during
installation. Steel casing should be removed from inactive column within 50 ft of active
column. PVC casings can be left in inactive column, but should be cemented into place
to provide sanitary well seal. Top of casings must be sealed to prevent surface runoff that
could lead to contamination of downhole aquifers. Size well diameter to provide 2-in
minimum annular space around outside diameter of casing for proper seal placement.
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152
Ground Bed Design
To
Rectifier or
J-box
100'
min.
2" min. annular
cement well seal
around casing
2" min.sch.40
PVC vent pipe with
perforations in
anode interval
Impressed current
anode (number
and size varies)
10" PVC casing
cemented through
potential
contamination
Coke breeze anode
backfill (fluid or
granular)
10"
Figure 7.1 2 Typical deep anode ground bed in contaminated soil strata.
In potentially contaminated formations, surface casing should be cemented into place
before drilling active column. This should eliminate cross contamination during instal-
lation and operation of anode system.
INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
Deep anodes are normally drilled with truck-mounted rotary drilling equipment. Typical
equipment circulates water-based drilling mud to maintain well integrity and remove
downhole cuttings. Compressed air circulation systems may be advantageous in lim-
ited situations where downhole formations allow their use. Installation procedures are
critical, so use only fully qualified drillers.
Loading Procedures
As previously mentioned, deep anodes are ordinarily drilled with direct mud rotary
equipment. After reaching desired depth, downhole mud slurry must be thinned to
nearly the viscosity of fresh water to allow proper carbon settlement around anodes.
Thinning is performed by pumping potable water from the bottom up through mud
circulation system until it returns to surface in well bore. Accurate well thinning is
critical to system installation.
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Installation Considerations
153
Drillers familiar with proper thinning procedures are essential. Higher downhole
fluid viscosities provide more resistance to caving of formations, but slow carbon settle-
ment. Lower viscosities speed carbon settlement, but can lead to caving of downhole
formations. Caving formations can bridge in well bore or settle around anodes. These
conditions prevent carbon settlement around anodes, which will significantly decrease
system performance and life.
After thinning, drill pipe is removed from well to allow system loading. Vent pipe is
usually lowered first and tied into position. Anodes are lowered by their attached wire
to the desired elevation and tied off at the surface. After anodes are placed at desired
elevations, carbon backfill is poured or pumped downhole. Anode resistance logging
before, during, and after carbon backfill provides proof of proper carbon settlement.
Settlement of top-loaded granular carbons normally occurs within 1 hr. Settlement of
pumped fluid carbons normally takes 6 to 12 hr. Total settlement should occur before
backfill of inactive column.
Site Layout
Deep anode installation equipment usually includes portable rotary drill rig, mud circu-
lation system, water truck, drill mud and cuttings containment system, material trailer,
and support equipment.
Drill rig masts are normally between 20 ft and 40 ft high. Safe and legal clearance
from overhead power lines and other obstructions is mandatory.
Mud circulation system
Power system
Figure 7.1 3 Typical portable rotary mud drill rig.
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154
Ground Bed Design
Figure 7.1 4 Minimum drill rig clearance dimensions.
Drill rigs are also between 20 ft and 40 ft long. Anode location must provide enough
space to safely place required equipment.
Rig must be near level during drilling. Slope of anode location cannot exceed limits
of drill rig leveling equipment.
Containment of drill cuttings and circulation fluid must also be considered when
choosing anode locations.
Figure 7.1 5 Minimum drill rig clearance dimensions.
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References
155
Figure 7.1 6 Maximum drill rig site slope dimensions.
REFERENCES
Derived from equations in "Calculation of Resistance to Ground", by H.B. Dwight. Electrical
Engineering, p. 1319 (1936) December.
Derived from equations in the book by Erling D. Sunde. "Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission
Systems." D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. (1949).
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Chapter
Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Rectifiers are used more than any other source of impressed current power. Areas dis-
cussed include rectifier types, rectifier selection, specification requirements, and typical
installation details. Various types of impressed current anodes and components that
make up an impressed current system are also presented.
RECTIFIER TYPES
Cathodic protection (CP) rectifiers have the following major components. These typ-
ically include a transformer to step down AC line voltage to low voltage AC on the
secondary with a tap arrangement to permit selecting a range of voltage, a rectifying
element (usually full wave silicon diodes for rectification), and a housing for outdoor
mounting. These components are supplemented by an AC circuit breaker and DC output
meters. Both single-phase and three-phase units are in common use. Figure 8.1, illustrates
diagrammatically single-phase and three-phase units of the full-wave bridge-connected
type.
Where electrical storm activity is prevalent, it is advisable to provide protection
against lightning damage.
• Lightning surges may occur from the electric distribution line (the more probable)
and /or
• Surges coming from the pipeline (both from lightning and AC ground fault)
157
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158
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
AC
1 PHASE
SUPPLY
STEP-DOWN
TRANSFORMERS WITH
VOLTAGE ADJUSTING
TAPS ON SECONDARY
WINDINGS
BRIDGE-CONNECTED
RECTIFIER STACKS.
■QmQmQ.Q.Q.Q.0.
TO PIPELINE
3-PHASE UNIT
TO GROUND BED
— e —
GROUNDED SHIELD
BETWEEN
PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY
WINDINGS
ARROW HEAD
INDICATES
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FLOW
THRU ELEMENT
GROUND
CONNECTION
FOR RECTIFIER
CABINET
1
TO PIPELINE
1 -PHASE UNIT
TO GROUND
BED
Figure 8.1 Rectifier schematic diagrams.
Specifying rectifiers having transformers with an electrical shield between primary and
secondary transformer windings may provide some protection from lightning surges.
Such a shield (shown in the figure), when grounded properly, intercepts the high voltage
peak surge of a lightning pulse and carries it to ground. Otherwise, it can break down
a rectifying element and may burn out the element. Low voltage lightning arrestors
can also be placed across rectifier terminals and may provide protection from lightning
surges from the pipeline. Neither type of protection, however, is effective against a direct
strike to the rectifier itself.
Rectifier manufacturers produce units for CP applications with a wide range of out-
puts. Data are available in the supply catalogs of CP equipment. Three general housing
types are available. Ventilated housings that provide for convection air cooling are used
for most pipeline applications. Where highly corrosive atmospheres exist (marine or
industrial, for example), the equipment may be oil-immersed in a tank-type housing.
For locations subject to hazards and explosives an explosion proof housing is available
for oil-immersed units. Figure 8.2 illustrates the appearance of typical air-cooled and
oil-immersed units.
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Rectifier Types
159
Figure 8.2 Typical rectifiers: (left) air cooled unit; (right) oil immersed unit. (Courtesy of Universal
Rectifier, Inc.)
Rectifying elements typically used in units today are silicon diodes. A silicon diode
has high resistance to current flow in one direction and low resistance in the other. This
characteristic makes rectification possible. The diagrams of Figure 8.1 show that for a
given direction of current flow in the transformer secondary winding, the current can
flow on only one route through the rectifying element (in the direction of the arrow
heads). This flow is out the positive terminal to the ground bed and back from the
pipeline connection to the negative terminal. When the direction of current flow in the
transformer secondary reverses (this occurs 120 times at normal 60-cycle AC power
frequency), the current will take a different route through the rectifying element but will
still flow out at the positive terminal and back at the negative terminal. The result is
direct current (DC).
A rectifying diode is rated by the manufacturer for specific maximum current flow at
a given ambient temperature and for maximum inverse voltage (the voltage impressed
across the element in the high resistance direction). Diodes are assembled into stacks
or assemblies with series-parallel combinations to attain the over-all DC voltage and
current rating needed for the rectifier produced. In older rectifiers, the rectifying elements
were selenium stacks or discs, but modern rectifiers use mainly diodes as rectifying ele-
ments. Rectifying elements have been continuously improved over the years in operating
characteristics and efficiency. The rectifier user is advised to review developments in this
field and replace older rectifying elements with improved stacks when justified by the
improved characteristics and efficiency of newer ones.
Cathodic protection rectifiers may be equipped with filters in the DC output which
smooth out the ripple in the rectified DC and permit higher over-all efficiency. These
filters are practical where savings in power cost justify the additional investment.
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160 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Under certain circumstances, "constant potential" rectifiers are useful on pipeline
systems. Such rectifiers are designed to maintain a constant protective potential on the
pipeline at the rectifier location, which changes to match pipeline current requirements.
Applications include areas subject to stray current from transit systems or in mining
operations where potential variations are not beyond the corrective capacity of this type
of unit. Use with ground beds subject to wide seasonal variations in resistance (wet to
dry) is also included.
Constant potential rectifiers (see Figure 8.3) differ from more conventional rectifiers
(which require manual adjustment of transformer taps to change output) in that a sensing
circuit that maintains continual checks on the pipe-to-soil potential changes the output
current automatically. Typically, this can be accomplished by burying a permanent ref-
erence electrode at the point where constant pipe-to-soil potential is to be maintained.
Once the rectifier is adjusted for the desired pipe-to-soil potential, any increase in
absolute value of this potential serves (through the electronic controller) to increase the
reactor reactance. This cuts the output current back until a balance at the preset potential
is regained. Likewise, any decrease in absolute value of this potential between pipeline
and reference electrode will cause the rectifier output current to increase automatically
until balance is regained.
SELECTION OF RECTIFIER SIZE
Rectifier size (output rating) will depend primarily on the current requirement at the
installation site and the output voltage required to force the current through the pipeline
to ground bed circuit resistance. Current requirement tests, or other design procedures,
determine the amperage. Circuit resistance is determined by the ground bed design as
discussed in Chapter 7.
The output voltage rating should be sized 15 to 25% over the design-calculated value
to allow for any change in ground bed resistance. This permits maintaining full rated
output when ground bed resistance goes up as the anodes deteriorate with age. Final
output ratings for current and voltage can then be coordinated with standard output
ratings defined on the rectifier name plate or manufacturer's catalogue data.
Initial rectifier current ratings can give some understanding of future system require-
ments as outlined in the following examples. For example, the current needed to protect
a section of bare line is not likely to increase with time, the rectifier may be sized to
meet the existing design current requirements. On the other hand, a newly laid well-
coated pipeline may initially require only a small amount of current, but as the coating
stabilizes with time (or deteriorates from soil stress, temperature effect, etc), it may re-
quire several times the initial current. In these cases, it is practical to install rectifiers hav-
ing maximum current capacity several times greater than the initial requirement. Coated
lines that have been in the ground for a long enough time to become well stabilized do
not tend to require as much reserve capacity. No firm rules can be established, however,
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Selection of Rectifier Size
161
AC SUPPLY
SATURABLE
CORE
REACTOR
(SCR)
ELECTRONIC
CONTROLLER "
CIRCUIT BREAKER
ULQJLQJUUU
Twnnnnnnnr
PIPE
(y)
SHUNT
TRANSFORMER
TO GROUND BED
RECTIFIER STACK
REFERENCE ELECTRODE
Figure 8.3 Typical constant potential rectifier diagram.
because variables such as length of pipe section protected, coating used, changes in soil
conditions, probable temperature effects, and other conditions will apply in each case.
Experience with conditions on the pipeline corrosion engineer's own system will help
to make proper current rating determination.
When time permits, some pipeline corrosion engineers design and install impressed
current ground beds before deciding on the rectifier rating. Following this procedure, it
is possible to measure the installed circuit resistance and make new current requirement
tests using the completed ground bed. Rectifier voltage and current ratings may be
selected with full assurance that the installation will work as planned. Although results
PI: FPV
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162 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
are positive, this procedure does require more time and involves additional expense for
repeat visits by the construction crews to make rectifier installations. However, when
ground bed designs can be prepared with reasonable accuracy, this procedure is not
necessary
In determining power costs, the corrosion engineer should recognize that the smaller
rectifiers along the pipeline (well coated pipelines particularly) may draw so little power
that the costs do not exceed the power company's minimum billing (where applicable).
In such instances, relative efficiency of the rectifier may have little bearing on economic
choice.
Although rectifiers operating on three-phase power are more efficient than single-
phase units, three-phase power may be available at relatively few locations along a
pipeline. Where it is available, the choice between single-phase and three-phase units
should be based on a relative cost study. Results of this study can be expected to favor
three-phase units for large installations.
The use of filters for improvement in efficiency should be considered only when they
will reduce the net annual cost of the complete installation. The savings will be a result
of a reduction in power cost. Applicable power rates must be determined when making
cost comparisons. Rectifier manufacturers who furnish filters for their equipment should
provide data on efficiency improvement.
RECTIFIER SPECIFICATIONS
After deciding on the size and type of rectifier to be used, ordering specifications must
include at least the following information in order to ensure obtaining the correct unit
when purchasing from the standard lines of rectifier manufacturers.
1. AC input: Voltage, single or three phase and frequency. For example: 120/240 V,
single phase, 60 cycles. (The expression 120/240 means that the unit may be field
connected for operation on either 120 or 240 V AC).
2. Maximum DC output in amperes and volts.
3. Air-cooled, oil-immersed, or oil-immersed and explosion-proof.
4. Pole mounting, wall mounting, or floor (pad) mounting.
5. Silicon type rectifying element and either full wave bridge or full wave center tap.
6. Maximum ambient operating temperature.
7. Protective equipment: Circuit breaker in AC input. Shielded transformer winding.
Lightning arrestors, etc.
8. Instruments: Voltmeter and ammeter with accuracy (such as 2 percent of full scale).
9. Provisions for external current shunt terminals and potential terminals for periodic
check of rectifier instruments should be specified.
10. Case construction such as anodized aluminum, galvanized, coated steel or small
arms proof.
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Rectifier Efficiency 163
When standard units do not meet needed requirements, it is necessary to specify
additional provisions. These may include an output filter for efficiency improvement,
additional positive terminals (for leads from individual deep-well ground bed anodes
for example), additional negative terminals where current is to be drained from more
than one pipeline, additional current measuring shunts, lightning arrester or other special
protective equipment, special housing finish and /or design, and other special features as
required. Special provisions such as those above may be supported by an accompanying
drawing where necessary to clarify requirements.
Some users of large numbers of CP rectifiers prepare standard detail specifications,
which include minimum requirements for all components of rectifier assemblies. These
are used to make equipment uniform instead of ordering units from a manufacturer's
standard line. Unless the number of units ordered is substantial, this can involve extra
cost because manufacturers may have to modify their standard production techniques
to meet the specifications.
RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY
In addition to the type of rectifying elements used and whether or not an output filter is
used, rectifier efficiency is affected by the percentage of current or voltage loading. The
effect is illustrated by Figure 8.4, which shows typical efficiency curves for units operated
(1) at full current but reduced voltage and (2) at full voltage but reduced current.
Curves shown are for illustration only and should not be used for calculations. If
calculations are required, use the curves applying to the equipment being considered.
The curves in the figure show that efficiency suffers most when units are operated at a
small percentage of the rated voltage.
The actual overall efficiency of an operating rectifier unit may be determined as
follows:
rr . . . DC power output
Efficiency in percent = r- 1 — x 100
AC power input
The DC power output is the output current multiplied by the output voltage. The AC
power input may be measured by a wattmeter. If the rectifier has a kilowatt-hour meter
(provided by the power company) measuring the power taken by one rectifier only, use
it to measure the power input. If the meter is marked with a meter constant, measure the
number of seconds for the meter disc to make one revolution. The power consumption
is then (3600 s/h/s for one disc revolution) x meter constant = watts input. The meter
constant is usually shown on the face of the kilowatt-hour meter.
Simply measuring the AC input voltage and current and multiplying them to get
the AC power input neglects power factor and will not be accurate. If, however, it is
impossible to measure the true power input, using the input current and voltage will
yield a reasonable approximation. If this is done, subsequent efficiency measurements
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164
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
ou
.'*
„,*>'
^% -
^7 v-
60 -
-£ X-
^ *
-
1
1
EFFICIENCY VS. PERCENT OF
;. RATED CURRENT AT FULL RATEC
- VOLTAGE.
I
tk
-i \ -
t \
J N
1
.s
I EFFICIENCY VS. PERCENT OF
7
V
r
RATED VOLTAGE AT FULL RATED
: 1
^U -; I
i
17
1/
fit
DT
it
it
o+LU
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PERCENT OF RATED VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
100
ou -■
5
bU ~"
«^
,'\
J 5
t
\
EFFICIENCY VS. PERCENT OF
RATED CURRENT AT FULL RATED
VOLTAGE.
I /
s
?t -t
x
#t t
-t j-
40 --
t /A
t *
±j
\
±7
\
±f
V,
EFFICIENCY VS. PERCENT OF
RATED VOLTAGE AT FULL RATED
CURRENT.
'
b
u
1
1
o 4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT OF RATED VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
Figure 8.4 Rectifier efficiencies. Top: Selenium - Typ-
ical overall efficiency curves for custom line air cooled
selenium bridge connected rectified unit rated at 60 V,
60 amp full load DC output. 230- V, single phase, AC in-
put. Bottom: Silicon - Typical overall efficiency curves
for custom line air-cooled silicon bridge connected rec-
tifier unit rated at 40 V, 34 amp full load DC output.
230 V, single phase AC input. (Courtesy of Universal
Rectifier, Inc.)
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Rectifier Installation Details
165
should be made in the same manner in order to detect any deterioration of efficiency
ones a period of time.
RECTIFIER INSTALLATION DETAILS
Various standards for rectifier installation are used by operating pipeline companies.
Installation practices differ depending on local conditions and individual preferences.
There is no universal standard in effect. Rectifier installation sketches are shown below,
which may be adapted as necessary to meet the user's requirements.
Figure 8.5 illustrates a method for installing a pole-mounted CP rectifier. Most in-
stances of air-cooled rectifiers are pole mounted, as shown in the figure.
POLE
WEATHERHEAD
LEADS FOR
CONNECTION
BY LOCAL
UTILITY
COMPANY
CONDUIT STRAPPED TO POLE
RECTIFIER. RATING AS
REQUIRED FOR THE
PARTICULAR
INSTALLATION.
NOTE:
DETAILS OF INSTALLATION
SUBJECT TO VARIATION
TO SUIT USER'S SPECIFIC
PRACTICES AND TO
CONFORM TO LOCAL
CODES AND STANDARDS.
KWH METER
RAINTIGHT
ENTRANCE SWITCH
GROUNDING WIRE
FROM LUG IN
ENTRANCE SWITCH
OR ON RECTIFIER
CABINET.
DC CONDUITS
STRAPPED TO POLE
ONE CONDUIT MAY
BE USED FOR BOTH
DC LEADS.
CABLES TO
PIPELINE AND
TO GROUND BED
REAR VIEW
Figure 8.5 Pole mounted rectifier.
SIDE VIEW
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166
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
POWER SUPPLY LINE
COVER MUST BE
REMOVED TO
CHANGE TAPS -^
POWER SWITCH ■
7
-Ez-
ra
GROUND-
BED
OIL-IMMERSED
RECTIFIER
J-
JUNCTION
BOX. OUTPUT
VOLTMETER
AND AMMETER
£ CONCRETE
MOUNTING PAD
rz
GROUND ROD
PIPELINE
Figure 8.6 Pad mounted rectifier.
Figure 8.6 shows the use of a concrete pad for mounting air-cooled (pedestal type),
oil-filled and explosion-proof rectifiers. Neither of these figures represents an attempt
to standardize rectifier installation practices. They are included only to serve as a guide
to those who may be preparing installation standards that apply to their own specific
system requirements.
GROUND BED MATERIALS FOR IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS
This section includes guidance on the selection of materials for use with impressed
current ground beds.
Anode Types
Materials currently popular for use as anode material include graphite, high silicon cast
iron, mixed metal oxide, platinum, and steel.
Graphite anodes may be obtained in various sizes (Figure 8.7), although 3-in. diam-
eters by 60-in. rods are most commonly used for pipeline ground beds. These anodes
are typically supplied by the manufacturers with insulated copper leads usually high
molecular weight polyethylene (HMW/PE). Standard lead length and size usually is
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Ground Bed Materials for Impressed Current Systems
167
Graphite
Solid Rod Anodes
POLYETHYLENE PLUG
WASHER
CABLE
SEALING COMPOUND
INSULATION REMOVED
AND WIRE TINNED
EXPANDED CAULKING
(LEAD FREE)
lg
V— ~ o
CENTER CONNECT
v^
END CONNECT
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Wts
ANODE TYPE DIMENSIONS in,
L
(mm)
BAREWT
lbs (kg)
(76.2)
3C
(76.2)
13
(5.9)
(101.6)
40 (1,016)
35
(15.9)
(76.2)
60 (1,524)
27
(12.3)
(101.6)
80 (2,032)
70 (31.8)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Element
Content %
Carbon
99.80
Ash
0.20
Figure 8.7 Graphite anodes typical sizes and chemi-
cal composition. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
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168 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
20 ft of No. 8 HMW/PE insulated wire. Leads of any length may be special ordered.
Larger wire sizes are available within limits established by the manufacturer. Cata-
logs for CP material give full details on available sizes and ordering information. The
" specially treated" graphite anodes (NA treated) are impregnated with linseed oil to pre-
vent interparticle attack and sloughing off of active material under adverse conditions.
The additional cost for treated anodes is justified.
Graphite is brittle so anodes of this material should be handled accordingly. The con-
nection between insulated anode lead and the anode proper is mechanical, and insulating
material protects it from moisture penetration. Anode caps are designed to safeguard
against early deterioration of the connection end. Caps may be cast in place or may be
in the form of a prefabricated heat shrink cap.
When anodes are backfilled with carbonaceous backfill material, they are usually
rated at a current output up to one ampere per square foot (1 A/ft 2 ). A 3-in. by 60-in.
anode would have a maximum output of approximately four amperes. This must be
taken into account when designing ground beds, as outlined in Chapter 7.
Graphite anodes are consumed at no more than two pounds per ampere per year
when discharging current into an electrolyte. When used with carbonaceous backfill by
direct electrical contact, most of the material consumed is backfill material rather than
the anode itself.
High silicon cast iron anodes normally contain between 14 and 15% silicon plus lesser
quantities of other alloying elements. Chemical composition and other information is
shown in Table 8.1.
Silicon alloy behaves differently from ordinary cast iron when discharging current.
Ordinary cast iron loses approximately 20 lbs of its iron content per ampere per year.
High silicon cast iron, on the other hand, loses material at a much lower rate. Typical
reported rates are as shown in Table 8.1 for ground bed applications in soil.
High silicon cast iron anodes also have insulated leads as does graphite. The material
is somewhat brittle and must be handled with care. They are available in various sizes
and available from suppliers of CP material. A common size used in impressed current
ground beds is 2-in. diameter by 60-in. length. They are used commonly with carbona-
ceous backfill, which absorbs most of the consumption resulting from current discharge.
Tables 8.2 and 8.3 show sizes and output of rated operating current of high silicon iron
anodes.
Mixed-metal oxide anodes are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. Mixed metal
oxide coated titanium anodes are based on electrode technology developed in the early
1960s for production of chlorine and caustic soda. Usually the mixed metal oxide films
are thermally applied to precious metal such as titanium or niobium cores. These oxide
coatings have excellent conductivity, are resistant to acidic environments, are chemically
stable, and have relatively low consumption rates. Table 8.4, shows sizes and rated
operating current outputs of solid rod anodes in mixed metal for ground bed installations.
Table 8.5, shows sizes and rated operating current outputs of tubular mixed metal anodes
for ground bed installations. Ground bed installation in soils usually specifies that the
anode be prepackaged in a canister with carbonaceous backfill material. Standard lead
wire is 10-ft of No. 8 HMW/PE; however, any length and type of cable including Kynar™,
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Ground Bed Materials for Impressed Current Systems
169
Table 8.1 High Silicon Cast Iron Typical Types and Chemical Composition. (Corrpro
Companies Inc.)
Durichlor 51 Tubular
Cast Iron Anodes
CHEMICAL COMPOSITON
HIGH SILICON CAST IRON
STANDARD ANODES
DURICHLOR 51 ANODE
Element
Content %
C
0.70-1.10
Mr
1 .50 Max
Si
14.20- 14.75
Cr
3.25 - 5.00
MO
0.20 Max
Cu
0.50 Max
Iron
Remainder
ANODE
TYPICAL ANODE
NOMINAL
MATERIAL
CURRENT DENSITY
CONSUMPTION RATE
(AMPS/FT 2 )
(PER AMP.YR)
IN SOIL OR
FRESHWATER
DURICHLOR 51
No Backfill
0.25 ■ 0.5
0.25 LB
Coke Backfill
0.5 -1.0
0.1 -0.25 LB
Halar™, and PVC can be specified. Mixed metal oxide anodes can also be configured
for use in deep well anode beds.
Platinum and platinized-niobium anodes are available in a variety of sizes and
shapes. Platinum anodes are available in wire and rod configurations and in different
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Table 8.2 Standard High Silicon Cast Iron Anodes. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
D-51 STANDARD ANODES
(Continued)
Two Polyethylene
Compression Washers
Cast Epoxy
Encapsulation
(Optional)
Heat Shrinkable
Teflon (FEP) Etched
Tubing (Optional)
Cast Epoxy No. 8—7 Strand
Cap Cable
TYPE M : 2%"x60"— Both ends enlarged with cored openings.
TYPE M1 : 2y4"x60"— One end only enlarged.
Heat Shrinkable Teflon (FEP) Etched
Tubing (Optional)
FriSpL ,J/ Strand Cable
Epoxy Encapsulation
(Optional)
Caulked Lead-^ Tinned Sealin 9 ,
Wires Compound^
TYPE E: As shown.
Polyethylene
Washers
Heat Shrinkable
Teflon (FEP) Etched
Tubing (Optional)
>— ~s
4 1 /2"
/ Tinned
/ Wires
Caulked Lead
Sealing Compound- 1
-60"
Epoxy
Encapsulation
(Optional)
-Polyethylene
Washers
TYPE SM: As shown.
Typical Sizes and Configurations
Sealing Two Polyethylene
Compound Compression Washers
Caulked Lead "
O
ZJ
Tinned \_ 1* ^2" ■
Wires
No. 8
7 Strand Cable
TYPE B : 1 "x60" — Both ends enlarged with cored openings.
TYPE CD : 1 1 /2"x60"— One end only enlarged.
TYPE CDD: 1 V2"x60"— Both ends enlarged with cored openings.
One Polyethylene
Compression Washer „ .1 ..
v \ 7 Strand Cable
Caulked Lead Sealing \ Groove &
^ .Compound \ Epoxy
Epoxy Cap
(Optional)
TYPE D: 2 "x60"— Uniform diameter.
Full Encapsulation (Optional) Epoxy & Heat Shrink
Cap (Optional)
TYPE C: 1 1 /2"x60"— Uniform diameter.
TYPE
SIZE
In (mm)
APPROXIMATE
WEIGHT EACH
lbs (kg)
AREA
ft 2 (m 2 )
GENERAL APPLICATION
SPECIAL FEATURES
B
1 x 60 (25x1 524)
12(5.4)
1.4 (.13)
Fresh water tanks.
Each end enlarged to 1 1 / 2 in. (38 mm)
dia. with cored opening for joining.
C
1V 2 x 60 (38x1 524)
25(11.4)
2.0 (.19)
Open box coolers requiring
lengths greater than 5 feet.
Uniform 1 1 / 2 in. (38 mm) dia. with
cored opening both ends for joining.
CD
1 1 / 2 x 60 (38x1524)
26(11.8)
2.0 (.19)
Ground bed with backfill.
One end only enlarged to 2 in. (51
mm) dia. with cored opening for
cable connection.
CDD
1 1 / 2 x 60 (38x1524)
26(11.8)
2.0 (.19)
Ground bed with backfill permits
joining in series.
Each end enlarged to 2 in. (51 mm)
dia. with cored opening for cable
connection.
D
2x60(51 x1524)
44 (20.0)
2.6 (.24)
Ground bed without backfill.
Uniform 2 in. (51 mm) dia. with cable
connections on one end only.
M
2 1 / 4 x 60 (57x1 524)
63 (28.6)
2.9 (.28)
Mild saline or deep well without
backfill.
Each end enlarged to 3 in. (76 mm)
with cored opening for joining.
M1
2V 4 x 60 (57x1 524)
65 (29.5)
2.9 (.27)
Mild saline or deep well
without backfill.
Same as type M but cored opening
on one end only for cable
connection.
E
3x60(76x1524)
110(49.9)
4.0 (.37)
Severe ground, deep well or sea
water without backfill.
One end only enlarged to 4 in. (102
mm) dia. with cored opening for
cable connection.
EWO
3x60(76x1524)
110(49.9)
4.0 (.37)
Severe ground, deep well or sea
water without backfill.
One end only enlarged to 4 in. (102
mm) dia. with cored opening for
cable connection.
SM
4 1 / 2 x60 (114x1524)
220 (99.9)
5.5 (.51)
Sea water with high current
discharge per anode.
Uniform 4 1 / 2 in. (114 mm) dia. with
cored opening each end. Permits two
cable connections, if required.
170
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Ground Bed Materials for Impressed Current Systems
171
Table 8.3 Tubular High Silicon Cast Iron Anodes. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
DURICHLOR 51 TYPE TA TUBULAR ANODES
MASTIC SEAL
EPOXY SEAL CABLE
LEAD CONNECTOR
CABLE
GUIDE
ANODE
TYPE
NOMINAL
SIZE
In (mm)
LENGTH
In (mm)
WEIGHT
Lbs (kg)
AREA-
SQ. FEET
(m 2 )
NOMINAL
DISCHARGE-
AMPS
GENERAL APPLICATIONS
SPECIAL FEATURES
TA1
2 21 / 32 x42
(67x1067)
42
(1067)
31
(14.1)
2.4
(.22)
1.5-2.0
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TA2
2 3 /i 6 x84
(56x2133)
84
(2133)
46
(20.9)
4.0
(.37)
3.0-4.0
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TA3
2 21 / 32 x84
(67x2133)
84
(2133)
63
(28.6)
4.9
(.46)
3.5-5.0
Deep ground beds or standard
ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TA4
3 3 /, x 84
(95x2133)
84
(2133)
85
(38.6)
6.9
(.64)
6.0-7.0
Severe ground, deep well
without backfill or sea water.
Center connection and tubular
design gives greater surface area.
TA5
4 3 / 4 x 84
(121 x2133)
84
(2133)
110
(49.9)
8.7
(.81)
6-8.5
Severe ground, deep well
without backfill or sea water.
Center connection eliminates loss
due to "end effect."
TA6
6% x78
(170x1981)
78
(1981)
260
(118)
11.4
(1.06)
11-15
Seawaterwith high current discharge
per anode or severe ground bed.
Center connection and tubular
design gives longer life.
TA2A
2 3 / 16 x42
(56x1067)
42
(1067)
23
(10.4)
2.0
(.19)
1.5-2.0
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TA5A
4 3 / 4 x 84
(121 X2133)
84
(2133)
175
(79.4)
8.7
(.81)
9-10
Seawaterwith high current discharge
per anode or severe ground bed.
Center connection and tubular
design gives longer life.
TAB
2 3 / e x 24
(56 x 609)
24
(609)
13
(5.9)
1.1
(.10)
0.5-1.0
Fresh water tanks, distributed
systems in ground trenches.
Lightweight flexible assembly with
continuous cable.
TABB
TACD
2 21 / 32 x24
(67 x 609)
2 3 / 16 x60
(56x1524)
24
(609)
60
(1524)
18
(8.2)
32
(14.5)
1.4
(.13)
2.8
(.26)
0.5-1.0
2.5-3.0
Fresh water tanks, distributed
systems in ground trenches.
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Lightweight flexible assembly with
continuous cable.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TAD
2 21 / 32 x60
(67x1524)
60
(1524)
45
(20.4)
3.5
(.32)
2.5-3.5
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TAE
4 3 / 4 x 60
(121 X1524)
60
(1524)
125
(56.7)
6.2
(.58)
6-8
Severe ground, deep well
without backfill or sea water.
Center connection eliminates loss
due to "end effect."
TAJA
TAJ
4 3 / 4 x 24
(121 x609)
4 3 / 4 x 60
(121 X1524)
24
(609)
60
(1524)
31
(14.1)
78
(35.4)
2.5
(.23)
6.2
(.58)
1.5-2.0
5.0-6.0
Fresh water tanks, deep ground
beds, or standard ground beds.
Severe ground.deep well
without backfill or sea water.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
Center connection and tubular
design gives greater surface area.
TAM
3 3 / 4 x 60
(95x1524)
60
(1524)
60
(27.2)
4.9
(.46)
3.5-5.0
Deep ground beds or standard
ground beds.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TAG
2% x8
(67x203)
8
(203)
6
(2.7)
0.47
(.05)
0.55
Elevated fresh water tank.
Underground cables in ducts.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
TAFW
2 3 /i 6 x8
(56 x 203)
8
(203)
4.3
(1.9)
0.38
(.04)
0.40
Elevated fresh water tank.
Lightweight flexible assembly with
continuous cable.
TAFWA
23 / 6 x12
(56 x 304)
12
(304)
6.5
(2.9)
0.57
(.06)
0.60
Elevated fresh water tank.
Underground cables in ducts.
Center connection, in series on
continuous cable or one lead only.
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172
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Table 8.4 Typical Sizes and Rated Operating Current Data. Solid
Mixed Metal Oxide Anodes. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
Mixed Metal Oxide
Solid Rod Anode
^\
SHRINK SLEEVE — i
MASTIC TAPE
r^ SECOND LAYER
/ MASTIC TAPE
/ /~ FIRST LAYER
J!//— CONNECTOR
^^
^^^) M k {
LEAD WIRE ^
T
J MIXED METAL
/ OXIDE ANODE
L PRIMER
J
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Weights
ANODE
TYPE
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
in. (mm) ft (mm)
NOMINAL WEIGHT
BARE WT PKG WT
CURRENT
RATING*
L
oz/ft (g/M)
lbs (kg)
amps
M84
0.125 (3.175)
4
(101.6)
0.38 (35.6)
22 (10)
7.0
M88
0.125 (3.175)
8
(203.2)
0.38 (35.6)
44 (20)
14
M44
0.25 (6.350)
4
(101.6)
1.5 (43.4)
22 (10)
15
M48
0.25 (6.350)
8
(203.2)
1.5 (43.4)
44 (20)
30
M24
0.50 (12.7)
4
(101.6)
6.1 (173.8)
23 (10.5)
29
M28
0.50 (12.7)
8
(203.2)
6.1 (173.8)
46 (21)
58
*Based on
15 year design life ar
ldXEc
mating in sa
itwater
platinum coating thickness. Table 8.6 shows typical chemical composition of platinum
anodes.
Typically the anode is composed of a copper core surrounded by a niobium substrate
with the platinum metallurgically bonded to the niobium substrate. The consumption of
the platinum coating is extremely low (40 to 80 mg/ A-year). To achieve the desired design
life of the anode the platinum coating thickness can be varied. Typical platinum coating
thicknesses are 25, 50 and 100 micro-in. Typical practice for ground bed installation in
soils is to specify the anode in a prepackage canister with carbonaceous backfill material.
Standard lead wire is 10-ft of No. 8 HMW/PE, however any length and type of cable
including Kynar, Halar and PVC can be specified. Platinum anodes can also be configured
for use in deep well anode beds.
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Ground Bed Materials for Impressed Current Systems
173
Table 8.5 Sizes and Rated Operating Current Data Tubular.
Mixed Metal Oxide Anodes. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
Mixed Metal Oxide
Tubular Anodes
"FOLLOWER" HALF -
OF CONNECTOR
"SOLDERING" HALF
OF CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY
ADJUSTMENT SCREW
MIXED METAL OXIDE ANODE
LEADWIRE-
L— SLOT FOR WIRE
ATTACHMENT
CONNECTOR INSTALLATION
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Weights
ANODE
TYPE
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
in. (mm) ft
NOMINAL WEIGHT
BARE PKGD.
CURRENT
RATING'
oz/ft (g/M)
lbs (kg)
amps
M752
0.75 (19.1)
2.0 (610)
3.4 (314)
23 (10.5)
23
0.75 (19.1)
4.0 (1,219)
3.4 (314)
25 (11.4)
1.0 (25.4)
3.3 (1,006)
3.8 (351)
25 (11.4)
1.25 (31.8)
4.0 (1,219)
5.8 (538)
27 (12.3)
73
* Based on 15 year design life in saltwater
Table 8.6 Chemical Composition of Platinum Anodes
Element
Content % of Diameter
Copper
Niobium
Platinum
79.5
19.5
Less than 1%
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Table 8.7 Chemical Composition of Petroleum and
Metallurgical Coke Backfill
Element
Content %
Petroleum Coke Backfill
Fixed Carbon
99.77
Ash
0.1
Moisture
0.0
Volatile Matter
0.0
Metallurgical Grade
Fixed Carbon
85.89
Ash
8-10
Moisture
6-9
Sulfur
0.8
Volatile Matter
0.5
Backfill Materials
The term "carbonaceous backfill" used earlier describes the backfill surrounding ground
bed anodes. There are three common materials that fit this description: Coal coke breeze,
calcined petroleum coke breeze, and natural or man-made graphite particles. Chemical
composition for petroleum coke backfill and metallurgical grade coke backfill are listed
in Table 8.7.
All are basically carbon in a low resistivity form. "Breeze" is a loose term indicating
a finely divided material. Originally it referred to the fine screenings left over after coal
coke was graded for sale as fuel. For backfill purposes, however, specific particle sizes
may be obtained.
Carbonaceous backfill serves two purposes when surrounding impressed current
anodes:
• To increase the size of the anode to obtain lower resistance to earth and
• To bear the consumption resulting from current discharge.
The latter function requires good electrical contact between the anode and back-
fill particles. To accomplish this, the backfill must be tamped solidly around the core.
Occasionally, subsurface soil conditions may not allow adequate contact pressure, or
may relax with time, so that much of the current will discharge directly from anode to
electrolyte. This tends to reduce anode life.
Consumption rate of the backfill should not exceed two pounds per ampere per year.
In the absence of specific information on the unit weight of the material used, weights
may be estimated by using the tabulation in Table 8.8. The suppliers can provide specific
information on coke breeze material.
Coke breeze should be procured by specification. Size and resistivity are important.
Some users specify, as an example, that maximum particle size shall not exceed 3/8 in.,
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Ground Bed Materials for Impressed Current Systems 175
Table 8.8 Weights of Carbonaceous Backfill
Material Lb/Ft 3
Coal coke breeze 40 to 50
Calcined petroleum coke breeze. . . 45 to 70
Natural graphite particles 70 to 80
Crushed man-made graphite 70
that not more than 10% dust shall be included and that resistivity shall not exceed
50 ohm-cm. Petroleum coke must be calcined (heat treated) to remove all other petroleum
products; otherwise its resistivity will be too high.
Natural or manufactured graphite both have low resistivity. Although natural
graphite is available in flake form, flakes are not desirable for ground bed used where gas
must be vented, because the interleaving flakes may block discharge. This applies par-
ticularly to deep-well ground beds. Natural graphite may be obtained in granular form
(less expensive than flake graphite) and would involve less possibility of gas blocking
difficulties.
Deep-well anode ground beds have reported good results when a calcined petroleum
coke in the form of rounded granules or beads is used. With material of this type, there
will be little interlocking of particles to block passage of gas.
Cable Types
All underground cable, which is a part of an impressed current ground bed, is at a positive
potential with respect to ground. If not perfectly insulated, the cable will discharge
current and corrode in two, thus cutting off the current from all or part of the ground
bed. Thus first quality insulation must be used on all anode leads and ground bed header
cables.
Insulation should have at least a 600-V rating and be suitable for direct burial. Wire
with a high molecular weight polyethylene (HMW/PE) insulation is widely used for
ground bed construction. This has been effective in most cases. Polyethylene may be
used with or without a protective jacket. Where chlorine gas may be generated due to
ground bed operation or severe chemical environments may be encountered, a protective
jacket of KYNAR™ or HALAR™ may be necessary.
Cable should be inspected carefully during installation to be absolutely sure that
there are no scars or cuts which may present problems later. Any scars or cuts in the
insulation must be encapsulated with a heat shrink sleeve. Select only backfill free of
sharp stones or other harmful materials to contact the ground bed cable.
Catalog information on cable suited for ground bed construction is available through
manufacturers and through suppliers of CP material.
Selecting cable size has both a practical and an economic aspect. From the practi-
cal standpoint, the cable should be large enough to carry the intended current (see the
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176 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
National Electric Code for tables of current rating) and to withstand mechanical stresses
encountered during ground bed construction. Cable smaller than No. 8, for impressed
current anode cable is not adequate. Anodes should never be installed by the cable. Sim-
ilarly, cable that is unusually large may cause handling and connection problems during
construction. From the economic standpoint, select a cable size based on a comparison of
cable cost with current carrying ability and the cost of power loss from cable resistance
when current flows through it.
Connections
Electrical connections between anode leads and header cable are a critical part of im-
pressed current ground bed construction. Anode leads must be connected to the header
cable by a method that will have permanently low resistance. The connection, once
made, must be insulated so that it will be waterproof to present current leakage and
cable corrosion.
Acceptable connection methods for copper wire include soft soldering, powder weld-
ing (thermite), hard (silver) soldering, phos-copper brazing, compression (crimp type)
couplings, and split-bolt couplings. The first four methods result in complete joining
of the metals and have permanent low resistance. Mechanical methods, if used prop-
erly, also will give low resistance connections, which will remain low if subsequent joint
insulation excludes moisture and air completely so that no corrosion films may form
within the joint to introduce resistance. When using joining methods involving the use
of a torch, cable insulation adjacent to the connection should be protected against heat
damage. Any heat damage should be removed prior to insulating the connection.
Joints should be insulated with materials and methods that will equal, at least, the
electrical strength of original cable insulation. The work must be done carefully so that
insulation covers all exposed metal and overlaps cable insulation by at least 1 in. Where
jacketed cable is used, the jacket should be removed from about the first \ in. to expose
the basic cable insulation, and then the applied joint insulation will adhere to both cable
insulation and jacket material.
Acceptable joint insulation includes cast epoxy resin insulation and various tapes.
There are several manufacturers of cast joint for CP uses. These materials use a contain-
ment mold designed to surround the joint to be coated. Then the mold is filled with a
catalyzed resin which sets quickly to form a solid cast around the joint and overlapping
wire insulation. Properly made, the poured material fills all crevices of the joint to exclude
moisture and air. Such connections are recommended particularly for mechanical joints
but are used also with other types. Satisfactory taped joint insulation can be achieved
with top quality high voltage rubber splicing compound covering the joint metal and
overlapping the wire insulation. This is followed by two half-lapped layers of rubber
tape followed by two half-lapped layers of plastic tape. Sharp points or corners should
be removed from joints to be taped. If they cannot be rounded sufficiently to prevent
tape rupture or puncture, they may be padded with electrical putty. Details of joining
and insulating materials may be obtained from the catalogs of CP material suppliers.
The splice connections are usually the weakest link in a ground bed installation.
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Chapter
Cathodic Protection
with Galvanic Anodes
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Discussion of the common types of galvanic (sacrificial) anode materials including
performance characteristics, typical applications, and installation details are outlined
below.
TYPES OF GALVANIC ANODES FOR PIPELINE USE
The two galvanic anode metals commonly used for buried pipelines are magnesium
and zinc. Appearance of typical anodes is shown in Figures 9.1 and 9.2. Aluminum has
a theoretical energy content (in terms of ampere-hours per pound) which exceeds that
of magnesium and zinc but so far, aluminum has not proved practical for earth-buried
installations because of problems associated with keeping it electrically active with good
efficiency characteristics. Aluminum anodes are primarily used for marine applications
but this specialized application will not be considered here.
HOW GALVANIC ANODES WORK
The use of galvanic anodes for cathodic protection (CP) is a simple application of the
dissimilar metal corrosion cell discussed in Chapter 1. Where a steel pipeline is elec-
trically connected to a metal higher in the electromotive force series and both are in a
common conductive electrolyte such as the earth, the more active metal is corroded and
discharges current in the process. Magnesium and zinc are such metals. If the amount
177
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Soil and Ribbon
Cast and Extruded Zinc Anodes
Figure 9.1 Typical zinc anodes. (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
of current needed for a given CP application is known, anode systems can be designed
using sufficient anode material to produce the desired current output continuously over
a desired number of years.
The corrosive nature of the underground environment may cause self-corrosion of
the anode material. Electrical currents produced by this self-corrosion do not result in
producing CP current. The ratio of metal expended in producing useful CP current to
total metal expended is termed 'anode efficiency'. This is an important characteristic,
which will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
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Galvanic Anode Applications
179
Cast Magnesium Anodes
Figure 9.2 Typical magnesium anodes. (Corrpro Com-
panies Inc.)
GALVANIC ANODE APPLICATIONS
For pipeline CP applications, galvanic anodes are generally used in cases where relatively
small amounts of current are required (typically less than 1 A) and areas where soil
resistivity is low enough (typically less than 10,000 ohm-cm) to permit obtaining the
desired current with a reasonable number of anodes. If large amounts of current are
needed (typically greater than 1 A) impressed current systems tend to be more economi-
cal. If there is a question as to which current source to use, an economic analysis should
be undertaken, unless local conditions dictate otherwise. Chapter 15 provides the basis
for performing economic analyses.
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180 Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Short increments of well-coated pipe will have moderate current requirements for
protection. These current requirements can be met with galvanic anodes where soil resis-
tivity conditions are suitable.
Some operators follow a practice of installing galvanic anodes at each location where
a leak is repaired (hot spot protection) rather than installing a complete CP system. Such
practices may be encountered on bare or very poorly coated systems where complete
CP may not be feasible from an economic standpoint.
On well-coated pipelines with impressed current CP systems, there may be isolated
points where additional current may be needed in relatively small amounts. These re-
quirements can be met with galvanic anodes. Typical applications include poorly or
incompletely coated buried valve installations, shorted casings which cannot be cleared,
isolated sections where pipeline coating has been badly damaged and areas where electri-
cal shielding may impair effective current distribution from remotely located impressed
current systems.
Galvanic anodes may be used in some instances to correct stray current interference
conditions at pipeline crossings where the interference arises from impressed current CP
systems. This application is discussed further in Chapter 11.
Galvanic anodes (usually zinc) may also be used for electrical grounding applica-
tions at pipeline pumping stations and across insulating joints. Zinc anodes as ground
rods serve as effective electrical grounds and at the same time provide a measure
ofCP
Pipelines may pass through areas where there are many other underground metallic
structures under conditions that make it difficult to install impressed current systems
without creating stray current interference problems (see Chapter 11). Galvanic anodes
may be an economical choice for a CP current source under such conditions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNESIUM AND ZINC ANODES
Magnesium is the most widely used material for galvanic anodes. Typical characteristics
are given in Table 9.1. Magnesium anodes are available in various shapes and weights
from the manufacturers. Some of the sizes available, suitable for use in soil, are listed in
Table 9.2.
Zinc anodes are available in a number of sizes for use in earth anode beds. Typical
characteristics of zinc used as an anode material are given in Table 9.3. These are long
slender shapes to achieve low resistances to earth and practical current output at the
usual low driving voltage between anode and protected structure. Some sizes available
as standard commercial items are shown in Table 9.4. Nonstandard sizes may be obtained
on special order.
Packaged magnesium and zinc anodes (anode and backfill furnished as a complete
unit ready for installation) are standard with most suppliers.
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Characteristics of Magnesium and Zinc Anodes
181
Table 9.1 Characteristics of Magnesium Anodes
Specific Gravity 1 .94
Pounds per Cubic Foot 121
Theoretical Amp Hours per Pound 1000
Theoretical Pounds per Amp per Year 8.7
Current Efficiency - Percent 50 (2)
Actual Amp Hours per Pound 500 (2)
Actual Pounds per Amp perYear 17.4 (2)
Solution Potential - Volts to CSE
Standard H-1 Alloy -1 .50 to -1 .55 (3)
High Potential Alloy -1 .75 to -1 .77 (4)
Driving Potential to Pipeline
Polarized to -0.90 Volt to CuS0 4
Standard Alloy - Volts 0.55 (5)
High Potential Alloy - Volts 0.80 (5)
1) Anodes installed in suitable chemical backfill.
2) Current efficiency varies with current density. Efficiency given (which results
in actual amp hr per pound and actual pounds per amp per year shown) is at
approximately 30 milliamps per sq ft of anode surface. Efficiencies are higher
at higher current densities, lower at lower current densities.
3) Alloy with nominal composition % 6 Al, 3 Zn, 0.2 Mn and balance Mg.
4) Proprietary alloy-manganese principal alloying element.
5) Driving potentials allow for anode polarization in service of approximately
0.10 volt which reduces the solution potential by this amount. Driving
potential in volts for pipeline polarized to any specific potential (P) in
volts = solution potential of magnesium type used minus 0.10 volts minus P.
STANDARD H-1 ALLOY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Weight Content %
Element
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Al
5.3-6.7
5.3-6.7
5.0 - 7.0
Mn
0.15 min
0.15 min
0.15 min
Zn
2.5-3.5
2.5-3.5
2.0 -4.0
Si
0.10 max
0.30 max
0.30 max
Cu
0.02 max
0.05 max
0.10 max
Ni
0.002 max
0.003 max
0.003 max
Fe
0.003 max
0.003 max
0.003 max
Other
0.30 max
0.30 max
0.30 max
Magnesium
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
HIGH POTENTIAL ALLOY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Element
Weight Content %
Al
0.010
Mn
0.50 to 1 .30
Cu
0.02 Max
Ni
0.001 Max
Fe
0.03 Max
Other
0.05 each or 0.3 Max Total
Magnesium
Remainder
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Table 9.2 Magnesium Anode Types (Corrpro Companies Inc.)
High Potential
Cast Magnesium Anodes
• BACKFILL
LEAD WIRE
PACKAGED ANODE
20 GAUGE GALV.
STEEL CORE
BARE ANODE
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Weights
ANODE
TYPE
"A"
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
in (mm)
"B" "C" "D"
"E"
NOMINAL WT.
lbs (kg)
BARE
PKGD.
3 lb
3(76) 3(76) 4.5(114) 6.5(165) 6(152)
3(1.4)
9(4.1)
5 lb
3(76) 3(76) 7.5(191) 13.5(343) 6(152)
5 (2.3)
14(6.4)
9 lb
2 (51 ) 2 (51 ) 27 (686) 31 (787) 5 (1 27)
9(4.1)
36(16.3)
9 lb
3(76) 3(76) 13.5(343) 17(432) 6(152)
9(4.1)
24(10.9)
17 1b
2 (51 ) 2 (51 ) 51 (1 295) 55 (1 397) 5 (1 27)
17(7.7)
61 (27.7)
171b
3(76) 3(76) 25.5(648) 30(762) 6(152)
17(7.7)
42(19.1)
20 lb
2(51) 2(51) 60(1524) 62.5(1588) 5(127)
20(9.1)
70(31.8)
32 lb
3(76) 3(76) 45(1143) 61(1549) 6(152)
32(14.5)
90 (40.8)
32 lb
5(127)5(127) 21(533) 30(762) 8(203)
32(14.5)
70(31.8)
40 lb
3(76) 3(76) 60(1524) 64(1626) 6(152)
40(18.1)
105(47.6)
48 lb
5(127)5(127) 31(787) 34(864) 8(203)
48(21.8)
96 (43.6)
60 lb
4(102) 4(102) 60(1524) 64(1626) 6.75(171)
60 (27.2)
130(59.0)
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Characteristics of Magnesium and Zinc Anodes
183
Table 9.2 (Continued)
H-1 Alloy
Cast Magnesium Anodes
• BACKFILL
LEAD WIRE
PACKAGED ANODE
■ 20 GAUGE GALV.
STEEL CORE
BARE ANODE
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Weights
ANODE
TYPE
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
in (mm)
"A" "B" "C" "D" "E"
NOMINAL WT.
lbs (kg)
BARE
PKGD.
1 lb
2.9 (74)
3(76) 6(152) 6(152)
1 (0.45)
3.5(1.6)
3 lb
3(76) 3(76) 4.5(114) 6.5(165) 6(152)
3(1.4)
9(4.1)
5 lb
3(76) 3(76) 7.5(191) 13.5(343) 6(152)
5 (2.3)
14(6.4)
9 lb
3(76) 3(76) 13.5(343) 17(432) 6(152)
9(4.1)
24(10.9
171b
4(102) 4(102) 17(432) 19(483) 6.5(165)
17(7.7)
42(19.1)
32 lb
5(127) 5(127) 21(533) 30(762) 8(203)
32(14.5)
70(31.8)
50 lb
I (203)
15(381) 18(457) 10(254)
50 (22.7)
110(49.5
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Table 9.3 Characteristics of Zinc Anodes
Specific Gravity 7
Pounds per Cubic Foot 440
Theoretical Amp Hours per Pound 372 (2)
Theoretical Pounds per Amp per Year 23.5
Current Efficiency - Percent 90 (3)
Actual Amp Hours per Pound 335
Actual Pounds per Amp per Year 26
Solution Potential - Volts to CSE -1.1
Driving Potential to Pipeline
Polarized to -0.90 Volt to CuS0 4 0.2 (4)
(1) Anodes installed in suitable chemical backfill.
(2) Zinc used for soil anodes should be high purity zinc such as "Special High
Grade" classification which is at least 99.99 percent pure zinc.
(3) Current efficiency of zinc is reasonably constant from low to very high current
outputs in terms of milliamperes per sq ft of anode surface. This applies when
the high purity anode grade zinc is used. The 90 percent efficiency is
conservative.
(4) Zinc not subject to significant anodic polarization when used in suitable
backfill. Driving potential is zinc solution potential minus polarized potential of
protected structure.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Element
Weight Content %
MIL-A-18001
(ASTMB-418Typel)
ASTM B-418
Type II
Al
0.1 -0.5
0.005 max
Cd
0.02 -0.07
0.003 max
Fe
0.005 max
0.0014 max
Pb
0.006 max
0.003 max
Cu
0.005 max
0.002 max
Zinc
Remainder
Remainder
ANODE BACKFILL
For reliable operation in earth installations, both zinc and magnesium anodes are used
with a chemical backfill to surround the anode completely. There are several reasons for
using chemical backfill. Typical data on chemical backfill are shown in Table 9.5.
With the anode surrounded with a uniform material of known composition, anode
current is more efficient. If the soil contacts the anode directly, variations in soil compo-
sition can set up local corrosion on the anode resulting in nonuniform consumption of
the anode.
By isolating the anode material from the native soil, the backfill material greatly
reduces the possibility of adverse effect on anode performance. In the presence of
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Table 9.4 Zinc Anode Types
Soil and Ribbon
Cast and Extruded Zinc Anodes
-20 GAUGE GALV.
STEEL CORE
PACKAGED ANODE
Standard Dimensions and Shipping Weights
ANODE
TYPE
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
in (mm)
NOMINAL WT.
lbs (kgs)
PKGD.
SOIL PACKAGED ANODES
5 1b 1.4(35.5) 1.4(35.5) 9(228.6) 15(381) 5(127) 5(2.3) 24(10.8)
12 lb
18 1b
30 1b
30 1b
45 1b
1.4 (35.5)
1.4(35.5)
1.4(35.5)
2 (50.8)
2 {50.1
ANODE
TYPE
1.4 (35.5)
1.4(35.5)
1.4(35.5)
2 (50.£
2 (50.8)
24 (609.6)
36(914.4)
60(1524)
30 (762)
45(1143)
60 lb 2(50.8) 2(50.8) 60(1524) 66(1676.4) 5(127)
30 (762)
42(1066.8)
66(1676.4)
36(914.4)
51 (1295.4)
5 (127)
5(127)
5(127)
5(127)
5(127)
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
"A"
in (mm)
"B"
in (mm)
ft/RO (M/RO)
12 (5.4)
18(8.1)
30(13.6)
30(13.6)
45 (20.4)
60 (27.2)
48(21.7)
70(31.7)
95 (43.0)
70(31.7)
110(49.9)
130(58.9)
BAREWT.
lbs/lineal ft
(kg/lineal M)
RIBBON EXTRUDED ANODES
Super
Plus
Standard
Small
1 (25.4)
5/8(15.8)
1/2(12.7)
11/32(8.7)
1-1/4(31.7)
7/8 (22.2)
9/16(14.2)
100(30.4)
200 (60.9)
500(152.4)
15/32(11.9) 1,000(304.7)
2.4
(1.09)
1.2
(0.54)
0.6
(0.27)
0.25
(0-11)
: The Standard anode model is also available in 1000 and 3600 foot rolls.
185
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186 Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Table 9.5 Backfill data for Magnesium and Zinc Anodes
Gypsum
(CaS0 4 )%
Bentonite
Clay %
Sodium
Sulfate %
Hydrated
Molding Plaster
(Plaster of Paris)
Approx Resistivity
in ohm-cm
(A)
(B)
50
75
-
50
20
5
250
50
1. Backfill mix (A) commonly used with zinc anodes.
2. Backfill mix (B), with low resistivity, is useful in high soil resistivity areas to reduce the anode resistance
to earth.
phosphates, carbonates and bicarbonates, zinc anodes can develop passive films and
cease to produce useful amounts of current. Carbonates and bicarbonates will influence
magnesium the same way. Chlorides tend to increase self-corrosion of magnesium and
reduce its current efficiency.
Chemical backfills can be helpful in absorbing soil moisture to keep the environment
immediately surrounding the anode continuously moist. Anode backfill is of low resis-
tivity and when anodes are installed in soils having a resistivity higher than that of the
backfill, the backfill column has the effect of increasing the anode size. This results in a
lower resistance to remote earth than would be the case if the bare anode were buried
directly in the soil. This effect is discussed in Chapter 7.
CALCULATING ANODE LIFE
If current output of a galvanic anode of any given weight is known, its approximate
useful life can be calculated. This calculation is based on the theoretical ampere-hour
per pound of the anode material, its current efficiency, and a utilization factor. The
utilization factor may be taken as 85% — meaning that when the anode is 85% consumed,
it will require replacement because there is insufficient anode material remaining to
maintain a reasonable percentage of its original current output.
For magnesium, anode life may be determined by the following expression (efficiency
and utilization factor expressed as decimals).
Magnesium Anode
0.116 x Anode Weight (pounds) x Efficiency x Utilization Factor
Life (years) =
Design Current (amperes)
For zinc anodes, anode life may be determined in similar manner by the following
expression:
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Calculating Anode Life
187
Zinc Anode
Life (years) =
0.0424 x Anode Weight (pounds) x Efficiency x Utilization Factor
Design Current (amperes)
As an example, assume that a 32-lb magnesium anode is producing 0.1 A at 50% efficiency
and that a 30-lb zinc anode is producing 0.1 A at 90% efficiency. Compare the expected
operating lives at the 0.1 A output.
a . T -r / x 0.116x32x0.50x0.85 iro
Magnesium Anode Life (years) = = 15.8 yr,
Zinc Anode Life (years)
0.1
0.0424 x 30 x 0.90 x 0.85
0.1
9.7 yr.
These calculations reflect the difference in theoretical ampere hours per pound charac-
teristic of the two materials. Although anode costs may fluctuate with the metal market,
zinc is typically less expensive than magnesium. Graphical design information has been
developed for typical anode types. An example is shown in Figure 9.3.
Current Output of GALVOMAG®
and High Purity H-1 Anodes.
10000
20 30 40
70 100
200 300 400
700 1000
Anode Current (milliamperes)
Figure 9.3 Magnesium anode design curves. (Corrpro
Companies Inc.)
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188 Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
To provide a better understanding of the differences in performance between zinc and
magnesium installations it may be helpful to first identify typical types of installa-
tion practices. A general rule-of- thumb says that zinc anodes are better used in the
lower soil resistivity (below 1500 ohm-cm) and magnesium anodes are better in the
higher resistivity soils (between 1500 and 10,000 ohm-cm). This rule is not universal
and will depend on the application. This will be illustrated by the examples presented
below.
Well-coated pipeline sections typically have low current requirements and will po-
larize easily to a volt or more. Either zinc or magnesium anodes may provide sufficient
current for full protection, but zinc anodes may provide full protection with much less
current being wasted. This is illustrated in the following example.
Assume a well-coated section of pipeline having a native or static potential to a copper
sulfate reference electrode (CSE) of —0.7 V, an effective resistance-to-earth of 2 ohm at
the anode installation site and that 75 mA is necessary to shift the pipeline potential to
—0.85 V. Also assume that the soil resistivity at the anode installation site is 1500 ohm-cm.
The installation circuit resistance needed to raise the potential to —0.85 V using zinc
anodes is calculated by determining the driving voltage (1.1 V — 0.85 V) or 0.25 V and
dividing it by the current requirement. This calculation is performed using Ohm's Law,
0.25 V/0.0 75 A = 3.3 ohms. The calculated 3.3 ohms minus the effective resistance of
the pipeline, estimated at 2 ohms, leaves 1.3 ohms for the resistance of anodes and lead
wires. Following the procedures outlined in Chapter 7, it can be calculated that five
1.4 x 1.4 x 60-in zinc anodes (30 lb) surrounded with 50-50 gypsum-bentonite backfill
in 8-in diameter holes at 15-ft spacing will have a resistance of 1.21 ohms in the 1500
ohm-cm soil. With 0.03 ohms allowed for lead wire resistance, total resistance is 1.24
ohms which is within the 1.3-ohm design allowance.
The same procedure can be derived for magnesium anodes. The magnesium in-
stallation circuit resistance needed to provide the initial 75 mA requirement will be the
driving potential (1.55 — 0.85 = 0.70 V) divided by the estimated current requirement of
75 mA, equals 9.33 ohms. Subtracting the 2-ohm pipeline resistance leaves 7.33 ohms for
anode-to-earth resistance and lead wire resistance. Using Chapter 7 anode bed resistance
procedures, one 2 x 2 x 60-in magnesium anode (20 lb each) with 75% gypsum, 20%
bentonite, 5% sodium sulfate backfill in 8-in diameter hole will give 4.80 ohms anode-to-
earth resistance in the 1500 ohm-cm soil with 0.01 ohm allowed for lead wire resistance.
This totals 4.81 ohms, which is within the 7.33-ohm requirement.
As shown in the previous example, the zinc anode installation number of anodes is
much larger. This is not, however, the complete analysis. In most cases, a well-coated
pipeline will continue to polarize after initial requirements are met. The pipeline in the
zinc anode example may polarize to a potential approaching the —1.1 V open circuit
potential of zinc. This will result in the reduced current demand.
Assume a polarized potential of —1.05 volt. The zinc anodes will now have a driving
potential of only 0.05 V (1.1 - 1.05 V) and the current output will be 0.05-V/3.24-ohms
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Design Considerations 189
circuit resistance = 0.0154 A. The magnesium anodes will have a driving potential
of 0.35 V (1.55 - 1.2 V) and the current output will be 0.35 V/6.81-ohms circuit
resistance = 0.0513 A. These final or stabilized currents can be used to determine the
useful lives of the two installations.
The five, 30-lb zinc anodes will have calculated life as follows.
0.0424 x 5(30) x 0.90 x 0.85
Zinc Anode Life (years) = = 315 yr.
The single 20-lb magnesium anode will have a calculated life as follows:
A , r , x 0.116x20x0.50x0.85 _
Magnesium Anode Life (years) = nTuTTo = Y r '
The new calculated design life for each anode is at the efficiencies shown in the for-
mula (90% for zinc, 50% for magnesium). At very low current densities, efficiencies will
decrease and actual lives would be less than indicated. This is particularly true for
magnesium anodes.
To evaluate these two installations in terms of cost per year of estimated life, the
installed cost must be known. Zinc is less expensive than magnesium. Assuming a con-
servatively high material and installation cost per anode, the five zinc anodes could
cost $250 per anode to install or $1,250. The one magnesium anode with installation
on the same basis could cost $350. The indicated cost per year for the zinc installation
would be $1,250/315 years = $3.96 per year. Similarly, the indicated cost per year for
the magnesium installation would be $350/19.2 years = $18.22 per year.
It may appear that the indicated life of 315 years for the zinc installation is beyond
reasonable expectations when the usual design life of a pipeline is 20-50 yr. If the cost
per year is based on a 20-yr pipeline life, the zinc anode installation cost per year would
be $62.50 (although not consumed at the end of this period) while the magnesium cost
per year remains at approximately $18. This analysis favors magnesium if the estimated
protection current requirements do not change.
If current requirements increase (see the following discussion on regulation), the orig-
inal zinc installation can continue to provide adequate protection, whereas replacement
of the magnesium anode would be required in less than 20 yr. The magnesium anode
replacement would require more anodes than were used originally in order to maintain
adequate protection. This will bring the cost per year to roughly equivalent figures for
zinc and magnesium for the example used in the 1500 ohm-cm soil. Chapter 15 provides
more detailed analysis of life cycle cost.
The previous illustration indicates that on a long-term basis, zinc anode installations
can be less expensive than magnesium when calculated on a simple cost per year basis.
In the example, it was shown that one magnesium anode discharged more than twice
as much current as the five zinc anodes. This offers no advantage because zinc fully
protects the line while excess current from magnesium is wasted.
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190 Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Inserting resistance in series in the circuit can control the wasted current from mag-
nesium. In the previous example, current wastage can be eliminated if sufficient resis-
tance could be inserted in series with the magnesium anode to reduce its output to the
point that the pipeline would remain protected. That current level would be the same
as that obtained from the zinc anode (0.030 A). The driving potential would now be
1.55 - 1.05 = 0.4 V. Circuit resistance would be 0.4 V/0.030 A = 13 ohms. This value of
13 ohms minus the circuit resistance of the magnesium anode alone, 6.81 ohms (from the
example above), leaves 6.52 ohms resistance to be inserted in the circuit. By reducing
the current, the magnesium anode indicated life is increased to 33 yr, reducing the cost
per year of life to $10.60, which is more in line with the zinc installation. This is further
discussed below.
ANODE PERFORMANCE
System Regulation
Regulation as applied to galvanic anode installations is a measure of an installations'
ability to adjust output automatically to compensate for changes in the current require-
ments of the pipeline to which it is attached. In the previous example which compares
zinc and magnesium, the assumed pipeline section had an excellent coating, so very
little current was required to maintain protection. However, current requirements may
increase with time due to coating deterioration, addition of more pipe, or development
of a short circuit to another foreign pipeline.
Assuming that this has occurred, the effective resistance of the pipeline to earth at
the anode installation site drops from the original 2 ohms to 0.5 ohms. Also assume the
minimum current required to maintain a polarized potential of —0.85 V has increased to
130 mA from the original 75 mA. Using figures from the preceding example:
Zinc installation
• Driving potential = 1.1 - .85 = 0.25 V
• New circuit resistance = 1.74
• Current = 0.25/1.74 = 0.144 A (144 mA)
• Indicated life at 144 mA output = 33.6 yr
Magnesium installation without current reducing resistor
• Driving potential = 1.55 - .85 = 0.70 V
• New circuit resistance = 5.31 ohm
• Current = 0.7/5.31 = 0.188 A (188 mA)
• Indicated life at 188 mA output = 8.4 yr
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Anode Performance 191
Magnesium installation with current reducing resistor
• Driving potential = 0.70 V
• New circuit resistance = 24.5 ohms
• Current = 0.7/24.5 = 0.0285 A (28.5 mA)
• Indicated life at 28.5 mA output = 55 yr
In this example, the zinc installation has a greater capability of providing current than
the minimum required, indicating that the line will polarize to some value above the
—0.85 V minimum protection value and that consequently there will be a better distri-
bution of full protective potentials along the line. The magnesium installation without
resistor (which originally discharged more than twice as much current as the zinc and
was wasting current) now does not discharge quite enough current to maintain the min-
imum —0.85 V. The line will assume a potential of something less than —0.85 V. The
magnesium installation with a current controlling resistor obviously does not discharge
enough current. The size of the resistor would need to be reduced below the calculated
6.5 ohms value from above or the resistor would have to be removed to achieve any sub-
stantial degree of protection. This would then reduce the design life of the magnesium
anode.
Variations in Soil Resistivity
The relative effect of soil resistivity on anode performance is discussed below. Calcula-
tions for zinc and magnesium anodes in soils ranging from low to high resistivity are
summarized in Table 9.6. The conditions applicable to Table 9.6 are the same as for
the preceding example based on an installation in 1500 ohm-cm soil (the 1500 ohm-cm
figures summarize those developed in the example). Specifically, assumptions are the
following.
1 . That the pipeline section being protected is well coated and that it has an effective
resistance to earth of 2 ohms.
2. That 75 mA are required initially to polarize the pipeline to —0.85 V to copper sulfate.
3. That once CP current is applied, the line will continue to polarize to —1.05 V CSE
when protected with zinc and to —1.2 V when protected with magnesium.
Anodes of similar sizes were used for both magnesium and zinc for purposes of this com-
parison. If more than one anode was required, the anode bed resistance was calculated
on the basis of 15-ft spacing between anodes.
Although the use of different anode sizes would alter the current output and indicated
life, the table does illustrate certain tendencies. These are the following.
1 . That zinc anode installations of the smallest size that will meet design current require-
ments have a substantially longer life than their magnesium anode counterparts.
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
Table 9.6 Comparison of Zinc and Magnesium Anodes in Varying Resistivities
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2. That as soil resistivity increases, the ratio of number of zinc anodes to the number
of magnesium anodes increases. This increases installation costs for zinc at a greater
rate than for magnesium.
3. That magnesium anode current outputs are consistently higher than the output of
the zinc anodes under design conditions. This represents wasted current from the
magnesium anodes because fully adequate protection is obtained from zinc at its
lower current output.
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Galvanic Anode Installation Details 193
4. That if the current demands of the pipeline increase, the magnesium anodes in low
resistivity soil will continue to deliver higher currents than zinc anodes. Under lower
soil resistivity conditions, more magnesium anode material (using anodes of the
size shown) would be needed to obtain equivalent life than would be needed using
zinc.
5. That if the current demands of the pipeline increase, zinc anode installations in the
higher resistivity soils have a higher current delivery capability than the magnesium
installations.
6. That the gains by regulation of zinc installations are consistently better than those
from magnesium and that the ratio of the two increases as soil resistivity increases.
This characteristic is related closely to observations 4 and 5.
The conclusions that can be reached from the foregoing examples and comparisons
include the following.
1 . That installations may be designed using either zinc or magnesium over a wide range
of soil resistivities.
2. That from an economic standpoint, zinc is most attractive in lower resistivity soils.
Using it in soils below 1500 ohm-cm resistivity is a reasonable guide in this respect.
3. That zinc anodes in soils of any resistivity offer the best self-regulating characteristics
in terms of continuing to provide sufficient current for adequate protection without
excessive current wastage.
GALVANIC ANODE INSTALLATION DETAILS
Galvanic anode installations are simple compared to the usual impressed current instal-
lation. The simplest installation is that involving the burying of a single packaged anode
at a leak repair location or for distributed anode installations along a pipeline. This is
shown by Figure 9.4.
The popular 17-lb, 20-lb, or 32-lb packaged magnesium anodes are used most com-
monly for this type of application, although packaged zinc anodes may be used in low
resistivity soils and heavier packaged magnesium anodes may be used, where conditions
warrant, for longer life.
Where several magnesium or zinc anodes are to be installed at a single location,
usually on a coated pipeline, the anodes may be connected to a header wire. The header
wire should be brought to a test point to permit monitoring, and periodic measurement
of output current, for calculation of anode life. This is illustrated by Figure 9.5.
Anodes in a multiple anode bed should be placed in straight line configuration for
lowest resistance to earth. The line of anodes may be perpendicular to the pipeline, as
shown in the figure, or may be along a line parallel to the pipe. The latter arrangement
makes it possible, in many cases, to install a large galvanic anode bed without having to
go beyond the limits of the pipeline right-of-way. A parallel line of magnesium anodes
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
HOLE DUG FOR
LEAK REPAIR OR
DISTRIBUTED ANODES
PACKAGED ANODE
WITH ATTACHED
INSULATED LEAD
5' MINIMUM
Figure 9.4 Single package anode installation.
should be at least 15 ft away from the pipeline. With zinc, this distance may be reduced
to 5 ft or even closer, if little space is available, without affecting significantly the current
distribution characteristics of the bed used with coated pipe. Where space is available,
however, it is best to allow at least 10 ft between the pipeline and the line of zinc anodes
for optimum performance.
TEST STATION
TEST POINT
AUGER HOLE DEPTH
TO MATCH ANODE SIZE
AND LOCATION OF
FAVORABLE SOIL
RESISTIVITY ■
INSULATED
HEADER WIRI
EXOTHERMIC
WELD CONNEC-
TION, (COATED)
DESIGN DISTANCE
10' MINIMUM
(SUGGESTED)
A.£
INSULATED SPLICE
CONNECTION
PACKAGED ANODE
Figure 9.5 Multiple galvanic anode installation.
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195
EXOTHERMIC WELD
. CONNECTION
TO PIPE ,
SINGLE ANODES:
(3' MIN)
MULTIPLE ANODES
(5' MIN)
WHERE NECESSARY,
HOLE MAY BE ANGLED
SLIGHTLY TO PLACE
ANODE DIRECTLY
UNDER PIPE
PACKAGED ANODE
Figure 9.6 Galvanic anode below pipe installation.
Where soil resistivities and augering conditions permit and where space limitations
are extremely critical, as may be true in distribution systems, anodes may be placed in
auger holes alongside the pipe with the hole being deep enough that reasonable spacing
between pipe and anode is obtained. This is illustrated by Figure 9.6.
In this type of installation, very deep auger holes would be required to place multiple
anodes as far below the pipe as given above for anodes at lateral distances parallel to
the pipe. The recommended depth is shown in the figure. These are justified by the
fact that with the anodes deeper in the mass of the earth (and where soil resistivities
are favorable) potential gradient effects at the pipeline may be less severe than with
anodes closer to the surface and at comparable lateral distances from the pipe. Further
advantages of this type of installation are that the anodes, being placed deep, are less
subject to seasonal current output variation associated with soil moisture content and
there is less connecting wire located where it may be damaged by excavations made for
other purposes.
The preceding three illustrations concerned the use of packaged anodes where each
anode and its associated backfill material are installed as a single unit. Either zinc or
magnesium anodes are available unpackaged. They should, nevertheless, be used with
prepared backfill in the usual buried installation. Anodes and backfill may be installed
in auger holes as shown in Figure 9.7.
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Cathodic Protection with Galvanic Anodes
SOIL BACKFILL
SPECIAL BACKFILL ■
MIXTURE
PLACE AND TAMP 6" LAYER
IN HOLE BOTTOM.
PLACE AND CENTER ANODE
IN HOLE.
FILL HOLE WITH TAMPED
BACKFILL TO POINT 6"
ABOVE TOP OF ANODE
8" DIAMETER AUGER HOLE -
(OR LARGER IF NECESSARY
TO PERMIT 2" THICK LAYER
OF BACKFILL AROUND
ANODE)
INSULATED SPLICE CONNECTION
HEADER CABLE
(INSULATED)
TOTAL HOLE DEPTH
DICTATED BY SOIL
RESISTIVITY
CONDITIONS
AS
Figure 9.7 Unpackaged galvanic anode installation.
Anodes and backfill installed separately are used more often for multiple anode
installations than for single anode installations. The advantage of this type of installation
is that the backfill, being installed separately and tamped in place, fills completely all the
voids in the auger hole. This minimizes the possibility of the backfill settling away from
the anodes and reducing the anodes long-term effectiveness. This possibility is greater
when packaged anodes are used because when the backfill container deteriorates, the
backfill will settle into voids that may unknowingly have been left around or below the
package.
When calculating backfill material requirements, a figure of 70 lbs of backfill material
may be used for each cubic foot of space to be filled. This is done by calculating the
total volume of the auger hole to be filled with backfill, and then subtracting the volume
of the anode. Magnesium anode volume is the anode weight divided by 121 while zinc
anode volume is the anode weight divided by 440. A word of caution in calculating
hole volume — for example, an 8-in auger, hole will be actually somewhat oversize when
completed. An additional 0.5 or 1 in diameter can result in a substantial increase in
backfill volume.
As was the case with anodes for impressed current anode beds, galvanic anodes may
be installed horizontally where soil resistivity requires it for most effective performance.
Either packaged anodes or separate anodes and backfill may be so installed. When
placing horizontal packaged anodes in a trench, care must be taken when backfilling to
be sure that the earth surrounds the package completely so that no voids exist. Native
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197
FENCE LINE OR OTHER
CONVENIENT TEST
POINT LOCATION
POST-MOUNTED TEST STATION
CROSS CONNECTION MAY BE
UNDERGROUND IF SUITABLE
LOCATION FOR TEST POINT
DOES NOT EXIST
CONNECTION
TO PIPE ■
■ STRIP ANODE OF MAGNESIUM
OR ZINC SURROUNDED SPLICE
WITH SPECIAL BACKFILL SEE DETAIL -
DP
-■L±
-1000' MAX-
EXOTHERMIC WELD OR
CRIMP-TYPE
CONNECTION
INSULATED WIRE
TO TEST POINT
SEE DETAIL OF
CONNECTION TO ■
STRIP ANODE
Detail of connection to strip anode
Detail of strip
anode splice
EXPOSE APPROXIMATELY
3" OF CORE WIRE BY
MELTING AWAY ZINC
WITH TORCH.
2 HALF-LAPPED
LAYERS OF RUBBER
TAPE AND 2 HALF-
LAPPED LAYERS OF
PVC SELF-ADHESIVE
TAPE
■ EXPOSE 2" OF CORE WIRE
ON EACH END AND JOIN
WITH EXOTHERMIC WELD OR
CRIMPED CONNECTION
Note: Magnesium anode should never be melted with torch. Expose steel wire core by carefully
cutting magnesium with knife or sharp object.
Figure 9.8 Continuous galvanic anode installation.
earth then may be used to complete the trench backfill (after making all anode lead
connections and insulating them).
In some applications, long strip (ribbon) anodes of either magnesium or zinc may
be plowed in parallel to the pipeline along sections of bare or poorly coated line where
continuous local protection is required. General features of a strip anode installation are
shown by Figure 9.8.
The steel wire core of strip anodes provides continuous longitudinal electrical con-
ductivity even after the anode material is consumed completely in some areas (it will be
used up first, in the lower soil resistivity sections). Connections between the pipeline
and anode core wire should be made at intervals to complete the protection circuit. If
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these cross connections can be made at test points located at fence lines or other con-
venient location, it will be possible to measure current flow periodically and estimate
the rate of anode material consumption. Intervals between cross connections should
not be too great because there will be some voltage drop in the strip anode, with this
voltage drop increasing with time as the strip cross-sectional area is reduced as active
material is consumed. Although this effect will vary depending on the soil resistivity
and total current being carried by the strip anode, it is suggested that the interval not
exceed 1000 ft.
Spacing between the strip anode and pipeline is not critical. To remain clear of the
pipe during plowing-in operations, a spacing of at least 5 ft from the near edge of the
pipe may be used. The anode strip should be deep enough to be used in continuously
moist soil. No less than 2 ft is suggested and greater depths will be necessary in areas
where soils are subject to deep drying out during dry periods.
Strip anodes of magnesium or zinc are furnished bare. Using such anodes in earth
without a special backfill involves risk of anode passivation and inadequate amounts
of current. For most reliable results, the strip anode should be plowed in with suitable
special backfill. An adequate allowance, assuming satisfactory dispersion around the
anode, is 70 lbs of backfill per 100 ft of strip.
Strip anodes may be used favorably in areas where soil conditions permit the use
of tractor-drawn plows fitted to carry trail reels of anode strip and a backfill supply.
Rocky or very rough terrain may preclude the use of this type of anode as opening
a continuous ditch in the conventional manner would, in most instances, be too
costly.
Test points for multiple anode locations may be installed as shown in Figure 9.9.
The shunt in the test point terminal box makes it possible to measure the current
from the anodes (using a millivoltmeter as shown) without disturbing the circuit. The
common 0.01 ohm shunt does not have enough resistance to have a substantial effect
on the anode current output in most cases. If a solid link is used instead of the shunt,
however, good practice is to use an ammeter circuit for measuring the anode current or
a clamp-on ammeter as discussed in Chapter 6. The separate test wire from the pipeline,
as shown in the figure, makes it possible to measure accurately the pipeline potential to a
copper sulfate reference electrode. Pipe and anode leads for multiple anode installations
may, typically, be No. 8 AWG copper wire with insulation suitable for direct burial insu-
lation. The separate potential test wire should not be smaller than No. 12 AWG insulated
wire.
With galvanic anode installations, all wire connected to the anode tends to be
protected. This means that if any copper is exposed, it will not tend to corrode and
cause severing of the wire as will happen if there is any break in the insulation in wires
connected to the positive terminal of the DC power source in an impressed current CP
system. Because of this, insulation of underground connections on galvanic anode instal-
lation is not as critical but should nevertheless be well done to prevent current loss. Also,
if anything other than brazed, soldered or welded connections are used (such as crimp
or compression connections), the connection should be waterproofed completely to pre-
vent possible development of resistance within the joint. Probably the most important
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Galvanic Anode Installation Details
199
TEST POINT SUPPORT
4" x 4" x 6' TREATED WOOD POST
OR 2" TO 4" x 6' STEEL PIPE
-TEST STATION
PVCOR
GALVANIZED
STEEL CONDUIT
3/4" OR 1
CONDUIT
STRAP
yp^ 7 ^
^^^w^
CONDUIT
BUSHING
0.01 OHM WIRE
SHUNT
0.1 AMP PER
MILLIVOLT DROP
INSULATED WIRE
TO ANODES
INSULATED CURRENT-
CARRYING AND TEST
WIRES TO PIPELINE
Figure 9.9 Galvanic anode test station installation.
connection in a galvanic anode system from an insulation standpoint is the connection
between the pipeline and the copper anode lead. The strong dissimilar metal corrosion
cell between steel and copper needs to be thoroughly and permanently waterproofed to
prevent any possibility of pipe corrosion immediately adjacent to the connection where
the corrosion cell may not be overcome completely by the applied CP. This can occur
particularly when bare copper wire lies closely parallel to bare steel such that the wire
acts as an electrical shield and prevents protective current from reaching the steel.
When galvanic anode installations are first set up, they may not attain maximum
current output for some time. This is because the dry backfill mixture may take up
moisture slowly from the surrounding soil. Unless the surrounding soil is very wet, it
may be several days or even weeks before maximum output is attained. If dry soil
conditions prevail, wetting the soil above the anode after installation will help. The
obvious solution of mixing the backfill with water before installation is not necessarily
a good one because shrinkage may result, with possible development of voids when
excess water leaves the backfill. On the other hand, well-tamped dry backfill tends to
expand upon taking up moisture from the surrounding soil, thus ensuring intimate
contact throughout the backfill column.
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Chapter
Cathodic Protection with
Other Power Sources
John A. Beavers
Although most impressed current cathodic protection (CP) systems use AC power sup-
plied by utilities in conjunction with rectifiers as a source of DC current, there are several
other power sources that may be used if AC power lines are not available. Some of these
have been in use for some time; others are relatively new; and still others are in the
development stage. Many of these alternative power sources are expensive; therefore,
the corrosion engineer must make certain that the same degree of protection cannot be
obtained at less cost by other means such as by galvanic anodes.
ENGINE-GENERATORS
Engine-generator sets may be used to provide the electrical energy for CP rectifiers if a
large power source is needed and AC power lines are not available. Gas from the pipeline
may be used to power the engine for a CP system on a natural gas pipeline. If the line
carries a petroleum product suitable for engine fuel, this may be taken directly from the
line as well. Otherwise, fuel must be brought to the generator station periodically.
Present practice is to use an engine coupled with an AC generator (alternator). The
power from the alternator is fed to a conventional rectifier that supplies the direct current
energy required for the CP installation, as shown in Figure 10.1. The DC power output
from the rectifier is used in the conventional manner to supply current to ground beds
(surface or deep well) as discussed in Chapter 7.
The reasons for using an alternator and conventional rectifier rather than generating
direct current are the following:
1 . The alternator requires less maintenance on its slip rings than a DC generator requires
with its commutator, and
201
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202
Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
TANK FOR LUBRICATING OIL
A-C SUPPLY LINE
TO RECTIFIER
ALTERNATOR
CONTROL CENTER
EXHAUST STACK
CONVENTIONAL A-C
TO D-C IMPRESSED
CURRENT CATHODIC
PROTECTION RECTIFIER
FUEL GAS
SUPPLY LINE
TO ENGINE
PROTECTED
NATURAL GAS
PIPELINE
NEGATIVE LEAD
TO PIPELINE
V CONVENTIONAL
GROUND BED
GAS-POWERED -
ENGINE
Figure 1 0.1 Engine-generator CP installation.
2. Control of DC output voltage over a wide range is accomplished more readily with
rectifiers than by controlling the output of a DC generator.
Engine-generator installations must be designed with reliable equipment that will
operate unattended for several weeks. The cost of operating such an installation will be
relatively high, particularly if engine fuel must be brought in. The installations should
be inspected frequently, preferably at least every two weeks. Periodic overhauling of the
rotating equipment (particularly the engine) should be planned to assure continued ef-
fective operation. Intervals between overhauls will depend on the engine manufacturer's
recommendations and operating experience with the equipment.
TURBOGENERATORS
Closed cycle vapor turbogenerators (CCVTs) are commercially available as power
sources for remote CP systems. The available CCVT systems can supply up to 5000 W
and 100 V. The system consists of a Rankine cycle turbine and an alternator. A schematic
is shown in Figure 10.2 and an actual installation is shown in Figure 10.3. A burner heats
an organic liquid that vaporizes and expands. The vapor is directed through the rotating
turbine wheel, providing power to the alternator. The vapor is passed into a condenser
where it is cooled and returns to the liquid state. The liquid is then pumped back into
the vapor generator. The common shaft connecting the turbine wheel, generator, and
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Turbogenerators
203
CPVCM and
Electrical cabinet
including rectifier
Electrical output
filtered DC
Vapor generator
Burner
Chimney
i,^/" Condenser
Condensate
outlet
Turbine
wheel
Alternator
Canister
Feed pump
Condensate
feed pipe
Organic fluid
Control cables
to fuel panel
Thermostat
Fuel inlet
r— Fuel
control
panel
Figure 10.2 Schematic of a closed cycle vapor turbogenerator. (Courtesy of
Ormat.)
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204
Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
Figure 1 0.3 Installation of a closed cycle vapor turbogenerator on a gas
pipeline in the western United States. (Courtesy of Ormat.)
pump is the only moving part in the system. This shaft is supported by working fluid
film bearings, minimizing wear and associated maintenance.
CCVT systems can operate on a variety of fuels, including natural gas, liquified
petroleum gas, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel. With natural gas, the burner should be
inspected and cleaned, if necessary, annually. More frequent cleaning may be required
if less clean fuels are used.
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS
It has long been known that heating a junction of certain dissimilar metals could generate
electricity. These junctions (thermocouples) are used widely as a means of measuring
temperature — the voltage output of the heated junction being fed to a voltmeter cali-
brated in degrees. In the earliest attempts to use this principle as a CP power source,
large numbers of low-capacity metallic junctions were connected in series-parallel com-
binations and heated with a gas flame to attain the necessary DC output capacity. These
designs were not particularly successful because of failure of the junctions used.
In recent years, there has been rapid development of higher capacity semiconducting
thermoelectric materials designed specifically for power-generation use. Figure 10.4 is a
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Thermoelectric Generators
205
COOLING FINS
HEAT PIPES
COLD ELECTRODES
ELEMENTS
HOT ELECTRODES
BURNER
HEAT PIPE FLUID
THERMAL INSULATION
INSIDE HERMETICALLY
SEALED POWER UNIT
- ELECTRICAL INSULATOR
Figure 10.4 Schematic of a thermoelectric generator. (Courtesy of
Global Thermoelectric, Inc.)
schematic showing the operation of a thermoelectric generator and Figure 10.5 shows an
actual installation. A thermocouple is formed by a P type and an N type thermoelectric
leg joined together electrically by a hot junction electrode. Adjacent thermocouples are
joined together by cold junction electrodes with each pair producing about 90 mV. Sev-
eral hundred thermocouple pairs are connected in series to provide the desired output
voltage. The hot junction is maintained at a high temperature (about 1000°F) using nat-
ural gas or propane while the cold junction is cooled with heat pipes to maintain a lower
temperature (about 325°F). The heat pipe is hermetically sealed and contains a special
fluid in equilibrium with its vapor. As heat is applied to the fluid, it boils, carrying heat
with it. The vapor rises to the finned portion of the pipe and condenses because of the
cooling effect of the fins.
Standard thermoelectric generator units are available at power outputs up to 600 W
and voltages up to 48 V. Higher power outputs can be achieved by adding parallel units.
If higher voltages are required for a CP installation, it is also possible to convert the
low DC voltage from the generator to a higher DC voltage. The converters, although
of high efficiency, do cause some power loss. For this reason, maximum efficiency will
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206
Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
Figure 10.5 Installation of a thermoelectric generator. (Courtesy of Global Thermo-
electric, Inc.)
result if ground beds can be built to directly use the output of the thermoelectric gen-
erator. Designing ground beds without carbonaceous backfill will reduce the applied
voltage requirement by reducing the groundbed back voltage substantially. When plan-
ning an installation where a thermoelectric generator may be applicable, check with the
equipment manufacturers for the latest equipment specifications. Since thermoelectric
generators contain no moving parts, maintenance is minimal. Annually, it is necessary
to replace the fuel filter and clean the fuel orifice.
SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
In areas where sunlight can be expected for relatively large percentages of the time, a
combination of solar cells and storage batteries can be used to provide a continuous flow
of current to a CP installation. A typical installation is shown in Figure 10.6. Solar cells
rely on the photoelectric effect: a process in which a material liberates an electric charge
when electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) is incident on the material surface. Solar cells
are typically P-N junction semiconductors fabricated of crystalline silicon and doped to
provide the desired photovoltaic properties.
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Batteries
207
Figure 10.6 Typical solar electric CP installation.
(Courtesy of Kyocera Solar, Inc.)
The initial cost of the solar electric powered CP systems has dropped dramatically
over the past 20 years as the technology has advanced. This advancement has occurred,
in part, as a result of rapid development in the semiconductor industry in general. Solar
electric power systems also are used for other applications such as satellite communica-
tions and cellular telephony. Systems are now available that operate at power outputs
up to 1000 W, voltages up to 20 V, and currents up to 50 A. Battery storage capacities up
to 3200 A-h (at 12 V) are available. Such a battery backup could supply a 10 A rectifier
for almost two weeks with no recharging.
BATTERIES
The cost of electrical energy from batteries is high. Occasionally, however, they have been
used to supply CP current to isolated sections of well-coated pipe where power lines are
not available and where galvanic anodes will not supply the necessary protective current
at less cost. Figure 10.7 illustrates the use of batteries on a well-coated river crossing.
Note that the ground bed shown in the figure is scrap steel. High silicon cast iron
anodes without carbonaceous backfill may be used also. Graphite anodes or other anodes
backfilled with carbonaceous material are not favored because of the characteristic back
voltage (usually around 2 V) which would have to be overcome with extra battery
capacity.
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208
Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
RIVER
INSULATED
FLANGES
PIPELINE
BATTERY IN
WEATHERPROOF
POLE-MOUNTED „
HOUSING.
SCRAP STEEL
GROUND BED
I I I r
INSULATED
FLANGES
)M
Figure 1 0.7 Battery-powered CP installation.
WIND-POWERED GENERATORS
Wind-powered generators may be used as a source of power in areas where prevailing
winds are of sufficient intensity and duration. Such units were used fairly extensively
in the early days of pipeline CP. However, they are expensive and require quite a lot of
maintenance. Their use for this application has declined with the development of more
cost-effective, reliable power sources, such as solar cells, CCVTs, and thermoelectric
generators. Nevertheless, wind-powered generators may be considered as one method
of providing power for CP systems in remote areas. Because the power output from a
wind-powered generator will be neither steady nor continuous, some means must be
used to assure a steady supply of current to the CP ground bed. This can be done by
using storage batteries.
When designing a wind-powered installation, wind conditions must be evaluated
thoroughly so that both the generator and storage battery can be sized properly. The
storage batteries used must have sufficient capacity to supply the required CP current
throughout the duration of the longest probable windless period. Likewise, the generator
must have sufficient capacity to both supply the CP current and recharge the batteries
during periods of sufficient wind.
Wind-powered generator installations require significant maintenance. Lubrication
of the generator bearings and mounting swivel (unless they are the lubricated-for-life
type) must be scheduled on a regular basis. Generator commutator and brushes as well as
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Gas Turbines
209
slip rings and brushes at the mounting swivel must be checked periodically, cleaned, and
dressed when worn. Storage batteries require close attention to maintain the electrolyte
at the proper level.
GAS TURBINES
Gas turbines can be used to drive DC generators on natural gas pipelines if there is an
adequate pressure drop available. The installation of such a device across a delivery
station is illustrated in Figure 10.8. The gas is diverted to the turbine through a bypass
line and returned to the system without loss. Similar systems can be established at other
locations on gas systems where reasonably constant pressure drops are available, such as
in producing gas fields, at well heads, and on gas transmission pipelines. The principal
disadvantage of gas turbine power sources is the restricted number of locations where
they can be used. For this reason, they are not widely installed.
TRANSMISSION
PIPELINE
INSULATED
FLANGES
PRESSURE
REDUCTION
EQUIPMENT
AT DELIVERY
STATION
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM MAIN
REGULATOR
(WHERE NECESSARY)
«c
■<A>
X
CATHODIC
PROTECTION
GROUNDBED
D-C GENERATOR
'GAS TURBINE
Figure 1 0.8 Gas turbine CP installation.
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210 Cathodic Protection with Other Power Sources
FUEL CELLS
The fuel cell is still another source of DC energy that is subject to intensive development
as a result of space exploration and military applications and, most recently, automotive
applications. In its simplest form, the basic fuel cell can be visualized as a sandwich of
two porous electrically conducting plates (or electrodes) with an electrolyte filling the
space between the plates. A gaseous fuel such as hydrogen is forced through one plate
into the cell, and an oxidizing agent such as oxygen gas is forced through the other plate.
Within the porous electrodes, the fuel and oxidant react electrochemically with the
electrolyte to produce electricity and water. Leads from the two porous electrodes serve
to remove the electricity generated. Cell developments are in the areas of porous elec-
trode formulation, electrolytes, and catalysts that will permit long-term cell performance
at optimum output. Development is active also in the technology of fuel cells that use
fuels other than hydrogen and oxygen. The pipeline corrosion engineer will have an-
other useful DC power source for impressed current CP installations when fuel cells are
developed commercially at practical cost that can use natural gas or propane as fuels.
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Chapter
Stray Current Corrosion
Michael J. Szeliga
The major emphasis of the preceding chapters has been on corrosion and the use of
corrosion control methods to combat it successfully. The stray currents associated with
pipeline corrosion problems are, as the designation implies, direct currents flowing in
the earth from a source other than that associated with the affected pipeline. To cause
corrosion on a pipeline, stray direct current (DC) must flow from an outside source
onto the pipeline in one area and then flow along the line to some other area or areas
where they leave the pipe to reenter the earth (with resulting corrosion) and complete
the circuit by returning to the original DC power source. Stray currents are either static
(nonvarying) or dynamic (varying). Stray current sources include the following: im-
pressed current cathodic protection (CP) systems on other pipelines, DC transit systems,
DC mining operations, DC welding operations, high voltage DC transmission systems
and disturbances of the earth's magnetic field. On occasion, AC current flow to ground
on electrical distribution systems may be rectified if environmental conditions are such
that rectifying junctions can be formed such as certain copper oxide films on copper or
copper jacketed ground rods. The resulting direct current could create a stray current
problem (usually minor) that can be mitigated by the procedures described below for
the more usual sources of stray DC currents.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the fundamentals involved in recognizing,
testing for and correcting stray current corrosion conditions. The ability to deal with such
situations is important to the pipeline corrosion engineer. This is because the magnitude
of stray current discharge from a pipeline at a given point may be far greater than that
of galvanic corrosion currents experienced elsewhere on the line. Failure to correct stray
current discharge, can lead to early pipeline leaks.
STRAY CURRENT FROM CATHODIC PROTECTION INSTALLATIONS
Impressed current CP systems can cause stray current interference on adjacent pipelines
depending on the location of the ground beds, the exact location of the pipeline and the
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Stray Current Corrosion
( '\
'ooopoo
\
I— ^REMOTE
GROUND BED
AREA OF INFLUENCE SURROUNDING
GROUND BED. WITHIN THIS AREA
SOIL POTENTIALS ARE POSITIVE
(+) WITH RESPECT TO REMOTE
EARTH.
RECTIFIER
FOREIGN
PIPELINE.
OR OTHER
METALLIC
STRUCTURE
CURRENT FLOW
FROM FOREIGN
STRUCTURE TO
PROTECTED LINE
IN CROSSING
AREA>
. PROTECTED
PIPELINE
Figure 11.1 Foreign pipeline damage by cathodic
protection installation — case 1.
operating characteristics of the CP system. Figures 11.1 to 11.4 illustrate the conditions
that can result in this type of stray current interference.
Testing for Interference
Testing for static stray DC current interference caused by CP systems is reasonably
straightforward in areas where there are no complications caused by the presence of
FOREIGN PIPELINE
NOT CROSSING
PROTECTED LINE. ^ _
N
N \
\ N i
AREA OF INFLUENCE
■ SURROUNDING THE
GROUND BED.
ENDWISE
C CURRENT FLOW.
j >
ffM^Fn
GROUND '
BED /
— RECTIFIER
CURRENT
DISCHARGE
FROM FOREIGN
PIPELINE IN
REMOTE
AREAS.
P \ \
3
■ PROTECTED PIPELINE
Figure 1 1 .2 Foreign pipeline damage by cathodic protection
installation — case 2.
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Stray Current from Cathodic Protection Installations
213
nV'/ •&>/ ^"/ ^'i, N Vi,
Figure 11.3 Potential gradients in earth around
cathodically protected pipeline.
superimposed dynamic (variable) stray currents from sources such as DC powered tran-
sit systems. Figure 11.5 illustrates an example where an impressed current CP system
(incorporating a rectifier as a DC power source) has been applied to a section of coated
pipeline that has several foreign pipelines crossing it. Assume that at each foreign line
crossing, a test station has been installed, as shown in the detail on the figure, with two
FOREIGN LINE TENDS
TO BECOME POSITIVE
TO SOIL WITHIN AREA
OF INFLUENCE AND IS
FORCED TO DISCHARGE
CURRENT.
■ MOST INTENSE CURRENT
DISCHARGE AND GREATEST
CORROSION DAMAGE TO
FOREIGN LINE IS NORMALLY
AT POINT OF CROSSING.
:&
nV'/
*",
^'1/
X
X
*'>/ $1/ ^'1/ ^ sJ l,
FOREIGN
^ PIPELINE
'7~ T^pp^f "
n\ IDDCMT I / / / , U Vk i * . i t
CURRENT
PICKED UP
BY FOREIGN • • \
PIPELINE \ \
OUTSIDE AREA\
OF INFLUENCE
/
PROTECTED
PIPELINE.
S~ AREA OF
\* INFLUENCE
/ SURROUNDING
PROTECTED
PIPELINE.
Figure 11.4 Effect on foreign pipeline passing through earth
potential gradients around cathodically protected bare line.
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Stray Current Corrosion
FOREIGN FOREIGN
LINE C LINE D
RECTIFIER
GROUND BED
INSTALLATION
PROTECTED LINE
^ UNDER TEST
=ff
£=
CURRENT
INTERRUPTER
INSERTED FOR
TESTS.
"O
RECTIFIER AND GROUND
BED ON FOREIGN LINE
STATION
1765 + 00
=ff
STATION
1815 + 00
^H PIPELINE E
P (OWN PIPELINE)
2 WHITE LEADS
PROTECTED
LINE
Figure 11.5 Testing foreign pipeline crossings for stray current interference from CP
installations.
color-coded leads brought to the test station terminal board from each pipe. An automatic
current interrupter (a device for automatically opening and closing an electrical circuit
at preset time periods) may then be installed in the output of the rectifier as shown.
The interrupter may be set to operate at a cycle such as 20 seconds, current ON, and
10 seconds current OFF, so that the effect of the CP current on the foreign pipelines can be
clearly distinguished. With the current interrupter operating, each foreign line crossing
is visited and the potential of each line is measured under both current ON and current
OFF conditions. For these tests, the copper sulfate electrode (CSE) is placed directly over
the point of crossing. If there is any question as to the crossing location, a pipe locator
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Stray Current from Cathodic Protection Installations 215
Table 11.1 Survey Notes on Stray Current Investigation
Foreign Line
Lgnation & Location
Potential Vs Close (CSE)
Des
(E) Own Pipel
ine, V
Foreig
n Pipeline
,V
Pipeline
With Current
With Current
Name Station
ON
OFF
AV
ON
OFF
AV
A
10 + 00
-0.88
-0.85
-0.03
-0.87
-0.89
+0.02
B
900 + 00
-1.98
-1.02
-0.96
-0.32
-0.68
+0.36
C
1765 + 00
-0.68
-0.64
-0.04
-0.78
-0.78
D
1815 + 00
-0.95
-0.91
-0.04
-0.68
-0.68
should be used to determine exactly where it is. See Chapters 5 and 6 on instrumentation
and techniques for information on equipment and test procedures.
Data taken at the several pipeline crossings of Figure 11.5 may be recorded as shown in
Table 11.1. The data shown in the table illustrate various types of stray current interference
effects that may be encountered. In addition to the data shown for this illustration, field
data sheets should include full information on the line protected, date, current output of
the interrupted rectifier and other pertinent facts. Following are some conclusions that
can be reached from the data as well as notes on supplementary tests that can be made
where appropriate.
Crossing A
Pipeline E (own pipeline) is fully protected, but may have a substantial coating holiday
in the vicinity of the crossing because the potential of the foreign line decreases when the
interrupted rectifier switches from OFF to ON. This indicates that there is appreciable
current flowing to the line under test, creating more negative soil locally around the
foreign line.
The foreign line in this instance appears to be cathodically protected as indicated
because its potential at the crossing, with the line E rectifier turned OFF, is —0.89 V. The
potential of pipeline A becomes less negative (— 0.87 V) when the line E rectifier is ON.
This indicates that the line E rectifier is reducing the protective potential on pipeline A.
However, the reduction is probably not sufficient to suggest a loss of protection. To verify
full protection on line A, additional testing should be performed with the CP system for
the foreign line interrupted while the rectifier for pipeline E is turned ON. The data
indicate that no corrective measures would probably be required for pipeline A.
Crossing B
Pipeline E is fully protected. Pipeline B is not cathodically protected (at least not fully)
because its potential is well below —0.85 V to CSE with the line E rectifier OFF. With
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216 Stray Current Corrosion
the line E rectifier ON, the potential on line B is shifted severely in the less negative
direction, indicating the probability of severe stray current corrosion damage to the
foreign line. Corrective measures will be required to protect line B from stray current
corrosion damage.
From the location of line B, crossing only 1,500 ft from the line E rectifier and its
route carrying into the vicinity of the line E ground bed, the interference can be expected
to result from current pickup by line B where it passes through the area of influence
surrounding the line E ground bed. Two verification tests can be made. First, if the
potential of Line E is the same, or nearly so, with reference to a remote electrode as it
is to the electrode directly over the point of crossing, coating damage on line E is not
probable as was the case at the crossing with line A. Second, if the potential of line B to
an electrode placed directly over it in areas where it approaches the ground bed swings
in the negative direction when the rectifier is switched ON, current pickup by line B is
indicated.
Finally, where interference is found (as in this case) it is necessary to determine if
the actual point of crossing is the point of maximum exposure. This is done by mov-
ing the electrode a few feet at a time, five ft to start, first in one direction and then in
the other away from the point of crossing and directly over line B to see if there is an
area in which the positive delta voltage swing is greater than at the point of crossing.
If such an area is found, the electrode may be moved by smaller distance increments
within this area until the point of maximum exposure is found. Identify the location
and record the ON, OFF and delta voltages at this point. Rarely will it be necessary
to go more than 100 ft in either direction from the point of crossing. The maximum
exposure point may be other than at the point of crossing if soil resistivity varies ap-
preciably in the crossing area or if the coating (if any) on the foreign line varies in
quality.
Crossing C
Line E, at the crossing with line C, is receiving inadequate protection, apparently because
of interference from the CP system for Line C. If the potential of line E is measured to a
CSE that is remote from both pipelines, and this potential is found to be representative
of normal protective potentials (above —0.90 V in this case), the low potential at the
crossing is a localized condition that is probably caused by the CP system on line C.
Corrective measures will be required. The length of the line under test that is below
—0.85 V can be determined by taking readings to an electrode placed directly above line
E in each direction from the point of the crossing with line C. If the data, when plotted,
give a curve similar to that in Figure 11.6, interference from the protection system on
line C is confirmed. Pipeline C, in this case, is not affected adversely by the CP system
for line E. There was no change in the line C potential with the line E rectifier ON
and OFF.
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Stray Current from Cathodic Protection Installations
217
SET UP FOR OVER-THE-LINE
POTENTIAL SURVEY FOREIGN LINE
■ SUBJECT TO
INTERFERENCE
LINE CURRENT
MEASUREMENT
(EAST SIDE)
CURRENT
INTERRUPTER
PROTECTED
PIPELINE
s~
^
PLOT OF OVER-THE-LINE
POTENTIAL SURVEY ON
PARALLEL FOREIGN LINE
CURRENT
DISCHARGE
AREA
DISTANCE IN FEET
Figure 1 1 .6 Testing noncrossing foreign pipelines for stray current interference
from installations.
Crossing D
Pipeline E is protected adequately. Pipeline D does not have full protection but is not
affected by the CP system on the line under test. No corrective action is required.
Another possible situation involving interference can exist with a foreign pipeline that
passes through the area of influence of a rectifier ground bed, but never actually crosses
the protected pipeline. Testing for interference on such a line is illustrated by Figure 11.6.
As shown in the figure, the foreign line can be tested by making an over-the-line potential
profile in the ground bed area. This can be supplemented, if the profile indicates a current
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Stray Current Corrosion
Table 11.2 Survey Notes on Investigation of Interference from Ground Bed
Electrode
Location
Over-the-Line Potentials—
on Foreign Pipeline
-Volts
with Respect to
Rectifier
Rectifier
Starting Point-Ft
ON
OFF
ACSE (1)
Remarks
-0.48
-0.52
+0.04
Exposure
100
-0.58
-0.58
200
-0.64
-0.63
-0.01
300
-0.69
-0.64
-0.05
400
-1.01
-0.69
-0.32
500
-1.20
-0.77
-0.43
600
-1.37
-0.81
-0.56
Opposite
700
-1.18
-0.78
-0.40
Ground Bed
800
-0.99
-0.71
-0.28
900
-0.66
-0.65
-0.01
1000
-0.64
-0.64
1100
-0.57
-0.59
+0.02
Exposure
1200
-0.48
-0.53
+0.05
Exposure
(1) Values to be plotted
Foreign Pipeline
Line Current
Potential Drop
Rectifier ON
Potential Drop
Rectifier OFF
Change in Cal
Potential Drop Interfere
AmV Flow Amp/mV
zulated
nee Current
Measurement
mV^
Flow
mV^
Flow
Amps Flow
West Side
0.62
West
0.08
East
0.70
West 3.8 (2)
2.66 West
East Side
0.53
East
0.02
East
0.51
East 4.1
2.09 East
^ mV readings corrected for lead resistance.
(2) Amp/mV factors for the specific voltage drop span.
pickup area, by pipeline current measurements to determine the magnitude of current
pickup. With an interrupter operating at the rectifier on the protected line, the data might
appear as shown in Table 11.2.
The first set of data in Table 11.2, with highly negative values of delta voltage oppo-
site the ground bed, indicate definite current pickup. The positive delta voltage values
indicate the beginning of a current discharge area. The portion of the foreign pipeline
that is picking up current starts at the 100 ft point and continues to the 1,000 ft location
for a total distance of 900 ft.
The foreign pipeline current flow measurements (second set of data in Table 11.2) in-
dicate definite stray current flow along the pipeline with the rectifier ON. The magnitude
of the current flow indicated is high for this type of interference condition. Serious dam-
age to the foreign line could be expected at an early date if the condition were allowed
to exist without correction.
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How to Reduce Stray Current Interference 21 9
HOW TO REDUCE STRAY CURRENT INTERFERENCE
Some of the methods used to reduce or eliminate stray current interference from CP in-
stallations include bonds between the offending and affected pipelines, use of galvanic
anodes at the point of crossing, use of coatings, and use of electrical shields. In some
instances, the corrective measures required may be so complicated or expensive that
relocating the offending rectifier installation may be the more economical solution. To
illustrate how the various corrective procedures may be used, the examples of inter-
ference described above in "Testing for Interference" will be used to demonstrate the
specific corrective procedures.
Drainage Bonds
Table 11.1 shows that foreign pipeline B is subject to stray current damage from the
impressed current CP system on pipeline E, see Figure 11.5. A commonly used method
to correct this condition involves connecting a resistance bond between the two pipelines
with the amount of resistance in the bond adjusted to drain just enough current from
the affected line to eliminate the damaging condition. Normally, this is done during
cooperative tests with the corrosion engineer representing the foreign pipeline owner
unless the owner has given specific permission to make the bond installation without
representation on his part. Permission should be in writing.
The accurate determination of when the stray current interference effect has been
eliminated is critical. To determine this, the bond is adjusted with the current interrupter
operating at the rectifier on the pipeline causing the interference (as in Figure 11.5)
and with a voltmeter set up to measure the potential of the foreign line to CSE at the
point of crossing (or at the point of maximum exposure if other than at the actual point
of crossing). The bond resistance is made such that the foreign line potential with the
affecting rectifier ON is the same as was observed and recorded for it with the rectifier
OFF prior to the installation of the bond. In other words, the foreign pipeline potential
is restored to its original value. A typical foreign line test point with a bond in place is
illustrated by Figure 11.7, together with the instrument connections for measuring the
pipe-to-soil potentials on affected pipeline.
Assuming that the point of crossing is also the point of maximum exposure in this in-
stance (crossing B, Figure 11.5), the original readings for the foreign line are —0.32 V, ON,
and —0.68 V, OFF. With the resistance bond adjusted properly, the foreign line potential
with the rectifier ON should be -0.68 V.
A method of adjusting bonds frequently used, calls for adjusting the bond resistance
until there is no swing (delta voltage) on the foreign pipeline at the point of maximum
exposure as the affecting rectifier is switched ON and OFF. This no potential shift pro-
cedure has been shown over the years 1 to be ultra conservative in that more current is
drained by the bond than is necessary to clear the interference. Although this does no
harm to the foreign line, the cathodically protected line may be unnecessarily penalized.
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Stray Current Corrosion
BOND TYPICALLY
AN ADJUSTABLE
SLIDE RESISTER
CONNECTED
BETWEEN THE
HEAVY LEAD
TERMINALS FOR
WIRES FROM
FOREIGN AND
PROTECTED
LINES
TYPICAL FOREIGN LINE CROSSING
TEST POINT INSTALLATION.
• TERMINAL BOX MAY BE BURIED,
IF NECESSARY, RATHER THAN
POST-MOUNTED
HIGH RESISTANCE
TEST VOLTMETER
COPPER SULPHATE
ELECTRODE DIRECTLY
OVER FOREIGN LINE
AT POINT OF MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
(TYPICAL)
NO 8 & NO 12
BLACK INSU-
LATED WIRES
FROM FOREIGN
LINE
NO 8 & NO 12 WHITE
INSULATED WIRES
FROM PROTECTED
LINE
FOREIGN LINE
BEING AFFECTED
BY STRAY CURRENT
INTERFERENCE
PROTECTED PIPELINE WITH RECTIFIER
■ (INTERRUPTED) CAUSING INTERFERENCE
ON FOREIGN PIPELINE
Figure 11.7 Bond at foreign pipeline crossing.
Had the foreign pipeline in this example been cathodically protected such that full
protective potentials were lost with the affecting rectifier ON, full return to the origi-
nal potential might not be necessary. Assume that, when the crossing was tested, the
readings were the following: -0.55 V, ON; -0.91V, OFF; +0.36 V, delta voltage. By ad-
justing the bond with the rectifier ON until the foreign line reads —0.85 V at point of
maximum exposure, corrosion would be prevented with no need to return the foreign
pipeline potential to the full —0.91 V. The stray current drainage bond would require
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How to Reduce Stray Current Interference 221
bi-monthly inspections by qualified personnel to verify that it was in place and operat-
ing properly.
Situation Involving Poorly-Coated Line
Table 11.1 shows that the crossing of pipeline E with foreign line C on Figure 11.5 involves
interference conditions which may not be solved with a bond. Test data taken on this for-
eign line suggest that the foreign line causing interference is bare or very poorly coated
at the crossing. Assume, as suggested in proceeding discussion, that the potential of the
line under test is measured to a remote CSE and found to be —0.93 V with its rectifier ON,
even though a value far below this is measured to an electrode placed at the crossing as
a result of the interference. With the rectifier on the foreign pipeline interrupted, the po-
tential of the line under test to the electrode at the point of crossing could have, typically,
values as follows: -0.68 V, ON; -0.91V, OFF; +0.23 V, delta voltage. The ON reading
needs to be corrected to at least —0.85 V to eliminate interference, meaning that if a bond
is used, it will have to drain current from the line under test. If, however, the potential of
the foreign line is measured to the remote reference electrode and found to be, for exam-
ple, only —0.83 V with its rectifier ON, it becomes apparent that a bond between the two
lines will not drain current from the pipeline, as would be necessary to correct the inter-
ference. A bond, under these conditions, would not correct the interference, but would
impose needless additional burden on the CP system for the coated pipeline under test.
Knowing that a relatively high current density that is flowing through the soil onto
the bare foreign line results in a localized reduction in the protective potential on the line
under test, one solution is to reduce the density of current flow to the foreign line in the
crossing area. This may be done with coatings as illustrated by Figure 11.8. By applying
a quality coating to the foreign pipeline causing the interference in the crossing area,
current flow through the soil to the foreign line is reduced greatly. This means that the
voltage drops in the earth (cathodic field) around the foreign line become negligible and
no longer cause a severe local depression of protective potentials on the line under test.
The length of foreign line to be coated can be based on the over-the-line potential profile
on the line under test, as shown in Figure 11.9, which identifies the length of line subject
to interference. Coated lengths of foreign line are equated with the interference profile
length as shown in Figure 11.8.
Use of Galvanic Anodes
Another means of correcting the interference involves the use of galvanic anodes attached
to the line under test through the area subject to interference from the foreign line as
illustrated by Figure 11.10. Basically, this approach involves using the anodic potential
gradient fields surrounding galvanic anodes to offset the cathodic potential gradient
field surrounding the pipeline. For most applications of this type, a single line of anodes
between the affected pipeline and the one causing the interference will be sufficient to
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Stray Current Corrosion
DISTANCE A AND B ARE AREAS
OF DEPRESSED POTENTIALS ON
PIPELINE UNDER TEST PRIOR
TO CORRECTIVE MEASURES
FOREIGN LINE
CAUSING INTER-
FERENCE.
LIMIT OF
POTENTIAL
DEPRESSION
AREA
PROTECTED
PIPELINE
UNDER
TEST
A' AND B\ EQUAL TO DISTANCES
A AND B RESPECTIVELY, REPRESENT
THE LENGTH OF FOREIGN LINE
TO BE COATED.
Figure 1 1 .8 Use of coating to correct interference at foreign pipeline crossing.
o o
I- DC
D_ DC
q_ UJ
D_
CD O
m °
DC ljj
O CO
^ o
(-)
(+)
rm^T^W^^^rE^^
■r-r-r-nETC.
S
FOREIGN
LINE
AREA OF
POSSIBLE DAMAGE
k >
PROTECTED -+ J
BARE LINE
POINT OF CROSSING
WITH PROTECTED
BARE LINE.
DISTANCE IN FEET ALONG FOREIGN LINE
Figure 11.9 Pipe-to-earth potentials on foreign pipeline
passing through area of influence around cathodically pro-
tected bare line.
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How to Reduce Stray Current Interference
223
TEST POINT :
ONE PIPE LEAD AND
LEAD FROM ANODE
BED JOINED BY LINK OR
CURRENT MEASURING
SHUNT OTHER LEADS
FOR POTENTIAL TESTS
PERMANENT
REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
(CSE)
COATED CATHODICALLY
PROTECTED PIPELINE
AFFECTED BY STRAY
CURRENT INTERFERENCE
FROM BARE PROTECTED
LINE
(AREA OF DEPRESSED
POTENTIALS AS A
RESULT OF INTERFERENCE
12"±
FIVE FOOT LONG MAGNESIUM
OR ZINC ANODES, PACKAGED
OR BACKFILLED WITH SPECIAL
FILL
X
k k- 2' ETC. TO 5' MAX
CATHODICALLY PROTECTED
BARE OR VERY POORLY
COATED LINE
HEAVIEST ANODE AT
POINT OF MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
Figure 1 1 .1 Use of galvanic anodes to correct interference at foreign pipeline
crossing.
mitigate the harmful effects of the interference. There still will be current discharge but
the discharge will be from the anodes rather than the previously affected pipeline. Where
potential differences are very great as occurs occasionally with stray current from DC
transit systems or mining substations, several strings of anodes may be required forming
a cage around the affected line. In such a case, however, anode life may be short unless
soil resistivity is high.
As shown in the figure, the heaviest anodes would be used at the point of cross-
ing where the exposure is most intense while lighter anodes may be used elsewhere.
Magnesium anodes are used successfully because they have higher anodic potential
gradient fields than do zinc anodes. The length of the anode string is determined by the
length of the depressed potential area on the affected pipeline. A test point is desirable to
permit measuring anode output periodically and to facilitate potential measurements. In
addition to the normal surface potential measurements, a permanent reference electrode
placed as shown in the figure will permit checking the underside of the affected line
at the point of maximum exposure. A prepackaged, permanent, CSE placed below the
pipeline makes an excellent installation.
Information in proceeding chapters is applicable when working out the design for in-
stallations of this type. Factors to be considered include soil resistivity, voltage difference
between the lines, length of exposure area, and desired life.
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Stray Current Corrosion
Use of Electrical Shield
Where a pipeline passes through the area of influence surrounding a ground bed, it is
possible to reduce the amount of stray current the line will pick up by using electrical
shields. Situations where this may be a solution include examples such as represented by
foreign line B in Figure 11.5 and that illustrated by Figure 11.6. The Figure 11.6 condition
is used to illustrate the application of electrical shields as shown by Figure 11.11.
The reason electrical shields of bare pipe may be useful is that they permit utilization
of the cathodic potential gradient fields surrounding the bare pipe connected to the
rectifier negative terminal. With the foreign line lying between the two shields as shown,
FOREIGN LINE
SUBJECT TO
INTERFERENCE
STRAY CURRENT
PICKUP AREA
\
i .... i
1 o-A— o
MV +
LiHU
GROUND BED
AREA OF
INFLUENCE
PIPELINE CURRENT FLOW
STILL AWAY FROM PICKUP
AREA BUT REDUCED IN
MAGNITUDE WITH SHIELDS
CONNECTED IN CIRCUIT
CURRENT FLOW CAN BE
REVERSED (DESIRABLE)
WITH GALVANIC ANODES
OR BONDS AS SHOWN.
ELECTRICAL SHIELDS-
BARE PIPE PARALLEL
TO AFFECTED LINE
IN PICKUP AREA
►
\ o— o— o
JJtl
:H
MV
LM
LINE CURRENT
MEASUREMENT
GALVANIC ANODES (EACH
SIDE) TO REMOVE RESID-
UAL STRAY CURRENT
RESISTANCE BONDS BACK
TO RECTIFIER NEGATIVE
COULD BE USED ALSO.
RECTIFIER AND
GROUND BED
-PROTECTED PIPELINE
Figure 11.11 Use of electrical shields to reduce stray current interference.
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How to Reduce Stray Current Interference 225
it is completely within the gradient field. This cathodic field is in opposition to the
positive ground bed field. The net result is a reduction in the amount of stray current
picked up by the foreign line. The effect is quite similar to that which has been described
for a coated and cathodically protected pipeline crossing a cathodically protected bare
line, with local loss of protection on the coated line because of a reduction in current
pickup from the soil caused by the cathodic potential gradient field.
The shields shown in the figure will reduce the stray current pickup on the foreign
line, but will seldom eliminate it. Interference current still can be expected to flow away
from the pickup area to remote discharge points at which the pipe will be corroded. This
current flow needs to be reversed. This may be done with galvanic anodes or bonds, as
suggested on the figure, if the shields have reduced stray current pickup to a reasonably
small magnitude.
Using shields as described has many disadvantages. The bare pipe shields connected
to the rectifier negative may consume a large portion of the rectifier current output and
thus possibly reduce protection of the line to which the rectifier is connected. The bare
pipe used as shields may be kept small (3/4-in diameter pipe should be satisfactory in
most cases) to keep the current demands within reason. A shield installation as described
can be expensive to install and expensive to maintain because, probably, a substantial
percentage of the rectifier operating costs will be due to the shields. Because of these
considerations, the pipeline corrosion engineer should consider other alternatives care-
fully before using shields to be sure that it would not be less expensive, in the long run,
to relocate the rectifier and ground bed.
Notification Procedures
An essential part of the pipeline corrosion engineer's job involves cooperating with
owners of other pipelines or buried metallic structures. This is necessary in order that
all parties may plan and operate their corrosion control systems with the least practical
effect on structures belonging to others. Corrosion engineers should, when cathodically
protecting a pipeline, notify all owners of underground structures crossing their pipeline
that a CP system is planned. This should be done before the CP system installations
are made. These foreign structure owners should be given the location, type, and size
of protection installations to be installed in the vicinity of their crossing or crossings.
They should be told when the system is to be energized and they should be invited to
participate in cooperative tests at points of crossing. They may be promised copies of
data taken at their crossings if they do not elect to send a representative for cooperative
tests. They should be asked if they have additional crossings not known to the engineer
issuing the notifications. For clarification, the written notice may be accompanied by a
strip map of the pipeline (or pertinent portions thereof) marked to show the foreign line
crossings of the company being notified and the proposed CP installations in the vicinity
of those crossings.
Some geographical areas, typically large urban areas, have organized corrosion coor-
dinating committees that have established procedures for disseminating information to
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Stray Current Corrosion
companies within their area. The corrosion coordinating committee will typically have
specific notification procedures and possibly specific forms to be filled out and sub-
mitted to impacted utility companies and the committee recording secretary In areas
which are not served by corrosion coordinating committees, the pipeline corrosion engi-
neer will have to determine the appropriate offices of foreign structure owners to which
notifications will be sent.
STRAY CURRENT FROM TRANSIT OR MINING SYSTEMS
Stray current problems on pipelines arising from direct current transit systems and min-
ing operations can be very severe. Solving such problems is more complicated than
treating those discussed in the preceding sections. This is because of the continuously
varying nature of the exposure as the load on the DC power sources varies. This type of
problem is affecting an ever growing portion of the utility operators in North America
because of the widespread construction of new DC powered rail transit systems in urban
areas throughout the continent and the expansion of existing transit systems. The two
types of DC powered rail transit systems that are becoming more common are heavy
rail (the typical subway system) and light rail (the typical street railway). The terms
heavy rail and light rail do not refer to the weight of the transit vehicles. The terms relate
to the general operating characteristics of the rail vehicles. Typically heavy rail transit
systems will operate with greater accelerations, higher speeds, longer trains, and higher
current demands than will light rail transit systems. No such generalities may be made
as to which type of system creates the highest overall levels of stray current activity.
The amount of stray current generated by a specific transit system will depend upon the
resistance-to-earth of the running rails and the level of voltage on the running rails. A
simplified version of the problem is illustrated by Figure 11.12.
TRACKS-
NEGATIVE
LOAD CURRENT REQUIRED OVERHEAD POSITIVE RETURN
TO OPERATE TRAIN /- FEEDER
D-C
SUB-
STATION
mrwmwmwi&wnmwnm
£3
MOVING CURRENT
PICKUP AREA
c
-^or
CURRENT FLOWING AROUND
HIGH RESISTANCE OR
INSULATING JOINT
DISCHARGE AREA SUBJECT
TO CORROSION
Figure 11.12 Stray current corrosion caused by DC transit systems.
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Stray Current from Transit or Mining Systems 227
DC light rail transit systems, as shown in Figure 11.12, are operated normally with
the overhead insulated feeder connected to the positive bus of the DC traction power
substation. The load current which is typically measured in thousands of amperes is
supposed to return to the substation via the tracks (the running rails) which are connected
to the negative bus at the substation. A common operating potential for transit systems
is 750 volts. Because running rails are laid at ground level and are not fully insulated
from earth, some part of the load current will enter the ground where the running rails
are most positive (at the load) and take an earth path back to the substation. The current
which flows through the ground is called stray current. Pipelines in the area constitute
a good return path for a portion of the total stray current. Such a pipeline will carry
the current to a location in the vicinity of the DC substation where it will flow from the
pipeline to earth and return to the negative bus of the substation. Severe pipe corrosion
will result if corrective measures are not used. Where the pipeline is picking up current
near the train, it is receiving CP. In severe cases, the pipe may be many volts negative
to adjacent earth in this area and, at the same time, many volts positive to earth in the
exposure area near the DC substation. If there are high resistance joints in the pipeline, as
shown in Figure 11.12, there may be enough driving voltage to force current to bypass the
joint and corrode the pipe on the side where the current leaves the pipe. It is important to
note that the location where the stray current returns to the negative return system is not
always going to occur in the vicinity of the traction power substations. The stray current
may return at any location on the transit system where the track-to-earth resistance is
low. This means that any evaluation of stray current activity on a pipeline must first
determine the locations of stray current discharge from the pipeline before any possible
stray current control measures may be considered.
As mentioned earlier, the illustration of the Figure 11.12 is a simple condition in-
volving one load (train) and one substation. In actuality, operating systems will have a
number of trains in operation at any one time depending on the traffic load. This means
that the severity of exposure conditions is subject to constant variations that makes the
evaluation of the stray current activity very complex. Ideally, if the transit system run-
ning rails were perfectly isolated from earth, they would return all of the DC current to
the substations and there would be no stray current to affect pipelines in the area. How
closely any given transit system will approach this condition depends on several factors
including the type of negative return system, the type of track construction, the level of
track maintenance, and the overall dryness of the trackwork.
Most new transit systems are designed with ungrounded negative return systems.
The ungrounded negative return system is intended to electrically isolate the return sys-
tem from earth and provides the highest level of stray current control. The ungrounded
transit systems are also typically designed with multiple traction power substations that
are intended to maintain running rail voltages at safe levels. This also helps to reduce
stray current activity by keeping running rail voltages relatively low.
Diode grounded transit systems may have electrically isolated running rails for stray
current control, but the negative return system is deliberately grounded through diodes
at the traction power substations. This allows a relatively high level of stray current
activity. Some transit systems will use diode grounding for running rail voltage control.
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228 Stray Current Corrosion
The running rails and substations are normally isolated from earth. Sensing circuits
monitor the running rail voltages and when preset limits (unsafe voltages) are reached,
switches close that temporarily ground the negative return system though diodes. The
period of time when the return system is grounded will produce relatively high overall
stray current levels.
Grounded transit systems operate with the negative return system permanently con-
nected to earth at the substations. No special measures are typically implemented to
electrically isolate the running rails from earth. High stray current activity is caused by
these grounded transit systems. Typically, it is only the very old, existing transit systems
that are operated with their negative return system deliberately connected to ground.
Old, existing transit systems also have an additional problem that new transit systems do
not have. New transit systems are constructed with welded running rails and insulating
rail joints are installed only at specific locations, such as at crossovers, where they are
required for automatic train control operations. These insulating rail joints are bonded
across with impedance bonds that allow the return of DC current through them while
blocking the AC current of the train control system. Old, existing transit systems were not
constructed with welded running rails. Therefore, each rail joint has bond cables welded
across it to assure proper return of the negative current. If these rail bonds are broken, as
may occur during normal rail operations, then the return current cannot flow through the
bond cables and all of the return current passes through earth. Extremely high stray cur-
rent activity will occur under these circumstances. Old, existing transit systems should
have a program in place to periodically inspect and repair these critical rail bonds.
Underground mining operations that are DC powered have negative return systems
that operate in much the same manner as has been described for transit systems. Because
most of these systems are underground, pipelines will seldom be as close to the running
rails as is the case with surface transit systems. Stray current effects on pipelines can still
be severe in some situations. DC substations may be located underground rather than at
the surface. This can result in problems in applying corrective measures as will be seen
in later sections of this chapter.
Testing for Exposure Areas
Suitable time based recording instruments are critical when locating exposure areas.
The instruments may include paper strip chart recorders or electronic data loggers. Both
types of equipment have advantages and disadvantages for field evaluations. The most
appropriate type of equipment for your particular application should be determined.
Locations where tests may be made are selected from a knowledge of all pipeline routes in
the area as well as those of the transit or mining system. The location of all DC substations
and their operating schedules must be known. Testing should always be performed in the
vicinity of DC traction power substations as these are likely locations for the pipeline to
be in exposure, especially if the substation is grounded. Testing should never be limited
solely to the vicinity of traction power substations as the pipeline may be in exposure in
other locations due to low track-to-earth resistance values on the transit system.
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Stray Current from Transit or Mining Systems
229
Exposure can be experienced on pipelines which do not come close to a DC substation.
If, for example, a pipeline crosses a DC traction system, stray current may be picked up
at the point of crossing as trains pass. This stray current may flow in both directions from
the crossing and discharge at remote locations. If a pipeline parallels a transit line for a
distance, but does not approach a DC substation closely, current will be picked up by the
pipeline as trains pass the parallel section. This current will be discharged from the ends
of the parallel section. In finding its way back to the DC substation, stray current may
jump from pipeline to pipeline at crossings in order to follow the most direct or lowest
resistance path. Therefore, a pipeline that is not in close proximity to a transit system may
cross a pipeline that is. The pipeline that is close in proximity to the transit system may
carry the stray currents to the pipeline that is not in close proximity. Corrosion damage
at these pipeline crossings that are remote from a transit system can be severe. Tests for
exposure should be made at such possible points of current interchange. This emphasizes
the need to know the routes of all foreign lines in an area where conducting tests.
Recording voltmeters are used to measure and record pipe-to-earth potentials at
locations selected for test. The potential will be measured to adjacent earth in most
instances. Changes in the pipe-to-earth potentials are greater per unit of current discharge
on coated lines than on bare lines. Where the pipeline potential becomes more positive
during periods of stray current activity, current discharge is indicated. Experience with
this type of testing is most helpful in planning the recording instrument test program
and when interpreting the data taken.
Figure 11.13 is a representation of the results that may be obtained at a stray current
discharge area on a pipeline adjacent to a transit system. The chart shows that the pipeline
is affected by stray current activity when the transit system is in operation, but that the
pipeline only goes into exposure during the morning and afternoon rush hour periods.
MIDNIGHT
6 AM
6 PM
MIDNIGHT
TIME-HOURS
NOON
Figure 11.13 Pipe-to-earth potential at traction system stray current discharge
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230 Stray Current Corrosion
It becomes apparent from a study of the chart that observation of an indicating meter
for any reasonable period of time is not apt to give a true picture of the full range
of potential variations. The evaluation of the stray current activity indicated on the
chart in Figure 11.13 must focus on the time periods when the pipeline is in exposure.
The duration of the individual exposures must be determined as well as the expected
impact on the pipeline itself. If the pipeline goes into exposure for only very limited
time periods, then the pipeline may not be experiencing corrosion damage and no stray
current mitigation measures may be necessary.
Recording millivolt meters may be used to measure pipeline current on calibrated
pipe spans. Where sufficient test spans exist or can be installed, two or more such record-
ing millivolt meters may be used to record the current flow at adjacent test points in
areas where exposure is suspected. By comparing the charts taken at any two adjacent
test points, current loss in the section may be detected. Current loss between test points
may be determined with indicating millivolt meters also. This necessitates having an
observer at each test point. A series of simultaneous readings are made and compared
to ascertain whether or not current loss is occurring. Although a synchronized timing
schedule, typically using computer data loggers, may be used to obtain simultaneous
readings, direct communication (as by cellular phone) is more reliable and should be
used to verify that the test equipment is actually synchronized.
When working with bare pipe, carefully conducted current loss surveys will indicate
the point of maximum voltage exposure (by showing where current loss is greatest)
unless there is wide variation in soil resistivity. On coated lines, however, the point of
maximum current discharge can be some distance from the point of maximum voltage
exposure. This can happen when the coating at the point of maximum exposure, for
example, is in substantially better condition than at other locations in the area.
Once the general location of the point of maximum exposure has been determined,
it may be pinpointed more precisely by the use of X/Y plotters or two indicating volt-
meters (two identical voltmeters are required to assure consistency of data). This is done
by correlating the pipe-to-earth potential at the test point with the potential between
the pipeline and the transit system negative return. Correlations are made at a series
of locations through the exposure area. At each location, a number of simultaneous
readings are taken at various degrees of intensity of the stray current effect. Carefully
recorded data, when plotted, will fall along a generally straight line. The slope of the
line is a measure of exposure: the greater the slope, the greater the exposure. The calcu-
lated slope at each test point may be referred to as the Beta for that point. The diagram
obtained by plotting the slope, or Beta, against the test point locations may be referred
to as a Beta Profile or an Exposure Profile. The general procedure is summarized by
Figure 11.14.
Because of the possibly very marked and quick stray current variations, it is essential
that indicating instruments of identical characteristics be used in obtaining simultaneous
readings. Rapid response is necessary. If characteristics are not identical, particularly with
regard to response speed, good correlation of simultaneous readings cannot be obtained.
It is obvious that a lot of work is involved in taking and plotting data and obtaining
slopes at each test point to produce an exposure profile. X/Y plotters are available which
will record both values simultaneously and show the line of slope. Where much of this
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Corrective Measures
231
D-C
SUB-
STATION
OVERHEAD FEEDER
SAME INSTRUMENT
SET UP FOR EACH
TEST POINT
E, -VOLTS
TYPICAL PLOT OF
SIMULTANEOUS
READINGS AT A
TEST LOCATION
TEST POINTS
TYPICAL PLOT OF SLOPES THROUGH
SUSPECTED EXPOSURE AREA
Figure 11.14 Locating point of maximum stray current exposure.
type of work is to be done, such instruments will save a great deal of time. High input
impedance and rapid response are essential characteristics to be looked for in selecting
such a recorder.
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Transit System Action
One approach to stray current mitigation involves the elimination of excessive stray
current activity at its source. This involves the assistance of the transit system operator
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232 Stray Current Corrosion
and is often only feasible with the newer, nongrounded transit systems. Most transit
systems have a corrosion engineer on staff or a corrosion engineering consultant available
to deal with these types of stray current interference problems. The utility operator
should request a meeting with the transit system corrosion engineer to review the field
data and discuss what action is available to the transit system. Typically, the transit
system engineer will perform track-to-earth resistance and track-to-earth voltage testing
in the vicinity of the pipeline to determine if a problem exists on the transit system. If a
problem is found to exist, the transit system will usually make the necessary repairs and
the excessive stray current activity may be eliminated. The typical repairs will include
cleaning of wet and dirty trackwork, replacement of damaged track fasteners, removal of
inadvertent contacts between the negative return system and ground, and /or correction
of improper positive system operation. Retesting of the pipeline, after the repair of the
transit system, will have to be performed to verify that the excessive stray current activity
has been mitigated and that any remaining stray current activity is at tolerable levels.
Pipeline Modifications
Another approach to stray current mitigation involves making modifications to the
pipeline to reduce its susceptibility to stray currents and to provide a safe means of
stray current discharge. The modification of the pipeline to reduce stray current activity
maintains all control for the stray current measures directly in the hands of the pipeline
operator.
The first consideration for pipeline modification involves the installation of insulating
joints. The proper placement of insulating joints in a pipeline can dramatically reduce
the overall stray current activity on the pipeline by making the pipeline less susceptible
to stray current pickup and discharge. By installing insulators, the pipeline operator is
increasing the overall resistance of the pipe to earth, thereby reducing its tendency to
pick up stray currents. This approach may require modifications to the CP system for the
pipeline to assure that full protection is maintained on the pipeline after the insulating
joints are installed.
Another possible pipeline modification involves the installation of magnesium an-
odes on the pipeline at the locations where the pipeline is going into stray current dis-
charge. The magnesium anodes can provide a low resistance discharge point for the
stray currents so that no stray current actually discharges directly from the pipeline. The
stray current activity must be carefully re-evaluated after the magnesium anodes are
installed to verify that the stray current is discharging fully from the anodes. If magne-
sium anodes are installed where the pipeline both picks up and discharges stray current,
then the installation of diodes with the magnesium anodes may be necessary to assure
that the anodes discharge stray current, but do not collect stray current. The installation
of magnesium anodes may be required at insulating joints where stray current may be
discharging around the joints.
Another possible pipeline modification involves the installation of a potentially con-
trolled rectifier and impressed current ground bed where the pipeline is going into stray
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Corrective Measures
233
PIPELINE
{EA \
3.C. RAILROAD
IS EXPOSURE AF
1
EXPOSURE AF
(EA
/ .
\
/ .
\
^i 1 —
\ 1 .
^>H
\
v y t^
X f^
X
REFERENCE
POINT OF
MAXIMUM
REFERENCE
ELECTRODE _
ELECTRODE
POINT OF
A.C.
SUPPLY
■ A.C.
SUPPLY
MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
\
POTENTIAL
CONTROLLED
AUTOMATIC
RECTIFIER
GROUND
BED
EXPOSURE
+
)
+
)
)
)
POTENTIAL
CONTROLLED
AUTOMATIC
RECTIFIER
GROUND
BED
(
5
(
c
c
Figure 1 1 .1 5 Use of potential controlled automatic rectifiers for stray current control.
current discharge. The output of the rectifier would automatically adjust itself to supply
additional CP current to the pipeline when stray current was being discharged. This
would maintain acceptable CP levels on the pipeline at all times. This approach is only
effective and feasible if the pipeline has a very limited number of areas where the stray
current is discharging from the pipeline. Figure 11.15 shows a potentially controlled
rectifier installation.
The pipeline should be evaluated to determine if its CP system is operating prop-
erly. It is possible that the existing CP system would be sufficient to overcome the stray
current activity if it were operating properly. The repair of defective rectifiers, damaged
external coatings, defective insulating joints and the removal of any inadvertent con-
tacts to grounded structures may sometimes greatly reduce stray current effects and
eliminate possible stray current damage. Always make sure that everything on the
pipeline is operating as intended and that the CP system is functional before perform-
ing any evaluations to determine what additional stray current mitigation measures are
required.
Stray Current Drainage Bonds
The measure of last resort that may be implemented for stray current mitigation is the
installation of a drainage bond between the pipeline and the transit system negative
return system. Figure 11.16 shows a drainage bond installation. The installation of a
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Stray Current Corrosion
RUNNING RAILS
NEGATIVE RETURN
LOAD CURRENT REQUIRED
TO OPERATE TRAIN
OVERHEAD POSITIVE
FEEDER
D-C
SUB-
STATION
MOVING CURRENT
PICKUP AREA
• BOND ACROSS HIGH
RESISTANCE JOINTS
POINT OF MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
Figure 11.16 Bond between pipeline and DC substation.
drainage bond should only be considered if all other stray current control (on the transit
system) and stray current mitigation measures (on the pipeline) prove ineffective. The
installation of a stray current drainage bond requires a direct connection between the
pipeline and the negative return of the transit system. The connection to the negative
return is made at a traction power substation if at all possible to avoid interfering with
any automatic train control equipment on the running rails. The installation of a drainage
bond should safely drain the stray current from the pipeline. However, it will also result
in a decrease in the transit system's overall negative return resistance-to-earth. This will
result in a significant increase in total stray current activity associated with the transit
system and will probably result in excessive stray current interference on pipelines that
were previously being subjected to only minor stray current effects. This is likely to lead
to the need for additional stray current drainage bonds and the distribution of the stray
current over an ever increasing larger area with an increase in the number of utilities
being adversely impacted by the stray current activity.
The bond must have adequate conductivity to remove all stray current and clear the
exposure condition. In designing a bond, it should have, ideally, just enough conductivity
to clear the exposure. If the conductivity is higher than necessary, more current will be
drained. This may not be harmful to the pipeline to which the bond is connected but
will cause it to become more highly negative to earth than necessary. This may in turn
increase the likelihood of exposure at crossings with other pipelines. If the pipeline being
bonded to the substation is coated, potentials should not be allowed to become more
negative to earth than necessary so that, insofar as possible, coating damage may be
avoided.
Although a bond resistance value may be obtained by installing a temporary cable
and determining the degree of clearance per ampere drained, the resistance may be
calculated using the following expression:
Bond resistance in ohms = (Rp-G /Slope) — Rp-
a)
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Corrective Measures 235
where:
Rp-g is the resistance in ohms between pipeline and ground at point of
maximum exposure.
Slope is the slope (expressed as a decimal) previously determined at
the point of maximum exposure.
Rp-n is the resistance in ohms between pipeline and substation
negative bus.
Resistance values are determined by the ammeter-voltmeter method using an inter-
rupted source of DC current connected between the pipeline and substation negative
bus. The DC current source used must be of sufficient capacity to override the potential
swings caused by the stray current activity. The average of a number of readings will be
required to obtain reliable data. Taking such readings at a time when the load on the sub-
station is at a minimum will facilitate good data. Once the bond cable size is determined,
a trial installation is recommended to determine the impacts on other adjacent utilities
from the installation of a bond. This will allow testing to be performed to determine if
other utilities will require a bond to the pipeline or to the transit system. This testing
may determine that a different size bond cable than that originally calculated will be
required. The bond cable that is installed must have sufficient current carrying capacity
to handle the maximum current drained without burning out.
A simple bond to a DC substation as discussed is ample where that substation is
the only one supplying current to the traction or mining system. If, however, there are
several substations on the system and the one to which the bond is connected is lightly
loaded or out of use during part of each 24 hour period, having the bond permanently
connected becomes a disadvantage. This is because the direction of current flow in the
bond can reverse and feed stray current to the pipeline. This reverse current flow will
increase exposure conditions at other points on the pipeline.
To prevent this reverse current flow, various types of reverse current switches may
be used in the bond cable installed between pipeline and negative bus. These may take
the form of relay-actuated switches which open automatically when the current tends
to reverse. Diodes may also be used to block any reverse current flows. A stray current
drainage bond should always have some kind of device to block the flow of reverse
current. In the event of a change in the transit system operations, the bond should
not be allowed to carry current directly to the pipeline. If this happens, stray current
will be discharged from the pipeline at a location remote from the drainage bond. This
could result in serious corrosion damage on the pipeline. When reverse current blocking
devices of either type are used, allowances must be made in the bond resistance design
for any voltage drop (effective resistance) interposed by the blocking device.
The installation of bond cables between a pipeline and a DC substation is seldom
easy, particularly in urban locations where a practical route for heavy drainage cable
must be selected. A special problem is associated with underground substations on
mining systems. If a bond is unavoidable, it may be necessary to drill a bore hole from
the surface to the mine gallery where the substation is located. This requires careful
selection of the hole location in cooperation with the mine surveyor, and the drilling of
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236 Stray Current Corrosion
a straight hole. Before undertaking such action, however, it is wise to find out how long
the underground substation will remain in its present location. This is because mining
substations are apt to be moved as mining progresses. If it is found that the substation
is to be moved in the near future, the bore hole installation would not be economical.
Underground Corrosion Coordinating Committees
As was discussed under Notification Procedures in the section covering stray current
from CP installations, the pipeline corrosion engineer should utilize the services of the
underground corrosion coordinating committees. By attending committee meetings reg-
ularly, the engineer will have advance information pertaining to any changes in stray
current sources or corrective action by others which may have an effect on the engineer's
own system.
Stray Current from Magnetic Disturbances
Occasionally, varying pipe-to-soil potentials and /or pipeline currents will be encoun-
tered in areas where there is no known source of man-made stray direct current. These
pipe-to-soil variations usually are associated with disturbances in the earth's magnetic
field. Such disturbances have been found most active during periods of severe sun spot
activity. Stray current from this source is termed telluric. The reason for the effect on
pipelines may be associated with the buildup and collapse of the earth's magnetic field
in the area of the pipeline. In an electric generator, voltage is produced by passing an
insulated conductor through a magnetic field in such a manner that the conductor cuts
the magnetic lines of force. Likewise, a voltage is generated on a pipeline due to the
variations in the earth's magnetic field along the pipeline route.
Telluric effects may be identified with recording instruments. A 24-hour record of
pipeline current or pipe-to-soil potential, if the effect is telluric, will not show any iden-
tifiable pattern as is the case when the stray current is of man-made origin. Fortunately,
although occasionally intense, telluric current effects on pipelines are seldom of long
duration and may not even be localized at specific pickup or discharge areas for any
length of time. For this reason, corrective measures are not often required. Should areas
be found, however, where the condition occurs frequently enough and is of serious inten-
sity, corrective measures discussed earlier in the chapter may be adapted to counteract
the telluric effect.
REFERENCES
R. L. Seifert, Practical Interference Current Testing on Underground Metallic Structures, Materials
Protection and Performance, Vol. 11, 41 October 1972.
M. J. Szeliga, ed., Stray Current Corrosion: The Past, Present and Future of Rail Transit Systems,
NACE International, Houston, TX, 1994.
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Chapter
j
Construction Practices
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Areas covered in this section that apply to the overall corrosion control program include
pipeline coatings, test points, cased crossings, insulated joints, galvanic and impressed
current cathodic protection (CP) installations, and inspection requirements.
PIPELINE COATINGS
Pipeline coatings were detailed in Chapter 2. Although precautions to be observed were
discussed in that chapter, additional points applicable specifically to construction are
described below.
Handling Mill Coated Pipe
If mill coated pipe is used, start at the mill to verify that all coating steps are strictly
in accordance with the specifications established. This includes surface preparation,
priming, application of specified coating materials, holiday tests and holiday repairs,
and yard racking of the coated pipe. Check also to see that the pipe is handled carefully
during loading out for truck or rail delivery so that coating damage will be at a minimum.
Also see that coated pipe lengths are padded adequately and secured solidly on rail cars
or trucks so that damage cannot develop under normal shipping conditions. Shipping
requirements should be covered by careful specifications designed to accomplish the
desired result.
If shipping is by rail, the coated pipe either will be transferred from the rail cars
directly to trucks or will be placed first in field storage and then loaded onto the trucks.
Again make sure that the coated pipe is handled and protected with care and arrange
for specifications that will cover every phase of this work.
When trucks arrive at the job site, facilities must be available for placing the coated
pipe on the ground — not dumping it directly from the truck. Coated pipe should not be
237
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placed directly on the ground unless the ground is free of material that could damage
the coating. Preferably it should be placed with skids or supports under the bare pipe
ends where the coating has been cut back; this is seldom possible, however, because
of pipe length variation. The best alternative is the use of supports padded properly
to prevent damage to the coating. Check with the coating manufacturer for padding
recommendations as well as the number of layers permissible in the pipe pile.
Lengths of mill coated pipe should be handled with belt slings or end hooks. Chains
or cables around the coated pipe must not be permitted. Belt slings must be wide enough
so that they will bear the full pipe weight without distorting the coating. End hooks (one
to engage each end of the pipe using a cable sling and spreader) must be designed so
that the pipe ends will not be distorted by their use. If a length of coated pipe is handled
with a single belt sling, its swing should be restricted with ropes or other suitable means
to prevent accidental swinging into equipment with attendant coating damage.
When coated pipe is taken from the ground after stringing for lining up and welding
into the pipeline, it usually will be laid up on skids under coated portions to free the
ends for welding. Suitable padding must be used between the coating and timber skids
to avoid damage.
Pipe Coating over the Ditch
In addition to making sure that the coated pipe is handled as carefully as described for
mill coated pipe, the corrosion engineer must verify that the coating application is in
strict accordance with tight specifications as was discussed in Chapter 2.
This applies to every phase of pipe cleaning, priming and application of coating
materials such as cold applied tapes, wax coatings, heat-shrink sleeves, and wraps. Be
sure materials are handled carefully in the field. They must be kept free of dirt and other
foreign matter. Wrapping material must be kept dry.
The manufacturer of coating materials should have a technical advisor on a pipeline
project. If problems develop under unusual application conditions, the advisor should
be consulted at once. Advisors are interested in how their material performs and will be
able to recommend application or material modifications to meet the special situation
encountered.
Holiday Detection and Repair
Refer to Chapter 2 for further information on the use of holiday detectors. This is an im-
portant part of the over-all coating procedure. The corrosion engineer should be assured
that detector operators are trained properly in the use of the equipment and that they
are using appropriate procedures to verify adequate detector performance at all times.
Because the holiday detector test usually is the last opportunity to verify coating
integrity before it is backfilled, this test must be thorough with all holidays well marked
for repair. If the coated pipe is laid up on skids prior to lowering into the ditch, be sure
that the pipe is checked after lifting from each skid.
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Test Point Installations 239
The holiday repair crew is as important as the holiday detection crew. Those making
such repairs must be trained to repair coating defects properly and apply the repair
materials in such fashion that the repaired holiday will be as strong, electrically and
mechanically, as the original coating. Preparation includes removing broken and dis-
bonded material and, for best performance when working with enamel or other thick
coatings, feathering the edges of the break with a draw knife or equivalent tool. This
assures a better bond between the repair materials and the original coating. If there is an
outer wrap, it must be removed from around the break to obtain good bonding of repair
materials at the overlap. The repair materials themselves must be handled carefully and
in accordance with good coating practice.
Good Practices Save Money
Good coating construction practices produce results. Insistence on good coating pro-
cedures from the beginning of construction should be the function of the responsible
corrosion engineer.
TEST POINT INSTALLATIONS
Test points are the best means of electrically examining a buried pipeline to determine
whether or not it is cathodically protected as well as making other tests associated with
corrosion control work. Types of test points needed have been mentioned in preceding
chapters. To serve their purpose over the years, these test points must be convenient to
use and must be so constructed to minimize future damage to the test station.
Types of Test Points
Test point types by function are illustrated in Figure 12.1. The types shown are not neces-
sarily representative of any particular standard but are intended to represent the variety
that may be encountered. A color code is shown to illustrate a system whereby leads
may be identified. Whatever color code is adopted should be made standard throughout
your pipeline system.
The two-wire potential test point is the one used most frequently. Two wires make it
possible to check pipe-to-earth potential with one while test current is being applied to
the line (if desired) using the other.
The four-wire insulated joint test point permits measuring pipe-to-earth potentials
on each side of an insulated joint. The second pair of heavier gauge wires are available
for inserting a resistance or solid bond across the insulated joint if necessary.
The four-wire calibrated line current test point permits accurate measurement of
pipeline current flow as discussed in Chapter 5.
The six-wire combination insulated joint and line current test point is useful, particu-
larly at terminal insulated flanges, because it permits positive measurement of current
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Construction Practices
WHITE
INNER WIRES HEAVIER
GAUGE THAN
OUTER WIRES
rP^
YELLOW ?
BLACK -f>
il&>&/&>£'/W$'W>£V& / 4->Z&g r K7W
BLUE OR
GREEN
CR
HlK 3'-H h
— WHITE
FLOW-
TO
MEASURED SPAN
K-3'
POTENTIAL
TEST POINT
INSULATED JOINT
TEST POINT
4-WIRE CALIBRATED
LINE CURRENT TEST POINT
YELLOW
BLACK
WHITE
WIRES CLOSEST
TO JOINT TO BE
HEAVIER GAUGE
-H MEASURED SPAN K NJJ
COMBINATION INSULATED JOINT
AND LINE CURRENT TEST POINT
WHITE 7
MOMENTARY
, CONTACT
SWITCH
* RED
_s
A PACKAGED COPPER COPPER
C~^ SULFATE (CSE) REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
INDICATING VOLTMETER
TEST POINT
BLACK
HEAVIER WIRE
BLACK
^
.^1— SHUNT
WHITE
rm&Tmgwg
A
■RED
WMWl8 f &J&S
ANODES
V\
FOREIGN LINE CROSSING
TEST POINT
Figure 1 2.1 Typical types of test station.
GALVANIC ANODE
TEST POINT
flow through an insulated flange should the flange become totally or partially shorted
for any reason. Likewise, it will measure the current flowing through a solid or resistance
bond should such measurement be necessary. One heavier gauge wire is provided on
each side of the insulated joint for bonding purposes (if required).
An indicating voltmeter test point is installed at key points on some systems. These
meters may be read by operating personnel on a routine basis and the indicated values
recorded and reported to the corrosion engineer. As shown in Figure 12.1, a voltmeter
may be connected between the pipe and a reference electrode suitable for underground
service.
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Test Point Installations
241
The foreign line crossing test point provides two wires to each line. One wire is
used for potential measurements or other tests as required while the other (the heavier
gauge wire) is available for installing a bond when needed. It should be noted that
test wires should never be attached to another company's pipeline unless the pipeline
owner authorizes it. Further, many companies will allow such attachments only if made
by their own personnel or if their own representatives are present while the attachments
are being made.
The galvanic anode test point is typically used primarily in connection with anodes
at one location. Such a test point is shown in greater detail in Chapter 9 (Figure 9.9).
Test Point Construction
Test points should be located where they will be as convenient as practical for the corro-
sion engineer. While some type of post mounting is preferable, in some areas test points
may have to be in grade level boxes or even buried.
Typical methods of mounting above-ground test points are illustrated by Figure 12.2.
Terminal boxes used should be of heavy cast metal construction to resist gunfire —
test points in rural areas become convenient targets. Many terminal boxes and match-
ing terminal blocks are available commercially. Terminal blocks obtained to fit the
box selected should have heavy studs (at least 0.25 in) of solid brass (may be nickel or
TERMINAL BOX
(COVER REMOVED)
REDUCING
FITTINGS IF
NECESSARY
2" GALVANIZED
STEEL CONDUIT
4"x4"x6" TREATED
WOOD POST
r\
18x18x6
CONCRETE
SLAB CAST
AROUND PIPE
AT GRADE
LEVEL
TERMINAL BOX
SELF-SUPPORTED
CONSTRUCTION
TACK WELD
STRAP TO
VENT OR
TACK WELD
CONDUIT TO
VENT
3/4" OR
LARGER
GALVANIZED
STEEL
CONDUIT
CONDUIT
BUSHING
VENT PIPE
POST-SUPPORTED
CONSTRUCTION
VENT-PIPE-SUPPORTED
CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1 2.2 Typical types of above grade test stations.
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Construction Practices
REMOVABLE COVER
-2 • <3 ■
TERMINAL —
BLOCK
LEAD
BLOCK
HOUSING -
STREET PAVING
■ OR 18"x18"x6"
CONCRETE BLOCK
TO PIPELINE
Figure 1 2.3 Typical at-grade types of test stations.
cadmium plated), with hex nuts and washers. If a rigid steel conduit is used it should be
reamed carefully after cutting to length to remove all sharp edges and a conduit bushing
should be installed at the lower end as shown. Each wire terminated in the box should
have at least 12 in of slack coiled as shown. The last two requirements are necessary to
prevent the insulation from being cut through or having them pulled off the terminals in
case the wires are subjected to tension by backfill settlement. Where a test point conduit
is tack welded to vent pipes or other steel structure, all welding should be done before
wires are pulled in so that there will be no heat damage to insulation.
Test points installed at grade level may use an arrangement such as that illustrated
by Figure 12.3. In its simplest form, the grade-level test point uses a common street valve
box with a cover that has test wires coiled and left in the box with their ends taped to
avoid contacts. Terminal boards may be made to fit such boxes. Test point boxes are
available, however, which are manufactured specifically for this purpose and include
covers identifying them as such. Some designs are completely watertight.
When installing grade level test points, ample wire slack (typically 18 in) should
be left in the housing below the terminal panel to allow for backfill settlement and for
withdrawing the terminal panel should it be necessary during test work. Each grade level
terminal box should be located precisely with respect to permanent reference points and
entered on pipeline maps or other permanent records. This is necessary to avoid time
loss in searching for the boxes when they are covered with grass, weeds, dirt or snow,
or pavement renewals.
Buried test points may be installed as shown in Figure 12.4. A water tight box as
illustrated is preferred. A protective plank should be placed directly above the box
and wires as seen in the figure to prevent damage to the wires when excavating the
box for test.
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WATER TIGHT
STUFFING BOX
TEST WIRES WITH
SUFFICIENT SLACK
TO PERMIT BRINGING
TEST BOX TO SURFACE
FOR TESTS
> BELOW FLOW DEPTH
TREATED WOOD PLANK
ABOVE BOX AND WIRES
WATER TIGHT BOX WITH
TERMINAL BOARD
PIPELINE
Figure 1 2.4 Typical buried type of test stations.
Because of the time required for excavating buried test points, they should be used
only when there is no alternative. Where possible, it may be preferable to extend leads
several hundred feet to a point where an above-ground test point can be installed. This
test site must be located precisely with respect to permanent landmarks and the location
information recorded where it will be available when tests are made.
Test Wires and Pipeline Connections
Test wires for potential measurements are sized for mechanical strength rather than elec-
trical requirements. As a guide, No. 12 American Wire Gauge (AWG) single conductor
stranded wire with 600 V insulation suitable for this service under normal conditions
should be used. Such wire may be procured in the various colors needed for test point
color coding. For heavier gauge wire shown in some of the sketches in Figure 12.1, No. 6
or No. 4 AWG wire is satisfactory unless the test points are in severe transit or areas of
stray current where the wires may carry very large currents. Wire sizing in these cases
will depend on experience in similar situations.
If it should be necessary to splice test wires during installation, twisted or bolted
splices should not be permitted because they may develop high resistance in time.
A soldered splice is preferable, using a good grade of 60-40 lead-tin solder with a
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Construction Practices
GRAPHITE MOLD.
SEE MANUFACTURERS
DATA FOR SIZE AND STYLE
FLINT GUN FOR
IGNITING POWDER
BARED END OF TEST
WIRE INSERTED IN
MOLD. MAY REQUIRE
REINFORCING SLEEVE.
SEE MANUFACTURERS
INSTRUCTIONS.
REMOVE EXCESS
SLAG AND TEST
WELD WITH HAMMER
FOR GOOD BOND.
REMAKE IF FOUND
DEFECTIVE.
COATING MUST COMPLETELY
SURROUND ALL EXPOSED
COPPER NO VOIDS ARE
PERMITTED. N
■ REMOVE COATING AND CLEAN
PIPE TO BRIGHT STEEL WITH FILE
WHERE CONNECTION IS TO BE MADE
Figure 1 2.5 Wire connections to pipe.
COATING PATCH OVERLAPPING
k EXISTING COATING AND
INSULATION ON WIRE.
noncorrosive flux. The splice should be insulated by rubber and plastic tape with the
wrapping overlapping the wire insulation sufficiently to render it water-tight.
Test point wires should be so placed that they will not be subjected to excessive
strain and damage during backfill operations. Care taken in installation will avoid wire
breakage requiring expensive re-excavation for repair. Damage of this nature is most
likely to occur where wires are extended along the pipe (as are remote wires for a 4-wire
calibrated test point) to reach the test point terminal box. In such instances, the wires
may be placed under the pipe as far as they will go before backfilling or they may be run
along the top of the pipe and adhered to the pipe with a continuous strip of self-adhesive
tape that will also serve to give the wires added mechanical protection.
Permanent low resistance connections are required between test wires and pipeline.
Usually these are made using an exothermic welding processes. Currently, practice favors
limiting the size of the powder charges to 15-gram when working on high pressure steel
lines to minimize localized stresses in the pipe steel caused by the welding heat. The
15-gram charge is adequate for smaller wire sizes. For sizes larger than No. 4, it may be
necessary to separate the wire stranding into two or more bundles and powder weld
each bundle to the pipe separately. Coating repair is important after wire connections are
made. Manufacture literature should be referenced to determine proper powder charge
for type and size of pipeline. The essential features of exothermic weld connections and
coating repair are shown in Figure 12.5.
Planning a Test Point Location
Prior to construction, the corrosion engineer should study the proposed route and de-
termine the number and types of test points needed. The location and type designation
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245
of each test point should be included on pipeline construction drawings so that they will
be installed as part of the pipeline construction.
On well coated-pipelines, it is good practice to have four-wire calibrated test points
at 3 to 5-mile intervals for measurement of line current and pipe-to-soil potential. In-
termediate two- wire test stations should be placed at a minimum of 1/2-mile intervals
to a maximum of 1-mile intervals along the pipeline route. Additionally, test points are
needed at foreign line crossings, buried insulated joints, and at cased crossings. Test
stations should be placed where they will be readily accessible during routine tests.
INSTALLING AND TESTING CASED CROSSINGS
As discussed in Chapter 5 it may be necessary that casing pipe used at road and rail-
road crossings be electrically insulated from the carrier pipe for adequate CP. Materials
are available from a number of manufacturers that make it possible to accomplish this
effectively.
Materials
The basic insulating material requirements are shown in Figure 12.6. Insulating spacers,
as illustrated in the figure, consist of some type of insulating skid which are strapped
^
__^l.
^
VENT PIPE
ROADWAY
Zx
?W
INSULATING SPACER SEPARATING PIPE
FROM CASING. NUMBER TO BE USED
DEPENDS ON CASING LENGTH.
JUL
HL.
WW7&W'
INSULATING END
SEAL SECURED TO
PIPE AND CASING.
Figure 1 2.6 Casing installation requirements.
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around the pipe through the casing at specific intervals. The various commercially avail-
able types of casing insulators range from all-plastic types to models having insulated
blocks secured to steel bands (which may be rubber or plastic lined). Skids should be
evenly spaced (typically 10 ft max), so that when the carrier pipeline is pulled into the
casing, the end insulating spacers will be close to the casing end as shown in the Figure
12.6. Follow manufacturer's recommendations for the number and size of insulating
spacers. Top quality materials and careful attention to installation are essential, since
stresses on the insulator during installation can be very large. This is particularly true
when working with the larger pipe sizes at long-cased crossings. If, during the pulling-in
operation, a casing insulator is by accident snagged badly on the casing end, it should
be replaced before continuing the installation. After pulling the pipe into final position,
if the end insulators are not close to the casing end (such as within 3 ft) additional
spacers should be slid into position at the casing ends to maintain positive electrical
separation.
End seals shown in the Figure 12.6 are commercially available in various designs.
Most designs are arranged to provide a tight, yet flexible, seal between pipe and casing,
and most seals are watertight. The style illustrated is typical of synthetic rubber sleeves
sized to fit the pipe and casing and strapped to them.
The casing must be prepared properly before the carrier pipe is pulled into it. Welds
should be smooth on the inside to prevent damage to insulating spacers. The casing
needs to be straight and in round so the carrier pipe, with spacers affixed, can be pulled
in without binding. All debris must be removed. If vent pipes are set after the carrier
pipe is pulled, burning a hole in the casing may damage the carrier pipe coating, and
if the coupon resulting from cutting the hole is allowed to fall into the casing, a short
circuit from pipe to casing could result. All welding and hole burning should be done
before pulling the carrier pipe.
Test Method for Cased Crossings
After a cased crossing has been completed, it should be checked for adequate insulation
before backfilling. Defects can be repaired at that time at a lesser cost than following the
completed pipeline installation.
A method of testing cased crossings on completed pipelines is to compare the pipeline
potential to soil with the casing potential to soil (electrode at the same location for both
tests). A difference in the readings is a qualitative indication of satisfactory insulation
between the two pipes. Details of this testing procedure are found in Chapter 5.
Do not use a welding generator to test casing insulation during construction by con-
necting it between the pipe and casing. If the casing is insulated properly, the generator
will not pass current and no harm will be done. If, however, there should be a short, suf-
ficient current may flow to cause a burning effect on the pipe, which could be dangerous
in the case of high pressure lines.
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WHITE
TEST POINT
- TERMINAL -
BLOCKS
O O O Uo
WHITE
m^FT^^^j^^j^^^^f^^j^m^^:
o o
GREEN
^ G
TWO-VENT CASINGS
(1)
ONE-VENT CASINGS
(2)
NO-VENT CASINGS
(3)
Figure 1 2.7 Casing test point installations.
Cased Crossing Test Points
The ease with which cased crossings may be tested depends on the type of test point
installed. Some suggestions on casing test points are included in Figure 12.7. Although
vent pipes may be used in Cases (1) and (2) to indicate whether or not the casing is shorted
by using the potential method described above, resistance measurements cannot be made
for quantitative results and, if a contact exists, little can be done to locate the fault. To test
the nonvented casing (Case 3), test wires are required for routine tests to avoid having
to use probe rods to contact the casing.
The four-wire test points (vent pipe serves as one wire in Cases 1 and 2) permit
accurate resistance measurements. The additional wire, vent pipe, or probe rod contact
at the opposite end of the casing makes it possible to locate the position of a short circuit,
should one develop, as discussed in the next section.
Locating Short Circuits in Casings
If a cased crossing becomes shorted in service, being able to identify by testing where
the short circuit is located, will save much time and money. This testing can be done
as illustrated in Figure 12.8. As shown in the figure, battery current measured with
an ammeter is passed between the pipe and casing. This current will flow along the
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Construction Practices
TEST BATTERY
AND AMMETER
VENT PIPE, TEST
WIRE, OR PROBE
Figure 1 2.8 Casing short location.
casing to the point of short circuit where it will transfer to the pipe and return to the
battery. A millivoltmeter connected between the two ends of the casing will indicate a
value dictated by the measured current flowing through the casing resistance within the
casing length, which the current actually flows through. The casing size and thickness,
or weight per foot, must be known so that its resistance can be estimated using Table 5.3
in Chapter 5.
As an example, assume that the casing in Figure 12.8 is 26-inch pipe, 0.375-in wall
thickness and that the span bridged by the millivoltmeter connection is 80 ft. The resis-
tance per foot is 2.82 x 10~ 6 ohms per foot. The resistance of the 80 ft span would be
225.6 x 10 -6 ohms. If the battery current flowing is 10 A and the millivoltmeter reading
(corrected for lead resistance) is 1.6 mV, the distance traversed by the current would be
the following:
Length =
1.6 x 10- 3 V
10 A x (2.82 x 10- 6 ) ohms/ft
= 57 ft
The short circuit is 57 ft to the right of the voltmeter connection from the left hand end
of the casing.
If a short circuit is found more than a few feet in from the ends of the casing (as in
the example), it may be very difficult or impractical to clear. Fortunately, many shorts
are found at the casing ends where they may be cleared without too much trouble.
In some instances if care is not exercised in placing test leads, an apparent defective
casing is actually a short circuit between one of the pipeline test leads and either the
casing or vent pipe. Test lead shorts can result if the test wires are wrapped around the
vent pipe and subsequently subjected to enough strains to cut through the insulation on
the wire.
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INSULATED JOINTS
Insulated joints are almost always required in cathodically protected piping systems.
On transmission lines, for example, they are used to separate the pipeline electrically
from terminal facilities and pumping systems. They may be used also to divide the
line into sections so that failure of CP systems or development of contacts with other
structures or sections of the pipeline will reduce the loss of protection to an adjacent
section. These sections may be reasonably long under normal conditions with distances
of 25 to 50 mi being satisfactory. If, however, there are areas where stray currents from
mining, traction, or other systems are a problem, closely spaced insulating joints may be
helpful in controlling stray current pickup and discharge.
The corrosion engineer should examine proposed construction plans to be sure that
adequate provision has been made for placement of insulating joints. The location of
insulated joints in such areas will depend on the engineer's knowledge or investigation
of areas where stray current influence may be expected.
In planning points of insulation, care must be taken that all possible current paths
are insulated. For example, 30 in main line with an insulated flange at a line terminus,
can be rendered ineffective by an noninsulated quarter inch instrument line bypassing
the flange. Either insulated flanges, or reassembled insulating assemblies, can be used
for high pressure line work.
In distribution system piping work, insulated joints maybe used to separate the sys-
tem into smaller areas for CP purposes. The size of the areas planned will depend on the
amount of underground congestion with other pipeline facilities. In downtown sections
where underground facilities are dense, individual insulated areas may be limited to
a few square blocks. In outlying areas where underground congestion is not great, the
insulated areas may be much larger. Separation of areas facilitates maintenance trouble
shooting in the event of contact development.
Field assembled or preassembled insulated flanges, or insulated mechanical joints
may be used on distribution mains and large service lines. Residential size service lines
may be insulated at the meter with various commercially available devices such as
insulating bushings, unions, meter bars, meters with insulating swivels, and so forth.
Service insulation at the main (if necessary) may be by insulating main tapping fittings,
bushings, mechanical couplings, and other kinds of insulation.
Insulated Flanges
The general features of the usual insulated flange assembly are illustrated by Figure 12.9.
Flange insulating kits are available from corrosion control supply companies to fit all
standard sized flanges. Standard flange bolt holes are 0.125 in larger than standard bolts.
Full length insulating sleeves, as shown in the figure, will fit satisfactorily if flanges are
aligned properly.
If it is necessary to insulate an existing flange without taking the line out of service, this
may be done if the existing gasket is a reasonably good insulating material. Metallized or
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Construction Practices
INSULATING GASKET
INSULATING WASHERS
NOTE: ALL STUDS
INSULATED SIMILARLY
TO THAT SHOWN
INSULATING SLEEVE ON STUD
EXTENDS INTO, BUT NOT ALL
THE WAY THROUGH, EACH
INSULATING WASHERS
NUT STEEL
\ V~ WASHER
INSULATING
WASHER-^ r
I i I i I i I i I i I i I i I i I i I i I i I
INSULATING
WASHER
2^
r
STUD
T
INSULATING
SLEEVE
L
STEEL
WASHER
Figure 1 2.9 Insulated flange assembly.
graphite-impregnated gasket materials normally will make it impossible to insulate the
flange without taking it out of service. Assuming that the existing gasket is satisfactory,
one bolt may be removed at a time, insulated, and replaced until all bolts have been
so treated. Existing flanges, however, are not likely to be sufficiently aligned to permit
installing full length insulating sleeves on standard bolts. In this event, insulating and
steel washers, and a half-length insulating sleeve may be used on one flange only. The
half length sleeve will extend from partway through the insulating washer through the
flange being insulated but short of the companion flange. An alternate procedure is to
use smaller bolts of higher strength steel such that these smaller bolts with full length
insulating sleeves will pass through the misaligned flanges permitting full bolt insulation
as illustrated in Figure 12.9.
For new construction, the best practice is to assemble and test the insulated flange
before welding it into the line. Shop fabrication and testing allows for perfect flange
alignment to be maintained so that undue stresses on insulating materials (particularly
the insulating sleeve) will be minimized. Shop fabricated insulated flanges can be tested
using a simple ohmmeter. Resistance values in the megohm range should be measured
between flanges to indicate proper insulation. The full bolt insulation procedure shown
in Figure 12.10 can also be used.
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STORAGE BATTERY
Figure 12.10 Shop testing of Insulating Flanges.
Testing Insulated Joints
When an insulated joint is placed in a pipeline with a substantial amount of pipe on
either side of the joint, a simple resistance measurement across the joint may read just
a few ohms (or even a fraction of 1 ohm), even though the joint resistance was several
million ohms just prior to installation. This method should not be used. The resistance
measured with the joint in place consists of two parallel resistances: (1) the joint resistance
and (2) the resistance to earth of the pipeline on one side of the joint plus the resistance
to earth of the pipeline on the other side of the joint. The resistance measured across a
joint, then, (even with perfect joint insulation) will be governed predominantly by the
amount of pipe on either side of the joint, the quality of coating (if any), and the average
soil resistivity along the pipelines.
More indicative testing of insulated joint effectiveness involves interrupting the
CP current source (or test current applied from a temporary d.c. source) on one side
of the insulated joint and measuring the potential to a remote copper sulfate elec-
trode. If the joint is effective, the potential on the side with the CP source will change
with a positive shift as the current source is interrupted. The unprotected side will
remain constant or move in the negative direction. If the measurements are made to
a close electrode over or alongside the insulated joint additional information may be
gained. For example, if the pipe on the unprotected side swings in the positive direction
when the interrupter turns the current source ON (even though there may have been
little or no change with respect to the remote electrode), it is an indication that current is
flowing through the earth around the insulated flange. This may be a result of defective
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coating or excessive voltage drop across the flange. Another test is to utilize an insulator
tester, which is commonly available. These instruments allow direct measurement of the
insulating flange integrity.
If an insulated flange is found defective, it may be possible to repair it without taking
the line out of service. This depends on whether the insulating gasket is shorted across or
whether it is an insulated bolt sleeve that is broken down. If it is the latter, the shorted bolt
may be removed and the insulation replaced. Determining where the trouble is can be ac-
complished by checking each bolt electrically. If flange bolts are fully insulated per Figure
12.9, an insulator tester should be used to check resistance between pipeline and each bolt.
Bolts that are shorted will have zero or low resistance to the pipe. If all bolts have a high
resistance to the pipe, a shorted gasket is probably the problem. This assumes that any
possible bypassing piping on each side of the flange has been identified and insulated.
In the case of a shorted insulated flange having bolts insulated on one side only, the
ohmmeter test will not be acceptable because all bolts will have low resistance to the
pipe. Use an insulator checker to identify whether the bolts are shorted or the flanges
are shorted.
Grounding Cells for Insulated Joints
Protective devices may be required where insulated joints are subject to damage from
lightning-initiated high potential surges. This may be more probable where pipelines
closely parallel high voltage electric transmission lines as when a pipeline is installed in
the same right-of-way. In such instances, a lightning-initiated fault may cause very high
voltages to be induced in the pipeline. If these high voltages are developed across an
insulated joint they may cause the joint to arc the current from the lightning flow for a
short time. Typically insufficient energy (except in rare cases) is expended to cause the
joint to weld across the flange.
Standard lightning arresters may be used effectively. A voltage rating should be
selected that will provide adequate protection for the insulation level in the insulating
joint being used. Arresters having too high a voltage rating might not divert the high
potential appearing across the joint before the insulation fails.
Another protective measure is the grounding cell which combines voltage surge pro-
tection with a degree of CP on the unprotected side of the insulating joint. A grounding
cell may be constructed as shown, in principle, in Figure 12.11.
Constructed with zinc anodes as illustrated in Figure 12.11, a grounding cell will
have a value of resistance between the two closely-spaced anodes depending on the
resistivity of the chemical backfill being used. For a properly installed grounding cell,
this resistance should be in the range of 0.2 to 0.5 ohms (depending on the backfill used).
In the event of a high potential surge, the cell will conduct and the voltage drop across
the insulated joint will be limited to 200 to 500 V per thousand amperes of fault current
flow. Where very heavy fault currents are anticipated, four anode cells (cross-connected
as shown in the detail of Figure 12.11) may be used. These have a lower cell resistance,
which limits further the voltage build-up across the insulated flange.
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COMBINATION INSULATED
JOINT AND LINE CURRENT
TEST POINT
UNPROTECTED SIDE
DETAILS OF FOUR ANODE
CROSS CONNECTED CELL
WHERE REQUIRED.
TWO-2" x 2" x 60" ZINC
ANODES SEPARATED
BY, TYPICALLY, 1 "
INSULATING BLOCKS
AND STRAPPED
TOGETHER WITH
INSULATING MATERIAL
NOTE: THE ANODES WITH
BACKFILL MAY BE
OBTAINED AS A
PACKAGED UNIT
ENTIRE ASSEMBLY
INSTALLED IN AUGERED
HOLE.
Figure 12.11 Grounding cell installation.
With the grounding cell connected across an insulated joint separating cathodically
protected pipe from unprotected pipe, loss of protection current through the cell is limited
by cell polarization in addition to the cell resistance. It works in this fashion. The zinc
anode connected to the unprotected pipe tends to discharge current to the zinc anode
connected to the protected pipe. The anode receiving current, however, will polarize in
the negative direction up to approximately —1.5 V with respect to the copper sulfate
electrode. The anode discharging current remains at approximately —1.1 V. The cell,
then, develops a back voltage up to the difference between the above two figures or
0.4 V. Up to a voltage difference between the two pipelines of this amount, the current
flow through the cell will be only that required to maintain polarization. Current flow
due to any excess above 0.4 V will be limited by the cell resistance.
In addition to the performance characteristic described above, the zinc anode con-
nected to the unprotected pipeline provides a degree of CP to the unprotected pipe in
the flange area. This reduces the possibility of current leaving the pipe in this area to
bypass the insulated joint with resulting corrosion of the unprotected pipe.
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Where higher cell back voltage is desired, other materials may be used. High silicon
cast iron, for example, polarizes in both the negative and positive direction and can
develop cell potentials in the order of 2 V or more. If used at an insulated joint separating
protected and unprotected pipe, however, the high silicon cast iron anode connected to
the unprotected pipe is polarized in the positive direction and will tend to draw current
from the unprotected pipe (and corrode) rather than provide a measure of CP as is the
case when zinc is used. This can be overcome by using a high resistance container for the
cell package (with, however, provision for entry of soil moisture to keep the chemical
backfill wet) plus the installation of a local galvanic anode on the unprotected pipe at
the insulated joint.
ISP/Polarization Cells
Isolation surge protectors (ISP) and polarization cells are devices that provide excellent
grounding and protection for insulating joints. ISP are electronic mechanisms that when
placed across an insulating flange block DC current flow and allow AC current to flow.
Due to the devices' ability to pass AC current during normal operational, ground fault
conditions or lightning strikes, the insulating joint is protected and more importantly the
safety of personnel is assured. Since ISP are electronic devices they can automatically reset
following a fault condition. Although these devices are more expensive than grounding
cells, they provide superior protection. A variety of companies manufacture them and
can provide technical support for your particular needs.
GALVANIC ANODE INSTALLATIONS
Although typical galvanic anode installations have been described in Chapter 9, the
following pertains to construction practices.
Wire and Connections
All buried wire interconnecting galvanic anodes with the pipeline are cathodically pro-
tected. For this reason, insulation level on wire is not critical, but the insulation should
be a material which can be expected to resist deterioration under service conditions.
Connections between individual anode leads and header wire should be insulated by
taping with at least one half-lapped layer of rubber tape and one half-lapped layer of
self-adhesive plastic tape (or equivalent insulation) with the joint insulation overlapping
the wire insulation. The copper wire connection to the steel main is the most critical inso-
far as insulation is concerned. At this point, all copper at the connection must be coated
completely to avoid the possibility of a shielded copper-steel corrosion cell. All connec-
tions must be permanently low resistance. Any gradual development of joint resistance
will reduce anode output. Permanent connection such as soldered joints (lead-tin solder
or silver solder) or exothermic-welded connections are reliable.
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Anode Backfill
The chemical backfill in packaged galvanic anodes will take up moisture slowly even
if saturated with water after placing in the auger hole and before completing the earth
fill. For this reason, the anode will not attain full output immediately. Depending on the
amount of moisture in the earth, it may be a matter of days or even weeks before full
output is attained.
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
The basic information on ground bed design is contained in Chapter 7 and information
on impressed current CP systems is contained in Chapter 8. The following construction
notes supplement the information included in those two chapters.
Anodes
Anodes used for ground bed construction, should be transported and handled with care
to avoid damage. The insulated leads furnished with the anodes by the manufacturer
should be protected from damage to both the wire insulation and the connection be-
tween wire and anode. Although these connections are well made, the full anode weight
should not be supported by the lead wire alone; although the connection may not fail
mechanically, the strain may be sufficient to damage insulating material at the connec-
tion. The use of the lead wire to lower anodes into an installation should be prohibited.
This may permit current leakage that would cause corrosion failure of the connection.
Insulating compounds, taping or specially molded insulating caps of various types are
available for reinforcing the insulation provided by anode manufacturers.
Cable and Connections
All underground cable connected to the positive terminal of the rectifier is subject to
corrosion at any insulation breaks in the main cable insulation or in field-applied insula-
tion on connections. If a ground bed is to meet its design life expectation without major
repairs, all underground cable insulation must be perfect, because the slightest current
leakage will result in cable severing.
In selecting insulated cable for ground bed use, follow the cable manufacturer's
recommendations for the expected service conditions. Such conditions might include
unusually acid or alkaline soils, presence of sea water or brine rather than the usual soil
moisture, pressure or abrasive action (cable on ocean or river bottom), solvent action
(such as from petroleum product spillage), and other hazards. In recent years, high
molecular weight polyethylene insulation has been popular.
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Field applied insulation over connections between anode leads and header cable is
particularly critical. These connections must be made absolutely waterproof. This can
be accomplished by taping after applying insulating putty to break sharp corners at the
connection. Four half-lapped layers of top grade rubber splicing compound (overlapping
the cable insulation) followed by four half-lapped layers of self-adhesive plastic tape are
effective when applied with care. Chemically setting plastic resins poured into molds
surrounding connections are also excellent. When the resin and its hardening agent are
mixed properly and poured into a correctly applied mold, excellent void-free insulation
results.
The more popular methods of making connections between anode leads and header
cables are by powder welding or compression connectors using hand or hydraulic com-
pression tools.
Backfill in Cable Trench
Because of the danger of cable insulation breaks, care must be taken to be sure that
there are no sharp rocks or other objects in the cable trench bottom that could damage
insulation. Should such material be present, the ditch may be deepened and padded
with clean earth. The first layer of backfill directly above the cable should likewise be
free of cable damaging material. This layer must be of sufficient thickness to prevent
penetration by cable-damaging objects in the subsequent fill. Horizontal cable runs are
buried, usually, at a minimum depth of 24 in.
Installing Ground Bed Anodes
When installing ground bed anodes according to designs shown in Chapter 8, one of the
more critical operations is the installation of coke breeze (or other carbonaceous backfill)
around the anode. The fill must be tamped solidly for maximum coupling between anode
and earth.
When placing backfill around anodes in vertical holes, continuous tamping is advis-
able as the backfill is placed layer by layer. This minimizes the possibility of bridging
across the hole with void spaces below the bridge. Such voids may increase resistance
values and may operate to reduce anode life. When tamping with power tampers (pre-
ferred) or by hand, particular care must be exercised to prevent damage to the anode or
anode lead wire.
In horizontal installations, ditch width at anode depth should be that of the design
width of the carbonaceous backfill layer. Where this is not possible because of trenching
conditions, form boards may be used to restrict the backfill. After the carbonaceous
backfill and anodes have been placed inside the form boards and the tamped earth
outside, the form boards must be withdrawn. The coke breeze should be retamped to
fill the space occupied by the form boards.
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Rectifier Placement
If possible, rectifiers should be placed where they may be reached for periodic inspection
and maintenance with reasonable ease. This may at times necessitate additional cable
from the rectifier to the ground bed or pipeline or both. If the amount of additional cable
is appreciable, however, the value of having the more convenient rectifier location must
be weighed against the increased installed cost of cable and increased power losses in
the cable resistance (where significant).
If the proposed rectifier site is in an area where flooding may be a problem, the
maximum high water level should be ascertained and the rectifier mounted so that it
will be above this level. In the usual instance, however, the rectifier case (if pole mounted)
should be placed at a convenient working height.
Before installing a rectifier, the details of the National Electrical Code (NEC) and
local electrical codes should be checked. In many areas, rectifier installations must be
inspected and passed by an electrical inspector before power service can be obtained. By
making the installation conform to the code requirements initially, time will be saved in
getting the inspector's certification.
Where power is to be supplied from a local power company by a separate metered
service, usually a kilowatt-hour meter base may be obtained from the company. When
the installation is completed and inspected (if necessary), the power company can make
the necessary connections to the pole top (or other delivery point) and install the kwh
meter in the base supplied.
Rectifier cabinets should be grounded separately for safety. Likewise, the power
company usually will have pole grounds and a ground rod at the transformer pole
serving the rectifier installation. If any of these ground rods are close enough to the
ground bed within its area of influence, they will tend to collect current and create
a stray current situation on the power system if power distribution is by a grounded
neutral system. Locating ground bed anodes too close to ground rods has caused severe
instances of stray current damage to power system ground rods and anchors. When
there is any question of possible interference from this source, tests should be made and
corrective bonds established between the rectifier negative and power system neutral if
necessary. In severe instances it could be necessary to install galvanic anodes on ground
rods and anchors in current discharge areas to correct the condition, as discussed in
Chapter 11.
INSPECTION
Adequate inspection during the construction of corrosion control facilities on pipelines
can make the difference between first class performance and a system that may per-
form poorly and require relatively high maintenance expenditures if ineffective or not
inspected.
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258 Construction Practices
Test Points, Cased Crossings, and Insulating Joints
Test points must be inspected to assure that installation complies with construction
plans. The inspection should make sure that connections to the pipeline are sound and
well insulated, that color coding is observed, that wires are so placed in the ditch that
backfill will not break them, and that the specified terminal panel and housing is installed
properly.
Cased crossings should be inspected as soon as they are installed. This is necessary
to ascertain that the casing is electrically insulated from the carrier pipe and to permit
correction of defects before backfilling.
Insulating joints installed as complete preassembled, pretested units should be in-
spected for proper installation at the location indicated on the plans, so that the joint
is not subject to undue mechanical strains that could cause early failure of insulating
material and that the joint is in fact performing satisfactorily once welded into the line.
The inspectors charged with inspecting the above features must be thoroughly famil-
iar with the use of test points, cased crossings, and insulating joints. They must have the
necessary instrumentation to verify the satisfactory performance of the various items
prior to acceptance. They should also have the authority to see that corrections are made
should defects be found.
Cathodic Protection Installations
Inspectors responsible for CP installations must be fully familiar with all details of good
CP construction practice as well as with the specific provisions of the installations being
made.
In some instances field modifications may be necessary. This may occur, for example,
if vertical anode installations were specified but rock is closer to the surface than expected.
A field decision is then necessary to determine whether the type of anode installation
may be changed from vertical to horizontal or if best results will be obtained by boring
the rock. Occasionally what appears to be solid rock is actually a relatively thin layer
with good soil underneath. The inspector must be qualified to evaluate all such situations
when encountered. If major modifications are advisable, the inspector should check with
the designer of the installation to be sure that the system performance will not be affected
adversely.
At galvanic anode installations, one of the more particular points to be watched is the
anode backfilling operation to be sure that there are no voids in the fill around the anodes.
This can be a problem with packaged galvanic anodes placed vertically in augured holes.
If the hole is small, it may be difficult to work earth backfill all around the anode package
so that no voids will exist. If voids are present, the chemical backfill material can settle
away from the anode, once the container has deteriorated, with probable reduction in
anode effectiveness. If anodes and chemical backfill are installed separately, the inspector
must verify that the anode is centered in the hole or trench as specified and that the fill
is so placed and compacted that no voids can exist. All other details of galvanic anode
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installations must be verified by the inspector as being in accordance with good practice
for such construction.
When inspecting impressed current ground beds, anode placement and backfilling
operations must be given careful attention to ensure installation at the design location
and to avoid voids in special carbonaceous backfill which would tend to increase anode
resistance and shorten life. Adequate compacting of carbonaceous backfill materials is
important and the inspector must verify that this is done effectively but in a way that
will not damage the anode proper or its connecting cable.
Probably the most important single feature of impressed current ground beds to be
verified by the inspector is the insulation on all positive header cable, anode connecting
cable, and connections between the two. The inspector must be sure that no damaged
cable insulation is buried without being repaired and that the insulation of all splices
and tap connections are such that they will be permanently watertight so no current
leakage can occur. Likewise, the inspector must be sure that the cable trench bottom that
can damage the cable insulation and that the backfill in contact with the cable is free of
insulation-damaging material.
When rectifier installations are involved, the inspector verifies that the rectifier unit
has been placed at the specified location and in the specified manner, that all wiring is
correct and that requirements of the power company and of NEC and local jurisdictional
codes have been satisfied. If power supplies other than rectifiers are used, the inspector
must be familiar with the details of the power source specified so that he may verify that
the installation is being made properly.
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Chapter
)
Maintenance Procedures
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Pipeline corrosion control measures as described in the preceding chapters can be highly
effective if properly designed and installed, but only if they are maintained adequately
Without a suitable maintenance program, money spent for designing and installing cor-
rosion control can be wasted. There have been many instances, for example, of the system
owner paying for the installation of cathodic protection (CP) on sections of their system
without establishing any means for ongoing maintenance. Although they may feel that
their troubles are over, this false sense of security can be short-lived if corrosion failures
continue to occur. The tendency is to blame the design, but from experience the fault in
most cases is simply failure to keep the system operating continuously and effectively.
The purpose of this chapter is to present suggestions for maintenance programs that will
help to keep corrosion control measures operating at maximum effectiveness.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
The following items should be included, as applicable, in a maintenance program for a
pipeline corrosion control system:
• Periodic surveys to determine the status of CP and related items
• Coating maintenance procedures
• Maintenance procedures for current sources and ground beds in impressed current
CP installations
• Maintenance procedures for galvanic anode CP installations
• Maintenance procedures for test points
• Maintenance procedures for cased crossings
• Maintenance procedures at foreign line crossings.
Each of the above will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
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262 Maintenance Procedures
PERIODIC SURVEYS
On cathodically protected pipelines, the following data should be taken as outlined in
NACE INTERNATIONAL RP0169 (latest revision) and code of Federal Regulations-
Transportation Section 49, Part 192:
• A potential survey along the protected pipeline. This should include, on a coated
pipeline, potentials to close copper sulfate electrode (CSE) at all test points along the
line
• On coated pipelines, data for calculation of effective coating resistance
• At each rectifier installation, DC current and voltage, the efficiency of the rectifier and
the kilowatt hour meter reading
• At other DC power sources, the DC current and voltage as well as pertinent supple-
mentary information which may apply to the particular power source
• The resistance of each impressed current ground bed
• The current output and resistance of each galvanic anode installation
• Potentials of the line surveyed and of the foreign line at foreign line crossings. Where
intersystem bonds exist, measure the bond current and direction of flow
• At cased crossings, the resistance between carrier pipe and casing plus the potential
to reference electrode of both pipeline and casing
• In variable stray current areas, verification that bonds, electrolysis switches or other
corrective measures are operating properly and are providing the required degree of
protection
• Verification that insulated joints are effective and that any protective lightning ar-
resters, spark gaps, grounding cells, and polarization cells are performing their func-
tion effectively
• Notes on maintenance requirements on any of the physical features associated with
the corrosion control system.
In addition to the required surveys, a more frequent check of protective potentials
should be made in areas where there is pipeline congestion with many foreign line
crossings, where variable stray current interference is a problem, or where particularly
critical or hazardous environmental conditions exist. In this category may be included
interference correction bonds between pipelines where the bond carries more than some
established value (5 A for example) as well as bonds, electrolysis switches, or other
facilities for stray current electrolysis correction in DC transit system, mining, or other
similar problem areas.
Standard printed forms should be used to record the field data. These may be planned
by the pipeline corrosion engineer to suit particular requirements. Such forms serve two
important functions. First, they save field time by minimizing the amount of writing
necessary on the part of field test personnel. Second, they establish a uniform manner
for recording data which is important if a number of different people are participating
in the surveys throughout the pipeline system. A form that may be used for recording
the protective potential data is shown by Figure 13.1.
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Periodic Surveys
263
XYZ PIPE LINE COMPANY
CORROSION CONTROL DEPARTMENT
POTENTIAL SURVEY TEST DATA
Date 7-8-68 j es t Engineer(s)
Pipeline .
Omega 30" Main Line No. 1
John Doe Sheet No. 2 f _J_
Mileposts 9 to 23
.and.
Between Compressor Stations ^
Test Meter: MCM B-3 Meter No. 123 Scale 1 -Volt and 2- Volt
NOTES:
Figure 1 3.1 Form for potential test data.
Other forms may be used for line current data and calculations, for coating resistance
test data and calculations, for galvanic anode or impressed current source tests, for cased
crossing rests, for stray current tests, and for other special tests that may be made as a
matter of routine during periodic survey work.
Although areas requiring additional protection may be determined by inspection of
the data sheets, the best understanding of the results may be achieved by plotting the
protective potentials versus line length. Master sheets may be prepared for each line with
all test points, impressed current or galvanic anode installations, insulating joints, taps,
and other pertinent information shown in their correct position above the area in which
the data are plotted. Results of each survey may be plotted on a print of the master sheet
together with a plot of the last survey made. This permits readily determining areas
where there may have been reduction or loss of protection since the last survey was
made. This will show graphically where improvements in the protection system may be
required. A portion of such a data plot is illustrated by Figure 13.2.
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264
Maintenance Procedures
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Figure 1 3.2 Protective potential profile.
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
As shown in the figure, there is an area near the center where there has been a loss of
protective potential throughout a substantial area. From the line plot above the graph, it
can be seen that there is an insulated main line tap, a cased crossing, a bond to a foreign
structure, and a magnesium anode installation within this area. Difficulty with any one
or several of these items could have contributed to the loss of protection. Comparison of
the most recent survey data at each of these sites with similar data taken during the last
preceding survey should give a quick indication of the probable source of the trouble —
shorted insulation in the lateral tap, shorted cased crossing, changed conditions at the
foreign line crossing, or magnesium anode installation starting to fail.
Note also from Figure 13.2 that items such as test points and CP current sources are
given identifying numbers (arbitrary in this case). For a pipeline network covering an
extensive area, it is helpful to establish some system of designations that will identify the
location within the network. In the illustration, for example, CD-TP6-F could indicate the
section between compressor stations C and D with TP6 indicating test point No. 6 and F
indicating a foreign line test point. Similarly, CD-Mg3 could indicate magnesium anode
installation No. 3 in the same section. In setting up a system, the overall requirements
of the pipeline network should be analyzed and a uniform designation code established
that will satisfy fully the requirements of that particular network.
Original survey data and completed survey plots should be bound in suitable ledgers
or otherwise stored in such fashion that they may be reviewed conveniently. Such data
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Coating Maintenance 265
may become of great importance in the event of litigation involving the need to demon-
strate that a section of line has been placed under CP and maintained adequately.
As soon as a periodic survey is completed it should be analyzed promptly In areas
where required, corrective action should be taken immediately The corrosion engineer
should recommend, obtain approval for, and organize standard procedures for having
required maintenance work done through established channels consistent with company
policy This will make it a routine matter for requesting maintenance work when and as
needed to keep the corrosion control system operating at optimum effectiveness.
COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Computers today provide the capability for the pipeline company to manage and analyze
large amounts of data in a relatively short time. Experience shows that the development
and use of computer programs to save, sort, and analyze data provides the corrosion en-
gineer an invaluable tool for operation and maintenance of the corrosion control system.
Programs can be written to automatically flag such things as protective potentials below
predetermined levels, rectifier efficiencies that have dropped to an uneconomic level re-
quiring stack replacement, anode installations that have dropped below a predetermined
output level, and other items of a similar nature as required. The time spent in getting
such a program organized and established will be repaid in the speed of analyzing data
upon conclusion of periodic surveys.
COATING MAINTENANCE
Although coated pipelines are buried and inaccessible under normal conditions, there
are things that can be done to maintain coating systems. During normal operations on
most pipeline systems the line will be frequently uncovered for other maintenance work.
This work may involve damage to the coating or removal of portions of it. Coating repair
or replacement should be of a quality at least as good as the original coating. Maintenance
crews should be trained in good coating application procedures, care of materials, and
compliance with specifications so that acceptable coating work will result.
Maintaining a performance record of pipeline coatings on the system will help the
corrosion engineer to prepare and present recommendations for material to be used on
new construction. The general electrical condition in terms of effective resistance can
be obtained from the periodic corrosion surveys. In some cases, specific information
can be obtained by training all line maintenance crews to report on the coating condition
whenever pipe is uncovered. Information desirable in such a report includes date, specific
location, coating type and description, manufacturer and grade of material (if known)
or other identifying information as available or applicable, temperature at the coating
surface in place, general condition of the coating, bond quality, evidence of cold flow,
evidence of moisture under the coating, evidence of soil stress effects, presence of pitting
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266 Maintenance Procedures
at holidays (with data on number of pits, depth range, and range of pit diameters),
and data on environmental conditions surrounding the pipe that could have an adverse
effect on coating. Accumulation of information by this method allows for a continuous
reporting procedure to compare historic data, thereby providing the corrosion engineer
with knowledge of how the pipeline's coatings are performing.
Where anomalies are found as part of the ongoing surveys, special dig-ups may
be required. These may be caused by conditions where potentials are declining along
a specific section of pipeline with no apparent cause. Actual points to be excavated
are typically selected on the basis of areas of low potentials, sections with higher than
normal current demands, and areas having the more severe holiday indications following
holiday detection.
Although uncovering a pipeline and replacing a coating is expensive, it may be
necessary in some instances. This is typically true where coating deterioration is found
to be severe over a short length of pipeline because of unusual environmental conditions.
This circumstance may result in loss of protective levels of CP over an area of the pipeline.
Recoating the section usually restores CP to proper levels over the entire line with no
significant changes in the CP system current outputs. If a section is recoated, the chances
are that the original coating was not a suitable selection for conditions in that area. The
material used for recoating should be selected specifically for its ability to stand up under
the particular environmental conditions encountered. Another means of reestablishing
proper levels of CP in the deficient area(s) is to provide supplemental localized CP.
Economic justification for recoating versus simply adding local CP in the affected area
should be evaluated for each case.
RECTIFIER MAINTENANCE
Rectifiers or other impressed current power sources should be inspected on a routine
basis. Preferably this should be combined with other pipeline operations to eliminate
the need for a separate maintenance trip. The routine established would depend on the
procedures followed in a system. Seldom would inspection more than once per week
be required, and every two weeks is satisfactory. The interval normally should not exceed
a month.
Where longer periods between inspections are unavoidable, units on lines which are
air patrolled can be fitted with devices which will give a visual indication of loss of
power. The air patrol report will provide prompt notice of unit failure. Monthly power
bills on rectifiers equipped with individual kilowatt hour meters will serve also as an
indication of whether or not the power is functioning and power consumption is normal.
Newer technology which may include remote monitoring systems may be considered
for areas where normal inspection intervals cannot be maintained.
Routine inspection of rectifiers consists normally of reading the DC output voltmeter
and ammeter as well as reading the AC kilowatt hour meter (if one exists). This lat-
ter reading makes it possible, if the unit is found to be out of service, to estimate the
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Rectifier Maintenance 267
approximate time the unit has been off. Readings should be recorded on a form and
forwarded to a designated office where they may be posted and compared with prior
readings to observe unusual variations. At some locations where seasonal variations
cause substantial changes in rectifier current output, rectifier taps may require adjust-
ment during routine inspection to maintain adequate protection.
If a rectifier is found to be off, the inspector should check to see if the trouble is caused
by a blown fuse or tripped circuit breaker. If this is found to be the case because of a
temporary electric system disturbance (such as may occur during an electrical storm),
restoring the circuit may be all that is necessary. If, however, the rectifier cannot be
returned to service easily, the responsible corrosion engineer should be notified as soon
as is practical so he may investigate the trouble and implement corrective action.
Older rectifiers may be expected to become less efficient as the rectifier stacks age.
For small units operating on a minimum power bill basis, this is not significant unless
the inefficiency becomes so great that the minimum bill is exceeded. Efficiency is most
important, however, on large units. Rectifier stacks on large units should be replaced
when they become so inefficient that the increased annual cost of power exceeds the
annual cost of the investment required to make the replacement.
In making stack replacements in rectifier units, the use of an element identical to the
one being replaced may not be always the right thing to do. The technology of manufac-
turing rectifying elements has advanced markedly over the years and a stack that may
have been the best available when a rectifier was built originally may be outmoded by
the time a replacement is needed. For this reason, particularly when replacing stacks in
older rectifiers, the new rectifying elements should be specified to match the DC output
nameplate rating on the rectifier (plus whether single or three phase, full wave bridge
or center tap, and type (silicon, or other) rather than specifying an exact replacement
of original equipment. By so doing, gains in efficiency, improvements in aging char-
acteristics, and increases in voltage blocking capacity can be beneficial. Such upgrades
provide improved efficiency, reduce operating expense while higher inverse voltages
give greater protection and operating flexibility to the rectifier.
At least once per year (usually at the time of the complete annual survey), rectifier
components should be systematically inspected and checked as follows:
• Clean and tighten all bolted current-carrying connections.
• Clean all ventilating screens in air cooled units so that air flow will be completely
unobstructed.
• Check indicating meters for accuracy.
• Replace insulated wires on which insulation has cracked or been damaged.
• Oil immersed units, check for proper oil level and cleanliness. The oil should be
clear and nearly colorless. A failing oil is usually characterized by a murky or cloudy
appearance with loss of transparency and should be replaced with a good grade of
standard electrical transformer oil unless facilities are available for testing the oil and
salvaging by filtration where practicable.
• Check all protective devices (fuses, circuit breakers, or lightning arresters) to be sure
that they are undamaged and in satisfactory operating condition.
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268 Maintenance Procedures
Other types of direct current sources for impressed current systems, will require
routine maintenance to at least an extent equal to rectifiers. Although not detailed here,
maintenance programs should be prepared for such power supplies. Programs should
have as their prime objective the prevention of unit failures before they occur plus prompt
repair should outages develop.
GROUND BED MAINTENANCE
Surface Anodes
Ground bed maintenance will consist of periodic checks to ensure that there has been
no disturbance of the earth above the header cable and line of anodes in a conventional
(surface) type bed. If any part of the ground bed is subject to washing (by storm water)
with exposure of cable, the cable should be covered again for protection. This should be
done only after determining that there has been no insulation damage. Washes should
be diverted to prevent reexposure of the cable.
If construction activity is noted in the vicinity of the ground bed, the location of the
ground bed route should be staked or marked with paint so that inadvertent damage
may be avoided. If new construction involves installation of underground structures,
tests may be necessary to determine whether or not they will be within the potential
gradient field surrounding the ground bed and subject to possible stray current damage.
During routine testing, any significant increases in ground bed resistance (or an open
circuit), will prompt additional testing. Measurement techniques will be required to
locate cable breaks or anodes that have failed. When an increase in resistance is found, a
pipe-cable locator can be used to find the problem. If the locator indicates a continuous
cable throughout the ground bed length, one or more anodes may have failed. If there
is a header cable break along the line of anodes, the signal will drop to essentially zero
in the vicinity of the break.
Where failed anodes are indicated, they may be located by an over-the-line potential
profile (made along the line of anodes with the rectifier energized) with the measured
potentials being taken between a remote reference electrode and the over-the-line CSE
which is moved by two or three foot increments along the line. The potential profile
will show positive potential peaks at each working anode. Any areas where peaks in
potential are not found represent anodes that are no longer working and require repair
or replacement. The number and spacing of anodes installed originally should be known.
Deep Well Anodes
Deep well ground beds require preventive maintenance that includes ensuring that
cables are well protected between the rectifier cabinet and the well head. Additionally
the well head cover or cap should be adequately secured to prevent unauthorized entry
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Test Point Maintenance 269
and be vented sufficiently to permit escape of any anode-generated gases. If deep well
ground anode(s) fail, little can be done if the anode string cannot be withdrawn from
the well. If the failure is a result of cable damage at the well top, typically repairs can be
made and the functionality of the anode well reestablished.
Increased resistance of a deep well caused by gas blocking can be remedied in some
cases by air or water injection through the vent pipe if one exists. If injection of a low
resistivity chemical solution is considered, the possible effect on anode material and
cable insulation must be studied as well as the possibility of contaminating potable
water supplies via underground water seams.
GALVANIC ANODE MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of galvanic anode installations is typically performed to determine that an-
ode leads or header cables have not been exposed or damaged by accident, right-of -way
washing or construction work. Where such exposure or damage is found, repairs should
be scheduled promptly. At installations having test points, maintaining the connection
between the lead from the anodes and that from pipeline is critical. Due to the low driv-
ing potential available from galvanic anodes, resistance in the connection can cause a
marked decrease in current output. Annually, such connections should be cleaned.
As galvanic anodes approach the end of their useful life, current output will diminish.
Replacement of individual anodes or the entire anode ground bed will be required
when insufficient current output(s) to maintain protective potentials on the pipeline are
identified. Current output can be measured during annual surveys at those installations
having test points installed for the purpose. Approximate determination of the useful life
of such installations may be predicted from a comparison of the average current output
(since installation) with the amount of anode material. See the calculation of anode life
in Chapter 9.
If there is a marked decrease in the output of a galvanic anode installation and there
is no reason to believe that it is reaching the end of its life, a broken header wire or anode
lead may be the cause. If an over-the-line potential profile is made to locate disconnected
anodes, the peaks at working anodes will be usually of much less magnitude than those
found for impressed current anodes.
TEST POINT MAINTENANCE
Test points are the principal means in evaluating the level of CP on most pipeline systems.
Post mounted test stations, from time to time, require replacement of box covers or cover
retention screws, cover gaskets or terminal nuts or screws within the test box. Occasion-
ally a test station may be broken or missing as the result of accident or vandalism. Pipeline
corrosion personnel, when making routine surveys, should carry a complete stock of
spare parts and test boxes so that minor maintenance can be implemented at that time.
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270 Maintenance Procedures
Broken wires at test points can be hard to repair if the break is not near the surface.
Where test stations are attached to a cased crossing vent pipe, earth settlement at a
deeply buried crossing can create enough tension on the wires to break them. While it is
good practice to leave slacked wire in the test box to relieve tension, this is not always
sufficient.
Occasionally it is found that test wires were tied around the vent pipe to hold it in
place while the crossing excavation was being filled and that this tie-off was not loosened
when the test point was set. Soil settlement can pull the wires taut at and below the point
where they are tied and either snap them or cut through the wire insulation to short
circuit the wires to each other or to the vent pipe. In the case of long buried underground
conductors along the current measurement spans, backfill settlement around the pipe
may be sufficient to snap the wires if they were not placed properly at the time of
installation.
Occasionally, a defective exothermic weld connection between test lead and pipe may
separate from the pipe and give an open circuit indication. At locations where the test
point is located close to the pipe connections, the excavation required to locate and repair
the trouble (unless the line is very deep) is rather simple. If the break is in a long wire
span, where to excavate becomes important and requires the use of pipe-cable locator
tests to determine the break location.
CASED CROSSING MAINTENANCE
Maintaining insulation between carrier pipe and casing is the most important objective at
cased crossings. If it is not possible to isolate the casing and the carrier pipe, steps should
be taken to eliminate (by methods other than CP) conditions conducive to corrosion on
the carrier pipe within the casing. See Chapter 5 on the effect of shorted casings on CP.
The status of isolation at cased crossings should be measured at each annual survey.
If a shorted condition is found, immediate repair should be scheduled. Before sending
a crew to the site, as much information as possible on the probable location of the short
circuit should be determined by electrical measurements.
The first thing to check is the test point at the cased crossing. It is not unusual to
find that the short circuit is not in the casing itself, but may result from contacts between
the test point wires and the casing vent (or the end of the casing) or between the test
wires and test point conduit mounted on the casing vent. Locating and clearing such
short circuits is discussed in the preceding section. If the short circuit is between the pipe
and casing, it should be determined (if casing and test point construction so permit)
whether the short is at one of the two ends or is well inside the casing. This is discussed
in Chapter 5. With a contact at one of the two ends, that end may be uncovered, the end
seal removed and the short circuit cleared. This may require jacking the pipe and casing
apart and inserting additional insulating spacers. Usually, when the contact is at one
end, its location and cause are obvious once uncovered and the end seal is removed. The
casing end seal should be replaced after the short circuit is cleared and before backfilling.
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Foreign Line Crossings 271
If tests indicate that the point of contact is well back from the end of the casing, the
chances are that it cannot be cleared with any reasonable effort and expense by working
from the casing ends. To safeguard the carrier pipe inside such nonclearable casings,
the favored procedure is to fill the entire annular space between pipe and casing with a
material that will stifle any corrosion tendency Proprietary casing compounds (greases
containing chemical inhibitors) may be used. Companies routinely provide both casing
filler compounds and installation of these products.
FOREIGN LINE CROSSINGS
Resistance bonds installed between pipelines for intersystem interference correction re-
quire periodic checking (the ones carrying larger amounts of current should be checked
frequently). Resistance bonds may be subject to occasional burn-out in the event of high
current surges. Prompt replacement is required.
Probably the most important item of preventive maintenance is the timely exchange
of operational information resulting from changes in corrosion control systems on exist-
ing foreign lines and for new foreign pipeline construction where foreign lines may cross
or closely approach the corrosion engineer's system. This information may be obtained
by direct contact with the foreign line companies involved and /or through electrolysis
committees active in the area. Early information exchange allows planning for coop-
erative interference tests, design of corrective bonds, or other necessary measures to
mitigate interference damage caused to either party.
The matter of information exchange is equally important in stray current electroly-
sis areas. Advance information on changes in operating schedules, discontinuation, or
moving of DC substations are most important. This information will make it possible to
coordinate testing and install any required modifications in the corrosion control system
to mitigate stray current problems.
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Chapter
Microbiologically Influenced
Corrosion
Brenda J. Little and Patricia Wagner
INTRODUCTION
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is corrosion resulting from the presence
and activities of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. Jack et al. (1996) reported
that MIC was responsible for 27% of the corrosion deposits on the exterior of line pipe
in one survey of Nova Gas Transmission Ltd. (Calgary, Alberta) lines. Pope and Morris
(1995) reported that almost all cases of MIC on external surfaces of pipes were asso-
ciated with disbonded coatings (Figure 14.1). The following general statements about
microorganisms are taken directly from Pope (1986):
1 . Individual microorganisms are small (from less than 0.2 to several hundred micro-
meters (^m) in length by up to 2 or 3 /urn in width) a quality which allows them to
penetrate crevices and other areas easily. Bacterial and fungal colonies can grow to
macroscopic proportions.
2. Bacteria may be motile, capable of migrating to more favorable conditions or away
from less favorable conditions, that is, toward food sources or away from toxic
materials.
3. Bacteria have specific receptors for certain chemicals which allow them to seek out
higher concentrations of those substances that may represent food sources. Nutri-
ents, especially organic nutrients, are generally in short supply in most aquatic en-
vironments; but surfaces, including metals, adsorb these materials, creating areas of
relative plenty. Organisms able to find and establish themselves at these sites will
have a distinct advantage in such environments.
4. Microorganisms can withstand a wide range of temperatures (at least —10 to 99 °C),
pH (about 0-10.5) and oxygen concentrations (0 to almost 100% atmospheres).
273
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Figure 14.1 Disbonded pipeline coating associated with external localized MIC. (Courtesy
Dan Pope, Bioindustrial Technologies, Inc.).
5. They grow in colonies which help to cross-feed individuals and make survival more
likely under adverse conditions.
6. They reproduce very quickly (generation times of 18 min have been reported).
7. Individual cells can be widely and quickly dispersed by wind and water, animals,
aircraft, and other means, and thus the potential for some of the cells in the population
to reach more favorable environments is good.
8. Many can quickly adapt to use a wide variety of different nutrient sources. For
example, Pseudomonasfluorescens can use more than 100 different compounds as sole
sources of carbon and energy including sugars, lipids, alcohols, phenols, organic
acids, and other compounds.
9. Many form extracellular polysaccharide materials (capsules or slime layers). The
resulting slimes are sticky and trap organisms and debris (food), resist the penetration
of some toxicants (e.g., biocides) or other materials (corrosion inhibitors) and hold
the cells between the source of the nutrients (the bulk fluid) and the surface toward
which these materials are diffusing.
1 0. Many bacteria and fungi produce spores which are very resistant to temperature
(some even resist boiling for more than 1 h), acids, alcohols, disinfectants, drying,
freezing, and many other adverse conditions. Spores may remain viable for hundreds
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Mechanisms for MIC 275
of years and germinate on finding favorable conditions. In the natural environment,
there is a difference between survival and growth. Microorganisms can withstand
long periods of starvation and desiccation. If conditions are alternating between
wet and dry, microbes may survive dry periods but will grow only during the wet
periods.
11. Microorganisms are resistant to many chemicals (antibiotics, disinfectants, etc.) by
virtue of their ability to degrade these chemicals or by being impenetrable to them
because of slime, cell wall, or cell membrane characteristics. Resistance may be easily
acquired by mutation or acquisition of a plasmid (essentially by naturally occurring
genetic exchange between cells, i.e., genetic engineering in the wild).
MECHANISMS FOR MIC
It is established that the most aggressive MIC takes place in the presence of microbial con-
sortia in which many physiological types of bacteria, including metal-oxidizing bacteria,
sulfa te-reducing bacteria (SRB), acid-producing bacteria (APB), and metal-reducing bac-
teria (MRB) interact in complex ways within the structure of biofilms (Figure 14.2) (Little
et al. 1991). MIC does not produce a unique form of localized corrosion. Instead, MIC
can result in pitting, crevice corrosion, underdeposit corrosion and selective dealloying,
in addition to enhanced galvanic and erosion corrosion. The principal effect of bacte-
ria under aerobic conditions is to increase the probability that localized corrosion will
be initiated. Bacteria can set up the proper conditions for pitting or crevice corrosion.
Once localized corrosion has been initiated, microbial reactions can maintain proper
conditions (e.g., low oxygen) for continued pit/crevice growth. The rate at which pits
propagate can be governed by organic acid production by fungi in aerobic environ-
ments and by certain bacteria in anaerobic environments. Under anaerobic reducing
conditions, aggressive MIC is observed when there is some mechanism for the removal
or transformation of corrosion products (i.e., there are switches from stagnation to flow
or from anaerobic to aerobic conditions). The following discussion about individual MIC
mechanisms will be related directly to carbon steel.
Sulfate Reduction
SRB are a diverse group of anaerobic bacteria that can be isolated from a variety of sub-
surface environments. If the aerobic respiration rate within a biofilm is greater than the
oxygen diffusion rate during biofilm formation, the metal /biofilm interface can become
anaerobic and provide a niche for sulfide production by SRB (Figure 14.3). The critical
thickness of the biofilm required to produce anaerobic conditions depends on the avail-
ability of oxygen and the rate of respiration. SRB concentrations are always correlated
with groundwater sulfate concentration. The distribution of favorable pH ranges from
6 to 12, although they can mutate to accommodate pH conditions. SRB grow in soil,
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Bulk Water
(CH 2 0) n
(CH 2 0) n
-^►C0 9 + H,0
(CH 2 0) n
^alcohols
organic acids
( CH 2°)n
(Clostridia, propionibacterium)
> CH 4 organic acids > butanol
-►S"
► CO ? + H. + RCOOH
fermenters d L
acetone
ethanol
isopropanol
propionic acid
acetic acid
CO,
sulfate-reducing
bacteria
Fe"
iron-reducing
bacteria
Figure 1 4.2 Strata within a typical biofilm and possible reactions within the strata.
fresh water, or salt water under anaerobic conditions. Many species of SRB have been
identified, differing in morphology and in organic substances that they can metabolize.
They have in common the ability to oxidize certain organic substances to organic acids
or carbon dioxide by reduction of inorganic sulfate to sulfide. In the absence of oxygen,
the metabolic activity of SRB causes accumulation of sulfide near metal surfaces. This is
particularly evident when metal surfaces are covered with biofilms. The concentration of
sulfide is highest near the metal surface. Iron sulfide forms quickly on carbon steels and
covers the surface if both ferrous and sulfide ions are available. Formation of iron sulfide
minerals stimulate the cathodic reaction. Once electrical contact is established, a galvanic
couple develops with the mild steel surface as an anode, and electron transfer occurs
through the iron sulfide. At low ferrous ion concentrations adherent and temporarily
protective films of iron sulfides are formed on the steel surface, with a consequent re-
duction in corrosion rate. Aggressive SRB corrosion requires exposure to oxygen. Hardy
and Bown (1984) demonstrated that corrosion rates of mild steel in anaerobic cultures
of SRB were low (1.45 mg/dm 2 /day). Subsequent exposure to air caused high corrosion
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Mechanisms for MIC
277
3500
3000
2500
£ 2000
E
o
■| 1500
LU
O
i 1000
P=
en
Q
500
-500
Dissolved oxygen
. Sulfide
pH
12 3 4
Dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L)
-7 -6 -5 -4
Log of total sulfide concentration (mol/L)
Figure 1 4.3 Concentration profiles of sulfide, oxygen, and pH in a biofilm on carbon steel.
(From Biofouling, 1993. Reprinted with permission from Overseas Publishers Association
(OPA) and Gordon and Breach Publishers.)
rates (129 mg/dm 2 /day). Accordingly, structures that are exposed under fully deaer-
ated conditions generally experience low corrosion rates despite the presence of high
concentrations of SRB.
Acid Production
Organic acids can be produced by both bacteria and fungi. Most of the final products of
MIC community metabolism are short-chained fatty acids like acetic acid that are very
aggressive in the attack of carbon steel, and become especially aggressive when concen-
trated under a colony or other deposit. This type of attack is accelerated by the addition
of chloride. The resulting chloride-rich corrosion products have a greater volume and are
less stable, often flaking from the surface. Other bacterial species can produce aggressive
inorganic acids, such as H2SO4. Microorganisms in the soil may generate high concen-
trations of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide dissolves in the groundwater, producing
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid solution is very corrosive to pipeline steels and can lead to
general attack, pitting attack, and stress corrosion cracking.
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Metal Deposition
Microorganisms can also affect corrosion by creating differential aeration cells on the
surface of the metal and fixing the location of anodic sites beneath colonies of microor-
ganisms. The organisms most often cited as causing differential aeration cells are those
organisms capable of depositing iron and manganese oxides.
Manganese oxidation and deposition is coupled to cell growth and metabolism of or-
ganic carbon. The reduced form of manganese (Mn +2 ) is soluble and the oxidized forms
(Mn203, MnOOH, MnsC^, Mn02) are insoluble. As a result of microbial action, man-
ganese oxide deposits are formed on buried or submerged materials including metal,
stone, glass, and plastic, and can occur in natural waters that have manganese con-
centrations as low as 10 to 20 ppb (Figure 14.4). For mild steel corrosion under anodic
control, manganese oxides can elevate corrosion current. The current may be signifi-
cant for biomineralized oxides that provide large mineral surface areas. Given sufficient
Figure 14.4 Black manganese dioxide deposits on
carbon steel caused by metal-depositing bacteria.
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Mechanisms for MIC
279
J.J^ 'Mi) h ••" ,
Figure 1 4.5 Tubercules on carbon steel.
conductivity, manganese oxide may serve as a cathode to support corrosion at an oxygen-
depleted anode within the deposit.
Iron-oxidizing bacteria produce orange-red tubercles of iron oxides and hydroxides
by oxidizing ferrous ions from the bulk medium or the substratum (Figure 14.5). Iron-
depositing bacteria are microaerophilic and may require synergistic associations with
other bacteria to maintain low oxygen conditions in their immediate environment. De-
posits of cells and metal ions create oxygen concentration cells that effectively exclude
oxygen from the area immediately under the deposit and initiate a series of events that
individually or collectively are very corrosive. In an oxygenated environment, the area
immediately under individual deposits becomes deprived of oxygen (Figure 14.6). That
area becomes a relatively small anode compared to the large, surrounding oxygenated
cathode. Cathodic reduction of oxygen may result in an increase in pH of the solution in
the vicinity of the metal. The metal will form metal cations at anodic sites. If the metal
hydroxide is the thermodynamically stable phase in the solution, the metal ions will be
hydrolyzed by water, forming H + ions. If cathodic and anodic sites are separated from
one another, the pH at the anode will decrease and that at the cathode will increase. The
pH at the anode depends on specific hydrolysis reactions. In addition, Cl~ ions from the
electrolyte will migrate to the anode to neutralize any buildup of charge, forming heavy
metal chlorides that are extremely corrosive. Under these circumstances, pitting involves
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Figure 1 4.6 Possible reactions under tubercles created by metal-deposit-
ing bacteria.
the conventional features of differential aeration, a large cathode-to-anode surface area,
and the development of acidity and metallic chlorides. Pit initiation depends on mineral
deposition by bacteria. Pit propagation is dependent not on activities of the organisms,
but on metallurgy.
Metal Reduction
Dissimilatory iron and /or manganese reduction occurs in several microorganisms, in-
cluding anaerobic and facultative aerobic bacteria. Inhibitor and competition experi-
ments suggest that Fe +3 and Mn +4 are efficient electron acceptors that are similar to
nitrate in redox ability and are capable of out-competing electron acceptors of lower
potential, such as sulfate or carbon dioxide (Meyers 1988). MRB in direct contact with
solid iron (Fe +3 ) and manganese (Mn +4 ) oxides produce soluble ions (Fe +2 and Mn +2 ).
The result is dissolution of surface oxides and localized corrosion that was described by
Obuekwe et al. (1981) as anodic depolarization.
MIC ON PIPELINES
Environment
The potential for MIC on buried pipelines is controlled by availability of nutrients, water,
and electron acceptors. Peabody (1967) reported data from Harris (1960) indicating that
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MIC on Pipelines
281
soil moisture content and bacterial cell counts were greater in backfill material than in
undisturbed earth adjacent to a pipeline. Trench backfill is not as consolidated and al-
lows greater penetration of moisture and increased oxygen diffusion. Anaerobic bacteria
thrive in waterlogged, dense soil. Alternating moisture and oxygen concentrations will
influence the growth of bacterial populations. Despite the numerous mechanisms that
one would predict for MIC of buried pipelines, most failures have been attributed to
the presence and activities of SRB and APB. In general, sandy soils favor APB; high clay
soils support populations of both kinds of organisms. To protect against all forms of
external corrosion and cracking, several coating materials are used including asphalts,
poly olefin tapes, and fusion-bonded epoxies (FBE). Line pipe is further protected by
an impressed current or cathodic protection (CP). MIC can occur in the presence of these
preventative measures.
Coatings
Because of differing environmental conditions (e.g., soil moisture, microflora, nutrients)
in both field surveys and laboratory experiments, it is extremely difficult to interpret
comparisons of coating performance. Soil stress or tenting along irregularities on the
pipe surface, especially at long seam or girth welds, can create gaps between the tape
and the pipe surface that fill with ground water and introduce microorganisms that create
corrosion cells under the disbonded coating. Tenting is most prevalent in wet high clay
soils, on unstable, geologically active slopes and downstream compressor stations. High
service temperatures also promote disbonding. Not all coating materials are affected by
soil bacteria under all conditions. Coatings derived from both coal (tars) and petroleum
(asphalts) pass some exposure tests and fail others. Materials which by themselves show
resistance to attack by microorganisms fail when combined or reinforced with other
materials.
Peabody (1967) reported that coal tars, coal tar epoxies, and coal tar enamels were
immune to disbonding because of activities of microorganisms. Early coatings based on
asphalt were subject to oxidation and loss of low-molecular weight components through
biodegradation and biodeterioration, resulting in a permeable, embrittled coatings (Jack
et al. 1996). Pendrys (1989) demonstrated that with time asphalt could be degraded
by microorganisms selected from soil. Harris (1960) demonstrated that bacteria found
commonly in pipeline soils can degrade asphalt, tape adhesives, kraft paper (expendable
once line is in place), and binders and fillers used in felt pipeline wrappers. The next
generation coatings were based on polyolefin tapes made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
or polyethylene (PE). The PVC tape was unstable in service. Plasticizers constitute up
to 50% of a PVC product and can be effectively lost through biodeterioration and water
dissolution. Tape coatings rely on adhesives to attach the polyolefin layer to the primed
steel surface.
Jack et al. (1996) demonstrated that certain coatings disbonded more readily after
being exposed to soils containing SRB and APB. PE coating damage proceeded lin-
early with time. PE tape coatings supported higher bacterial counts than extruded PE
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or fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE), presumably because of the presence of biodegradable
adhesive /primer components in the paint system. Susceptibility to disbonding increased
in the order: FBE, extruded PE, and PE tape. Two types of coating damage were reported:
damage due to water leaching and permeation, which affect intact coatings and coating
around holidays. FBE coatings were damaged with increased susceptibility to cathodic
disbondment at existing holidays.
The most prevalent mechanism for the observed corrosion in a study reported by
Jack et al. (1996) was formation of a galvanic couple between microbiologically produced
iron sulfides and steel. The couple is normally short-lived because the iron sulfide matrix
becomes saturated with electrons derived from the corrosion process. In the presence of
SRB, however, the corrosion process is perpetuated because SRB can remove electrons in
the corrosion process from the iron sulfide surface. This process may involve formation
of cathodic hydrogen on the iron sulfide or direct transfer of electrons from the iron
sulfide matrix to redox proteins in the bacterial cell wall. Corrosion rates associated with
this mechanism were proportional to the amount of iron sulfide in the corrosion cell.
Cathodic Protection
Detection
Cathodically polarized surfaces attract microorganisms, including SRB, so that, if the
CP is interrupted MIC can occur at a higher rate than if CP were not previously present
(Sanders and Maxwell 1983). MIC has at least three effects on CP of pipelines. First, where
MIC activity is present, the potential level required to mitigate corrosion is moved to more
negative values. Pope and Morris (Pope 1995) found that pipeline failures were often in
contact with wet clays with little scaling potential, creating the situation in which the
demand for CP continued at a high level over long periods of time and in which CP may
not be distributed equally over the surface of holidays and surrounding disbondments.
Microorganisms colonize and initiate corrosion at such sites. Research by Barlo and
Berry (1984) showed that a potential of at least —950 mV (copper/copper sulfate) is
required to mitigate MIC, as opposed to the standard NACE International criterion of
—850 mV. Second, MIC can increase the kinetics of the corrosion reactions, increasing the
CP current necessary to achieve a given level of polarization. Third, microorganisms can
attack pipeline coatings, increasing exposed metal surface area and further increasing
the CP current required to achieve a given level of polarization. Water intrusion at breaks
in the coating may block CP.
Because microorganisms are ubiquitous, the presence of bacteria or other microorgan-
isms does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship with the corrosion. Microorgan-
isms can always be cultured from natural environments but are not always the cause
for corrosion found in their presence. Other factors must be considered in determining
a cause and effect relationship. Areas of high SRB activity are generally very negative
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References 283
in potential and can be located by means of a native potential survey if the following
conditions are met: (1) area of MIC activity must be large, (2) CP system must be off,
and (3) coating cannot shield the metal surface. Once a suspected area of MIC has been
located, the presence of bacteria can be confirmed by means of bell hole inspections in
conjunction with the application of the analytical techniques described in NACE TPC
Publication 3 in (NACE 1990), including culture methods and antibody analyses. A drop
of dilute hydrochloric acid placed on corrosion product deposits will produce the odor of
rotten eggs when sulfides are present. Detection of SRB or other bacteria in deposits as-
sociated with accelerated corrosion does not conclusively establish a casual relationship
between the bacteria and the observed corrosion (Little 1996).
SUMMARY
Backfill around pipelines provides an environment that supports microbial growth more
than what is expected for undisturbed soil. Nutrients associated with coatings and
cathodic polarization encourage microbial settlement on pipeline surfaces. Extensive
analyses of field samples indicate that MIC of external surfaces of buried pipeline and
other underground structures is most often associated with SRB and APB and disbonded
coatings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Work was performed by the Office of Naval Research, Program Element 0601153N
and Defense Research Sciences Program, NRL Contribution Number NRL/BA/7333-
97-0056.
REFERENCES
T.J. Barlo, W.E. Berry. Materials Performance 23, 9, 1984, p. 9.
J.A. Hardy, J.L. Bown. Corrosion 40, 1984, p. 650.
J.O. Harris. Corrosion 16, 1960, p. 441.
T.R. Jack, G. Van Boven, M. Wilmott, R. Worthingham. Materials Performance 35, 3, 1996, p. 39.
T.R. Jack, M.J. Wilmott, R.L. Sutherby, R.G. Worthingham. Materials Performance 35, 3, 1996, p. 18.
W. Lee, Z. Lewandowski, M. Morrison, WG. Characklis, R. Avci, P. Nielsen. Biofouling 7, 1993,
p. 217.
B.J. Little, R. Ray, P. Wagner, Z. Lewandowski, W.C. Lee, W.C. Characklis. Biofouling 3, 1991, p. 43.
B.J. Little, PA. Wagner, K.R. Hart, R.I. Ray. Spatial Relationships Between Bacteria and Localized
Corrosion. Corrosion/96, paper no. 278, Houston, TX: NACE International, 1996.
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284 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion and Biofouling in Oilfield Equipment. TPC Publication 3,
NACE International, Revised September 1990.
C. Myers, K.H. Nealson, Science 240, 1988, p. 1319.
CO. Obuekwe, D.W.S. Westlake, J.A. Plambeck, ED. Cook. Corrosion 37, 8, 1981, p. 461.
A.W. Peabody. Control of Pipeline Corrosion, Houston, TX: NACE International, 1967, p. 173.
J.P. Pendrys. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55, 6, 1989, p. 1357.
D. Pope. A Study of Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in Nuclear Power Plants and a Practical
Guide for Countermeasures. Electric Power Research Institute Report NP-4582, May 1986. Palo
Alto, CA.
D.H. Pope, E.A. Morris III. Materials Performance 34, 5, 1995, p. 23.
P.F. Sanders, S. Maxwell. Microfouling, Macrofouling, and Corrosion of Metal Test Specimens in
Seawater. In: Microbial Corrosion, Teddington, UK: Metals Society, 1983, p. 74.
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Chapter
;
Economics
Ronald L. Bianchetti
Good economics principles should be used in all pipeline corrosion work. To assure
successful implementation of a corrosion control program, the corrosion engineer must
be able to express the benefits in terms that management can understand, and that is
through economic analysis.
Over the years the cost of implementing a corrosion control system has proven to be
extremely beneficial in the reduction of leaks and extension of the useful life of pipelines.
Whether by using coating alone or coating with cathodic protection (CP), pipeline owners
have obtained very good results when sound corrosion engineering is implemented.
The additive cost for corrosion control typically represents a very small percentage of
initial pipeline construction costs. With this in mind corrosion control systems should
be implemented as a standard operating procedure for all buried pipeline systems to
enhance the life of the asset. Some examples of economic considerations are discussed
below.
ECONOMIC COMPARISONS
The prime objective in pipeline corrosion control work is to maintain a corrosion-free sys-
tem at the lowest annual cost. The total annual cost is frequently used as a simple means
of comparing the relative cost of alternate means of applying protection to sections of a
pipeline system. This cost figure includes the annual cost of the capital invested plus the
annual cost of operating and maintaining the system. To make annual cost comparisons
that are valid, the pipeline corrosion engineer must know the various component cost
items with reasonable accuracy.
Existing Pipelines
When CP is planned for existing pipelines that have an established leak history, it is
possible to forecast the number and cost of probable leaks that may occur if CP were not
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286 Economics
applied to the total cost of CP. These costs are evaluated for a period of time, typically
20 to 50 yr.
New Pipelines
Where CP is installed at the time a pipeline is built, there will be no leak history on
which to base the type of comparison previously mentioned. However, established leak
histories of other pipelines in the same area can be a valuable guide to indicate the
probable savings to be gained by installing CP
Comparisons can be made for planned pipelines where the choice is between in-
stalling CP initially, or installing the pipeline without CP but providing a corrosion
allowance such as an extra ^-inch pipe-wall thickness beyond that needed for design
operating conditions. The comparison may be based on the annual cost of the CP on
the thinner wall pipe versus the annual cost of the investment for the additional steel in
the pipe having the corrosion allowance. The probability should be recognized that the
pipe having the extra wall thickness ultimately would reach the point where it, too, will
require CP.
Cost of Money
The cost of money invested for CP installations or other corrosion control measures
is usually developed by the company financial specialists. The money used for such
investments can cost more than the simple interest rate. Included also in the cost are
such items as taxes and depreciation that increase the real cost to the company of the
money invested.
There can be a difference between the cost of money used for installations made under
capital expenditure funding versus those made using maintenance funds. The corro-
sion engineer should determine the difference, because corrosion control installations
may be capitalized in some instances (for new pipeline construction) and considered as
maintenance costs in others.
Establishing Initial Cathodic Protection System Cost Estimates
When evaluating economic comparisons, estimates of the total installed cost of alternate
systems (galvanic anodes versus impressed current) should be considered. Validity of
the economic comparisons will depend largely on the accuracy of the cost figures used
in compiling the estimates.
An estimate for the installed cost of a CP system includes such items as the following:
• Engineering time and associated expenses for field-testing, design, and preparation of
plans and specifications.
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Economic Comparisons 287
• Cost of materials plus the overhead expense to cover purchasing and storage costs. The
overhead factor or other means of determining these costs should be decided for the
particular company.
• Cost of right-of-way acquisition, if involved. This includes cost of right-of-way ease-
ments, time and expenses for right-of-way procurement personnel, and crop damage
where applicable.
• Unit construction costs for the various components of the systems to be installed. The
corrosion engineer will need to establish a working file on costs. If installations are to
be made by company crews, review the proposed work with appropriate company
personnel for their estimates of all charges that would be made against a work order
for the installation. If possible, the estimate should be broken down into unit costs
(such as trenching cost per foot, cost per anode for installation, etc.).
If installations are to be made by a CP construction contractor, that person may be
willing to provide scoping estimates. The new corrosion engineer may be able to obtain
estimating figures from experienced corrosion engineers with neighboring pipeline sys-
tems who have direct knowledge of applicable contract construction costs in the same
general area. Where corrosion-engineering consultants are used, they can assist the new
corrosion engineer by providing established reliable figures for cost estimating purposes.
• Inspection time and associated expenses on the part of the corrosion engineer during
the actual construction phase.
• Completed system check out and associated expenses of the corrosion engineer to verify
adequate protection is being achieved. Performing CP current output adjustments as
necessary and conducting cooperative interference tests as may be necessary.
Establishing On-Going Operating Cost Estimates
Estimates for the annual operating costs for a pipeline CP installation should include
such items as the following:
• Power costs where rectifiers are to be used as a current source. Applicable power com-
pany rates for the appropriate class of service should be known. If minimum monthly
rates apply, they should be taken into account. This usually applies to small rectifier
installations. In some instances, however, if the electric company has to build a long
power line extension to serve the rectifier, it may establish a fairly substantial mini-
mum monthly billing over a period of years to recover the cost of the line extension.
Where other current sources using an outside source of energy are used (thermo-
electric generators for example), the cost of fuel required to operate the device must
be determined.
• Maintenance and system checkout costs include time and associated expenses for rou-
tine operational checks (particularly applicable for systems using rectifiers or other
DC power sources subject to relatively frequent inspection); time and expense for
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288 Economics
periodic corrosion surveys along that section of the system protected by the proposed
installation; and an estimate for time, expenses, and materials for corrective repair
work.
COST COMPARISON EXAMPLES
To illustrate cost comparisons of different CP systems the following examples are pre-
sented to assist the corrosion engineer.
Comparing Alternative Cathodic Protection Systems
Assume a new 50-mile well-coated pipeline to be cathodically protected. Initial corro-
sion survey tests show that protection can be obtained with 2 A from a single rectifier
installation near the center of the line or with 1.5 A from three magnesium anode in-
stallations distributed along the line. Less current is required for the magnesium anode
system because of reduced attenuation resulting from distributed installations.
Impressed Current System
On the basis of the corrosion survey, it has been determined that the rectifier can be in-
stalled at a location where soil conditions are such that a ground bed with three vertical
anodes at 20-ft spacing can be placed 300 ft from the pipeline. This system will provide
the required 2 A at 5 V. Electric service is available at the installation site and the appli-
cable power rate is 3.5 cents per kwh for the first 250 kwh per month with a minimum
monthly bill of $2.50. (Power costs vary from area to area. Actual local rates should be
determined.) Right-of-way acquisition will be necessary.
Galvanic Anode System
At the three magnesium anode installations, assume that the initial corrosion survey data
have shown that installation sites are available. Soil conditions at the three installations
will produce 0.5 A of protection current (with the pipe at protected potentials) using five
20-lb packaged magnesium anodes at 15-ft spacing along the edge of the right-of-way
15 ft from the pipe. No right-of-way costs will be incurred.
To determine which type of installation will be the more economical, the pertinent
costs can be compared as shown in Table 15.1. It is assumed that the necessary steps
have been taken to obtain reliable estimating figures and that this final comparison
summarizes and compares the cost data obtained.
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Cost Comparison Examples 289
$2400
$1950
$1000
-
$4700
$4500
$1500
$1500
$2500
$1500
$13,165
$10,418
$1184
$937
Table 15.1 Economic Comparision Between Alternative CP Systems
Total for
Rectifier 3 Magnesium
Description Installation Anode Installations
A-INSTALLATION COSTS
1. Time (1) and expense for field
tests, design, plans and
specifications $1065
2. Cost of materials including
10 percent for overhead
3. Right-of-way acquisition costs
4. Contract installation cost
5. Time and expense for construction
inspection
6. Time and expense for system
check-out (2)
TOTAL INSTALLATION COST
ANNUAL COST OF MONEY
(Based on an assumed 4 percent
for 15 year system life)
B-OPERATING COSTS
1. Power cost (3)
2. Routine operational checks (4)
3. Periodic corrosion survey
4. Time, expenses and materials for
corrective repairs (5)
TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COST
C-ECONOMIC COMPARISON
ANNUAL COST OF MONEY (A)
TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COST (B)
TOTAL ANNUAL COST
(1) Engineering time charges for operating company personnel include, normally, an overhead
charge. This can be determined for the particular company involved.
(2) Additional check-out time for rectifier installations to allow for additional interference checks.
( 3 ) Power consumption is less than minimum billing which applies in this instance.
( 4 ) Based on rect. readings every month.
(5) Estimated annual repair cost.
$100
-
$100
-
$700
$500
$50
$50
$950
$550
$1184
$937
$950
$550
$2134
$1487
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290
Economics
This comparison indicates that the three magnesium anode installations will have a
lower annual cost than the single rectifier and would, therefore, be more economical.
Although this is usually the case for lower current outputs (typically less than 2A) used
in this example, a similar comparison should be made using the specific factors that
apply to the pipeline corrosion engineer's own system.
On the other hand if the amount of current required was higher, an impressed cur-
rent system tends to become more economical than galvanic anode installations. This
is because the additional investment for added rectifier output (in terms of dollars per
ampere of capacity) does not increase as rapidly as that for galvanic anode installations.
Comparing Leak Cost and Cathodic Protection Cost
When a section of pipeline system starts to develop leaks, experience has shown that
further leaks will develop at a continuously increasing rate. If the accumulated number
of leaks repaired is plotted on semilog paper against pipeline age in years, a straight
line is the usual result where accurate leak records are available (Figure 15.1). In this
co
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so MiiiHiiiUMiMiMMMMMii HiUlMlp lllllllllllll
50 ^E^^E^^EEEE^EEEEE^EEEE^
40 :"":"~:"":~:"::"::~::::""":::~:::-^"~""""""""
30 1111111111=1111111111111111111111111111111111=^ 111111111111
20 :"~~"v:""~":~"::~ = :"~"~^f^:=:~= PROJECTED
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3 1111111111=11111 11111111111111111111111111 111111111111
7
h ::i ::i z_i ::i: ::i :::i: ::i: ::i :::r :::i:: :i ::i: : : :
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
YEARS AFTER PIPELINE INSTALLATION
Figure 15.1 Cumulative number of leaks without CR
24
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Cost Comparison Examples 291
instance, the first leak did not develop until the line was 4-yr old and a total of only seven
leaks had developed by the time the pipeline was 12-yr old. A definite trend has been
established, which shows that in the next 10-yr there will be approximately 70 new leaks,
if corrosion is not controlled. The figure also shows that the number of leaks developing
each year is increasing at such a rate that the pipeline may become inoperable if the trend
is not stopped.
The application of CP as shown in Figure 15.1 can mitigate development of new leaks.
The cost of operating a CP system(s) versus the cost of leaks over a period of time can
then be economically evaluated. In the case illustrated (Figure 15.1), application of CP
at the end of the 12 th year would eliminate approximately 70 new leaks over the next
10-yr period. Thus a dollar figure can be developed to represent the cost savings for the
anticipated leaks.
To determine the cost of leaks several items should be considered.
• The average cost of a leak repair on the pipeline under study. This should include
labor, overhead, materials, transportation costs, and other attendant expenses.
• An average cost for property damages associated with a simple corrosion leak repair.
This can vary with the fluid in the pipeline. Such damages tend to be substantially
higher, if a pipeline is carrying petroleum or petroleum products versus natural gas.
• The value of product lost from an average corrosion leak. This will depend on the
product, the pipeline pressure, the average size of the leak, and the average length of
time that/product escapes before the leak repair is accomplished.
• Miscellaneous factors, such as insurance, good will, and other costs.
The total average cost of each leak, will be the sum of the above items plus any associated
costs that may be involved for the particular pipeline system under consideration.
Now assume that a coated pipeline having the leak record represented by Figure 15.1
is surveyed during its 12 th yr and that design calculations indicate that CP can be applied
using a rectifier system. Further assume that the annual cost of the investment for CP
plus annual operating costs will be $6,000 per year and it has been established that the
average total cost of each leak repaired is $1500. Using these figures, if CP is applied at
the end of the 12 th yr, comparative costs for the following 10-yr period are as follows:
• Cathodic protection costs: 10 x $6000 = $60,000
• Savings in leak repair costs: 70 x $1500 = $105,000
This example indicates that, over the 10-yr period, there will be a net savings of $45,000
with CP installed, if all leaks are avoided.
Greater savings can be shown by projecting the comparison over a longer period
because although CP annual costs remain reasonably uniform, the number of projected
leaks over that longer period increases very rapidly. (Note, from Figure 15.1, that there
would be approximately 20 new leaks in the 23 rd yr alone.)
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292 Economics
Now look at the comparison that would apply for the same pipeline if CP had been
installed when the line was initially constructed. First, the annual cost of CP would be
less because the new coating would be better initially Second, the coating should be
substantially better after 12-yr. Third, the full 22-yr of pipeline life is considered in the
annual cost analysis, so the annual cost allocation for CP would be $4,000. The total
number of leak repairs saved, per Figure 15.1, would be 80 over the 22-yr period. The
comparison now is as follows:
• Cathodic protection costs: 22 x $4,000 = $88,000
• Savings in leak repair costs: 80 x $1500 = $120,000
Assuming that annual costs for CP have been estimated accurately, there is still a signifi-
cant saving of $32,000 with CP.
The previous comparison may be used as an argument in favor of deferring the
application of CP until leaks have started to develop. This would only be valid if there
was a guarantee that all leaks would be simple leaks, as assumed in the cost comparisons,
with no risk of exceptional hazard. For pipelines carrying a hazardous product (such as
natural gas or petroleum products), there is always the possibility of fire, explosion or
loss of life if the leak should develop in the wrong place. Since these are possibilities only
(although very real possibilities), a dollar figure cannot be attached readily to the direct
cost that might be involved nor to intangible factors such as impaired public good will.
Just one serious incident, if it should occur, can more than offset any apparent saving
which could be gained by deferring application of CP until leaks start to develop.
Comparing Cathodic Protection with Pipe Corrosion Allowance
A corrosion allowance for example, an additional ^ of an inch of pipe wall thickness
(above that needed for pipeline operating considerations) may be considered in lieu of
applying CP. This practice is not recommended for underground pipelines, because it
does not provide a permanent means of corrosion control but only defers the time when
a leak will occur.
Ground Bed Cable Sizing and Anode Spacing
Economic considerations apply to various phases of CP system design. Sizing ground
bed cables and determining the economic spacing for impressed current or galvanic
anodes are particularly important instances.
Ground Bed Cable Size
Basically, ground bed cable can be increased in size as long as each incremental increase
will show a dollar savings in terms of reduced annual power losses in the cable resistance
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Cost Comparison Examples 293
compared with the annual cost of the additional investment for the larger cable size. For
rectifier installations, AC power losses (which determine the cost) are the DC power
losses in the cable divided by the rectifier efficiency expressed as a decimal.
As was discussed in Chapter 7, the effective resistance of the ground bed cable may
be taken as that of the full length of cable between pipeline and first anode plus that of
one-half the length of cable along the line of anodes. Power costs at rectifier installations
are determined from the power company rate schedule. For small rectifier installations,
which do not use enough power to exceed the minimum monthly billing, nothing is
gained by using a larger cable size than is necessary for adequate mechanical strength.
No. 8 AWG header cable (the same size as the usual anode pigtail cable) may be con-
sidered the smallest practical size, although some operators may elect to use no smaller
than No. 4 AWG cable for header cable construction.
Power costs at galvanic anode installations vary with the size and type of installa-
tion but can be reduced to a cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is performed by first
determining the kWh lifetime output of the installation by the expression.
kWh = driving voltage x amps output x 8.76 x installation life in years.
The cost per kWh is then the installation cost in dollars divided by the expected total
lifetime power output in kWh.
Although the cost per kWh for a galvanic anode installation usually will be several
dollars compared with only a few cents at a rectifier installation (where the monthly
minimum bill is exceeded), there may be no economic advantage in using cable larger
than needed for strength. This is because the square of the current output of a small
galvanic anode installation may be very small compared with that of a rectifier instal-
lation (and in addition there is much less cable in the usual galvanic anode installation
than in the typical rectifier ground bed).
Anode Spacing
Based on the information on ground bed design discussed in Chapter 7, it is recognized
that for soil of uniform resistivity, two boundary conditions for anode spacing exist.
These are the following:
• The parallel resistance of two vertical ground bed anodes placed side by side will be
only slightly less than the resistance of one anode alone.
• The parallel resistance of two vertical ground bed anodes placed electrically far apart
will be approximately one-half the resistance of one anode alone.
Both of these boundary conditions are not economical. The most economical anode
spacing is somewhere between these two conditions.
Using proper materials, right-of-way procurement, installation, and power costs,
the pipeline corrosion engineer can make an economic analysis to determine the most
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294
Economics
co^
if
— CO
CO :
o ;
O
:1
_J CD
Sen
z O
10 15 20
ANODE SPACING IN FEET
Figure 1 5.2 Typical plot for economical anode spacing.
favorable spacing for installations. This may be done by calculating, for a typical ground
bed resistance in typical soil resistivity, the annual cost of the total investment required
for constructing a ground bed at several different anode spacing points. The annual cost
of power losses in the cable should be added to the annual cost of the investment. By
plotting a total annual cost versus the cost of anode spacing, a curve will be obtained
which may appear somewhat as indicated in Figure 15.2. Although the results may vary
with costs applicable to a particular system, economical anode spacing of 20 to 25 ft is
typical for rectifier ground bed construction.
ECONOMICS OF GOOD MAINTENANCE
The most obvious economic contributor is good maintenance. This means maintaining
all CP installations and other corrosion control facilities in optimum operating condition
and making sure that full protection is being given the system for the maximum practica-
ble percentage of the time. This is a necessity for proper system performance. Without
proper maintenance and system performance the initial investment is not optimized,
and the cost of the corrosion control investment represents a wasted expenditure. This
is not an acceptable practice and is highly discouraged.
Maintenance economics applies to equipment use in CP installations. At rectifier
installations particularly, as discussed in Chapter 8, economies can be gained by replacing
rectifying elements (stacks) in older units with new more efficient elements when the
annual saving in power cost is greater than the annual cost of the investment for the
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Coating Economics 295
new stacks. In extreme cases involving large single-phase rectifiers, changing the single-
phase unit for a more efficient three-phase rectifier may prove economical on the annual
cost basis if three-phase power is available.
COATING ECONOMICS
Chapter 2 emphasized that the most favorable coating system for any given pipeline
is the most stable of those available — that is, the coating system with electrical and
mechanical characteristics that will deteriorate at the slowest rate with time under the
specific installation conditions. Such a coating used with a CP system will be the most
economical combination.
Even the most stable pipeline coating system selected will suffer some deteriora-
tion with time. Designing and constructing the initial CP system with sufficient reserve
capacity to allow for the expected increased current requirements from anticipated coat-
ing degradation will result in overall cost savings. This saving tends to be greater in
the case of rectifier installations where the cost of providing additional current output
capacity can be substantially less than in the case of galvanic anode installations.
The direct cost of the installations will be a function of the electrical resistivity of the
coating used. An excellent stable coating properly applied should have a high electrical
resistance. Current requirements should be so low that the cost of providing additional
capacity will be minimal. On the other hand, a coating initially having a substantially
lower electrical resistivity will require correspondingly greater investments for CP and
the additional cost for reserve capacity becomes much more significant.
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Chapter
Fundamentals of Corrosion
John A. Beavers
INTRODUCTION
The fundamentals of corrosion can be divided into the disciplines of thermodynamics
and kinetics. Thermodynamics is used to indicate whether a specific corrosion process
is possible and kinetics is used to understand and predict actual rates of corrosion. Both
topics are discussed in greater detail in this chapter.
THERMODYNAMICS
Gibbs Free Energy
As described in Chapter 1, a significant amount of energy is put into a metal when it is
extracted from its ores, placing it in a high-energy state. These ores are typically oxides
of the metal such as hematite (Fe203), for steel or bauxite (AI2O3 • H20), for aluminum.
One principle of thermodynamics is that a material always seeks the lowest energy state.
In other words, most metals are thermodynamically unstable and will tend to react with
something in their environment (e.g., oxygen or water) in order to reach a lower, more
stable energy state such as an oxide. As an analogy, consider a baseball. As you raise
the baseball in your hand, you are increasing the energy level of the ball. In the case of
gravitational energy, the energy U = mgh in which m is the mass of the ball, g is the
gravitational constant, and h is the height of the ball. If you let the ball go at a height h\,
it will fall to the floor, which is the lowest possible energy state. The change in energy
ALT = ITfinai - LZinitiai = mg(0) - mghi = -mgh x (1)
In other words, the change in energy is negative. A more general term for the energy
of a system is the Gibbs Free Energy which uses the symbol G. For a process such
297
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298 Fundamentals of Corrosion
as corrosion to be spontaneous, AG must be negative. Unfortunately, for most common
metals in natural environments, AG < and the corrosion process is thermodynamically
favored.
Electrode Potentials
The corrosion of most common engineering materials at temperatures near ambient
usually involves water and is electrochemical in nature, as described in Chapter 1. The
corrosion process occurs with the removal of electrons (oxidation) of the metal and
the consumption of those electrons by some other reduction reaction, such as oxygen
reduction
Fe^Fe 2+ + 2e- (2)
2 + 2H 2 + Ae~ -> 40H- (3)
Note that arrows have been used in the oxidation and reduction reactions listed above
indicating that we know the direction of the reactions. Since the oxidation and reduction
reactions are different, the corrosion process is not reversible and is not at equilibrium. A
system has attained a state of equilibrium when it shows no further tendency to change its
properties with time. A corroding metal changes its state with time and is, by definition,
not at equilibrium.
The individual oxidation and reduction reactions are referred to as half-cell reactions
and can occur locally at the same site on the metal or can be spatially separated. The free
energy of each pair of half-cell reactions is related to a reversible electromotive force (E )
through the equation
AG = -\z\FE (4)
in which z is the valence change associated with the reaction and F is Faraday's constant.
In other words, E is directly related to the driving force (the change in the Gibbs Free
Energy) for the reaction. A positive value of E indicates that the change in Gibbs Free
Energy is less than zero, and that the reaction is thermodynamically favored.
CAUTION: This statement refers to an electromotive force between equilibrium re-
actions and cannot be directly related to a pipe-to-soil (P/S) potential measurement.
P/S potentials are generally negative under corrosive conditions when measured
with a copper sulfate reference electrode.
The electromotive force (EMF) is a potential and can be calculated for any set of two half-
cell reactions using Equation (4) and standard thermodynamic data for the reactions
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Thermodynamics 299
involved. The hydrogen reduction reaction
2H + + 2e- =H 2 (5)
has been arbitrarily set at 0.00 V for the series, allowing for the calculation of the EMF of
individual half-cell reactions.
A compilation of these EMFs and half-cell reactions, calculated for the reactants at
unit activity, is referred to as the electrochemical or EMF series. The activity of a species
is a measure of its effective concentration in solution and the activity is equal to the
concentration for an ideal solution. When the reactions are written as reduction reactions,
the most positive members of the series are the noble metals such as gold and platinum,
and the most negative members of the series are the active metals such as sodium and
magnesium (see Table 16.1). Note that, in addition to metal reactions, the series also
contains reactions for common oxidants found in corrosion such as oxygen.
The potential of any two half-cell reactions can be calculated as shown in the following
equation, where the EMF series is written as reduction reactions
^ = ^(reduction) ~~ ^(oxidation) W
Table 1 6.1 Standard Electrochemical Series for Some Common
Metals and Reactions
Standard Reduction
Reaction
Potential V (SHE)
t
Au 3+ + 3e~ = Au
+1.498
Noble
Pt 2+ + 2e~ = Pt
+1.200
Pd 2+ + 2e~ = Pd
+0.987
Ag+ + e~ = Ag
+0.799
Hg 2+ + 2e~ = 2Hg
+0.788
2 + 2H 2 + 4e-=40H-
+0.401
Cu 2+ + 2e~ = Cu
+0.337
2H+ + 2e~ = H 2
0.000
Pb 2+ + 2e~ = Pb
-0.126
Sn 2+ + 2e~ = Sn
-0.136
Ni 2+ + 2e~ = Ni
-0.250
Co 2+ + 2e~ = Co
-0.277
Cd 2+ + 2e~ = Cd
-0.403
Fe 2+ + 2e~ = Fe
-0.440
Cr 3+ + 3e~ = Cr
-0.744
Zn 2+ + 2e~ = Zn
-0.763
Al 3+ + 3e~ = Al
-1.662
Mg 2+ + 2e~ = Mg
-2.363
Active
Na+ + e~ = Na
-2.714
1
K+ + e~ = K
-2.925
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300 Fundamentals of Corrosion
For example, for the reactions; Au 3+ + 3e = Au and Al = Al 3+ + 3e , the potential is
E° = 1.498 - (-1.662) = 3.160 V (7)
Since the EMF is positive, AG < 0, and the reactions will proceed as written. Had the
direction of the reactions been reversed, the calculated EMF would have been negative,
indicating that the reactions would not proceed as written. Therefore, with this informa-
tion, one can use the series to determine whether a set of reactions is possible. Corrosion
of a metal in the presence of a possible oxidant will occur if the reduction potential of the
metal is less positive than the reduction potential of the oxidant. For example, oxygen
reduction cannot support corrosion of gold but can promote corrosion of the common
materials of construction such as iron.
The EMF series is calculated for the reactants at unit activity. These potentials shift
as a function of concentration according to the Nernst equation. For any electrochemical
reaction
aA+bB =cC+dD (8)
\z\F (a A ) a (a B y
in which E is the cell potential, E ° is the standard cell potential, R is the gas constant,
T is the absolute temperature, \z\ is the number of electrons transferred, F is Faraday's
constant, and (acf is the activity of species C raised to the c power.
As described in the preceding section, the EMF series can be generated from standard
thermodynamic data. In theory, the EMF series also could be generated experimentally
by measuring the potential difference between each of the metals at equilibrium in so-
lutions of unit activity and the hydrogen electrode, as shown in Figure 16.1. When a
potential is measured in this fashion, it is referred to as an electrostatic potential or
a standard electrode potential, rather than an EMF. The hydrogen electrode consists
of an inert platinum wire immersed in an acidic solution of H + ions at unit activity
with H2 gas bubbled through it at 1 atm. A shorthand description of the cell is often
written
Pt|H 2 /H + (fl = l)\\M n+ (a = 1)|M (10)
and the potential of the cell is E° = F M/M n+ — Eh 2 /h+ = Em/m m+ - The solid vertical line
represents a phase change (for example, between the metal M and the solution). The ||
indicates the presence of a porous barrier that allows electrical communication between
the two half cells but minimizes mixing of the electrolytes. The superscript "°" on the E
indicates that the potential is a standard electrode potential at unit activity (a =1).
For the measurement to be accurate, the reactions must be at equilibrium, which
implies that no net current can flow in the measurement circuit. This can be accom-
plished by using a high input impedance voltmeter for the measurement. The hydrogen
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Thermodynamics
301
Copper Wire Leads
To High Impedance
Voltmeter
HCI Solution
Silver Foil Covered
With AgCI
Figure 16.1 Hydrogen electrode (left side) and silver
metal electrode in cell for standard EMF determination.
electrode used as shown in Figure 16.1 is referred to as a reference electrode. In practice,
a hydrogen reference electrode is rarely used because of the difficulty in constructing
and maintaining the electrode. Other types of reference electrodes are described in the
following section.
In practice, standard electrode potentials cannot be measured for many metals be-
cause they react with water; water is reduced and the metal is oxidized. Therefore, the
metal cannot be present at equilibrium in aqueous solutions. These metals include iron
and common anode metals such as aluminum, zinc, and magnesium. For these metals,
the standard half-cell potentials are generated from thermodynamic data.
Reference Electrodes
One definition of a reference electrode is "a reversible electrode used for measuring
the potentials of other electrodes". As described in the previous section, a reversible
electrode must be at equilibrium, which means that there is no net change in the electrode
over time. Desirable properties of a good reference electrode include the following:
• Easy to use and maintain
• Stable potential over time
• Potential varies little with current flow (does not polarize readily)
• Not easily contaminated
• Does not contaminate what is being measured.
The hydrogen electrode can be used as a reference electrode but it is cumber-
some, even in the laboratory. Other common reference electrodes include silver-silver
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302 Fundamentals of Corrosion
Table 1 6.2 Potentials of Common Reference
Electrodes
Potential (V)
Electrode
@25°C
Cu 2+ /CuS0 4 (Saturated) [CSE]
+0.300
Calomel (Saturated KC1) [SCE]
+0.241
Ag+/AgCl (Saturated KC1)
+0.196
Ag+/AgCl (0.6 M CI") [seawater]
+0.250
Standard Hydrogen Electrode [SHE]
0.000
Zinc (Seawater)
-0.800
chloride, calomel, and copper-copper sulfate. Their potentials are given in Table 16.2.
Each reference electrode potential is based on the equilibrium reaction for the respective
metal
Ag + + e~ = Ag (silver-silver chloride) (11)
Hg2+ + 2e~ = 2Hg (calomel) (12)
Cu 2+ + 2e~ = Cu (copper-copper sulfate) (13)
The potential of the reference electrode is dependent on the aqueous environment used.
For example, silver-silver chloride reference electrodes are normally filled with potas-
sium chloride (KC1) solution and can be purchased with KC1 concentrations ranging
from 0.1 M up to saturated KC1, with a corresponding range of potentials. Since silver
chloride (AgCl) has very limited solubility in KC1, the silver wire in the reference elec-
trode is normally coated with AgCl to establish the equilibrium reaction and associated
potential.
The copper-copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE) is the most common reference
electrode used for underground corrosion. It is frequently referred to as a half-cell based
on the copper half-cell reaction. A schematic of the CSE is given in Figure 16.2. As shown
in the figure, a heavy gauge copper wire is used for the electrode and the cell is filled
with a saturated solution of copper sulfate. Saturated solutions are commonly used in
reference electrodes since salt crystals can be added to the cell to ensure that saturation
is maintained. It is very important to maintain the desired concentration of the solution
in the reference electrode to ensure that it has a stable potential over time.
The standard procedure for performing potential measurements (such as a pipe-
to-soil potential measurement) is to connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to
the reference electrode and the negative terminal to the structure. When recording the
reading, the sign of the reading must be reversed. The measurement has historically
been performed in this manner to produce a positive deflection on an analog meter
(pipe-to-soil potentials are usually negative values).
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Thermodynamics
303
Container Of Insulating
Material. Often Transparent Or
Translucent
Porous Plug (Usually
Wood Or Ceramic)
Pure Copper Rod
(Electrolytic Copper)
Insulating Seal
Saturated Solution
Of Copper Sulfate
Surplus Crystals of
'Copper Sulfate
Figure 1 6.2 Schematic of copper-copper sulfate reference electrode.
Galvanic Series
As described in the section on electrode potentials, the electrochemical series is derived
from thermodynamic data and represents equilibrium conditions. One rarely encounters
such conditions in the real world except for the case of reference electrodes. A galvanic
series is similar in appearance to an electrochemical series but represents actual poten-
tial measurements made on common engineering materials in everyday environments.
Table 16.3 shows a galvanic series produced on a number of metals in soil. The series was
generated by measuring the stable potential between the metal and a CSE in a neutral
soil. This potential is referred to as a corrosion potential, an open circuit potential, or a
native potential. Note that the potentials measured may vary considerably, depending
on the temperature, the type of soil, the moisture content of the soil, and the amount
of time the metal is in contact with the soil before the measurement. Nevertheless, the
galvanic series provides an indication of the relative reactivity of the different metals.
A corrosion potential is not an equilibrium potential. The metal never reaches a state
of equilibrium in corrosive environments. There is net oxidation of the metal to produce
metal ions and corrosion products, and net reduction (and consumption) of some other
species, such as oxygen, hydrogen, or water. These reactions are not reversible. If it were
possible to measure the equilibrium potential for the metal in soil, it would be found
to lie at a more negative value than the corrosion potential. Similarly, the equilibrium
potential for the reduced species (oxygen, for example) is a more positive potential.
Thus, the corrosion potential is somewhere between the equilibrium potentials of the two
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Table 1 6.3 Practical Galvanic Series for Metals in Neutral Soils
and Water
Potential
Metal
V (CSE) 1
Carbon, Graphite, Coke
+0.3
Platinum
to -0.1
Mill Scale On Steel
-0.2
High Silicon Cast Iron
-0.2
Copper, Brass, Bronze
-0.2
Mild Steel In Concrete
-0.2
Lead
-0.5
Cast Iron (Not Graphitized)
-0.5
Mild Steel (Rusted)
-0.2 to -0.5
Mild Steel (Clean and Shiny)
-0.5 to -0.8
Commercially Pure Aluminum
-0.8
Aluminum Alloy (5% Zinc)
-1.05
Zinc
-1.1
Magnesium Alloy (6% Al, 3% Zn, 0.15% Mn)
-1.6
Commercially Pure Magnesium
-1.75
typical potentials normally observed in neutral soils and water,
measured in relation to copper sulfate reference electrode.
reactions. Both reactions are polarized from their equilibrium values. The metal oxidation
reaction is anodicaliy polarized and the reduction reaction is cathodically polarized.
These reactions are commonly called the anodic and cathodic reactions, respectively
Potential measurements are powerful tools for studying electrochemical processes
such as corrosion. However, potential measurements do not directly provide information
on the corrosion rate of a material. The rate must be inferred through knowledge of the
relationship of the potential and the electrode kinetics.
KINETICS
As described in the previous section, the oxidation and reduction reactions on a corroding
metal are polarized from their equilibrium values. A definition of polarization is "the
deviation (change) in potential of an electrode as a result of the passage of current/' The
potential deviation (polarization) can be measured from the equilibrium potential or from
the corrosion potential. The amount of polarization is referred to as the overvoltage or
overpotential and is assigned the term eta (rj).
One type of polarization commonly observed in corroding metal systems is activation
polarization. In the case of activation polarization, the rate of the corrosion reaction is
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305
limited by the electron transfer reaction at the metal surface. This electron transfer process
has an associated activation energy and the rate of this process is exponentially related to
the free energy change. Since the free energy is directly related to the potential, and the
rate is directly related to the electrical current, the relationship becomes the following
AI oc e 11 '^
(14)
in which I is the corrosion current, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temper-
ature. Upon taking the log of both sides of the equation, the relationship becomes the
following
Log(AI) oc
RT
(15)
Rather than using equations, a better way of visualizing the relationship between
potential and current is by means of Evans diagrams (E-log i plots), where potential is
plotted on the vertical (Y) axis and log current or log current density is plotted on the
horizontal (X) axis (see Figure 16.3). In this example, the equilibrium potentials for the
reduction reaction, hydrogen reduction, and the metal oxidation reactions are indicated
as £h+/h 2 an d Em 2 +/M/ respectively. Note that at the equilibrium potential of each reaction,
c
CD
CL
i (H7H 2 ) e S
1 ^X
1 >c^/
T y<
E„(H7H 2 ) X^
—
~* 1
-E ->^
io(M 2 7M) yf^
V Y! 1 1
Log Current Density
Figure 16.3 Evans diagram (potential versus logarithm of
current density) for metal M in deaerated acid solution.
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Fundamentals of Corrosion
there is an associated current. This current is referred to as an exchange current z'o- At
equilibrium, the exchange current for the oxidation and reduction reactions are equal
and the net rate is zero. The exchange current of a reaction is different depending on
the type and nature of the surface on which it is occurring. For example, the exchange
current for the hydrogen reaction is higher on a clean metal surface such as platinum
than on a metal surface with an oxide film present.
The corrosion potential for a metal in an environment is established at a potential
where the net sum of the reduction reactions is equal to the net sum of the oxidation
reactions. This is because there can be no net accumulation of charge; all of the electrons
liberated by the oxidation of the metal must be consumed by the reduction reactions.
The value of the corrosion potential, £ C orr/ is indicated in Figure 16.3. Note in the exam-
ple in Figure 16.3 that the oxidation reaction for hydrogen and the reduction reaction
for the metal are ignored in the summation process. This is because the current scale
is logarithmic and the rates for these reactions are negligible near the free corrosion
potential.
The curves in Figure 16.3 show the current-potential relationships of the individ-
ual oxidation and reduction reactions. The net current (difference between oxidation
and reduction currents), plotted as a function of potential, has the form shown in
Figure 16.4. The net current is zero at the free corrosion potential and only approaches
the curves shown in Figure 16.3 at overpotentials greater than about 75 mV from E CO rr-
At overpotentials less than this value, the net current is affected by both the anodic and
c
I
CL
Log Current Density
Figure 16.4 Evans diagram for metal M in deaerated acid solu-
tion, showing net anodic and cathodic currents.
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cathodic reactions. The equation describing the net current has a form similar to the
classical Butler- Volmer equation
ine t = ico4e 23 " /h -e- 23 " /fic ] (16)
in which fi a and /3 C are the slopes of the anodic and cathodic components of the corrosion
reactions, in millivolts per decade of current. These slopes are referred to as Tafel Slopes.
In general, the anodic and cathodic Tafel slopes are different.
The anodic (corrosion) current at the corrosion potential is I C orr which is the corrosion
rate. When written as a large I, the units are generally in amperes (A). This current can
be converted into a corrosion rate if one knows the surface area over which the current
occurs. When this is known, the current is written as a current density (/) with units of
A /cm 2 or A /ft 2 . This current can be converted to an actual corrosion rate using Faraday's
Law
mJM
at nF v }
in which m is the mass loss of the metal in grams, t is the time in seconds, a is the
exposed surface area of the metal in cm 2 , i is the current density in A /cm 2 , M is the
atomic weight of the metal in grams, n is the number of electrons transferred, and F is
Faradays Constant (96,500 Coulombs/mole of e~). The left-hand side of the equation
can be converted to a corrosion rate by dividing by the density (p), in grams /cm 3 and
converting the units to the desired values.
corrosion rate (cm/s) = (18)
at
For example, as written, the units are in cm /sec, which are not commonly used. This can
be converted to thousandths of an inch per year (mils per year or mpy) by multiplying
the number by 1.242 x 10 10 .
corrosion rate (mils per year) = Corrosion Rate(cm/s) x (1.242 x 10 10 ) (19)
A good number to remember is that 1 mpy for iron is equal to a current density of
2.17 x 10" 6 A/cm 2 , which is equivalent to 2.02 mA/ft 2 .
Another type of polarization commonly observed is concentration polarization. A
definition of concentration polarization is "The portion of the polarization of a cell pro-
duced by concentration changes resulting from passage of current through the elec-
trolyte/' Concentration polarization is most commonly associated with the reduction
reaction and is shown graphically in Figure 16.5. In this example, the diffusion of
oxygen to the metal surface limits the rate of corrosion. Note that the rate of the re-
duction reaction is independent of potential when concentration polarization occurs.
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Fundamentals of Corrosion
£
o
CL
—
E™ 1
Activation
Polarization
/ Concentration
—
i i i \
V Polarization
'corr
Log Current Density
Figure 1 6.5 Evans diagram for metal M where the concentration of oxy-
gen is limiting rate of corrosion.
Differential Aeration Cells
In the corrosion cells described above, the oxidation and reduction reactions occur phys-
ically at or very near the same location on a metal. At any given moment, one atom
is being oxidized while the reduction reaction is occurring at an adjacent atomic site.
Corrosion of a metal in an acid solution is a common example of this type of behav-
ior. It is also possible for the oxidation and reduction reactions to be separated on a
metal surface, where the metal oxidation occurs predominantly at one site while the
reduction reaction occurs predominantly at another site. This is referred to as a differ-
ential corrosion cell. One common differential corrosion cell is a differential aeration
cell, shown in Figure 16.6. In this example, the paved road lowers the oxygen concen-
tration in the soil around the pipeline. This region of the pipeline becomes the anode in
the differential corrosion cell. Current leaves the metal surface in this region, increas-
ing the corrosion rate, and flows to the cathodic areas where the oxygen concentration
is higher.
The Evans diagram for a differential aeration cell is shown in Figure 16.7. Note that
each of the two sites has its own free corrosion potential. At the cathodic site, the primary
reduction reaction is oxygen reduction while water reduction is indicated as the primary
reduction reaction at the anodic site. The oxidation reactions at the two sites are the
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309
Soil On Each Side Of Road
Permitting Relatively Free
Migration Of Oxygen To Pipe
Surface
Paved Road Preventing Free
Access Of OxygenTo Pipeline
mmmm^mmmmmm ^^^^^^^^^S mmmmmmmm^^m
Soil
^\ ^
^ ^X
Anode Area
(Corroding)
Figure 16.6 Schematic showing differential aeration cell developed
on a pipeline beneath a paved road. Arrows indicate direction of cur-
rent flow.
c
o
o
(Aerated Steel)
(Deaerated Steel)
(Deaerated Steel)
(Aerated Steel)
Log Current Density
Figure 1 6.7 Evans diagram for differential aeration cell.
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same: oxidation of iron in this case. However, the Tafel slopes for the oxidation reactions
are different because oxygen promotes the formation of protective oxide films. Figure
16.7 shows that the cathodic site, where net reduction occurs, is polarized cathodically
(in the negative direction) from its free corrosion potential. The anodic site, where net
oxidation occurs, is polarized anodically (in the positive direction) from its free corrosion
potential. After polarization, the two sites are not usually at the same potential because
of an ohmic potential drop in the electrolyte, which is also indicated in the figure.
The differential aeration cell is probably the most common corrosion cell found on
pipelines or other underground structures. The upper parts of the structure are exposed
to higher concentrations of oxygen and become the cathodes in the cell while the lower
parts of the structure are oxygen deficient and become the anodes. Books on CP com-
monly state that the following four conditions are required for a corrosion cell to function:
1 . There must be an anode.
2. There must be a cathode.
3. There must be a metallic path electrically connecting the anode and cathode. (Nor-
mally, this will be the pipeline itself.)
4. The anode and cathode must be immersed in an electrically conductive electrolyte
(normally, moist soil).
The earlier edition of this book also stated that there must be an electrical potential
between the anode and cathode. However, the principles of electrode kinetics show that
a potential difference between the anode and cathode is not required for all types of
corrosion. For example, an electrical potential between the anode and cathode is not
necessary for uniform corrosion to occur. In the case of uniform corrosion, the anode
and the cathode can be adjacent atoms on a metal at the same potential. The anodic
and cathodic reactions must be polarized from their equilibrium values for corrosion to
occur: the cathodic reaction is cathodically polarized and the anodic reaction is anodically
polarized. The polarization of these reactions generates net oxidation and reduction
currents that produce corrosion. Nevertheless, the vast majority of cases of corrosion on
underground structures occur as a result of differential cells where the four conditions
are present and a potential difference between the anode and cathode is present.
Other Differential Corrosion Cells
Galvanic Corrosion
The differential aeration cell is one example of a differential corrosion cell. Galvanic
corrosion is another example. In the case of galvanic corrosion, the potential difference
is created by the presence of different metals. Referring to the galvanic series described
in the thermodynamics section, each material has a different corrosion potential in a
given environment. When these metals are electrically coupled, the metal with the most
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positive corrosion potential is cathodically polarized, reducing its corrosion rate, while
the more negative member of the couple is anodically polarized, increasing its corrosion
rate. Galvanic corrosion can be very detrimental to an underground structure. Examples
include the corrosion of iron in contact with copper or stainless steel fittings. However,
galvanic corrosion can be used as an effective means of CP, as described in the section
onCP.
Mill Scale Corrosion
Although not a metal, mill scale on hot rolled steel acts like a dissimilar metal in contact
with the pipe steel. As shown by the practical galvanic series of Table 16.3, pipe steel
will be anodic to mill scale. This can result in severe corrosion in low resistivity soils.
New and Old Pipe
A condition closely related to dissimilar metal corrosion occurs when new steel pipe,
as shown in Figure 16.8, is intermixed with old steel pipe. This has often been found
in older distribution piping systems where a section of pipe has been replaced because
of corrosion damage. The new piece of pipe, exposed to the same corrosion conditions,
logically would be expected to last as long as the original section. However, the new
section will usually fail sooner than expected unless it is electrically insulated from the
remainder of the system. This is simply an application of the practical galvanic series
of Table 16.3, which shows that the potential of bright new steel is markedly different
-0.40V
-0.65V
V
V
-0.35V
Soil
V
Old Pipe
New Pipe
Old Pipe
\-
Anodic Area
(Corroding)
Figure 16.8 Schematic showing a differential corrosion
cell created by replacement of a section of pipe.
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Fundamentals of Corrosion
from that of old rusted steel. The new steel is anodic and corrodes more rapidly than the
old rusted steel. A similar corrosive condition can occur if, during work on an existing
piping system, tools cut or scrape the pipe and expose areas of bright steel. These bright
spots will be anodic and can result in accelerated corrosion in low resistivity soils.
Dissimilar Soils
A steel pipeline passing through dissimilar soils can establish corrosion cells in much
the same manner that corrosion cells can be established with dissimilar metals. This
is illustrated by Figure 16.9, which shows a pipeline passing through two dissimilar
soils. The potential of the pipeline in soil A is slightly different from the potential in
soil B. As indicated in the section of the book on the galvanic series, the corrosion, or
native potential of a metal can vary with differences in the environment. This causes
the potential difference illustrated and satisfies the conditions necessary to establish
a differential corrosion cell. In the figure, the pipe in soil A is anodic to that in soil
B and is corroding as indicated by the current discharge. This behavior is sometimes
made strikingly apparent when excavating an old bare pipeline in which some areas
Voltmeter
-0.4V
Copper
Sulfate
Reference
Electrode
Arrows
Indicate
Direction
Of Current
Flow
Figure 16.9 Schematic showing differential corrosion cell created by dis-
similar soils.
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Ground Surface
Arrows Indicate
Direction Of Current Flow
Anodic And Cathodic Areas On Pipe
Indicated By "A" And "C M Respectivly
Figure 1 6.1 Schematic showing numerous small differential corrosion
cells created by different soils.
(cathodic) are in excellent condition but other areas (anodic) only a few feet away are
severely corroded. The middle voltmeter illustrates that the potential difference between
soil types can be measured. This type of measurement is used during pipeline surveys
as outlined in Chapter 5.
Figure 16.10 illustrates the effect of adjacent soil types of different character on differ-
ential cell corrosion. In some instances, different soil types are layered so that the backfill
contacting the pipe will be a mixture of soil types when a pipeline trench is excavated
and the pipe is laid and backfilled. This produces many small corrosion cells at the pipe
surface that are not necessarily detectable by potential measurements taken at the surface
of the ground.
A specialized differential corrosion cell involves steel in concrete versus steel in soil.
Figure 16.11 indicates that the portion of a steel pipe which is embedded in concrete
will be more noble (positive) than adjacent pipe sections buried in soil. The electrolytic
environment of moist concrete, being entirely different from the surrounding soil, re-
sults in substantial differences in the steel-to-environment potential as illustrated in
Table 16.3. Practically, this will always make the steel in soil more negative (active) than
the steel embedded in concrete. This is an important source of corrosion activity in some
instances.
Relative Size of Anodic and Cathodic Areas
Up to this point, various conditions have been discussed that can cause corrosion current
to flow in a differential corrosion cell. The relative size of anodic and cathodic areas has
not been mentioned. An understanding of the effect of differences in area relationships
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Fundamentals of Corrosion
Voltmeter
Copper
Sulfate
Reference
Electrode
- Concrete
Encasement
Pipe In Soil
Corrodes
Figure 16.11 Schematic showing differential corrosion cell created by
concrete encasement of pipe. Note that the indicated polarities of the po-
tentials are reversed.
is important for an appreciation of why, for example, a dissimilar metal combination can
cause very rapid corrosion under certain area relationships and relatively little in others.
Figure 16.12 demonstrates the effect of anode to cathode area ratio on galvanic corrosion.
The left-hand sketch in Figure 16.12 shows a small anode (a galvanized cap on a service
stub on a bare steel pipeline) in contact with a large cathode (the bare steel line). Under
such a condition, the small anode will be subject to a high density of current discharge
per unit area, with the total amount of current flowing governed by the kinetics of the
oxidation and reduction reactions and the soil resistivity. The current collected per unit
area on the cathode is relatively low and may not be sufficient to result in any degree
of polarization which would tend to limit corrosion current flow as discussed earlier.
Under these conditions, in a low resistivity environment, corrosion can be serious and
rapid.
By contrast, the right-hand sketch in Figure 16.12 shows a large anode (the steel
pipeline) and a small cathode (the brass valve in the steel system). With such a com-
bination, a high current density may be collected per unit area at the cathode, but the
total cathodic current will be relatively small because of the small area of the cathode
(total current = current density x area). The corrosion current density discharged from
the steel will be even smaller because the small current is distributed over a large sur-
face area. From this discussion, we may conclude that no matter what condition has
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Cathodic Protection
315
Small Cathode
(Brass Service Cock)
Small Anode
(Galvanize Pipe Cap)
Small Anode - Large Cathode.
(Corrosion At Anode Severe).
(a)
Small Cathode - Large
Anode. (Relatively Mild
Corrosion At Anode).
(b)
Figure 16.12 Schematic showing the effect of anode to cathode area
ratio on galvanic corrosion.
initiated the differential corrosion cell, if the anodic area is relatively small in relation to
the cathodic area, corrosion will be severe. If, on the other hand, the anodic area is large
as compared to the cathodic area, corrosion will be relatively mild.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
The principal methods for mitigating corrosion on underground pipelines are coatings
and CP. A primary function of a coating on a cathodically protected structure is to reduce
the surface area of exposed metal on the pipeline, thereby reducing the current necessary
to cathodically protect the metal. CP is defined as "a reduction of the corrosion rate by
shifting the potential of the structure toward a less oxidizing potential by applying an
external current." This can be shown graphically on an Evans diagram as indicated in
Figure 16.13. In the illustration, the potential of the metal is shifted from the free corrosion
potential, £ corr to the value Ecp by the application of the CP current, /applied- As the
potential becomes more negative, the corrosion rate decreases, as defined by the anodic
kinetics, while the rate of the cathodic current increases. This difference between the
anodic and cathodic kinetics is the amount of current required to maintain the indicated
potential and is equivalent to the CP current applied to a structure.
It is important to note that complete protection is not achieved until the potential of the
metal is shifted to the equilibrium potential, E e quil- At this potential, the net corrosion rate
is zero. Usually, it is not practicable to achieve complete protection because of the high
current required; the applied current increases exponentially with decreasing potential.
Since anodic Tafel slopes are typically around 100 mV, a 100 mV negative shift in the
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Fundamentals of Corrosion
+
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
ClT
C/)
0.5
o
0.6
TB 0.7
c
o
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1
1.3
1.4
0.001 0.01 0. 1 1 10 1 00 1 000 1 0,000
Log Current Density, l-t A/cm
Figure 1 6.1 3 Evans diagram demonstrating mechanism of CP.
potential will decrease the corrosion rate by a factor of 10. This magnitude of decrease
is typically considered to be adequate to protect most structures.
The required shift in potential can be achieved by means of an external power source
(referred to as impressed current CP) or by utilizing a sacrificial anode. The impressed
current system uses a power supply, referred to as a rectifier, and an anode buried in
the ground to impress a current on the structure. The sacrificial anode system uses the
galvanic relationship between a sacrificial anode material, such as zinc or magnesium,
and the pipe steel to supply the required CP current.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLARIZATION
The concepts presented for CP are fundamentally correct at the instant that CP is applied
but are too simplistic to consider the time-dependant behavior of a cathodically protected
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Environmental Polarization 317
underground structure. At the surface of a structure under CP, a number of changes in the
environment occur that are beneficial in mitigating corrosion. They have been referred
to as environmental polarization. As shown in Figure 16.13, the rate of the reduction
reaction is increased when the CP is applied. The reduction reactions generate OH - or
consume H +
2 + 2H 2 + 4e~ -> 40H- (3)
2H + + 2e~ -^H 2 (5)
2H 2 + 2e~ -> 20H~ + H 2 (20)
Thus, an increase in the rate of these reactions causes a pH increase to occur at the
metal surface, creating a less acidic (more basic) environment. This pH increase is bene-
ficial because the corrosion rate of steel decreases with increasing pH, even under freely
corroding conditions. The decrease in corrosion rate is the result of the formation of a
protective oxide film on the metal surface in the elevated pH environment, a process
referred to as passivation. On an Evans diagram, this process corresponds to an increase
in the anodic Tafel slope and a resulting shift in the oxidation kinetics to the left. The
flow of electrical current also causes damaging negatively charged ions (anions), such
as chloride, to migrate from the metal surface.
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Appendix
NACE Glossary of
Corrosion-Related Terms
Courtesy of Technical Coordination Committee and Reference Publications Committee.
Abrasive Small particles of material
that are propelled at high velocity to
impact a surface during abrasive blast
cleaning.
Abrasive Blast Cleaning Cleaning and
roughening of a surface produced by the
high-velocity impact of an abrasive that is
propelled by the discharge of pressurized
fluid from a blast nozzle or by a mechan-
ical device such as a centrifugal blast-
ing wheel. (Also referred to as Abrasive
Blasting.)
Accelerator A chemical substance that
increases the rate at which a chemical
reaction (e.g., curing) would otherwise
occur.
Acrylic Type of resin polymerized from
acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, esters of
these acids, or acrylonitrile.
Activator A chemical substance that
initiates and accelerates a chemical reac-
tion (e.g., curing). Heat and radiation may
also serve as activators for some chemical
reactions.
Active (1) The negative direction of
electrode potential. (2) A state of a metal
that is corroding without significant in-
fluence of reaction product.
Aeration Cell [See Differential Aeration
Cell]
Air Drying Process by which an ap-
plied wet coat converts to a dry coating
film by evaporation of solvent or reaction
with oxygen as a result of simple expo-
sure to air without intentional addition
of heat or a curing agent.
Airless Spraying Process of spraying
coating liquids using hydraulic pressure,
not air pressure, to atomize.
Alkyd Type of resin formed by the reac-
tion of polyhydric alcohols and polybasic
319
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acids, part of which is derived from satu-
rated or unsaturated oils or fats.
Alligatoring Pronounced wide crack-
ing over the surface of a coating, which
has the appearance of alligator hide.
Amphoteric Metal A metal that is sus-
ceptible to corrosion in both acid and
alkaline environments.
Anaerobic Free of air or uncombined
oxygen.
Anion A negatively charged ion that
migrates through the electrolyte toward
the anode under the influence of a poten-
tial gradient.
Anode The electrode of an electrochem-
ical cell at which oxidation occurs. Elec-
trons flow away from the anode in the
external circuit. Corrosion usually occurs
and metal ions enter the solution at the
anode.
Anode Cap An electrical insulating ma-
terial placed over the end of the anode at
the lead wire connection.
Anode Corrosion Efficiency The ratio
of the actual corrosion (mass loss) of an
anode to the theoretical corrosion (mass
loss) calculated from the quantity of elec-
tricity that has passed between the anode
and cathode using Faraday's law.
Anodic Inhibitor A chemical substance
that prevents or reduces the rate of the
anodic or oxidation reaction.
Anodic Polarization The change of the
electrode potential in the noble (positive)
direction caused by current across the
electrode /electrolyte interface. [See Po-
larization.]
Anodic Protection Polarization to a
more oxidizing potential to achieve a
reduced corrosion rate by the promotion
of passivity.
Anodizing Oxide coating formed on a
metal surface (generally aluminum) by an
electrolytic process.
Anolyte The electrolyte adjacent to the
anode of an electrochemical cell.
Antifouling Preventing fouling. [See
Fouling.]
Attenuation Electrical losses in a con-
ductor caused by current flow in the
conductor.
Auger Electron Spectroscopy Analyt-
ical technique in which the sample
surface is irradiated with low-energy
electrons and the energy spectrum of
electrons emitted from the surface is
measured.
Austenitic Steel A steel whose mi-
crostructure at room temperature consists
predominantly of austenite.
Auxiliary Electrode An electrode, usu-
ally made from a noncorroding material,
which is commonly used in polarization
studies to pass current to or from a test
electrode.
B
Backfill Material placed in a hole to fill
the space around the anodes, vent pipe,
and buried components of a cathodic
protection system.
Barrier Coating (1) A coating that has a
high resistance to permeation of liquids
and/ or gases. (2) A coating that is ap-
plied over a previously coated surface to
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321
prevent damage to the underlying coat-
ing during subsequent handling.
Beach Marks The characteristic mark-
ings on the fracture surfaces produced
by fatigue crack propagation (also known
as clamshell marks, conchoidal marks, and
arrest marks).
Binder The nonvolatile portion of the
vehicle of a formulated coating material.
Bituminous Coating An asphalt or
coal-tar compound used to provide a pro-
tective coating for a surface.
Blast Angle (1) The angle of the blast
nozzle with reference to the surface dur-
ing abrasive blast cleaning. (2) The angle
of the abrasive particles propelled from
a centrifugal blasting wheel with refer-
ence to the surface being abrasive blast
cleaned.
Blowdown (1) Injection of air or water
under high pressure through a tube to
the anode area for the purpose of purging
the annular space and possibly correcting
high resistance caused by gas blockage.
(2) In conjunction with boilers or cooling
towers, the process of discharging a sig-
nificant portion of the aqueous solution
in order to remove accumulated salts, de-
posits, and other impurities.
Blushing Whitening and loss of gloss
of a coating, usually organic, caused by
moisture (also known as blooming).
Brittle Fracture Fracture with little or
no plastic deformation.
Brush-Off Blast Cleaned Surface A
brush-off blast cleaned surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be
free of all visible oil, grease, dirt, dust,
loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose
coating. Tightly adherent mill scale, rust,
and coating may remain on the surface.
Mill scale, rust, and coating are consid-
ered tightly adherent if they cannot be re-
moved by lifting with a dull putty knife.
[See NACE No. 4/SSPC-SP 7.]
Calcareous Coating A layer consisting
of calcium carbonate and other salts de-
posited on the surface. When the surface
is cathodically polarized as in cathodic
protection, this layer is the result of the
increased pH adjacent to the protected
surface.
Calcareous Deposit [See Calcareous
Coating.]
Case Hardening Hardening a ferrous
alloy so that the outer portion, or case, is
made substantially harder than the inner
portion, or core. Typical processes are car-
burizing, cyaniding, carbo-nitriding, ni-
triding, induction hardening, and flame
hardening.
Casein Paint Water-thinned paint with
vehicle derived from milk.
Catalyst A chemical substance, usually
present in small amounts relative to the
reactants, that increases the rate at which
a chemical reaction (e.g., curing) would
otherwise occur, but is not consumed in
the reaction.
Cathode The electrode of an electro-
chemical cell at which reduction is the
principal reaction. Electrons flow toward
the cathode in the external circuit.
Cathodic Corrosion Corrosion result-
ing from a cathodic condition of a struc-
ture, usually caused by the reaction of an
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amphoteric metal with the alkaline prod-
ucts of electrolysis.
Cathodic Disbondment The destruc-
tion of adhesion between a coating and
the coated surface caused by products of
a cathodic reaction.
Cathodic Inhibitor A chemical sub-
stance that prevents or reduces the rate
of the cathodic or reduction reaction.
Cathodic Polarization The change of
the electrode potential in the active (neg-
ative) direction caused by current across
the electrode /electrolyte interface. [See
Polarization.]
Cathodic Protection A technique to re-
duce the corrosion of a metal surface by
making that surface the cathode of an
electrochemical cell.
Catholyte The electrolyte adjacent to
the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
Cation A positively charged ion that
migrates through the electrolyte toward
the cathode under the influence of a po-
tential gradient.
Cavitation The formation and rapid
collapse of cavities or bubbles within a
liquid which often results in damage to a
material at the solid /liquid interface un-
der conditions of severe turbulent flow.
Cell [See Electrochemical Cell]
Cementation The introduction of one
or more elements into the surface layer
of a metal by diffusion at high temper-
ature. (Examples of cementation include
carburizing [introduction of carbon], ni-
triding [introduction of nitrogen], and
chromizing [introduction of chromium].)
Chalking The development of loose, re-
movable powder (pigment) at the surface
of an organic coating, usually caused by
weathering.
Checking The development of slight
breaks in a coating which do not pene-
trate to the underlying surface.
Chemical Conversion Coating An ad-
herent reaction product layer on a metal
surface formed by reaction with a suit-
able chemical to provide greater corro-
sion resistance to the metal and increase
adhesion of coatings applied to the metal.
(Example is an iron phosphate coating on
steel, developed by reaction with phos-
phoric acid.)
Chevron Pattern A V-shaped pattern
on a fatigue or brittle-fracture surface.
The pattern can also be one of straight
radial lines on cylindrical specimens.
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking
Cracking of a metal under the combined
action of tensile stress and corrosion in the
presence of chlorides and an electrolyte
(usually water).
Coat One layer of a coating applied to a
surface in a single continuous application
to form a uniform film when dry.
Coating A liquid, liquefiable, or mas-
tic composition that, after application to
a surface, is converted into a solid pro-
tective, decorative, or functional adherent
film.
Coating System The complete number
and types of coats applied to a substrate
in a predetermined order. (When used in
a broader sense, surface preparation, pre-
treatments, dry film thickness, and man-
ner of application are included.)
Cold Shut Horizontal surface disconti-
nuity caused by solidification of a portion
of a meniscus during the progressive
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323
filling of a mold, which is later covered
with more solidifying metal as the molten
metal level rises. Cold shuts generally oc-
cur at corners remote from the point of
pour.
Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface A
commercial blast cleaned surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be
free of all visible oil, grease, dust, dirt,
mill scale, rust, coating, oxides, corrosion
products, and other foreign matter. Ran-
dom staining shall be limited to no more
than 33 percent of each unit area (ap-
proximately 58 cm 2 [9.0 in. 2 ]) of surface
and may consist of light shadows, slight
streaks, or minor discolorations caused
by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or
stains of previously applied coating. [See
NACE No. 3/SSPC-SP 6.]
Concentration Cell An electrochemical
cell, the electromotive force of which is
caused by a difference in concentration of
some component in the electrolyte. (This
difference leads to the formation of dis-
crete cathodic and anodic regions.)
Concentration Polarization That por-
tion of polarization of a cell produced
by concentration changes resulting from
passage of current though the electrolyte.
Conductive Coating (1) A coating that
conducts electricity. (2) An electrically
conductive, mastic-like material used as
an impressed current anode on reinforced
concrete surfaces.
Contact Corrosion [See Galvanic Corro-
sion.]
Continuity Bond A connection, usually
metallic, that provides electrical continu-
ity between structures that can conduct
electricity.
Continuous Anode A single anode
with no electrical discontinuities.
Conversion Coating
version Coating.]
[See Chemical Con-
Corrosion The deterioration of a mate-
rial, usually a metal, that results from a
reaction with its environment.
Corrosion Fatigue Fatigue-type crack-
ing of metal caused by repeated or fluctu-
ating stresses in a corrosive environment
characterized by shorter life than would
be encountered as a result of either the
repeated or fluctuating stress alone or the
corrosive environment alone.
Corrosion Inhibitor A chemical sub-
stance or combination of substances that,
when present in the environment, pre-
vents or reduces corrosion.
Corrosion Potential (E cor r) The poten-
tial of a corroding surface in an electrolyte
relative to a reference electrode under
open-circuit conditions (also known as
rest potential, open-circuit potential, or freely
corroding potential).
Corrosion Rate The rate at which cor-
rosion proceeds.
Corrosion Resistance Ability of a ma-
terial, usually a metal, to withstand cor-
rosion in a given system.
Corrosiveness The tendency of an en-
vironment to cause corrosion.
Counter Electrode
trode.]
[See Auxiliary Elec-
Counterpoise A conductor or system
of conductors arranged beneath a power
line, located on, above, or most fre-
quently, below the surface of the earth
and connected to the footings of the tow-
ers or poles supporting the power line.
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Couple [See Galvanic Couple.]
Cracking (of Coating) Breaks in a coat-
ing that extend through to the substrate.
Crazing A network of checks or cracks
appearing on the surface of a coating.
Creep Time-dependent strain occur-
ring under stress.
Crevice Corrosion Localized corrosion
of a metal surface at, or immediately ad-
jacent to, an area that is shielded from full
exposure to the environment because of
close proximity of the metal to the surface
of another material.
Critical Humidity The relative humid-
ity above which the atmospheric corro-
sion rate of some metals increases sharply.
Critical Pitting Potential (E p , E pp ) The
lowest value of oxidizing potential (volt-
age) at which pits nucleate and grow. The
value depends on the test method used.
Curing Chemical process of developing
the intended properties of a coating or
other material (e.g., resin) over a period
of time.
Curing Agent A chemical substance
used for curing a coating or other material
(e.g., resin). [Also referred to as Hardener.]
Current Density The current to or from
a unit area of an electrode surface.
Current Efficiency The ratio of the elec-
trochemical equivalent current density
for a specific reaction to the total applied
current density.
D
of alternating current (AC) in both direc-
tions and stops or substantially reduces
the flow of direct current (DC).
Dealloying The selective corrosion of
one or more components of a solid solu-
tion alloy (also known as parting or selec-
tive dissolution).
Decomposition Potential The poten-
tial (voltage) on a metal surface necessary
to decompose the electrolyte of an electro-
chemical cell or a component thereof.
Decomposition Voltage
sition Potential]
[See Decompo-
se Decoupling Device A device used
in electrical circuits that allows the flow
Deep Groundbed One or more anodes
installed vertically at a nominal depth of
15 m (50 ft) or more below the earth's sur-
face in a drilled hole for the purpose of
supplying cathodic protection.
Depolarization The removal of factors
resisting the current in an electrochemical
cell.
Deposit Attack Corrosion occurring
under or around a discontinuous deposit
on a metallic surface (also known as poul-
tice corrosion).
Dezincification A corrosion phenome-
non resulting in the selective removal of
zinc from copper-zinc alloys. (This phe-
nomenon is one of the more common
forms of dealloying.)
Dielectric Coating A coating that does
not conduct electricity.
Dielectric Shield An electrically non-
conductive material, such as a coating,
sheet or pipe, that is placed between
an anode and an adjacent cathode, usu-
ally on the cathode, to improve cur-
rent distribution in a cathodic protection
system.
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325
Differential Aeration Cell An electro-
chemical cell, the electromotive force of
which is due to a difference in air (oxygen)
concentration at one electrode as com-
pared with that at another electrode of the
same material.
Diffusion-Limited Current Density
The current density that corresponds
to the maximum transfer rate that a
particular species can sustain because of
the limitation of diffusion (often referred
to as limiting current density).
Disbondment The loss of adhesion be-
tween a coating and the substrate.
Double Layer The interface between an
electrode or a suspended particle and
an electrolyte created by charge-charge
interaction leading to an alignment of
oppositely charged ions at the surface
of the electrode or particle. The simplest
model is represented by a parallel plate
condenser.
Drainage Conduction of electric cur-
rent from an underground or submerged
metallic structure by means of a metallic
conductor.
Driving Potential Difference in poten-
tial between the anode and the steel struc-
ture.
Drying Oil An oil capable of conver-
sion from a liquid to a solid by slow reac-
tion with oxygen in the air.
Elastic Deformation Changes of di-
mensions of a material upon the appli-
cation of a stress within the elastic range.
Following the release of an elastic stress,
the material returns to its original dimen-
sions without any permanent deforma-
tion.
Elastic Limit The maximum stress to
which a material may be subjected with-
out retention of any permanent deforma-
tion after the stress is removed.
Elasticity The property of a material
that allows it to recover its original di-
mensions following deformation by a
stress below its elastic limit.
Electrical Isolation The condition of
being electrically separated from other
metallic structures or the environment.
Electrochemical Cell A system consist-
ing of an anode and a cathode immersed
in an electrolyte so as to create an electri-
cal circuit. The anode and cathode may
be different metals or dissimilar areas on
the same metal surface.
Electrochemical Equivalent The mass
of an element or group of elements oxi-
dized or reduced at 100% efficiency by the
passage of a unit quantity of electricity.
Electrochemical Potential The partial
derivative of the total electrochemical free
energy of a constituent with respect to
the number of moles of this constituent
where all other factors are kept constant.
It is analogous to the chemical potential
of a constituent except that it includes
the electrical as well as chemical contri-
butions to the free energy.
Electrode A conductor used to establish
contact with an electrolyte and through
which current is transferred to or from an
electrolyte.
Electrode Potential The potential of
an electrode in an electrolyte as mea-
sured against a reference electrode. (The
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electrode potential does not include any
resistance losses in potential in either the
electrolyte or the external circuit. It repre-
sents the reversible work to move a unit of
charge from the electrode surface through
the electrolyte to the reference electrode.)
Electrokinetic Potential A potential
difference in a solution caused by resid-
ual, unbalanced charge distribution in the
adjoining solution, producing a double
layer. The electrokinetic potential is dif-
ferent from the electrode potential in that
it occurs exclusively in the solution phase.
This potential represents the reversible
work necessary to bring a unit charge
from infinity in the solution up to the in-
terface in question but not through the
interface (also known as zeta potential).
Electrolyte A chemical substance con-
taining ions that migrate in an electric
field.
Electrolytic Cleaning A process for re-
moving soil, scale, or corrosion products
from a metal surface by subjecting the
metal as an electrode to an electric cur-
rent in an electrolytic bath.
Electromotive Force Series A list of el-
ements arranged according to their stan-
dard electrode potentials, the sign being
positive for elements whose potentials
are cathodic to hydrogen and negative for
those anodic to hydrogen.
Ellipsometry An optical analytical
technique employing plane-polarized
light to study films.
Embrittlement Loss of ductility of a
material resulting from a chemical or
physical change.
EMF Series See Electromotive Force Series.
Enamel (1) A paint that dries to a
hard, glossy surface. (2) A coating that is
characterized by an ability to form a
smooth, durable film.
End Effect The more rapid loss of anode
material at the end of an anode, compared
with other surfaces of the anode, resulting
from higher current density.
Endurance Limit The maximum stress
that a material can withstand for an in-
finitely large number of fatigue cycles.
Environment The surroundings or con-
ditions (physical, chemical, mechanical)
in which a material exists.
Environmental Cracking Brittle frac-
ture of a normally ductile material in
which the corrosive effect of the environ-
ment is a causative factor.
Environmental cracking is a general
term that includes all of the terms listed
below. The definitions of these terms are
listed elsewhere in the Glossary:
Corrosion fatigue
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen-induced cracking — (stepwise
cracking)
Hydrogen stress cracking
Liquid metal cracking
Stress corrosion cracking
Sulfide stress cracking
The following terms have been used in
the past in connection with environmen-
tal cracking but are now obsolete and
should not be used:
Caustic embrittlement
Delayed cracking
Liquid metal embrittlement
Season cracking
Static fatigue
Sulfide corrosion cracking
Sulfide stress corrosion cracking
Epoxy Type of resin formed by the re-
action of aliphatic or aromatic polyols
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(like bisphenol) with epichlorohydrin
and characterized by the presence of re-
active oxirane end groups.
Equilibrium Potential The potential of
an electrode in an electrolyte at which the
forward rate of a given reaction is exactly
equal to the reverse rate; the electrode
potential with reference to a standard
equilibrium, as defined by the Nernst
equation.
Erosion The progressive loss of mate-
rial from a solid surface due to mechan-
ical interaction between that surface and
a fluid, a multicomponent fluid, or solid
particles carried with the fluid.
Erosion-Corrosion A conjoint action
involving corrosion and erosion in the
presence of a moving corrosive fluid or a
material moving through the fluid, lead-
ing to accelerated loss of material.
Exchange Current The rate at which ei-
ther positive or negative charges are en-
tering or leaving the surface when an elec-
trode reaches dynamic equilibrium in an
electrolyte.
Exfoliation Corrosion Localized sub-
surface corrosion in zones parallel to the
surface that result in thin layers of un-
corroded metal resembling the pages of a
book.
External Circuit The wires, connectors,
measuring devices, current sources, etc.,
that are used to bring about or measure
the desired electrical conditions within an
electrochemical cell. It is this portion of
the cell through which electrons travel.
Fatigue The phenomenon leading to
fracture of a material under repeated or
fluctuating stresses having a maximum
value less than the tensile strength of the
material.
Fatigue Strength The maximum stress
that can be sustained for a specified num-
ber of cycles without failure.
Fault Current A current that flows from
one conductor to ground or to another
conductor due to an abnormal connec-
tion (including an arc) between the two.
A fault current flowing to ground may be
called a ground fault current.
Ferrite The body-centered cubic crys-
talline phase of iron-based alloys.
Ferritic Steel A steel whose microstruc-
ture at room temperature consists pre-
dominantly of ferrite.
Filiform Corrosion Corrosion that oc-
curs under a coating in the form of ran-
domly distributed thread-like filaments.
Film A thin, not necessarily visible
layer of material.
Finish Coat [See Topcoat.]
Forced Drainage Drainage applied to
underground or submerged metallic
structures by means of an applied elec-
tromotive force or sacrificial anode.
Foreign Structure Any metallic struc-
ture that is not intended as a part of a
system under cathodic protection.
Fouling An accumulation of deposits.
This includes accumulation and growth
of marine organisms on a submerged
metal surface and the accumulation of
deposits (usually inorganic) on heat ex-
changer tubing.
Fractography Descriptive treatment of
fracture, especially in metals, with spe-
cific reference to photographs of the frac-
ture surface.
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Fracture Mechanics A quantitative
analysis for evaluating structural relia-
bility in terms of applied stress, crack
length, and specimen geometry
Free Machining The machining charac-
teristics of an alloy to which an ingre-
dient has been introduced to give small
broken chips, lower power consump-
tion, better surface finish, and longer tool
life.
Fretting Corrosion Deterioration at the
interface of two contacting surfaces under
load which is accelerated by their relative
motion.
Furan Type of resin formed by the poly-
merization or polycondensation of fur-
furyl, furfuryl alcohol, or other com-
pounds containing a furan ring.
Galvanic Anode A metal that provides
sacrificial protection to another metal that
is more noble when electrically coupled
in an electrolyte. This type of anode is
the electron source in one type of cathodic
protection.
Galvanic Corrosion Accelerated corro-
sion of a metal because of an electrical
contact with a more noble metal or non-
metallic conductor in a corrosive elec-
trolyte.
Galvanic Couple A pair of dissimilar
conductors, commonly metals, in electri-
cal contact in an electrolyte.
Galvanic Current The electric current
between metals or conductive nonmetals
in a galvanic couple.
Galvanic Series A list of metals and
alloys arranged according to their corro-
sion potentials in a given environment.
Galvanostatic Refers to an experimen-
tal technique whereby an electrode is
maintained at a constant current in an
electrolyte.
General Corrosion Corrosion that is
distributed more or less uniformly over
the surface of a material.
Graphitic Corrosion Deterioration of
gray cast iron in which the metallic con-
stituents are selectively leached or con-
verted to corrosion products, leaving the
graphite intact.
Graphitization The formation of gra-
phite in iron or steel, usually from decom-
position of iron carbide at elevated tem-
peratures. [Should not be used as a term
to describe graphitic corrosion.]
Grit Small particles of hard material
(e.g., iron, steel, or mineral) with irregu-
lar shapes that are commonly used as an
abrasive in abrasive blast cleaning.
Grit Blasting Abrasive blast cleaning
using grit as the abrasive.
Groundbed One or more anodes insta-
lled below the earth's surface for the pur-
pose of supplying cathodic protection.
H
Half-Cell A pure metal in contact with
a solution of known concentration of its
own ion, at a specific temperature, de-
velops a potential that is characteristic
and reproducible; when coupled with
another half-cell, an overall potential
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329
that is the sum of both half-cells de-
velops.
Hand Tool Cleaning Removal of loose
rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint
to degree specified, by hand chipping,
scraping, sanding, and wire brushing.
[See SSPC-SP 2.]
Hardener [See Curing Agent.]
Heat-Affected Zone That portion of the
base metal that is not melted during braz-
ing, cutting, or welding, but whose mi-
crostructure and properties are altered by
the heat of these processes.
Heat Treatment Heating and cooling a
solid metal or alloy in such a way as to
obtain desired properties. Heating for the
sole purpose of hot working is not consid-
ered heat treatment.
High-Pressure Water Cleaning Water
cleaning performed at pressures from 34
to 70 MPa (5,000 to 10,000 psig).
High-Pressure Water Jetting Water jet-
ting performed at pressures from 70 to 170
MPa (10,000 to 25,000 psig).
High-Temperature Hydrogen Attack
A loss of strength and ductility of steel
by high-temperature reaction of absorbed
hydrogen with carbides in the steel, re-
sulting in decarburization and internal
fissuring.
Holiday A discontinuity in a protective
coating that exposes unprotected surface
to the environment.
Hydrogen Blistering The formation of
subsurface planar cavities, called hydro-
gen blisters, in a metal resulting from
excessive internal hydrogen pressure.
Growth of near-surface blisters in low-
strength metals usually results in surface
bulges.
Hydrogen Embrittlement A loss of
ductility of a metal resulting from absorp-
tion of hydrogen.
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Stepwise
internal cracks that connect adjacent hy-
drogen blisters on different planes in the
metal, or to the metal surface (also known
as stepwise cracking).
Hydrogen Overvoltage Overvoltage
associated with the liberation of hydro-
gen gas.
Hydrogen Stress Cracking Cracking
that results from the presence of hydro-
gen in a metal in combination with ten-
sile stress. It occurs most frequently with
high-strength alloys.
Impingement Corrosion A form of
erosion-corrosion generally associated
with the local impingement of a high-
velocity, flowing fluid against a solid
surface.
Impressed Current An electric current
supplied by a device employing a power
source that is external to the electrode
system. (An example is direct current for
cathodic protection.)
Inclusion A nonmetallic phase such as
an oxide, sulfide, or silicate particle in a
metal.
Inorganic Zinc-Rich Coating Coating
containing a metallic zinc pigment (typi-
cally 75 wt% zinc or more in the dry film)
in an inorganic vehicle.
Intercrystalline Corrosion
granular Corrosion.]
[See Inter-
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Interdendritic Corrosion Corrosive at-
tack of cast metals that progresses prefer-
entially along paths between dendrites.
Intergranular Corrosion Preferential
corrosion at or along the grain boundaries
of a metal (also known as intercrystalline
corrosion).
Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion cracking in which the
cracking occurs along grain boundaries.
Internal Oxidation The formation of
isolated particles of oxidation products
beneath the metal surface.
Intumescence The swelling or bub-
bling of a coating usually caused by
heating. [The term is commonly used
in aerospace and fire-protection applica-
tions.]
Ion An electrically charged atom or
group of atoms.
Iron Rot Deterioration of wood in con-
tact with iron-based alloys.
K
Knife-Line Attack Intergranular corro-
sion of an alloy along a line adjoining or
in contact with a weld after heating into
the sensitization temperature range.
useful in predicting scaling behavior of
natural water.
Line Currrent The direct current flow-
ing on a pipeline.
Lining A coating or layer of sheet mate-
rial adhered to or in intimate contact with
the interior surface of a container used to
protect the container against corrosion by
its contents and /or to protect the contents
of the container from contamination by
the container material.
Liquid Metal Cracking Cracking of a
metal caused by contact with a liquid
metal.
Long-Line Current Current though the
earth between an anodic and a cathodic
area that returns along an underground
metallic structure.
Low-Carbon Steel Steel having less
than 0.30% carbon and no intentional al-
loying additions.
Low-Pressure Water Cleaning Water
cleaning performed at pressures less than
34 MPa (5,000 psig).
Luggin Probe A small tube or capillary
filled with electrolyte, terminating close
to the metal surface of an electrode under
study, which is used to provide an ion-
conducting path without diffusion be-
tween the electrode under study and a
reference electrode.
Lamellar Corrosion [See Exfoliation
Corrosion.]
Langelier Index A calculated satura-
tion index for calcium carbonate that is
M
Martensite A hard supersaturated
solid solution of carbon in iron char-
acterized by an acicular (needle-like)
microstructure.
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Metal Dusting The catastrophic deteri-
oration of a metal exposed to a carbona-
ceous gas at elevated temperature.
Metallizing The coating of a surface
with a thin metal layer by spraying, hot
dipping, or vacuum deposition.
Mill Scale The oxide layer formed dur-
ing hot fabrication or heat treatment of
metals.
Mixed Potential A potential resulting
from two or more electrochemical reac-
tions occurring simultaneously on one
metal surface.
Modulus Of Elasticity A measure of
the stiffness or rigidity of a material. It is
actually the ratio of stress to strain in the
elastic region of a material. If determined
by a tension or compression test, it is also
called Young's Modulus or the coefficient
of elasticity.
N
Natural Drainage Drainage from an
underground or submerged metallic
structure to a more negative (more an-
odic) structure, such as the negative bus
of a trolley substation.
Near-White Blast Cleaned Surface A
near-white blast cleaned surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be
free of all visible oil, grease, dust, dirt,
mill scale, rust, coating, oxides, corrosion
products, and other foreign matter. Ran-
dom staining shall be limited to not more
than 5% of each unit area of surface (ap-
proximately 58 cm 2 [9.0 in. 2 ]), and may
consist of light shadows, slight streaks, or
minor discolorations caused by stains of
rust, stains of mill scale, or stains of pre-
viously applied coating. [See NACE No.
2/SSPC-SP 10.]
Negative Return A point of connection
between the cathodic protection negative
cable and the protected structure.
Nernst Equation An equation that ex-
presses the exact electromotive force of an
electrochemical cell in terms of the activ-
ities of products and reactants of the cell.
Nernst Layer The diffusion layer at the
surface of an electrode in which the con-
centration of a chemical species is as-
sumed to vary linearly from the value in
the bulk solution to the value at the elec-
trode surface.
Noble The positive direction of elec-
trode potential, thus resembling noble
metals such as gold and platinum.
Noble Metal (1) A metal that occurs
commonly in nature in the free state.
(2) A metal or alloy whose corrosion
products are formed with a small nega-
tive or a positive free-energy change.
Noble Potential A potential more ca-
thodic (positive) than the standard hydro-
gen potential.
Normalizing Heating a ferrous alloy to
a suitable temperature above the trans-
formation range (austenitizing), holding
at temperature for a suitable time, and
then cooling in still air to a tempera-
ture substantially below the transforma-
tion range.
o
Open-Circuit Potential The potential
of an electrode measured with respect to
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a reference electrode or another electrode
in the absence of current.
Organic Zinc-Rich Coating Coating
containing a metallic zinc pigment (typi-
cally 75 wt% zinc or more in the dry film)
in an organic resin.
Overvoltage The change in potential of
an electrode from its equilibrium or
steady-state value when current is ap-
plied.
Oxidation (1) Loss of electrons by a con-
stituent of a chemical reaction. (2) Corro-
sion of a metal that is exposed to an oxi-
dizing gas at elevated temperatures.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential The
potential of a reversible oxidation-
reduction electrode measured with
respect to a reference electrode, corrected
to the hydrogen electrode, in a given
electrolyte.
Oxygen Concentration Cell [See Differ-
ential Aeration Cell]
Paint A pigmented liquid or resin ap-
plied to a substrate as a thin layer that
is converted to an opaque solid film af-
ter application. It is commonly used as a
decorative or protective coating.
Paint System [See Coating System.]
Parting [See Dealloying.]
Passivation A reduction of the anodic
reaction rate of an electrode involved in
corrosion.
Passivation Potential
sive Potential]
[See Primary Pas-
Passive (1) The positive direction of
electrode potential. (2) A state of a
metal in which a surface reaction product
causes a marked decrease in the corrosion
rate relative to that in the absence of the
product.
Passive-Active Cell An electrochemi-
cal cell, the electromotive force of which
is caused by the potential difference be-
tween a metal in an active state and the
same metal in a passive state.
Passivity The state of being passive.
Patina A thin layer of corrosion prod-
uct, usually green, that forms on the sur-
face of metals such as copper and copper-
based alloys exposed to the atmosphere.
pH The negative logarithm of the hy-
drogen ion activity written as:
pH = -log 10 (a+)
where a^ = hydrogen ion activity =
the molar concentration of hydrogen
ions multiplied by the mean ion-activity
coefficient.
Pickling (1) Treating a metal in a chem-
ical bath to remove scale and oxides
(e.g., rust) from the surface. (2) Complete
removal of rust and mill scale by acid
pickling, duplex pickling, or electrolytic
pickling. [See SSPC-SP 8.]
Pickling Solution A chemical bath,
usually an acid solution, used for pick-
ling.
Pigment A solid substance, generally in
fine powder form, that is insoluble in the
vehicle of a formulated coating material.
It is used to impart color or other spe-
cific physical or chemical properties to the
coating.
Pipe-To-Electrolyte Potential The po-
tential difference between the pipe
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333
metallic surface and electrolyte that is
measured with reference to an electrode
in contact with the electrolyte.
Pitting Localized corrosion of a metal
surface that is confined to a small area
and takes the form of cavities called pits.
Pitting Factor The ratio of the depth of
the deepest pit resulting from corrosion
divided by the average penetration as
calculated from mass loss.
Plastic Deformation Permanent defor-
mation caused by stressing beyond the
elastic limit.
Plasticity The ability of a material to de-
form permanently (nonelastically) with-
out fracturing.
Polarization The change from the open-
circuit potential as a result of current
across the electrode /electrolyte interface.
Polarization Admittance The recipro-
cal of polarization resistance.
Polarization Cell A DC decoupling de-
vice consisting of two or more pairs
of inert metallic plates immersed in an
aqueous electrolyte. The electrical char-
acteristics of the polarization cell are
high resistance to DC potentials and low
impedance of AC.
Polarization Curve A plot of current
density versus electrode potential for
a specific electrode /electrolyte combina-
tion.
Polarization Decay The decrease in
electrode potential with time resulting
from the interruption of applied current.
Polarization Resistance The slope
(dE/di) at the corrosion potential of a
potential (E)-current density (i) curve.
(The measured slope is usually in good
agreement with the true value of the
polarization resistance when the scan
rate is low and any uncompensated resis-
tance is small relative to the polarization
resistance.)
Polarized Potential The potential
across the structure /electrolyte interface
that is the sum of the corrosion potential
and the cathodic polarization.
Polyester Type of resin formed by the
condensation of polybasic and monoba-
sic acids with polyhydric alcohols.
Postweld Heat Treatment Heating and
cooling a weldment in such a way as to
obtain desired properties.
Potential-pH Diagram A graphical
method of representing the regions of
thermodynamic stability of species for
metal /electrolyte systems (also known
as Pourbaix diagram).
Potentiodynamic Refers to a technique
wherein the potential of an electrode with
respect to a reference electrode is varied at
a selected rate by application of a current
through the electrolyte.
Potentiokinetic [See Potentiodynamic]
Potentiostat An instrument for auto-
matically maintaining a constant elec-
trode potential.
Potentiostatic Refers to a technique for
maintaining a constant electrode poten-
tial.
Pot Life The elapsed time within which
a coating can be effectively applied after
all components of the coating have been
thoroughly mixed.
Poultice Corrosion [See Deposit Attack.]
Pourbaix Diagram [See Potential-pH
Diagram.]
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Power Tool Cleaning Removal of loose
rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint to
degree specified by power tool chipping,
descaling, sanding, wire brushing, and
grinding. [See SSPC-SP 3.]
Precipitation Hardening Hardening
caused by the precipitation of a con-
stituent from a supersaturated solid
solution.
Primary Passive Potential The poten-
tial corresponding to the maximum ac-
tive current density (critical anodic cur-
rent density) of an electrode that exhibits
active-passive corrosion behavior.
Prime Coat [See Primer.]
Primer A coating material intended to
be applied as the first coat on an uncoated
surface. The coating is specifically formu-
lated to adhere to and protect the surface
as well as to produce a suitable surface
for subsequent coats. [Also referred to as
Prime Coat.]
Profile Anchor pattern on a surface pro-
duced by abrasive blasting or acid treat-
ment.
Protective Coating A coating applied
to a surface to protect the substrate from
corrosion.
Relative Humidity The ratio, ex-
pressed as a percentage, of the amount of
water vapor present in a given volume
of air at a given temperature to the
amount required to saturate the air at
that temperature.
Remote Earth A location on the earth
far enough from the affected structure
that the soil potential gradients associ-
ated with currents entering the earth from
the affected structure are insignificant.
Rest Potential [See Corrosion Potential]
Reversible Potential
Potential]
[See Equilibrium
Rimmed Steel An incompletely deoxi-
dized steel. [Also called Rimming Steel]
Riser (1) That section of pipeline ex-
tending from the ocean floor up to an off-
shore platform. (2) The vertical tube in a
steam generator convection bank that cir-
culates water and steam upward.
Rust Corrosion product consisting of
various iron oxides and hydrated iron
oxides. (This term properly applies only
to iron and ferrous alloys.)
Rust Bloom Discoloration indicating
the beginning of rusting.
R
Reduction Gain of electrons by a con-
stituent of a chemical reaction.
Reference Electrode An electrode
whose open-circuit potential is constant
under similar conditions of measure-
ment, which is used for measuring the
relative potentials of other electrodes.
Reference Half-Cell [See Reference Elec-
trode.]
Sacking Scrubbing a mixture of a ce-
ment mortar over the concrete surface us-
ing a cement sack, gunny sack, or sponge
rubber float.
Sacrificial Protection Reduction of cor-
rosion of a metal in an electrolyte by gal-
vanically coupling it to a more anodic
metal (a form of cathodic protection).
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335
Scaling (1) The formation at high tem-
peratures of thick corrosion-product lay-
ers on a metal surface. (2) The deposition
of water-insoluble constituents on a metal
surface.
Scanning Electron Microscope An
electron optical device that images topo-
graphical details with maximum contrast
and depth of field by the detection,
amplification, and display of secondary
electrons.
Sensitizing Heat Treatment A heat
treatment, whether accidental, inten-
tional, or incidental (as during welding),
that causes precipitation of constituents
(usually carbides) at grain boundaries, of-
ten causing the alloy to become suscep-
tible to intergranular corrosion or inter-
granular stress corrosion cracking.
Shallow Groundbed One or more an-
odes installed either vertically or horizon-
tally at a nominal depth of less than 15 m
(50 ft) for the purpose of supplying ca-
thodic protection.
Shop Coat One or more coats applied in
a shop or plant prior to shipment to the
site of erection or fabrication.
Shot Blasting Abrasive blast cleaning
using metallic (usually steel) shot as the
abrasive.
Shot Peening Inducing compressive
stresses in the surface layer of a material
by bombarding it with a selected medium
(usually steel shot) under controlled
conditions.
Sigma Phase An extremely brittle Fe-Cr
phase that can form at elevated tempera-
tures in Fe-Cr-Ni and Ni-Cr-Fe alloys.
Slip A deformation process involving
shear motion of a specific set of crystal-
lographic planes.
Slow Strain Rate Technique An ex-
perimental technique for evaluating sus-
ceptibility to environmental cracking. It
involves pulling the specimen to fail-
ure in uniaxial tension at a controlled
slow strain rate while the specimen is in
the test environment and examining the
specimen for evidence of environmental
cracking.
Slushing Compound Oil or grease
coatings used to provide temporary pro-
tection against atmospheric corrosion.
Heat Treatment Heating a
a suitable temperature and
Solution
metal to
holding at that temperature long enough
for one or more constituents to enter
into solid solution, then cooling rapidly
enough to retain the constituents in
solution.
Solvent Cleaning Removal of oil,
grease, dirt, soil, salts, and contaminants
by cleaning with solvent, vapor, alkali,
emulsion, or steam. [See SSPC-SP 1.]
Spalling The spontaneous chipping,
fragmentation, or separation of a surface
or surface coating.
Standard Electrode Potential The re-
versible potential for an electrode process
when all products and reactions are at
unit activity on a scale in which the poten-
tial for the standard hydrogen reference
electrode is zero.
Standard Jetting Water Water of suffi-
cient purity and quality that it does not
impose additional contaminants on the
surface being cleaned and does not con-
tain sediments or other impurities that are
destructive to the proper functioning of
water jetting equipment.
Steel Shot Small particles of steel with
spherical shape that are commonly used
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as an abrasive in abrasive blast cleaning
or as a selected medium for shot peening.
Stepwise Cracking [See Hydrogen-
Induced Cracking.]
Stray Current Current through paths
other than the intended circuit.
Stray-Current Corrosion Corrosion re-
sulting from current through paths other
than the intended circuit, e.g., by any ex-
traneous current in the earth.
Stress Corrosion Cracking Cracking of
a material produced by the combined ac-
tion of corrosion and tensile stress (resid-
ual or applied).
Stress Relieving (Thermal) Heating a
metal to a suitable temperature, holding
at that temperature long enough to re-
duce residual stresses, and then cooling
slowly enough to minimize the develop-
ment of new residual stresses.
Subsurface Corrosion [See Internal
Oxidation.]
Sulfidation The reaction of a metal or
alloy with a sulfur-containing species to
produce a sulfur compound that forms
on or beneath the surface of the metal or
alloy.
Sulfide Stress Cracking Cracking of a
metal under the combined action of ten-
sile stress and corrosion in the presence
of water and hydrogen sulfide (a form of
hydrogen stress cracking).
Tack Coat A thin wet coat applied to the
surface that is allowed to dry just until it
is tacky before application of a thicker wet
coat. (Use of a tack coat allows application
of thicker coats without sagging or runs.)
Taf el Plot A plot of the relationship be-
tween the change in potential (E) and the
logarithm of the current density (log i) of
an electrode when it is polarized in both
the anodic and cathodic directions from
its open-circuit potential.
Tafel Slope The slope of the straight-
line portion of the E log i curve on a Tafel
plot. (The straight-line portion usually oc-
curs at more than 50 mV from the open-
circuit potential.)
Tarnish Surface discoloration of a
metal resulting from formation of a film
of corrosion product.
Thermal Spraying A group of pro-
cesses by which finely divided metallic
or nonmetallic materials are deposited in
a molten or semimolten condition to form
a coating.
Thermogalvanic Corrosion Corrosion
resulting from an electrochemical cell
caused by a thermal gradient.
Throwing Power The relationship be-
tween the current density at a point on
a surface and its distance from the coun-
terelectrode. The greater the ratio of the
surface resistivity shown by the electrode
reaction to the volume resistivity of the
electrolyte, the better is the throwing
power of the process.
Topcoat The final coat of a coating sys-
tem. [Also referred to as Finish Coat.]
Transpassive The noble region of po-
tential where an electrode exhibits a
higher-than-passive current density.
Tuberculation The formation of local-
ized corrosion products scattered over the
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337
surface in the form of knob-like mounds
called tubercles.
u-v-w
Ultimate Strength The maximum
stress that a material can sustain.
Ultrahigh-Pressure Water Jetting Wa-
ter jetting performed at pressures above
170 MPa (25,000 psig.)
Underfilm Corrosion [See Filiform-
Corrosion.]
Vehicle The liquid portion of a formu-
lated coating material.
Void (1) A holiday, hole, or skip in a
coating. (2) A hole in a casting or weld
deposit usually resulting from shrinkage
during cooling.
Wash Primer A thin, inhibiting primer,
usually chromate pigmented, with a
polyvinyl butyral binder.
Water Cleaning Use of pressurized wa-
ter discharged from a nozzle to remove
unwanted matter (e.g., dirt, scale, rust,
coatings) from a surface.
Water Jetting Use of standard jetting
water discharged from a nozzle at pres-
sures of 70 MPa (10,000 psig) or greater
to prepare a surface for coating or inspec-
tion.
Weight Coating An external coating
applied to a pipeline to counteract buoy-
ancy.
White Metal Blast Cleaned Surface A
white metal blast cleaned surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be
free of all visible oil, grease, dust, dirt,
mill scale, rust, coating, oxides, corrosion
products, and other foreign matter. [See
NACENo. 1/SSPC-SP5.]
Weld Decay Intergranular corrosion,
usually of stainless steel or certain nickel-
base alloys, that occurs as the result of
sensitization in the heat-affected zone
during the welding operation. [This is not
a preferred term.]
Wet Film Gauge Device for measuring
wet film thickness of a coating.
Working Electrode The test or speci-
men electrode in an electrochemical cell.
Wrought Metal in the solid condition
that is formed to a desired shape by work-
ing (rolling, extruding, forging, etc.), usu-
ally at an elevated temperature.
X-Y-Z
Yield Point The stress on a material
at which the first significant permanent
or plastic deformation occurs without
an increase in stress. In some materials,
particularly annealed low-carbon steels,
there is a well-defined yield point from
the straight line defining the modulus of
elasticity.
Yield Strength The stress at which a
material exhibits a specified deviation
from the proportionality of stress to
strain. The deviation is expressed in terms
of strain by either the offset method (usu-
ally at a strain of 0.2%) or the total-
extension-under-load method (usually at
a strain of 0.5%.)
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Appendix
Additional Important Information
on Underground Corrosion Control
Copies of federal regulations concerning the installation and operation of underground
pipelines are available as follows:
Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Safety Standards. Fed-
eral Register, Vol. 35, Number 161, Part II, August 19, 1970. Title 49. Parts 190, 192.
Transportation of Liquids by Pipeline. Federal Register, Vol. 35, No. 218, November 7,
1970. Title 49. Parts 180, 195.
Available from Department of Transportation, Office of Pipeline Safety, Washington,
D.C. 20590.
NACE REFERENCED STANDARDS
Standard
Coatings
MR0274-95
RP0185-96
RP0190-95
RP0399-99
RP0394-94
RP0375-99
Standard Title
Material Requirements for Polyolefin Cold-Applied Tapes for Underground Sub-
merged Pipeline Coatings-Item No. 21301
Extruded Polyolefin Resin Coating Systems with Soft Adhesives for Underground
or Submerged Pipe-Item No. 21029
External Protective Coatings for Joints, Fittings, and Valves on Metallic Under-
ground or Submerged Pipelines and Piping Systems-Item No. 21042
Plant-Applied, External Coal Tar Enamel Pipe Coating System: Application,
Performance, and Quality Control-Item No. 21089
Application, Performance, and Quality Control of Plant- Applied, Fusion-Bonded
Epoxy External Pipe Coating-Item No. 21064
Wax Coating Systems for Underground Piping Systems-Item No. 21013
339
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340 Additional Important Information on Underground Corrosion Control
Surface
Preparation
NACE No.
1 /SSPC-SP 5 White Metal Blast Cleaning (RP0494-2000)-Item No. 21065
NACE No.
2/SSPC-SP 10 Near-White Metal Blast Cleaning (RP0594-2000)-Item No. 21066
NACE No.
3/SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast Cleaning (RP0694-2000)-Item No. 21067
NACE No.
4/SSPC-SP 7 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning (RP0794-2000)-Item No. 21068
NACE No.
5 /SSPC-SP 12 Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Steel and Other Hard Materials by High-
and Ultrahigh-Pressure Water Jetting Prior to Recoating (RP0595-95)-Item No.
21076
NACE No.
8/SSPC-SP 14 Industrial Blast Cleaning (RP0299-99)-Item No. 21088
Holiday
Testing
RP0274-98 High- Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation-Item
No. 21010
RP0188-99 Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Protective Coatings-Item No. 21038
RP0490-95 Holiday Detection of Fusion-Bonded Epoxy External Pipeline Coatings of 250 to
760 micrometers (10 to 30 mils)-Item No. 21045
Cathodic
Protection
RP0169-96 Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems-Item No. 21001
RP0 177-95 Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures
and Corrosion Control Systems-Item No. 21021
RP0200-2000 Steel-Cased Pipeline Practices-Item No. 21091
RP0286-97 Electrical Isolation of Cathodically Protected Pipelines-Item No. 21032
RP0572-95 Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Impressed Current Deep
Groundbeds-Item No. 21007
Referenced Standards can be ordered from NACE International Item no. shown is the NACE
catalogue order number.
Purchase Information
The Standards listed above may be purchased from NACE International, 1440 South Creek Drive,
Houston, Texas 77084. Write or call for prices. Phone: (281) 228-6223.
Note
The above information is revised periodically. Please check current NACE Products Guide or
www.nace.org for updates and revisions.
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Index
A
Acidity
bacteria and, 277-279
pH values, 4, 90-91, 279
soil and, 90-91, 317
Activation polarization, 304
Adhesion tests, 10
Aeration cell, 308-309
Alkaline conditions, 11, 62, 64, 91
Alternative power sources, 201-210
Aluminum anodes, 177, 301
Aluminum piping, 40, 62-63
Ammeter clamps, 115-116
Amphoteric materials, 64
Anaerobic conditions, 66, 97, 280
Anode systems
backfill and, 134-135, 184, 255
cathodes and, 23, 277-299, 313-314
connections and, 176
deep anodes, 145-155, 268-269
distributed, 144-145
efficiency of, 177-178, 186
galvanic, 23, 140-144, 177-199, 221-222
ground beds, 140-144, 255-256
high-potential, 28
horizontal, 138-139
impressed current, 144-145
installation of, 193-199
interference and, 221-222
life of, 186-187, 269
maintenance, 261-271
multiple anode bed, 193
performance, 190-193
resistance equation, 134
size of, 313-314
spacing of, 292-294
suspension systems, 150
types of, 166-169
vertical, 132-133
See also specific types
Anodic reaction, 2
Antimony electrode, 122
Area relationships, 313-314
B
Back voltage, 135
Backfills, 132-133, 134
anodes and, 184, 255
cable trench, 256
carbon, 150-151
carbonaceous, 132, 139-140, 174, 256
chemical, 184, 186, 255
materials, 174-175, 196
See also specific types
Bacteria, 273-284
Bare lines, 92-93, 99
Barnes method, 89, 90
Bellhole surveys, 67, 97-98
Beta profile, 230
Biocides, 274
Biofilms, 275, 276
341
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Index
Blistering, 8
Bolt insulation, 250
Bond, drainage, 219-221, 233-236
Butler- Volmer equation, 307
C
Cables
backfill and, 256
ground bed, 255
locators, 114
resistance, 136
trench for, 256
types of, 175-176
Calibration records, 128
Carbon backfill, 150-151
Carbonaceous backfill, 132, 174, 256
Carbonic acid solution, 277
Cased crossings, 245-248
avoidance of, 36
casing compounds, 271
inspection of, 258
maintenance of, 270-271
short circuits, 247-248
survey of, 262
test methods, 245-248
Cast iron anodes, 168, 254
Cast iron pipes, 49-62
Casing end seals, 246
Casing insulators, 246
Cathodic protection (CP), 5, 21-48
alternative power sources, 201-210
application of, 23-28
bacteria and, 282
bare lines, 44
basic theory, 21-23
coating and, 26-28
cost of, 146, 285-292
criteria for, 24-25, 49-64
de-energizing, 56-57
deep anodes, 145-155, 268-269
definition of, 6
disbondment, 28
E-log I criteria, 62-63
effectiveness of, 39-47
foreign pipelines and, 41-43
galvanic anodes, 23-24, 177-199,
221-222
ground beds and, 41-43
impressed current, 23-24, 43, 157-176
installation of, 255-259
instrumentation, 101-129
interference, 212-223
maintenance procedures, 261-271
mV criteria, 50-58, 60
net protective criteria, 58-60
overprotection, 56-57
polarization and, 52-58
potential shift, 50-58, 60
power sources, 201-210
rectifiers, 157-176
shielding, 33
stray current from, 211-236
testing for, 92-100
underground piping, 50-58
See also specific problems, types
CCVTs. See Closed cycle vapor
turbogenerators
Centralizers, 150
Close ground beds, 30-32
Close interval surveys, 71-73, 126-127
Closed cycle vapor turbogenerators (CCVTs),
202-204
Coal tar enamel (CTE), 8, 15
Coatings, 7-20, 93-99
adhesion of, 8
applicability, 8
bacteria and, 281-282
degradation of, 6
dielectric, 8, 119
disbonding, 281-282
effectiveness of, 7-11
function of, 6
improper application, 11
inspection of, 12-14
maintenance, 265-266
multi-layer systems, 8
nontoxic, 9
overprotection, 28
pinholes, 119
poorly-coated lines, 221
recoating, 266
repair of, 9, 12
resistivity, 26
soil stress and, 8-11, 265, 281
specifications for, 10-12
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Index
343
surveys of, 93-97, 265-266
See also Holidays; specific problems, types
Coke breeze, 174, 256
Compression couplings, 133, 176
Computer surveys, 265
Concentration polarization, 307
Congested areas, 37-39
Connection methods, 176
Construction practices, 237-259, 287
Coordinating committees, 236
Copper-copper sulfate electrode, 25, 121-122
Copper piping, 63-64
Copper sulfate electrodes (CSE), 68, 124-128,
214, 302
Cost estimates, 285-292
Coupons, 120-124
CR See Cathodic protection
Cracking, 307
Crimp-type connections, 133, 176
Crossings, foreign-line, 41-44, 213-215, 222,
262, 271
CSE. See Copper sulfate electrode
CTE. See Coal tar enamel
Current interrupters, 110-111, 113
E-log I curve criterion, 61-63
Economic factors, 285-295
Efficiency, of anodes, 177-178, 186
Electric shielding, 33-39, 224-225
Electrolysis switches, 262
Electromagnetic conductivity method,
148
Electromotive force (EMF), 298-299
Embrittlement, 54
EMF. See Electromotive force
Enamels, 8, 15
Engine-generator systems, 201-202
Environmental effects, 9
Environmental polarization, 316-317
Epoxies, 8, 17-18, 281-282
Equilibrium potential, 303, 315
Equipment vendors, 101
Equivalent circuit, 30
Evaluation techniques, 65-100
Evans diagrams, 54, 305, 308, 315,
317
Extrusion systems, 15-17
D
Deep anode systems, 145-155, 268-269
Deep well beds, 268-269
Delta voltage, 219
Department of Environmental Resources
(DER), 7
Department of Transportation-Office of
Pipeline Safety (DOT/OPS), 7
Depolarization, 280
DER. See Department of Environmental
Resources
Dielectric coatings, 8, 119
Differential aeration cells, 308-310
Differential corrosion cells, 2-5, 310-313
Disbonding, 9, 11, 28
Dissimilar metal piping, 63-64
Distributed anodes, 144-145
DOT/OPS. See Department of
Transportation-Office of Pipeline
Safety
Drainage bonds, 219-221, 233-236
Dwight equations, 149
Faraday constant, 298, 300
Faraday's law, 307
Fatigue cracking, 8
FBE. See Fusion-bonded epoxies
Ferrous ion concentrations, 276
Flanges, 249-250
Flooding, 257
Foreign line crossings, 41-44, 213-215,
222, 262, 271
Four-pin method, 85-87, 105, 148
Four-wire test points, 79-81, 239, 247
Fuel cells, 210
Fungi, 273-284
Fusion-bonded epoxies (FBE), 8, 17-18,
281-282
Galvanic anode systems, 23, 140-144,
177-199, 221-222, 288
Galvanic corrosion, 310-312
Galvanic series, 303-304
Gas blocking, 269
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344
Index
Gas turbines, 209
Generators, 201-202
Genetic engineering, 275
Gibbs free energy, 297-298
Graphite anodes, 166-167, 174-175
Ground bed systems, 28-33
cables and, 255, 256
cathodic protection, 41-43
close, 30-32
designing, 131-156
galvanic anodes, 140-144
impressed current systems, 132-140,
166-176
installing, 256
locating, 131-132
maintenance of, 268-269
stray current, 224-225
vertical anodes, 133
Grounding cells, 252-254, 262
Gypsum-bentonite backfill, 188
Half-cell electrodes, 2-3, 298
Header wire, 193
High-potential anodes, 28
High-resistivity coating, 26
Holidays, 5, 8
coatings and, 6, 266
detection, 12, 118-120, 238-239
foreign lines and, 215
inspection and, 13-14
Horizontal anodes, 138
Hotspot protection, 69, 180
Hydrogen, 51, 97-98
Impedance, 102
Impressed current systems, 288
cathodic protection and, 23-24, 157-176
deep anodes and, 145-146
ground beds, 132-140, 166-176
insulation, 259
interference, 180
survey and, 262
Inspections, 12-14, 257
Installation procedures, 193-199, 219
Instrumentation, 101-129
Insulation
barrier, 33-34
buried wire and, 254
couplings and, 10
grounding cells, 252-254
inspection, 116, 246, 258
joints and, 176, 249-254, 258
shielding and, 33-34
zinc anode, 252-253
Interference, 40-41
cathodic protection and, 212-223
impressed current and, 180
information on, 46-47
stray current and, 219-224
Interrupters, 110-111, 113, 214
Investment costs, 286
Ion concentrations, 4, 276
IR voltage drops, 50, 69
Iron-oxidizing bacteria, 279
Iron pipes, 49-62
Iron sulfide, 276, 282
Isolation surge protectors (ISP), 254
ISP. See Isolation surge protectors
)
Jeeping of coatings, 12
Joint insulation, 176, 249-254, 258
Kinetics, 304-308
Leaks, pipeline, 39, 291
Leapfrog technique, 75-76
Lightning, 157-158, 252-254, 262
Line current measurements, 77-84
Liquid coating systems, 18
Locators, for cables, 114
Long-line current flow, 51, 83
M
Magnesium anodes, 180-184, 188, 190-193,
223, 232, 301
Magnetic disturbances, 236
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Index
345
Maintenance procedures, 261-271, 287,
294-295
Metal deposition, 278-279
Metal-reducing bacteria (MRB), 275
Metal reduction, 275, 280
Meter accessories, 124
MIC. See Microbiologically influenced
corrosion
Microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC), 97, 273-284
Mill coated pipe, 15, 237-238
Mill scale corrosion, 311
Mixed-metal oxide anodes, 168
Moisture content, of soil, 4
Mortar/concrete systems, 36
MRB. See Metal-reducing bacteria
Multi-layer systems, 8, 18-19
Multimeters, 102
Multiple anode bed, 193
mV shift criteria, 50-61
N
National Electrical Code (NEC), 257
National Insitute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), 128
Natural gas systems, 204, 209
NEC. See National Electrical Code
Nernst equation, 300
Net protective criterion, 49, 58-60
Niobium, 172
NIST. See National Institute of Standards and
Technology
Noble metals, 3
Null ampere test, 81
O
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), 7
Off-potentials, 28
Ohmic voltage drops, 50
Ohm's law, 77-78
OPS. See Department of
Transportation-Office of Pipeline
Safety
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
Over-the-line potential survey,
69-73
Overprotection, 28, 51, 56-57
Overvoltage, 304
Oxidation, 1-2
Oxide film, 317
Oxygen, 1-2, 4, 279
PE. See Polyethylene
Peel strength, 9
pH values, 4, 90-91, 277-279, 317
Pipe-to-soil potential, 29, 56, 68, 71, 95,
102, 222, 302
Pit gages, 108-109
Pitting, 265, 280
Plasmids, 275
Plastic resins, 256
Platinum anodes, 169-172
Polarization, 55
cells, 262
concentration, 307
CP system, 52-58
decay, 55
definition of, 53, 304
environmental, 316-317
hydrogen, 97
off -potential values, 55
Polyethylene (PE), 255, 281
Polyolefin, 16-19, 281
Polysaccharide materials, 274
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 281
Portable instruments, 122
Potential shift criterion, 60-61
Potential values, 3-4, 25, 71
Power costs, 287
Power sources, 201-210
Priming, 12, 237
Probe rods, 81-82, 247
Pulse generators, 112-114
PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride
R
Rail transit systems, 226-230
Rankine cycle turbine, 202
Recording instruments, 106-108
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346
Index
Rectifiers
constant potential, 160
efficiency of, 163-165
installation details, 165
maintenance, 266-268
placement of, 257
power costs, 287
selection of, 157
size of, 160-161
specifications, 162-163
transformers, 158
Reduction reaction, 1-2
Reference electrodes, 3, 120-124, 301-302
Reinforcing wire, 36-37
Remote earth, 71-72, 146
Remote ground beds, 28-33
Resistance drop method, 77
Resistivity testing, 105, 124-125
accessories, 124-125
coatings and, 9
drop method, 77
resistance to earth, 135
soil and, 84-90, 105-106, 148-149,
191-193
voltmeters and, 102-103
See also specific methods
Reverse current flow, 235
Ribbon anodes, 197
Rubber splicing compound, 256
Rudenberg formula, 30
Salts, in soils, 90
Saturated solution, 128
Sea water, 255
Seals, 35, 151-152
Selenium stacks, 159
Shielding, 33-39, 219, 224-225
Short circuits, 34-36, 247-248
Side drain technique, 76-77
Silicon diodes, 157, 159
Six-wire test point, 239-240
Soils
chemical analysis, 90-91
deep formations, 148-149
dissimilar, 312-313
moisture content, 195
resistivities, 84-90, 105-106,
148-149, 191-193
salts, 90
sandy, 281
stress, 8-11, 265, 281
types, 313
Solar power systems, 206-207
Solvent action, 255
Spacing, of anodes, 292-294
Spark gaps, 262
Spin-bolt couplings, 176
Spores, 274-275
Steel piping, 49-62
Storage batteries, 208
Stray current, 40, 211-236
Strip anodes, 197, 198
Sulfate reduction, 275-277
Sulfides, 276
Surface anodes, 268
Surface preparation, 237
Surges, 157, 252-254
Survey methods, 65-100, 262-266
Suspension systems, 150
Tafel slopes, 55, 61, 307, 315, 317
Tape systems, 14-15, 256
Telluric effects, 236
Test coupons, 124
Test points, 239-245, 258, 269-270
Test rectifiers, 117-118
Test wires, 243-244
Thermite welding, 133
Thermodynamics, 1, 297-317
Thermoelectric generators, 204-206
Transformers, 158
Transit systems, 226-232
Trench, cable, 256
Turbines, 209
Turbogenerators, 202-204
Two-wire test points, 77, 239
U
Ultrasonic gage, 109
Urethanes, 18
Utilization factor, 186
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Index
347
Vendors, of equipment, 101
Vent pipes, 149-150, 246, 247
Vertical anodes, 132-133
Voltmeters, 101-103, 229, 239-240
W
Wall thickness, 108-109
Weight coating, 36-37
Welding, 35, 246, 270
Well design, 149-152
Wenner method, 85-86, 105
Werner procedure, 81
Wind-powered generators, 208-
209
Wires, reinforcing, 36-37
Zinc anodes, 178-193, 223,
252-253, 301
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